MUSIC K to 12

Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO THE THEORY OF MUSIC

At the end of the module you are expected to:

1. Identify the different elements of music;

2. Apply the elements of music to selected instrumental and voacl music; and

3. Learn the importance of music theory in preparing you for a wide range of further
educational activities that include music as a component.

Elements of Music

You don't need to be a musician to understand the basic elements of music. Anyone
who appreciates music will benefit from learning how to identify music's building blocks.
Music may be soft or loud, slow or fast, and regular or irregular in tempo—all of these
are evidence of a performer interpreting a composition's elements or parameters.
Leading musical theorists differ on how many elements of music exist: Some say there
are as few as four or five, while others contend that there are as many as nine or 10.
Knowing the generally accepted elements can help you understand the essential
components of music.

Beat and Meter

A beat is what gives music its rhythmic pattern; it can be regular or irregular. Beats
are grouped together in a measure; the notes and rests correspond to a certain number
of beats. Meter refers to rhythmic patterns produced by grouping together strong and
weak beats. A meter may be in duple (two beats in a measure), triple (three beats in a
measure), quadruple (four beats in a measure), and so on.

Dynamics

Dynamics refers to the volume of a performance. In written compositions, dynamics

are indicated by abbreviations or symbols that signify the intensity at which a note or
passage should be played or sung. They can be used like punctuation in a sentence to
indicate precise moments of emphasis. Dynamics are derived from Italian. Read a score
and you'll see words like pianissimo used to indicate a very soft passage and fortissimo
to indicate a very loud section, for instance.

Harmony

Harmony is what you hear when two or more notes or chords are played at the
same time. Harmony supports the melody and gives it texture. Harmonic chords may be
described as major, minor, augmented, or diminished, depending on the notes being
played together. In a barbershop quartet, for example, one person will sing the melody.
The harmony is provided by three others—a tenor, a bass, and a baritone, all singing
complimentary note combinations—in perfect pitch with one another.

Melody

Melody is the overarching tune created by playing a succession or series of notes,

and it is affected by pitch and rhythm. A composition may have a single melody that
runs through once, or there may be multiple melodies arranged in a verse-chorus form,
as you'd find in rock 'n' roll. In classical music, the melody is usually repeated as a
recurring musical theme that varies as the composition progresses.

Pitch

The pitch of a sound is based on the frequency of vibration and the size of the
vibrating object. The slower the vibration and the bigger the vibrating object, the lower
the pitch; the faster the vibration and the smaller the vibrating object, the higher the
pitch. For example, the pitch of a double bass is lower than that of the violin because
the double bass has longer strings. Pitch may be definite, easily identifiable (as with the
piano, where there is a key for each note), or indefinite, meaning pitch is difficult to
discern (as with a percussion instrument, such as the cymbals).

Rhythm

Rhythm may be defined as the pattern or placement of sounds in time and beats in
music. Roger Kamien in his book "Music: An Appreciation" defines rhythm as "the
particular arrangement of note lengths in a piece of music." Rhythm is shaped by meter;
it has certain elements such as beat and tempo.

Tempo

Tempo refers to the speed at which a piece of music is played. In compositions, a

work's tempo is indicated by an Italian word at the beginning of a score. Largo describes
a very slow, languid pace (think of a placid lake), while moderato indicates a moderate
pace, and presto a very fast one. Tempo can also be used to indicate emphasis.
Ritenuto, for instance, tells the musicians to slow down suddenly.

Texture

Musical texture refers to the number and type of layers used in a composition and
how these layers are related. A texture may be monophonic (single melodic line),
polyphonic (two or more melodic lines) and homophonic (the main melody accompanied
by chords).

Timbre

Also known as tone color, timbre refers to the quality of sound that distinguishes
one voice or instrument from another. It may range from dull to lush and from dark to
bright, depending on technique. For example, a clarinet playing an up-tempo melody in
the mid to upper register could be described as having a bright timbre. That same
instrument slowly playing a monotone in its lowest register could be described as having
a dull timbre.

Key Musical Terms

Here are thumbnail descriptions of the previously described key elements of music.

Element Definition Characteristics

Beat Gives music its rhythmic pattern A beat can be regular or irregular.
Meter Rhythmic patterns produced by A meter may be two or more beats in a
grouping together strong and measure.
weak beats
Dynamics The volume of a performance Like punctuation marks, dynamics
abbreviations and symbols indicate
moments of emphasis.
Harmony The sound produced when two Harmony supports the melody and gives it
or more notes are played at the texture.
same time
Melody The overarching tune created by A composition may have a single or multiple
playing a succession or series of melody.
notes
Pitch A sound based on the frequency The slower the vibration and the bigger the
of vibration and size of the vibrating object, the lower the pitch will be
vibrating objects and vice versa.
Rhythm The pattern or placement of Rhythm is shaped by meter and has
sounds in time and beats in elements such as beat and tempo.
music
Tempo The speed at which a piece of The tempo is indicated by an Italian word at
music is played the beginning of a score, such as largo for
slow or presto for very fast.
Texture The number and types of layers A texture may be a single line, two or more
 used in a composition
Timbre The quality of the sound that
distinguishes one voice or
instrument from another
lines, or the main melody accompanied by
chords.
Timbre can range from dull to lush and from
dark to bright.

Discussion

Rhythm

All music involves the unfolding of sounds in time. Some of the terminology used in
describing music therefore refers to the durational and temporal organization of musical
sounds. The attack points of a sequence of sounds produce rhythm. The three syllables
of the word “strawberry” can be pronounced at evenly spaced intervals (straw-ber-ry), or
the first syllable can be stretched out, producing one long and two shorter durations
(straaaaw-ber-ry)—two different speech rhythms. The speech rhythm of “My country, ‘tis
of thee” moves in evenly spaced syllables up to “tis,” which is elongated, followed by
“of,” which is cut short and leads directly to “thee”—ta ta ta taaa t-ta. In both vocal and
instrumental music, rhythm is generated by the onset of new sounds, whether the
progression from one word or syllable to the next in a song, the succession of pitches of
a violin melody, the striking of a drum, or the strumming of chords on a guitar.

Meter

The succession of attacks and durations that produces rhythm may proceed in a
quite unpredictable flow (“to be or not to be, that is the question”—the opening of
Hamlet’s soliloquy)—what is called nonmetered or free rhythm—or may occur so as to
create an underlying pulse or beat (“bubble, bubble, toil and trouble”—four beats
coinciding with buh–buh–toil–truh—from the witches’ incantation in Macbeth ).
Recurrent groupings of beats by two’s, three’s, or some combination of two’s and
three’s, produces meter. The first beat of each metric group is often described as
accented to characterize its defining function in the rhythmic flow (My country ‘tis of thee,
sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing—six groups of three beats, each beginning with the
underlined syllable). Another important rhythmic phenomenon is syncopation, which
signifies irregular or unexpected stresses in the rhythmic flow (for example, straw-ber-ry
instead of straw-ber-ry). A distinctive sequence of longs and shorts that recurs
throughout an individual work or groups of works, such as particular dance types, is
called a rhythmic pattern, rhythmic figure, or rhythmic motive.

Pitch

Pitch refers to the location of a musical sound in terms of low or high. As we have
seen, in terms of the physics of sound, pitch is determined by frequency, or the number
of vibrations per second: the faster a sounding object vibrates, the higher its pitch.
Although the audible range of frequencies for human beings is from about 20 to under
20,000 vibrations per second, the upper range of musical pitches is only around 4,000
vibrations per second. Frequency is determined by the length and thickness of the
vibrating object. In general, longer and thicker objects vibrate more slowly and produce
lower pitches than shorter and thinner ones. Thus, men’s voices are usually lower than
those of women and children, who have comparatively shorter and thinner vocal cords.
The same principle is visible in the construction of many instruments. The longest
wooden bars of a xylophone produce the lowest pitches, the shortest produce the
highest. The alto saxophone is smaller and has a higher range than the slightly larger
tenor saxophone. Pitch, like temperature, is a sliding scale of infinite gradations. All
theoretical systems of music organize this pitch continuum into successions of discrete
steps analogous to the degrees on a thermometer. And just as the Fahrenheit and
Celsius systems use different sized increments to measure temperature, different
musical cultures have evolved distinctive pitch systems. The conventional approach to
classifying pitch material is to construct a scale, an arrangement of the pitch material of
a piece of music in order from low to high (and sometimes from high to low as well).
Each element of a scale is called a “step” and the distance between steps is called an
interval. Most Western European music is based on diatonic scales—seven tone scales
comprised of five “whole steps” (moderate-size intervals) and two “half steps” (small
intervals). The position of the whole and half steps in the ascending ladder of tones
determines the mode of the scale. Major and minor are two commonly encountered
modes, but others are used in folk music, in Western European music before 1700, and
in jazz. Another important scale type particularly associated with music from China,
Japan, Korea, and other Asian cultures is pentatonic, a five-note scale comprised of
three whole steps and two intervals of a step and a half. The starting pitch of a scale is
called the tonic or keynote. Most melodies end on the tonic of their scale, which
functions as a point of rest, the pitch to which the others ultimately gravitate in the
unfolding of a melody. Key is the combination of tonic and scale type. Beethoven’s Fifth
Symphony is in C minor because its basic musical materials are drawn from the minor
scale that starts on the pitch C.

Melody

A succession of musical tones perceived as constituting a meaningful whole is

called a melody. By its very nature, melody cannot be separated from rhythm. A musical
tone has two fundamental qualities, pitch and duration, and both of these enter into the
succession of pitch plus duration that constitutes a melody. Melody can be synonymous
with tune, but the melodic dimension of music also encompasses configurations of
tones that may not be sing able or particularly tuneful. Conversely, music may employ
pitch material but not have a melody, as is the case with some percussion music.
Attributes of melody include its compass, that is, whether it spans a wide or narrow
range of pitches, and whether its movement is predominantly conjunct (moving by step
and therefore smooth in contour) or disjunct (leaping to non-adjunct tones and therefore
jagged in contour). Melodies may occur without additional parts (monophony), in
combination with other melodies (polyphony), or supported by harmonies
(homophony)—see the following discussion about Texture. Melodies may be designed
like sentences, falling into clauses, or phrases. Indeed, in composing vocal music,
composers generally design melodies to parallel the structure and syntax of the text
they are setting. The termination of a musical phrase is called a cadence. A full cadence
functions like a period, punctuating the end of a complete musical thought. A half
cadence is analogous to a comma, marking a pause or intermediate point of rest within
a phrase. The refrain of Jingle Bells, for example, contains four phrases with three half
cadences and a concluding full cadence:

Jingle bells, jingle bells, jingle all the way (half cadence)

Oh, what fun it is to ride in a one-horse open sleigh (half cadence)

Jingle bells, jingle bells, jingle all the way (half cadence)

Oh, what fun it is to ride in a one-horse open sleigh (full cadence, melody descends to
the tonic)

In another melodic style, associated more with instrumental than vocal music, melodic
material is not organized in regular, balanced units, but spins out in a long, continuous
line.

