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0.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Error distance (meters)
1+25th iE50th 1
w’ o l i
1 10 100
Size of empirical data set (# physical
points, n )
L
2 0.5 : ~ . . -. ~.~
_.._
~ -1
tl 0 , . .r _ _ _ ~~ r -.
~JI
The error distance for tracking the mobile user is only We considered three different models before settling on
slightly worse than that for locating a stationary user. The one. The first model was the well-accepted Rayleigh fading
median error distance is 3.5 meters, about 19% worse than model [Has93], which describes small-scale rapid amplitude
that for a stationary user. fluctuation in the absence of a strong received component.
The Rayleigh distribution is widely used to describe
4.1.8 Summary of Empirical Method multipath fading because of its elegant theoretical
explanation and the occasional empirical justification.
The empirical method is able to estimate user location
However, in deriving this distribution, a critical assumption
with a high degree of accuracy. The median error distance is
made is that all signals reaching the receivers have equal
2 to 3 meters, about the size of a typical office room. For our
strength. In general, this is unrealistic. Our empirical data
experimental environment, much of the accuracy can be
shows that for a number of sample points (along the
achieved with an empirical data set of about 40 physical
hallways), there exists a dominant line-of-sight (LOS)
points and about 3 real-time signal strength samples (at each
component that is not accounted for by this distribution.
base station). It is important, however, that the empirical data
Hence, we did not use this distribution.
set contain data corresponding to multiple user orientations
at each location. The second model we considered was the Rician
distribution model [Ric44]. The Rician distribution occurs
The main limitation of the empirical method is that
when a strong path exists in addition to the low level
significant effort is needed to construct the SS data set for
each physical environment of interest (each floor, each scattered path. This strong component may be the Los path
or a path that encounters much less attenuation than others.
building, etc.). Furthermore, the data collection process may
The Rayleigh distribution is a special case of the Rician
need to be repeated in certain circumstances, e.g., when a
distribution; when the strong path is eliminated, the
base station is relocated.
amplitude distribution becomes Rayleigh. While the model
We now discuss a method based on signal propagation is intuitively appealing, it is very difficult to determine the
modeling, which avoids these limitations. model parameters (i.e., the local mean of the scattered power
and the power of the dominant component) precisely as this
4.2 Radio Propagation Model requires physically isolating the direct wave from the
Radio propagation modeling provides an alternative to scattered components. To keep the system simple and easy to
deploy, we decided against using this distribution to model
the empirical method for constructing the search space for
the radio channel.
the NNSS algorithm.
We found a good compromise between simplicity and
4.2.1 Motivation accuracy in the Floor Attenuation Factor propagation model
The primary motivation for the radio propagation model (FAF) suggested by [Sei92]. We like this model because it
is to reduce RADAR’S dependence on empirical data. Using provides flexibility in accommodating different building
a mathematical model of indoor signal propagation, we layouts while taking into account large-scale path loss. We
-$ 1,
values of Pdo are higher than those published by the 45
manufacturer [Roa96] (for do = 1 meter) because our WAF 40
model does not account for multipath propagation. The
values of the path loss exponent are smaller than those
-
m 30
f
35
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