Texture

Like fabric, music has a texture, which may be dense or transparent, thick or thin,
heavy or light. Musical texture also refers to how many different layers of sound are
heard at once, to whether these layers have a primarily melodic or an accompaniment
function, and to how the layers relate to each other. A texture of a single,
unaccompanied melodic line is called monophony from the Greek “monos” (single,
alone) and “phone” (sound). Monophony becomes heterophony when spontaneous
variations of two or more performers produce different versions of the same melody at
the same time. The simultaneous combination of two or more independent melodies is
classified as polyphony and of two or more simultaneous rhythmic lines as polyrhythm.
Another principal textural category is homophony, one dominant melody with
accompaniment. These classifications are often useful in describing individual works
and repertory groups, but in practice many works and styles do not fall neatly into one
category. For example, a common texture in jazz entails some instruments whose
interaction would be described as polyphonic and others whose function it is to
accompany them. Two important concepts in the analysis and description of musical
textures are counterpoint and harmony. Counterpoint refers to the conduct of
simultaneously sounding melodic lines, one against the other. Rhythmic counterpoint
denotes the unfolding of concurrent rhythmic parts in polyrhythmic textures. While
counterpoint focuses on linear events, harmony is concerned with the vertical
combination of tones that produces chords and successions of chords. The Western
system of musical notation, while somewhat limited in the expression of subtleties of
rhythm and pitch, can indicate many simultaneous sounds and has enabled Western
composers to create music of greater textural complexity than that of any other musical
tradition. Principles or rules of composing multipart, or contrapuntal, music was first
formulated during the Middle Ages and have evolved and changed to reflect new
musical aesthetics, performance practices, and compositional techniques.

Tone Color

Tone color, or timbre, is the distinctive quality of a voice or instrument. Tone color is
the result of an acoustic phenomenon known as overtones. In addition to the
fundamental frequency heard as a sound’s pitch, musical tones contain patterns of
higher frequencies. Though these higher frequencies, or overtones, are not usually
perceived as pitches in themselves, their relative presence or absence determines the
characteristic quality of a particular voice or instrument. The prominence of overtones in
musical instruments depends on such factors as the materials from which they are
made, their design, and how their sound is produced. Similarly, the individual physiology
of each person’s vocal cords produces a unique speaking and singing voice. The term
tone color suggests an analogy with the visual arts, and indeed the exploration,
manipulation, and combination of instrumental and vocal sound qualities by performers
and composers may be compared to the use of color by painters. Terms such as
orchestration, scoring, and arranging refer to the aspect of composition that involves the
purposeful treatment of tone color. A composer may choose to use pure colors (for
example, the melody played by violins) or mixed colors (the melody played by violins
and flutes), or to exploit a particular quality of an instrument, such as the unique sound
of the clarinet in its low range. The art of orchestration encompasses various
performance techniques that affect tone color, among them the use of mutes, which are
devices for altering the sound of an instrument. In violins and other bowed strings, the
mute is a small comb-shaped device that is clamped on the strings, making the sound
veiled and somewhat nasal. Brass instruments are muted by inserting various materials
into the bell. Although tone color has a scientific explanation, its function in music is
aesthetic. Music is an art of sound, and the quality of that sound has much to do with
our response to it. Indeed, the concept of tonal beauty varies considerably in different
periods, styles, and cultures. On the other hand, within a particular context, ideals of
beauty may be quite firmly established and performers often pay extraordinary prices for
instruments that can produce that ideal sound. But no instrument automatically
produces a beautiful tone, so the finest violin will produce a rasping, scraping sound in
the hands of a beginner. Even at the most advanced stages of accomplishment,
achieving what is considered to be a beautiful tone is a criterion of a good performance.
The attitude toward tone color has played an interesting role in the history of Western
art music. Prior to the 18th century, composers were often quite vague, even indifferent,
with respect to how their musical ideas would be realized. It was customary to play
music on whatever instruments were at hand and to perform some or all parts of vocal
compositions on instruments. During the 18th century, as composers became more
sensitive to the idiomatic quality of instruments, they began to conceive musical ideas in
terms of particular tone colors. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the fascination with
expanding and experimenting with the palette of tone colors has elevated the art of
orchestration to a level equal to other aspects of the compositional process.

Form

The interaction of such elements as melody, rhythm, texture, and harmony in the
unfolding of a musical work produces form. Most music conforms to one of the following
three basic formal prototypes:

1. sectional, falling into units of contrasting or repeating content,

2. continuous, usually involving the development and transformation of one or more

germinal ideas,

3. a combination of sectional and continuous.

In addition, four general concepts help in the appreciation of many forms: repetition,
contrast, return, and variation. The concept of “return” is especially important, for when
listeners hear something familiar (that is, something they heard earlier in a work or
performance) the sense of “going home” can be very powerful, whether it takes place in
a 45-minute symphony or a four-minute pop song. One traditional method of
representing these concepts is to use letters of the alphabet to identify individual
phrases or sections, AA indicating repetition, AB contrast, ABCD a continuous structure,
ABA return, and ABACA a design involving contrast, repetition and return. Capital and
lower-case letters may be used to distinguish between different levels of formal
organization, while symbols for prime (A’, B’ etc) signify restatement of material with
some changes. When a section is repeated more than once with different changes,
additional prime symbols may be used (ABA’CA’’, for example, where the second and
third A’s are both versions of the original “A,” but different from each other). To illustrate,
the chorus of Jingle bells would be represented as abab’ (a for the repeated music of
the first and third lines, b and b’ for the contrasting music of the second and fourth
phrases with their different endings -half and full cadences, respectively). The entire
song is in ABA form (A for Jingle bells…. open sleigh), B for the second section of the
song (Dashing through the snow…) and A for the return of the chorus. In variation form,
a melody or chord progression is presented successively in different versions; the form
could be diagrammed as A A’ A’’ A’’’ and so forth. Changes may be made in key,
instrumentation, rhythm, or any number of ways, but the original tune is always
recognizable. Aaron Copland’s variations on the Shaker tune Simple Gifts in his
Appalachian Spring is a famous example of variation on a tune, while Pachelbel’s
Canon in D might be considered a series of variations on a chord progression. Some
have compared a jazz performance to a kind of variation form, where musicians play a
pre-existing tune and then provide a series of improvised “variations” on that tune.
Dynamics and Dynamic Changes

Dynamics refers to the volume of a sound or note. The term is also applied to the
written or printed musical notation used to indicate dynamics. Dynamics are relative and
do not refer to specific volume levels. Traditionally, dynamic markings are based on
Italian words, although there is nothing wrong with simply writing things like “quietly” or
“louder” in the music. Forte means loud and piano means soft. The instrument
commonly called the “piano,” by the way, was originally called a “pianoforte” because it
could play dynamics, unlike earlier popular keyboard instruments such as the
harpsichord and spinet.

Dynamic Markings

The main dynamic levels are:

 p or piano, which means “soft”

 f or forte, which means “loud”

More subtle degrees of loudness or softness are indicated by:

 mp, standing for mezzo-piano, which means “moderately soft”

 mf, standing for mezzo-forte, which means “moderately loud”

Beyond f and p, there are also:

 pp, which stands for pianissimo and means “very soft”

 ff, which stands for fortissimo and means “very loud”

Dynamic Changes

To gradually change the dynamics, composers

use crescendo and diminuendo (also decrescendo).

 crescendo (cresc.): gradually play louder

  diminuendo / decrescendo (dim. or decres.): gradually play softer

Accents

A composer may want a particular note to be louder than all the rest or may want
the very beginning of a note to be loudest. Accents are markings that are used to
indicate these especially strong-sounding notes. There are a few different types of
written accents, but, like dynamics, the proper way to perform a given accent also
depends on the instrument playing it, as well as the style and period of the music. Some
accents may even be played by making the note longer or shorter than the other notes,
in addition to, or even instead of being, louder.

The exact performance of each type of accent depends on the instrument and
the style and period of the music, but the sforzando- and fortepiano-type accents are
usually louder and longer, and more likely to be used in a long note that starts loudly
and then suddenly gets much softer. Caret-type accents are more likely to be used to
mark shorter notes that should be stronger than unmarked notes.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS AND ENSEMBLES

Though one could say that the human voice was the first instrument, most cultures
have developed other distinctive ways of creating musical sound, from something as
simple as two sticks struck together to the most complex pipe organ or synthesizer.
Learning about musical instruments can teach you much about a culture’s history and
aesthetics, and there are a few general questions that are useful to ask, especially if an
instrument is unfamiliar.

 What material is it made of? The physical composition of an instrument will often
reflect the area in which it was developed; for example, certain types of wood or
ceramics could indicate a specific geographical region. In addition, the
instrument may be made of materials considered sacred by its culture, or be
decorated in such a way that reflects its significance to the people who play it.
 How is sound produced? As seen below, there are a variety of ways in which an
instrument can create sound.
 How is the instrument viewed by the culture that created it? Although in some
cultures instruments are simply viewed as objects used in a musical
performance, in others instruments are viewed as sacred or as part of a
distinctive cultural ritual.
 Performance technique. As varied as are the shapes, sizes, and materials of
musical instruments throughout the world is the manner in which they are played,
whether struck, blown, bowed, shaken, etc. Often one instrument can be played
in a variety of ways: For example, a violin can be bowed, plucked, struck, or
even strummed like a guitar.
 Tone color/timbre. Related to an instrument’s physical makeup and performance
technique is the quality of its sound: It may be harsh and rough, or smooth
andrich. Often an instrument’s timbre will bring to mind colors or sensations that
are difficult to describe.
 Range. An instrument’s range has to do with the distance between the lowest
note and the highest note it can produce. As with the human voice, many
instruments have a particular part of the range that is preferred for its pleasing
qualities, andone part of an instrument’s range may sound very different from
another (for example, the low range of the clarinet has an entirely different
timbre than the upper register).
 How is the instrument used? An instrument may be used alone, or gathered with
other instruments in ensembles.
 Ethnomusicologists have devised a series of categories to classify instruments
throughout the world, based on the ways in which they produce sound. Each of
these words ends with the suffix “phone,” the Greek word for sound. The
following are just the most general categories; each can be divided into
subcategories, but we won’t be worrying about those in this class:

 Aerophones: sound produced by air. Aerophones use many mechanisms to

make the air in the instrument vibrate, thus creating sound waves. If you have
ever blown across the top of a soda bottle, you’ve created an aerophone.
Blowing across the bottle’s opening splits the air so some goes across the
opening and some goes into the bottle, thus creating vibrations. If you fill the
bottle partially with water, the sound is higher, because the column of air in the
bottle is shorter. In a trumpet, the vibration of air is created by the buzzing of the
lips into a mouthpiece. Many instruments also use reeds—small, thin pieces of
wood or bamboo—that vibrate as the air passes them, thus creating another
distinctive sound.
 Chordophones: sound produced by strings. Both a rubber band stretched over a
shoe box and a violin could be considered chordophones, as sound is produced
by the vibration of a chord (or string). As mentioned above, chordophones can
 be played in a variety of ways: They can be plucked, struck, strummed, or
played with a device known as a bow.
 Membranophones: sound produced by a stretched membrane (plastic, animal
skin, fiberglass, etc.). The most familiar membranophones are the nearly infinite
varieties of drums found throughout the world.
 Idiophones: sound produced by the body of the instrument itself. The word
“idiophone” comes from the Greek “id” or “self.” When you clap your hands
together, you are essentially using them as idiophones, as it is the hands
themselves that create the sound. Two sticks knocked together could be
considered an idiophone, as well as any number of types of bells, where the
entire instrument is struck and vibrates. A gourd filled with beads or seeds (or a
maraca) would also be considered an idiophone, because it is the interior
material hitting the sides of the instrument that create the sound.
 Electrophones: sound produced by electric or electronic means. This is a
relatively new category that includes instruments such as synthesizers,
computers, etc.

Human Voice as Instrument

The human voice is a natural musical instrument and singing by people of all ages,
alone or in groups, is an activity in all human cultures. The human voice is essentially a
wind instrument, with the lungs supplying the air, the vocal cords setting up the
vibrations, and the cavities of the upper throat, mouth, and nose forming a resonating
chamber. Different pitches are obtained by varying the tension of the opening between
the vocal cords. In the Western tradition, voices are classified according to their place in
the pitch spectrum, soprano, mezzo soprano, and alto being the respective
designations for the high, middle, and low ranges of women’s voices, and tenor,
baritone, and bass for men’s. A counter tenor or contra tenor is a male singer with the
range of an alto. These terms are applied not only to voices and singers but also to the
parts they sing. The range of an individual’s voice is determined by the physiology of the
vocal cords. However, because the vocal cords are muscles, even the most modest
singing activity can increase their flexibility and elasticity, and serious training can do so
to a remarkable degree.

Singers also work to extend the power of their voices, control pitch, and quality at
all dynamic levels, and develop speed and agility. Vocal quality and singing technique
are other important criteria in the classification of voices. A singer’s tone color is
determined in part by anatomical features, which include the mouth, nose, and throat as
well as the vocal cords. But the cultivation of a particular vocal timbre is also strongly
influenced by aesthetic conventions and personal taste. A tight, nasal tone is associated
with many Asian and Arabic traditions, whereas opera and gospel singers employ a
chest voice with pronounced vibrato. Even within a single musical tradition there may be
fine distinctions based on the character and color of the voice. For example, among
operatic voices, a lyric soprano has a light, refined quality and a dramatic soprano a
powerful, emotional tone. Most music for the voice involves the delivery of words.
Indeed, speech itself, which is characterized by both up and down pitch inflections and
durational variations of individual sounds, could be considered a primitive form of
melody. The pitches of normal speech are relatively narrow in range, neither a robot-like
monotone nor extremes of high and low, but even these modest fluctuations are
important in punctuating the flow of ideas and communicating emotion. The setting of
words to music involves the purposeful shaping of melodic and other musical elements
and can invest a text with remarkable expressive power. Vocal music is often identified
as sacred or secular on the basis of its text. Sacred music may be based on a scriptural
text, the words of a religious ceremony, or deal with a religious subject. The words in
secular music may express feelings, narrate a story, describe activities associated with
work or play, comment on social or political situations, convey a nationalistic message,
and so on.
Western Categories of Instruments

Instruments are commonly classified in families, according to their method of

generating sounds. The most familiar designations for these groupings are strings
(sound produced by vibrating strings), winds (by a vibrating column of air), and
percussion (by an object shaken or struck). The members of the string family of the
Western orchestra are violin, viola, cello (or violoncello), and bass (or double bass).
All are similar in structure and appearance and also quite homogeneous in tone color,
although of different pitch ranges because of differences in the length and diameter of
their strings. Sound is produced by drawing a horsehair bow across the strings, less
often by plucking with the fingertips (called pizzicato). The harp is also a member of the
orchestral string family.

In wind instruments, the player blows through a mouthpiece that is attached to a

conicalor cylindrical tube filled with air. The winds are subdivided into woodwinds and
brass. The nomenclature of the orchestral winds can be both confusing and misleading.
For example, the modern flute, classified as a woodwind, is made of metal while
ancestors of some modern brass instruments were made of wood; the French horn is a
brass instrument, but the English horn is a woodwind; and the saxophone, a relatively
new instrument associated principally with jazz and bands, is classified as a woodwind
because its mouthpiece is similar to that of the clarinet, although its body is metal. The
main orchestral woodwinds are flute, clarinet, oboe, and bassoon. Their very
distinctive tone colors are due in part to the different ways in which the air in the body of
the instrument is set in vibration. In the flute (and the piccolo) the player blows into the
mouthpiece at a sharp angle, in the clarinet into a mouthpiece with a single reed, and in
the oboe and bassoon (also the less common English horn) through two reeds bound
together. In all woodwinds, pitch is determined by varying the pressure of the breath in
conjunction with opening and closing holes along the side of the instrument, either with
the fingers or by keys and pads activated by the fingers. The members of the brass
family are wound lengths of metal tubing with a cup shaped mouthpiece at one end and
a flared bell at the other. Pitch is controlled in part by the pressure of the lips and
amount of air, and also by altering the length of tubing either by valves (trumpet,
French horn, tuba) or by a sliding section of tube (trombone).

The percussion family encompasses a large and diverse group of instruments,

which in the Western system of classification are divided into pitched and non-pitched.
The nucleus of the orchestral percussion section consists of two, three, or four timpani,
or kettledrums. Timpani are tuned to specific pitches by varying the tension on the head
that is stretched over the brass bowl. The snare drum, bass drum, triangle, cymbals,
marimba (or xylophone), tambourine, castanets, and chimes are among the other
instruments found in the percussion section of an orchestra when called for in particular
musical works. Percussionists usually specialize in a particular instrument but are
expected to be competent players of them all.

The piano, harpsichord, and organ constitute a separate category of instruments.

The harpsichord might be classified as a plucked string, the piano as both a string and a
percussion instrument since its strings are struck by felt-covered hammers, and the
organ as a wind instrument, its pipes being a collection of air-filled tubes. Because the
mechanism of the keyboard allows the player to produce several tones at once,
keyboard instruments have traditionally been treated as self-sufficient rather than as
members of an orchestral section.

Counterparts to the Western orchestral instruments are found in musical cultures

all over the world. Among the strings are the Indian sitar, the Japanese koto, the
Russian balalaika, and the Spanish guitar. Oboe-type instruments are found throughout
the Middle East and bamboo flutes occur across Asia and Latin America. Brass-like
instruments include the long straight trumpets used by Tibetan monks and instruments
made from animal horns and tusks, such as the Jewish shofar. Percussion instruments
are probably the most numerous and diverse, from simple folk instruments like gourd
rattles filled with pebbles, notched sticks rubbed together, and hollow log drums, to the
huge tempered metal gongs of China, the bronze xylophones of Indonesia, and the
tuned steel drums of the Caribbean.
Ensembles

The word “ensemble” comes from the French meaning “together” and is a broad
concept that encompasses groupings of various constituencies and sizes. Ensembles
can be made up of singers alone, instruments alone, singers and instruments together,
two performers or hundreds. Ensemble performance is part of virtually every musical
tradition. Examples of large ensembles are the symphony orchestra, marching band,
jazz band, West Indian steel pan orchestra, Indonesia gamelan, African drum
ensembles, chorus, and gospel choir. In such large groups, performers are usually
divided into sections, each with its particular material or function. So, for example, all
the tenors in a chorus sing the same music, and all the alto saxes in a jazz big band
play the same part. Usually a conductor or lead performer is responsible for keeping
everyone together.

The large vocal ensemble most familiar to Westerners is the chorus, twenty or more
singers grouped in soprano, alto, tenor, and bass sections. The designation choir is
sometimes used for choruses that sing religious music. There is also literature for
choruses comprised of men only, women only, and children. Small vocal ensembles, in
which there are one to three singers per part, include the chamber chorus and barber
shop quartet. Vocal ensemble music, is sometimes intended to be performed a cappella,
that is, by voices alone, and sometimes with instruments. Choral numbers are
commonly included in operas, oratorios, and musicals.

The most important large instrumental ensemble in the Western tradition is the
symphony orchestra. Orchestras such as the New York Philharmonic, Brooklyn
Philharmonic, and those of the New York City Opera and Metropolitan Opera, consist of
40 or more players, depending on the requirements of the music they are playing. The
players are grouped by family into sections – winds, brass, percussion and strings.
Instruments from different sections frequently double each other, one instrument playing
the same material as another, although perhaps in different octaves. Thus, while a
symphony by Mozart may have parts for three sections, the melody given to the first
violins is often identical to that of the flutes and clarinets, the bassoons, cellos and
basses may join forces in playing the bass line supporting that melody while the second
violins, violas, and French horns are responsible for the pitches that fill out the harmony.
The term orchestration refers to the process of designating particular musical material to
particular instruments.

The origins of the orchestra in Western Europe date back to the early baroque and
the rise of opera, for which composers wrote instrumental overtures, accompaniments
to vocal numbers, and dances. In this early period, the ensemble typically consisted of
about 16 to 20 strings plus a harpsichord, called the continuo, that doubled the bass line
and filled out the harmonies. Other instruments could be included, but primarily as
soloists rather than regular members. The designation chamber orchestra is sometimes
applied to these early orchestras, reflecting the fact that, during the Baroque period,
orchestral music was often composed as entertainment for the nobility and performed in
the rooms, or chambers, of their palaces, rather than the large concert halls of today.
During the classical period, the orchestra expanded in size to between 40 and 60
players. Strings remain the heart of the ensemble, but there are more of them, and by
the early 19th century, pairs of flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, French horns,
trumpets and timpani had become standard members. For the most part, the
woodwinds double the strings, the horns fill out the harmonies, and the trumpets and
timpani add rhythmic emphasis.

For many composers of the 19th century, exploring the timbral possibilities of the
orchestra became an increasingly important aspect of the creative process. The
ensemble of the romantic period grew to 80 or more players through the increase in the
numbers of instruments of the classical orchestra and the addition of new ones –
piccolo, English horn, contrabassoon, trombone, tuba, harp, celeste, cymbals, triangle,
a variety of drums. Scores also called for special effects such as muting – muffling or
altering the sound of string instruments by placing a wooden clamp placed across the
bridge, or brass instruments by inserting material into the bell. There is no single
concept of the orchestra in the 20th century. Composers have written for chamber
ensembles and for gigantic forces; they have used traditional instrumentations but also
further extended the palette of musical tone colors by incorporating non-western
instruments, invented instruments, electronically altered instruments, and non-musical
sound sources such as sirens. Some have approached the orchestra not as the
deliverer of melody, rhythm, and harmony, but as a palette of tone colors, to be mixed,
juxtaposed, manipulated, ordered, and experienced as a sonic collage. The jazz big
band is another example of a large ensemble. The instruments are typically divided into
the reed section (saxes, sometimes clarinets), the brass section (trumpets, trombones,
sometimes cornets), and the rhythm section (commonly piano, guitar, string bass, and
drum set). The rhythm section – which appears in most groups, large and small – is
responsible for maintaining the rhythm (hence the name) as well as the harmony on
which the featured soloists are improvising. Because of their size, jazz big bands often
play from written arrangements.

The gamelan of Indonesia is an example of a large non-Western ensemble. The

distinctive sound of the gamelan is created by metallophones, that is, instruments made
of metal and struck with a mallet. Some resemble small, medium, and large xylophones,
but with tuned bars of bronze instead of wood. Some look like a collection of lidded
cooking kettles of different sizes. The layers of melody created by these instruments are
punctuated by gongs, chimes, and drums. The gamelan accompanies ceremonial plays
and dances and is deeply connected to religious rituals. The instruments themselves
are charged with charismatic power and are often intricately carved and brilliantly
painted with figures and designs that replicate elements of cosmological forces. Another
type of grouping found in many musical traditions consists of a small number of players
– from 2 to 8 or 9 – each of whom has a separate, unique part. An important feature of
small ensembles is an overall balance among the individual performers, so that one
does not overpower the others. Instead, every member of the group plays an essential
role in the presentation and development of musical ideas. Instead of a conductor, the
performers rely on eye contact, careful listening and sensitivity to each other that may
have developed over years of rehearsing and playing together. In the western classical
tradition, such small groups are classified as chamber ensembles and include the string
quartet (2 violins, viola, cello), piano trio (piano, violin, cello), and wind quintet (flute,
oboe, clarinet, bassoon, French horn). A comparable small group in jazz is a jazz
combo. Like the jazz big band, the jazz combo uses a rhythm section, but in place of
reed and brass sections, a handful of additional improvising instruments. One preferred
combination is the jazz quintet, made up of trumpet, saxophone, and rhythm section of
piano, bass, and drums. Miles Davis’s famous quintet of the 1960s used this
instrumentation. Other examples of small instrumental groupings include a bluegrass
band, Klezmer band, rock band, and trio of players of Indian ragas.
References:

Meyer, Leonard B. (1989). Style and Music: Theory, History, and Ideology. Studies in
the Criticism and Theory of Music. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Reprinted, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

Owen, Harold (2000). Music Theory Resource Book. Oxford and New York: Oxford
University Press

Oxforddictionaries.com (2015) "[...] The written or printed signs representing vocal or

instrumental sound; The score or scores of a musical composition or compositions".
Retrieved 1 December 2015, from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/music
 Music Elements EXAM

1. One of the elements of music is …

a. composer

b. timbre

c. recording

2. The progression of single tones is …

a. tempo

b. form

c. melody

3. Sound organized in patterns is …

a. rhythm

b. tempo

c. dynamics
4. Rondo is an example of …

a. form

b. tempo

c. rhythm

5. Many music terms are from what language?

a. Italian

b. Russian

c. Portuguese

6. Which of the following answers is NOT related to form?

a. Presto - Largo

b. Theme - Variations

c. Call - Response

7. ‘Allegro’ and ‘Largo’ are related to …

a. tempo

b. dynamics

c. timbre
8. A chord is an example of …

a. harmony

b. triad

c. both a & b

9. Which means ‘degrees of loudness’?

a. rhythm

b. dynamics

c. tempo

10. Two or more tones sounding together create …

a. melody

b. discord

c. harmony
11. What distinguishes one voice or instrument from another?

a. timbre

b. melody

c. dynamics

12. Fortissimo means …

a. very loud

b. very soft

c. very difficult

13. How many sections does ABA form have?

a. two

b. three

c. four

14. How many elements of music are listed in the Core Content?

a. seven

b. eight

c. nine
15. A musical composition with only two distinct contrasting sections fits
which form?

a. ABA

b. AB

c. theme & variations

16. The term for ‘soft’ is …

a. forte

b. piano
c. mezzo

17. Crescendo means …

a. gradually stop playing

b. gradually play softer

c. gradually play louder

Music Elements EXAM

MULTIPLE CHOICE KEY

1. B

2. C

3. A

4. A

5. A

6. A

7. A

8. C

9. B

10. C

11. A

12. A

13. B

14. A

15. B

16. B

17. C
 Module 2

PHILIPPINE MUSIC

At the end of the module you are expected to:

1. Identify the different instrumental and vocal music of the Philippines;

2.Perform some famous musical forms from Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao; and

3. Learn the importance of Philippine music in societies where people function

according to rituals and ceremonies.

Introduction

Philippine Music comes in a variety of forms, covering a wide spectrum of sources,

geographically and historically; and representing more than 100 ethnolinguistic groups
as well as different social and cultural environments in the Philippines. The totality of
these forms may be categorized into three distinct repertoires: 1) Asiatic oral traditions;
2) westernized oral traditions; and 3) western-influenced art and popular music, and
semi classical music.

The first category covers forms that are closely related to the cultural traditions of
Southeast Asia. In the Philippines, most of the musical forms are performed in
connection with rites of passage and life cycle events as well as occupational activities.
These occasions consist of birth, initiation and graduation ceremonies; courtship and
marriage; death and funeral rites; hunting, fishing, planting and harvest; healing and
various forms of armed conflicts. In public gatherings, most of the musical performances
are integrated with dancing and some form of physical movement, as well as the
participation of the community or audience. Solo playing or small group singing are
done without much movement. In Philippine literature, these forms are usually referred
to as Indigenous Philippine music.
 The second category of musical forms consists of orally transmitted genres and
compositions that are performed in rural Christian communities in Luzon, Visayas and
parts of lowland Mindanao, and are generally referred to as Philippine “folk music”.
Their origins may be traced through four evolutionary processes: 1) forms that have
been introduced by the Spanish colonial power and later adopted and modified by local
artists and performers (metrical romances); 2) syncretic and hybrid forms that have
been locally assimilated elements from Western religious traditions (subli, sanghiyang);
and 4) locally processed songs based on older pre-colonial tunes (planting songs,
children’ s play songs, lullabies, love songs and serenades). Much of Philippine folk
music are found in the religious and paraliturgical repertoires of countryside Christian
communities, as well as in various forms of entertainment and rites of passage such as
marriage and funeral ceremonies.

The third category of Philippine musical forms are found in urban communities
and centers of population. In the last 100 years, Filipino composers have written works
in the standard Western art music forms (chamber music, symphonic music, opera,
serswela, etc.) and contemporary music styles, as well as the latest popular music
industry- Latin American, jazz, country, rock, folk, rap, etc. In addition, modern
compositions have also been written for such theatrical forms as dance and/or ballet,
drama, musicales, and cinema.
Folk Songs - Luzon

DANDANSOY SITSIRITSIT, ALIBANGBANG

Dandansoy, bayaan ta ikaw Sitsiritsit, alibangbang

Pauli ako sa Payao Salaginto’t salagubang

Ugaling kung ikaw hidlawon Ang babae sa lansangan

Ang Payaw imo lang lantawon Kung gumiri’y parang tandang

Dandansoy, kung imo apason Santo Niño sa Pandakan

Bisan tubig di magbalon Putoseko sa tindahan

Ugaling kung ikaw uhawon Kung ayaw mong magpautang

Sa dalan magbubon-bubon Uubusin ka ng langgam

Ang panyo mo kag panyo ko Mama, mama, namamangka

Dal-a diri kay tambihon ko Pasakayin yaring bata.

Ugaling kung magkasilo Pagdating sa Maynila

Bana ta ikaw, asawa mo ako Ipagpalit ng manika.

MANANG BIDAY PAMULINAWEN

Manang Biday, ilukat mo man Pamulinawen

‘Ta bintana ikalumbabam Pusok imdengam man

Ta kitaem ‘toy kinayawan Toy umas-asug

Ay, matayakon no dinak kaasian Agrayo ita sadiam.

Siasinnoka nga aglabaslabas Panunotem man

Ditoy hardinko pagay-ayamak Dika pagintultulngan

Ammom ngarud a balasangak Toy agayat, agruknoy ita emmam.

Sabong ni lirio, di pay nagukrad

Issemmo diak kalipatan

Denggem, ading, ta bilinenka Ta nasudi unay a nagan,

Ta inkanto ‘diay sadi daya Ta uray sadin ti ayan,

Agalakanto’t bunga’t mangga Disso sadino man,

Ken lansones pay, adu a kita

{Aw-awagak a di agsarday

No nangato, dika sukdalen Ta naganmo nga kasam-itan}

No nababa, imo gaw-aten

No naregreg, dika piduten No malagipka

Ngem labaslabasamto met laeng Pusok ti mabang-aran

Daytoy paniok no maregregko Adu nga sabsabon

Ti makapidut isublinanto Adu nga rosrosas

Ta nagmarka iti naganko Ti adda’t ditoy

Nabordaan pay ti sinanpuso Nena nga mabuybuyak,

Ngem awan manlaeng

Alaem dayta kutsilio Ti sabali nga liwliwak

Ta abriem ‘toy barukongko No di la dayta

Tapno maipapasmo ti guram Sudim ken imnas.

Kaniak ken sentimiento No umulogak nga

Mapan magmagna

Dayta raniagmo

Neneng nga gapu kenka.

ATIN KU PUNG SINGSING Manginu ya keya.

Atin ku pung singsing

Metung yang timpukan PARUPARONG BUKID

Amana ke iti Paruparong bukid na lilipad-lipad

King indung ibatan. Sa gitna ng daan papaga-pagaspas

Sangkan keng sininup Isang bara ang tapis

King metung a kaban Isang dangkal ang manggas

Mewala ya iti, Ang sayang de kola

E ku kamalayan. Isang piyesa ang sayad

Ing sukal ning lub ku May payneta pa siya — uy!

Susukdul king banwa May suklay pa man din — uy!

Pikurus kung gamat Nagwas de-ohetes ang palalabasin

Babo ning lamesa. Haharap sa altar at mananalamin

Ninu mang manakit At saka lalakad nang pakendeng-

kendeng.
King singsing kung mana

Kalulung pusu ku
LERON, LERON, SINTA Isang pinggang pansit

Leron, Leron, sinta Ang kanyang kalaban.

Buko ng papaya

Dala dala’y buslo BAHAY KUBO

Sisidlan ng bunga Bahay kubo

Pagdating sa dulo Kahit munti

Nabali ang sanga, Ang halaman

Kapos kapalaran Doon ay sari-sari

Humanap ng iba. Singkamas at talong

Sigarilyas at mani

Gumisang ka Neneng Sitaw, bataw, patani

Tayo’y manampalok

Dalhin mo ang buslo Kundol, patola

Tisidlan ng hinog Upo’t kalabasa

Pagdating sa dulo At saka mayroon pang

Lalamba-lambayog Labanos, mustasa,

Kumapit ka Neneng Sibuyas, kamatis

Baka ka mahulog. Bawang at luya

Sa paligid-ligid

Ang iibigin ko’y Ay maraming linga

Lalaking matapang

Ang baril nya’y pito

Lang sundang ay siyam

Ang lalakarin nya’y

Parte ng dinulang
Harana and Kundiman

The Harana and Kundiman are lyrical songs popular in the Philippine Islands
dating back to the Spanish period. Harana are traditional courtship songs in the
Mexican-Spanish tradition based on the habanera rhythm while the Kundiman, which
has pre-colonial origins from the Tagalog region, uses triple meter rhythm. Kundiman is
also characterized by a minor key at the beginning and shifts to a major key in the
second half. Its lyrics depict a romantic theme, usually portraying love, passion, or
sadness. In the 1920s Harana and Kundiman became more mainstream musical styles
led by performers such as Atang de la Rama, Jovita Fuentes, Conching Rosal, Sylvia
La Torre and Ruben Tagalog.

Kumintang is the name given to several unique styles and forms in music and
dance. According to historians, these forms of music and dance had probably originated
from Batangas. Travelers during the early 19th century described it as a “Tagalog
“national chant”, and written about how they were dance-songs performed by a pair of
men and women. Often times, these dances would denote love and courtship.
Meanwhile, in the early 20th century, Francisca Reyes-Aquino described the Kumintang
as the circular hand and wrist movement popularly known as “kunday”. It also refers to a
guitar-plucking style which was dubbed as the most melodic and beautiful sounding
guitar styles amongst the old kinanluran style of pandangguhan dances.
Senakulo

The senakulo is a traditional Filipino dramatization of the life and times of Jesus
Christ. Done in singing (pasyon) and recitation, it is presented in the public squares in
many towns, in houses and streets during the season of Lent. The Senakulo (from the
Spanish cenaculo) is a Lenten play that depicts events from the Old and New
Testaments related to the life, sufferings, and death of Christ.

The senakulo is traditionally performed on a proscenium-type stage with painted

cloth or paper backdrops that are called telon. It takes at least eight nights - from Palm
Sunday to Eastern Sunday - to present the play. Christ is presented traditionally as
meek and humble, submitting lamb-like to his fate in obedience to authority.

In urban areas, there are developed versions of the senakulo that run for only
one or two hours. They may be presented in different types of locale: on the traditional
stage, on the streets, in a chapel, or out in the open. Comedy, courtship, and special
effects may be incorporated. Furthermore, modern senakulos tend to focus not on
Christ’s submissiveness, but on his reason and resolve in courageously standing up for
the unfortunate against their oppressors, suggesting how current problems may be
resolved.

Street senakulos is another form of penance where the people are walking with
the procession. People near the church wait eagerly to witness the reenactment. Locals
act as Roman soldiers with their menacingly painted masks and armors, pounding on
doors to search for Jesus. Most anticipated among the episodes are the judgment of
Jesus, the Crucifixion and His Seven Last Words. Spectators may range from devotees
to the merely curious or tourist alike. For some, it is the time to reflect on the life of
Jesus, while others take it as a chance to spend time with family and friends. The
routine of the reenactment has not changed, but its presentation is infused with a fresh
flavor to reach the modern-world absorbed consciousness of the new generation.

Pasyson

The Pasyón (Spanish: Pasión) is a Philippine epic narrative of the life of Jesus
Christ, focused on his Passion, Death, and Resurrection. In stanzas of five lines of eight
syllables each, the standard elements of epic poetry are interwoven with a colourful,
dramatic theme. The uninterrupted recitation or Pabasa of the whole epic is a
popular Filipino Catholic devotion during the Lenten season, and particularly during Holy
Week, where its recitation is known as the Pabása ("Reading"). The rite can span
several days, extending no later than Black Saturday, but it is often ended on Good
Friday at noon or before 15:00 PHT (GMT+8) – the traditional hour of Jesus' death on
the cross.

Readers chant the Pasyón from beginning to end without pause; this non-stop
recitation is facilitated by devotees chanting in shifts. The chanters usually perform the
rite as a panatà ("vow"), or votive offering in request or thanksgiving. Devotees are
frequently older women and some men, but in recent years younger Filipinos have
shown an increased interest in the custom.

The Pasyón is almost always chanted while facing an altar with religious icons,
particularly those related to the suffering and death of Christ. Temporary altars are often
erected within the home or inside an outdoor booth decorated with palm leaves.
The Pabasa may also be performed at a local visita/kapilya (chapel of ease) or some
other communal area. As per Filipino etiquette, the host of the Pabasa (often the master
or mistress of the house) is responsible for feeding the shifts of chanters as well as
other guests.

The text is an adaptation of the pre-Hispanic Filipino art of chanting epic poems
as a part of oral tradition. After Christianity was introduced by the Spaniards, the
Passion cycle was adapted into this native narrative form. The indigenous form of
the Pasyón was first written down by Gaspar Aquino de Belén in "Ang Mahal na Pasión
ni Jesu Christong Panginoon Natin na Tola" ("The Sacred Passion of Jesus Christ Our
Lord that is a Poem"), written in 1703 and approved in 1704. An 1852 erudition by
Aniceto de Merced, El libro de la vida ("The Book of the Life [of Jesus]") did not prove
popular with the masses.

Musical setting

There are various traditional settings or tono for the Pasyón that have been
passed down through the centuries. Recent innovations include setting the epic to
modern ballads, pop music, and contemporary hymns, in some places a rap or hip hop
variant is used. Instrumental accompaniment to the Pabasa is not uniform in practise;
the guitar and keyboard are commonly employed.

Rondalla and Brass band

Outside the symphony orchestra tradition and the Filipino theater, the Filipinos
have also developed a repertoire for three distinct musical ensembles: the band (brass
and bamboo), the rondalla and the chorus. The Philippine band repertoire consists of
marches, overtures, symphonic poems, concertant pieces, and medleys of Filipino folk
tunes, which are performed duing the military and civic parades, as well as formal and
semi-tests the playing prowess and physical endurance of the competing musicians.
Incidental pieces for the comedia and other forms of local theater have also been
written for the band.

The rondalla(plucked string ensemble) that was introduced by Spain as the

estudiantina and comparsa, has a similar repertoire. It consists of marches and
pasodoble pieces (fast and brilliant music in two), medleys and arrangements of Filipino
folk songs, overtures, concertant music, and folk dance accompaniments. In recent
years, Filipino composers have written serious art pieces for the rondalla or individual
rondalla instruments. In modern compositions, the rondalla instruments are also
combined with symphonic instruments.
 Rondalla ensemble of the Philippines consisting of plucked string instruments
with percussion. The size of a rondalla can vary: while a small ensemble might feature
eight or so instruments a large ensemble can comprise more than 30. The common
rondalla consists of four bandurria (14-string lute with a flat back), laúd (lute), octavina
(small guitar) one five- or six-string gitara and a four-string bass guitar. Smaller
ensembles might include one of each instrument and omit the octavina and laúd, while
larger ensembles increase the numbers of instruments included rather than the types.
The addition of percussion instruments (such as various types of drum, castanets,
triangles and marimba) is a recent phenomenon. Prevalent at the beginning of the
20th century, rondalla ensembles have returned to popularity several times, most
recently in the 1970s. They are now featured in concert-style performances, playing
repertory ranging from folksong to arrangements of Western art music.
 Brass band in the Philippine often consists of a group of brass and woodwind
instrumentalists marching and playing on the streets. The band, either marching or
symphonic, rose to popularity in the 20th century. During the Spanish period, music was
one of the means used for conversion by the friars. Filipinos took this opportunity to
hone their musical talents and to avoid recruitment into labor camps. They sought
training from the musico mayores—the men who trained and conducted the Spanish
army bands. It was then a great honor for a local to be affiliated with an army band,
most especially to be a conductor, because Filipinos were not allowed to organize their
own bands.

Marching bands, called bandas, were very popular during the American regime.
The prewar Philippine Constabulary Band was a symphonic band founded by Walter H.
Loving on October 15, 1902. It brought international fame to the country through its
participation in international expositions. The American period also saw the rise of
school and university-based bands, as well as town or civilian bands. The growth of
bands was so phenomenal that every town had two or more bands participating and
even competing in numerous town activities.

The size and composition of a marching band can vary greatly. Some bands
have fewer than twenty members, and some have over 500. Some bands omit some or
all woodwinds, but it is not uncommon to see piccolos, flutes, soprano clarinets, alto
saxophones, and tenor saxophones (woodwinds are not used in drum corps). E♭
clarinets, alto clarinets, bass clarinets, and baritone saxophones are less common,
but can be found in some bands. Bassoons and oboes are very seldom found on a
field due to the risk of incidental damage, the impracticality of marching with an exposed
double reed, and high sensitivity to weather.

The brass section usually includes trumpets or cornets; French horns, alto
horns, or mellophones; tenor trombones; baritone horns or euphoniums; and
tubas or sousaphones. E♭ soprano cornets are sometimes used to supplement or
replace the high woodwinds, while the mellophone often is used in place of the French
horn. Some especially large bands use flugelhorns and bass trombones. Specially
designed versions of the lower brass have been created for use while marching. These
are typically wrapped in such a way that allows the bell to face toward the audience at
all times. Bands may also modify their instrumentation to remove slide trombones
completely and replace them with another instrument, such as a valved trombone or
marching baritone horn.

Marching percussion (often referred to as the drumline, battery, or back battery)

typically includes snare drums, tenor drums, bass drums, and cymbals and are
responsible for keeping tempo for the band. All of these instruments have been adapted
for mobile, outdoor use. Marching versions of the glockenspiel (bells), xylophone, and
marimba are also rarely used by some ensembles. Historically, the percussion section
also employed mounted timpani that featured manual controls.
Bamboo Ensemble

The “Pangkat Kawayan” (literally ‘Bamboo Band’) otherwise known as the

“Singing Bamboo of the Philippines ” is a unique orchestra that draws music from
unconventional bamboo instruments. This orchestra is composed of musically –
talented students from the elementary schools of Quezon City and Manila whose ages
range from 8 to 19 years.The orchestra is managed by Victor O. Toledo, conductor and
musical Director. The same group has led the orchestra through the years since
September 6, 1966 when it was founded.

The group’s musical instruments, numbering more than a hundred, are made of
six genera of the versatile bamboo in various sizes, shapes and designs. Included are
the bamboo tube or “bumbong,” the bamboo marimba or” “talungating,” the bamboo
piano or “tipangklung,” the bamboo flute or “tulali,” the bamboo knockers or “kalatok,”
and the bamboo musiscal rattles, the Philippine “angklung”. Completing the bamboo
assortments are the drums, cymbals gong and triangle.

The forte of this bamboo band is native Philippine songs, mostly folksongs from
different regions of the country. However, the group’s repertoire also includes folk
melodies from other countries, modern and popular music and some light classics.
Music from Cordillera

Uggayam is an indigenous chant which originated from the Vanaw people of

western Kalinga, northern Philippines. It has been widely adapted among some other
Igorot groups like the Kankana-ey and the Bago. Improvisatory in style, its lyrics vary
according to any festive occasion and may be sung in the form of a prayer, a welcome
speech, a pep talk, or some other similar forms of discourse. Function-wise, it is similar
to the Sugsugna/Sogsogna, the non-epic form of the Ullalim, of southern Kalinga.
Among the iVanaw, it is never sung during a wake or a burial but can be chanted after
the post-burial cleansing ceremony called the waksi ‘shaking off [one’s grief]’ which may
be marked by traditional dancing and gong-playing.

Salidummay refers to a certain group of songs widely, though not evenly,

popular in Northern Philippines, especially in the highland areas.This is one of the most
popular songs of the Sadanga people. This is sung with a varying scale of improvised
melodies. These tunes present “Western” features, such as the use of
anhemitonicpentatonic scale (e.g., Irish cum “early American”), hexatonic of diatonic
pitch system and duple/quadruple meter rhythm. Some salidummay tunes are
adaptations from popular American tunes, such as “Tom Dooley” and
“Shenandoah.”Lyrics are mostly in either a local language or Ilokano, the lingua franca
of Northern Philippines, and often inherit wordings of presumably older chants..This is
sung during wedding to give counsel to newly wed couples, and during festivals and
peace pact renewals to entertain visitors. Depending on the theme of the occasion, the
“salidummay” lyrics can vary.
Gangsa is a single hand-held smooth-surfaced gong with a narrow rim. A set of
gangsa, which is played one gong per musician, consists of gangsa tuned to different
notes, depending on regional or local cultural preferences. The number of gangsa in a
set varies with availability, and depends on the tradition of a particular ethnic group of
the Luzon Cordillera: Kalinga, Ifugao, Bontoc, etc.Among the Kalinga people in the
Cordillera region of Luzon Island, the gangsa is played in two ways. One way is called
"toppaya" and the other is called "pattung." In "toppaya" style, the musicians play the
surface of the gangsa with their hand while in a sitting position, with a single gangsa
resting on the lap of each musician. In the "pattung" style, a gangsa is suspended from
the musician's left hand and played with a padded stick held in the musician's right
hand. In the "pattung" style of playing, the players are standing, or they keep in step
with the dancers while bending forward slightly.
Kalaleng or Tongali (nose flute) Because the kalaleng is long and has a narrow
internal diameter, it is possible to play different harmonics through overblowing—even
with the rather weak airflow from one nostril. Thus, this nose flute can play notes in a
range of two and a half octaves. Finger holes in the side of the bamboo tube change the
operating length, giving various scales. Players plug the other nostril to increase the
force of their breath through the flute.

Music of Visayas

Balitaw is the song traditionally associated with the Visayas region. The music of the
balitaw is usually written in 3/4 time. It is also danced to, although it originally was
something that was merely sung. This folk air has a more developed form called balitao
romansada. The traditional instrument used to accompany the balitaw was a three-
string coconut-shell guitar; later, a harp was adopted as the instrument of choice
because more chords could be played on it. When performed today in modern rendition,
a five-string guitar is used.
Folk Songs - Visayas Ang damgo ug pagsalig sa gugma mo...

MATUD NILA BALELENG

I I

Matud nila ako dili angay Mutya ka Baleleng sa katahum

Nga magmanggad sa imong gugma Timgas pa sa puti nga baybayon

Matud nila ikaw dili malipay Sa kasingkasing ka panganduyon

Kay wa akoy bahandi nga kanimo igasa Perlas ka nga angay gyud angkonon

II

II Pila na Baleleng layo-layo

Gugmang putli mao day pasalig Si Tangkay Baleleng pasibuto

Maoy bahanding labaw sa bulawan Bangkaw-guna Baleleng matuyo

Matud nila kaanugon lamang Uro ka Baleleng pamalayo

Sa imong gugma ug parayeg III

Kon ikaw Baleleng ang mawala

Refrain: Kon ikaw Baleleng di ko makita

Dili malubad kining pagbati Gugma ko Baleleng magahulat

Bisan sa unsa nga katarungan Taliwala ning lawod sa mga luha

Kay unsa pay bili ning kinabuhi

Kon sa gugma mo ako hikawan Narration (with Instrumental):

Mutya ka Baleling sa katahum

Chorus: Timgas sa puti nga baybayon

Ingna ko nga dili ka motuo Sa kasingkasing ka panganduyon

Sa mga pagtamay kong naangkon Perlas ka nga angay gyud angkonon

Ingna ko nga dili mo kawangon

Ang damgo ug pagsalig sa gugma mo (Repeat II)

Coda: Coda:

Ingna ko nga dili ka motuo Bangkaw-guna Baleleng matuyo

Sa mga pagtamay kong naangkon Uro ka Baleleng pamalayo

Ingna ko nga dili mo kawangon

Lullaby

iLi - iLi TULOG ANAY

ili-ili tulog anay,

Wala diri imo nanay.

Kadto tienda bakal papay.

ili-ili tulog anay.

Mata ka na,

tabangan mo

ikarga ang nakompra ko

kay bug-at man sing putos ko

tabangan mo ako anay

Tultugan is a native bamboo percussion instrument used by natives of long ago as a
tool for communication and as a musical instrument. Tultugan is a root word of tultug
which has been defined as an action verbalizing the act of playing sound on bamboo.
Tultugan is an instrument equivalent to drums. This indigenous bamboo instrument has
been found used centuries ago by our natives for communication. While drums are loud
and upbeat, tultugan is pleasing and close to nature.Usually this is rendered through a
bamboo stick striking it against the body of the bamboo, to produce a rhythmic pattern.

Music of Mindanao

Traditional Music

 Indigenous Philippine folklore is characterized by sacred rituals and practices,

and made more fervent and vibrant by the music that accompanies them.

 In Mindanao, the sounds of the agum and guimbao signal the assembly of the
participants in the performance of sacrifices by indigenous groups. The miminsad,
a dance song, is also chanted as they walk before the altar.

 The wedding feast is another occasion where music plays a key role. Some
Muslim groups play music using small and large kettledrums as accompaniment to
dancing, one of the highlights of the celebration.
  In Jolo, the sua-sua is a celebrated courtship song and dance that has often
been modernized for troupe performances.

 A war dance in Bukidnon called the sagayan epitomizes the gallantry of Muslim
combatants while little girls perform a festival dance wherein they wear hollow
copper anklets and ring little cells to produce certain sounds “to the
accompaniment of a variety of tom-tom and an indigenous xylophone.”

 In Agusan, the tud-ob, a song composed of four notes, is sung during rice
harvests. In Sulu, four gongs are used to produce a kind of music called the
tagungo.

 Mindanao folk music includes the ancient Muslim folk song and dance called
estijaro, and a Mindanao folk song called uruyan. These are usually accompanied
by drums, gongs, or other percussion instruments like the subing, a gong.

Kulintang

Kulintang refers to an ensemble of gongs laid in a row. It consists of seven,

eight, and as many as twelve gongs diminishing in size. It is the kulintang instrument
that provides the melody, and it is supported by other instruments such as the
gandingan (a set of suspended gongs), dabakan (goblet-shaped drum), and other
gongs such as agong and babendil. These other instruments “act as drones constantly
repeating a particular rhythmic pattern for the duration of the music”.

Kulintang music is usually heard in festive gatherings, official celebrations, rites

and rituals, weddings, and entertainment especially for respected visitors. Its artistry is
“considered comparable to the urban and court music of Europe and Asia”. It is a
musical concept that is believed to have come from outside Mindanao and Sulu and is
closely associated to Southeast Asia. The style of kulintang performance varies in
different parts of Mindanao. More than a medium of entertainment and hospitality,
kulintang music also serves as a “vehicle for social interaction and group solidarity”.
 Kulintang Ensemble

Lumad Folk Music

 Lumad, a Bisayan word for “native” or “indigenous,” refers to non-Christian and

non-Muslim indigenous groups in Mindanao. In general, lumad music encompasses
a wide repertoire of sounds performed for various occasions, and makes use of an
extensive array of musical instruments, including the agong, the most widely
distributed brass instrument among the Mindanao lumad.

 The biggest group of lumad is the Subanen (Subanon, Subanun) of Zamboanga

del Norte and Zamboanga del Sur. Their vocal music is characterized by chants and
different types of songs such as the dionli (love song), buwa (lullaby), and giloy
(funeral song), among others. Their musical instruments include the gagong,
kolintang, and durugan.

 The Manobo (Manuvu, Minuvu) inhabit core areas from Sarangani island and the
provinces of Agusan del Sur, Davao provinces, Bukidnon, and North and South
Cotabato. The Manobo are “probably the most numerous of the ethnic groups of the
Philippines in terms of the relationships and names of the various groups that
belong to this family of languages.” Their vocal music types include ritual songs,
narrative songs, lullabies, and songs of nature, that may also be accompanied by
rhythmic sounds from the singer’s armpit.

 The T’boli, the indigenous people of South Cotabato, perform various songs for
different occasions and sentiments, like weddings and fishing, and when they are
joyful or sad. Their music reflects their closeness to nature through the imitation of
natural sounds. Among their several musical instruments is the hagalong, a long
slender spindle-shaped two-string guitar.

 The Tiruray, the traditional hill people of southwestern Mindanao, also have a
wide range of songs like the balikata (melodic pattern for debates, converstions),
lendugan (love song), siasid (prayer), foto moto (teasing song during weddings),
and meka meka (song of loyalty by a wife to her husband). They are among those
with the most developed agung ensembles.

 The Mansaka from the provinces of Davao del Norte and Compostella Valley, are
among the most dominant ethnic group in Compostella Valley province. Among their
wide array of musical instruments is the gimbal, a drum made of bahi or betel nut
and animal hide (doeskin and male deerskin). Their musical forms include the
saliada which is similar to ballad, and bayok on love and adventure.

 The B’laan (Bilaan) of Davao del Sur also have a wide range of instruments such
as idiophones (percussions), zithers (bamboo tubes with strings), chordophones
(wooden lutes), and aerophones (flutes and reeds). They also make use of the
tangungo, a set of 8 metal gongs hung on a harness. Music from these instruments
accompanies their ritual sand dances.

 The Bagobo are among the largest groups of indigenous peoples of southern
Mindanao, inhabiting areas from the west coast of Davao Gulf to Davao’s well-
known mountain ranges of Mt. Apo. Their music forms part of their religious and
festive occasions as well as daily activities, which include advice songs, children’s
songs and lullabies, among others. Their musical instruments bolang-bolang and
pagakpak are related to agriculture as their design and sound are meant to please
gods, to reward them with bountiful harvests.

 Other lumad groups in Mindanao include the Higaonon, Banwaon, Talaandig,

Ubo, Tagakaolo, Dibabawon, and Manguangan.
References:

Bañas, R.C. (1975). Pilipino Music and Theater. Quezon City : Manlapaz Publishing.

Hila, Antonio A. Musika: an Essay on Philippine Ethnic Music. Manila: Sentrong

Pangkultura ng Pilipinas, 1992.

Santos, R.P. “The Ethnic Tradition,” CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art, volume VI:
Philippine Music. Manila: Cultural Center of the Philippines, 1994.
Student Activity

Music listening test;

Musical works for Rondalla - Bamboo Ensemble - Kulintang Ensemble

1. What are the different instruments played you can recognize? (According to
major classification).

2. How is the music structured?

3. How is the music rhythm differ by region?

4. What is the timbre, and how are instruments different from each other?

5. Why do some things sound harmonious and others don't?

6. How and why is music central to a culture and community?

7. How has music influenced certain ethnic groups?

8. How does music transcend language among different regions?

 Module 3

Asian Music

At the end of the module you are expected to:

1. Identify the different instrumental and vocal music of East and Southeast Asian
countries;

2. Perform some famous musical forms from Asian countries; and

3. Learn the importance of Asian music in societies where people function

according to ritual and ceremony.

Indonesia - Gamelan

Indonesia's defining musical icon is the gamelan ensemble. Music and the
gamelan ensembles are a natural and intrinsic part of Indonesian culture. The three
main styles of gamelan are Balinese, Javanese and Sudanese, with many regions
adopting a mixture of the three. In both Bali and Java, the gamelan has become a
fundamental part of the performing arts.

Balinese gamelan is diverse, creative and open to musical invention. Bali is a

source for more contemporary genres of gamelan. Western influences into Bali have
created a gamelan fusion genre that encourages many different types of composition.
There are two different tuning systems used in Indonesian gamelan orchestras, slendro
and pelog. Most ensembles will have at least two of each instrument, one tuned to each
system. The two are placed at right angles and musicians face the instrument tuned to
the scale that the composition requires while practicing and performing. In slendro the
octave is divided into five equidistant intervals (each one approximately 1.25 tones) that
are not meant to be exactly equivalent and vary slightly between each gamelan. The
pelog system divides the octave into seven intervals of varying sizes. In Bali, three
different modes of pelog are used (selisir, tembung and sunaren). All seven tones are
on instruments tuned to the pelog system but generally only five of these are used for
any one composition. The omitted tones are spaced apart two or three notes, for
example, in selisir the fourth and seventh tones are omitted and in tembung the third
and seventh are omitted.

Javanese gamelan is more traditional and suited to palaces and temples, it is a

gentler and lower pitched style of gamelan that accommodates vocalists and rhythmic
patterns. Central Java is one of the most highly populated areas in the world and has
the most artefacts and stories related to the origins of the gamelan. It is the Javanese
belief that the slendro system came from the original gamelan Lokananta owned by the
god Guru. This god owned three gongs of different pitches that were used to signal and
send messages to the other gods.6 The three tone system has been increased to a five
tone system and in Java, three different modes (called patet which means 'to restrain')
of slendro are used (patet nem, patet sanga and patet manyura). The patet that is used
determines the musical importance of each tone. In one patet a tone may act like a tonic
and be repeated frequently, but the same note might only be used for special effect in
rare occasions if a different patet is being used.7 Slendro is mainly reserved for
performances of shadow puppetry (wayang kulit).

The gender and saron are familles of instruments found in the gamelan
ensembles of both Java and Bali. They are slab (or keyed) instruments and are hit with
panggul (mallets) similar to the Western xylophone. They can be classified further into
their own families. Balinese ensembles occasionally include a saron but it is standard in
Javanese gamelans. The saron family consists of the saron and gambung, both of
which have a wooden trough that acts as a resonator for the sound. Bronze keys lay on
rubber pads above this trough and are held in place with wooden posts. The gender
family uses a different method of construction involving individually tuned bamboo (or
tube-like) resonators under the keys. The Javanese use the slenthem and gender while
Bali has a much larger array of instruments from the gender family.
Gamelan Ensemble
Thailand – Piphat

Piphat is a type of Classical Music ensemble from Thailand. It is considered the

most formal, sacred, and popular form of Thai Classical Music. The music of the
ensemble is traditionally played for the masked dance theater called khon played in
courts, as well as accompaniment for Buddhist invocations called sathukan and shadow
puppet theater performances. A very similar style exists among the Khmer people
named Pinpeat, which piphat could possibly originate from.

There are several types of piphat, but all share the characteristics of incorporating
at least three instruments providing the main melody line and two providing the leading
rhythm. The two main instruments that most ensembles include are the rened ek
(higher tuned xylophone) and the khawng wong yai (a set of 16 lower-pitched gongs
framed as a circle where the player sits in the middle). The other common instruments
depend entirely on the variant of piphat ensemble and can include the rened thum
(lower tuned xylophone to add a syncopated quality to a composition), the khawng
wong lek (the set of 16 gongs but higher pitched to enrich the melody), the pi nai (a
bass oboe), the pi nok (less frequently used tremble oboe), the ching (cymbal providing
the main beat), the taphon (accompanying drum to the main beat), glawng that (a set of
two drums) and various other percussion instruments like the chab (another
accompanying cymbal). It should be noted that the keys of the xylophones can either be
made out of bronze or bamboo depending on the ensemble and performance type.

There are six main types of piphat in total, the most common being piphat
khryang ha (a quintet, the smallest ensemble usually playing for masked theater),
piphat khryang khu (includes double the number of instruments than khryang ha and
is suited for more complex compositions) and piphat khryang yai (an even larger
ensemble). The piphat nang hong variant is special in that it is only performed during
cremation ceremonies and other funeral rituals. Piphat duk dam ban, despite literally
meaning "ancient ensemble", is actually a relatively new development for the genre. It
was established in the 1890s by Prince Naris, notorious for his endeavours in the field
of Siamese arts in general, as a style intended to be played for Thai opera. And lastly,
piphat mon, named like that most likely for incorporating influences from the music of
the Mon people. The variant was popularized by royalty as a new type of funeral
ceremonial music, and is mainly characterized for incorporating a gong wong (a vertical
U-shaped set of gongs) as well as bigger tapone and pi nai in size (called tapone mon
and pi mon respectively).

Thailand - Piphat
Cambodia - Pinpeat

The pinpeat (ពិណពាទ្យ) orchestra or musical ensemble performs the ceremonial

music of the royal courts and temples of Cambodia. The orchestra consists of
approximately nine or ten instruments, mainly wind and percussion (including several
varieties of xylophone and drums). It accompanies court dances, masked plays, shadow
plays, and religious ceremonies. It is very similar to the piphat (ปี่ พาทย์) ensemble of
Thailand, which will feature in an upcoming article here on A Stamp A Day. According to
Chuon Nath’s Khmer dictionary, the word pinpeat is composed of the Sanskrit terms
vina (វិ ណណ) referring to a chapey (ចាប)៉ី which was formerly used as the premiere

instrument in this ensemble and vadya (វាទ្យ) referring to an ensemble of instruments.

Chuon Nath mentions that the term piphat was also used among Cambodians familiar
with the Thai language; this can be attributed to the former annexation of the northern
provinces of Cambodia by the Kingdom of Siam. Religious dancing, many of which
depict stories and ancient myths, are common in Cambodian culture. Some dances are
accompanied by the pinpeat orchestra. Each movement the dancer makes refers to a
specific idea, including abstract concepts like “today” (pointing a finger upwards).

The pinpeat orchestra includes a ching (cymbal), roneat (xylophone), sralai

(oboes and flutes), chapey (bass banjo), kong (bronze gong), tro (fiddle), krapeu
(plucked instrument) and various kinds of drums. These instruments are typically used
during royal events, weddings, and festivals. For weddings and royal events, the
musicians playing the instruments wear traditional Cambodian attire. Just like the
Chinese, with regard to playing context, there is no conductor in traditional Cambodian
music because musicians generally learned and memorized how to play the instruments
aurally. These instruments provide a sense of identity for the Cambodian people. Ching
(ឈិង) are finger cymbals played in Cambodian theater and dance ensembles. Joined
by a cord that runs through the center, ching are bowl-shaped, about 5 centimeters in
diameter, and made of bronze alloy — iron, copper, and gold. They are struck together
in a cyclical pattern to keep time and regulate the melody, and they function as the
“timekeeper” of the ensemble. The rhythm typically consists of alternating the accented
closed stroke with an unaccented open “ching” stroke. Melody in both Thai (where this
instrument is called the chhing, ฉิง่ ) and Khmer traditions, music is regulated by cyclic
patterns realized on the drums and ching.

Ching

Pinpeat Ensemble Instruments

Myanmar – Saung Gauk

The saung (byat saung) also known as the saung-gauk, Burmese harp, Burma
harp, or Myanmar harp) is an arched harp used in traditional Burmese music. The
saung is regarded as a national musical instrument of Burma. The saung is unique in
that it is a very ancient harp tradition and is said to be the only surviving harp in Asia.
The Burmese harp is classified as an arched horizontal harp since the resonator body is
more horizontal as opposed to the Western harp, which has a vertical resonator. The
main parts of the harp are the body, the long curved neck, carved out of the root of a
tree, and a string bar running down the center of the top of the body. The top of the
resonator body is covered with a tightly stretched deer hide, heavily lacquered in red
with four small circular sound holes. The standard dimensions of the saung are
80×16×16 centimetres (31.5×6.3×6.3 in). The neck terminates in a highly decorated
representation of the bo tree leaf. The whole of the harp body is decorated with pieces
of mica ("Mandalay pearls"), glass, gilt, and red and black lacquer. The stand is similarly
decorated. The ends of the strings on the harp is decorated with red cotton tassels. The
saung's strings are made of silk or nylon. The thirteen to sixteen strings of the harp
angle upwards from the string bar to the string bindings on the lower part of the curved
arch of the neck. Traditionally, tuning was accomplished by twisting and adjusting the
string bindings. Recently constructed harps have machine heads or tuning pegs to
make tuning easier. The traditional silk strings have also been supplanted by nylon
strings, but silk-stringed harps can still be seen. A full-sized harp has a body of about 80
cm long, 16 cm wide, and 16 cm deep, and the arch rises about 60 cm from the body.
Smaller harps have been made for smaller players. The harp is played by sitting on the
floor with the body in the lap, and the arch on the left. The strings are plucked with the
right hand fingers from the outside. The left hand is used to dampen the strings to
promote clarity and produce staccato notes. Stopped tones are produced by using left
thumbnail to press against the string from the inside to increase its tension. The harp is
usually accompanied by a singer, or more accurately, the singer is accompanied by the
harp, with the harp adapting to the singer, who controls the time with a bell and clapper
to indicate the music tempo.
Sang Gauk Harp
Music of China

Instrumental Music

Chinese traditional music refers to the genres that developed prior to 1911
C.E..Traditional music in China is played on solo instruments or in small ensembles of
plucked and bowed stringed instruments, flutes, and various cymbals, gongs, and
drums. The scale has five notes. Bamboo pipes and qin are among the oldest known
musical instruments from China; instruments are traditionally divided into categories
based on their material of composition: skin, gourd, bamboo, wood, silk, earth/clay,
metal and stone. Instrumental pieces played on an erhu or dizi are popular, and are
often available outside of China, but the pipa and zheng music, which are more
traditional, are more popular in China itself. The qin is perhaps the most revered
instrument in China, even though very few people know what it is, or have seen and
heard one being played. The zheng, a form of zither, is most popular in Henan,
Chaozhou, Hakka and Shandong. The pipa, a kind of lute, believed to have been
introduced from the Arabian Peninsula area during the sixth century and improved, is
most popular in Shanghai and surrounding areasChinese orchestras traditionally consist
of bowed strings, woodwinds, plucked strings and percussion. Sizhu ensembles use
flutes and bowed or plucked string instruments to make harmonious and melodious
music that has become popular in the West among some listeners. These are popular in
Nanjing and Hangzhou, as well as elsewhere along the southern Yangtze area. Sizhu
has been secularized in cities but remains spiritual in rural areas. Jiangnan Sizhu (silk
and bamboo music from Jiangnan) is a style of instrumental music, often played by
amateur musicians in teahouses in Shanghai, that has become widely known outside of
its place of origin. Guangdong Music or Cantonese Music is instrumental music from
Guangzhou and surrounding areas. It is based on Yueju (Cantonese Opera) music,
together with new compositions from the 1920s onwards. Many pieces have influences
from jazz and Western music, using syncopation and triple time.
Instruments

Woodwind and percussion:

dizi, sheng, paigu, gong, paixiao, guan, bells, cymbals

Bowed strings:

erhu, zhonghu, dahu, banhu, jinghu, gaohu, gehu, yehu, cizhonghu, diyingehu, leiqin

Plucked and struck strings

guqin, sanxian, yangqin, guzheng, ruan, konghou, liuqin, pipa, zhu

Vocal Music

Chinese vocal music has traditionally been sung in a thin, non-resonant voice or in
falsetto and is usually solo rather than choral. All traditional Chinese music is melodic
rather than harmonic. Chinese vocal music probably developed from sung poems and
verses accompanied by music. In southern Fujian and Taiwan, Nanyin or Nanguan is a
genre of traditional ballads. They are sung by a woman accompanied by a xiao and a
pipa and other traditional instruments. The music is generally sorrowful and mourning
and typically deals with love-stricken women. Further south, in Shantou, Hakka and
Chaozhou, erxian and zheng ensembles are popular.
Quin Player

Zheng

Pipa
Music of Japan

Traditional Japanese music usually refers to Japan’s historical folk music. Two
forms are recognised as the oldest forms - shōmyō, or Buddhist chanting, and gagaku,
or theatrical court music. Shōmyō is a ritual music sung in a Buddhist ceremony by a
group of Buddhist monks – literally translated, the word ‘shōmyō’ combines the
characters for ‘voice’ and ‘wisdom’. Gagaku is the oldest of Japan's musical traditions
and includes dances and songs in two styles – kigaku, which is instrumental music, and
seigaku, a form of vocal music. There are several Japanese dramatic forms in which
music plays a significant role. The main ones are kabuki and noh. Kabuki is known for
its highly stylised dancing and singing, together with its elaborate make-up (sported by a
predominantly male cast). Noh is a form of classical Japanese musical drama which has
been performed since the 14th century. Noh is often based on tales from traditional
literature, with a supernatural being transformed into human form as a hero narrating
the story – usually involving a mask being worn. Noh has been dubbed ‘Japanese
opera’ and is a ‘chanted drama’, but the singing is dependent on a limited tonal range.
The music has many blank spaces (ma) between the sounds; the negative blank
spaces are in fact considered to be the heart of the music. The accompaniment is
provided by a hayashi ensemble of three drummers and a flautist.

Instrumental Music

Traditional Japanese music is meditative in character, with highly ritualised

performance – sharing much in common with martial arts, and other Japanese art forms
such as the tea ceremony and calligraphy. The music often looks to represent natural
sounds, and the sounds of life, through percussion, wind and stringed instruments. An
interesting feature of classical Japanese music is its sparse rhythm and absence of
regular chords. All of the rhythms are ‘ma’-based and silence is an important part of the
songs.
The key instruments used to play Japanese music are:

Shamisen

Shakuhachi

Koto

The shamisen resembles a guitar, with a long, thin neck and a small rectangular
body covered with skin. It has three strings, with the pitch adjusted by tuning pegs on
the head, like a guitar or violin. It’s played with a large triangular plectrum that’s used to
strike the strings. Historians think the koto was invented around the fifth to the third
century BC in China, with the 13-stringed version coming to Japan during the Nara
period (710-794). This large, wooden instrument is played with picks worn on the
fingers, and uses movable bridges placed under each string to change the pitch.

The shakuhachi is a flute made of bamboo that’s played by blowing on one end.
Sometimes called a ‘five-holed bamboo flute’ in English, it has four holes on the front,
and one on the back, and is characterised by its distinctively poignant tone.

The koto is probably the most familiar and popular of these traditional instruments.
During the New Year holidays ‘Haru no Umi,’ a duet with the shakuhachi, is often piped
in as background music, and during the cherry blossom (sakura) season, the popular
tune ‘Sakura, Sakura’ is performed on the koto.

Vocal Music

Type 1: Noh

Noh is a type of theatrical music with its own music called Nohgaku and a dance called
Shimai. Nohgaku utilizes vocal as well as musical instruments. During the 14th century,
this traditional Japanese type of music became famous.

Type 2: Gagaku

Gagaku was widely referred to as court songs. It was created mainly at the court of the
rich and upper class in society. During the Heian era (794-1192 AD) this type of art
became very popular. Gagaku is categorized into three types: 1. Original Music from
abroad, 2. Pure music from Japan and 3. Music made by the neighboring nations of
Japan. Gagaku comes from China, Korea, and other nations in South-Eastern Asia.
Gagaku is regarded as Kangen when played with the dance Bugaku. The Mouth Organ,
Flute, Drum and Zither are some of the most common instruments used in this art type.

Type 3: Kokufukabu

Kokufukabu is one of the traditional Japanese pure forms of music. It is an ancient

music that contains both vocals and instruments. This music is generally played in the
shrines and also in the courts. This ancient music has its origins in Japan, but it was
created under the impact of tradition and society of neighboring nations, including
Saibaba and Roei. These two musical forms are accompanied by vocals and musical
instruments. Shomyo was also an important traditional Japanese music during the Hein
era. This is a piece of vocal music used at the time of the prayer services in Buddhist
temples.
Koto

Shamisen
Music of Korea

Throughout their long history, Koreans have nourished an ardent love of music
and dance. In the distant past, villagers gathered to celebrate plantings and harvests.
Such festivities were probably the origin of the folk songs and dances that are still
widely enjoyed.

Korean traditional music can be divided into two major types: jeongak for the noble
class, and sogak for the common people.

Jeongak, performed at court, tended to be slow, solemn, and elaborately melodic while
Sogak drew from a variety of influences, including Buddhist and shamanistic rituals.
The songs are often dramatic, depicting love stories and folk tales. Performances are
vibrant, full of strong emotion. Western music was introduced at the end of the 19th
century and gained rapid acceptance. There are a number of Korean musicians
performing and competing internationally today.

There are about 60 traditional Korean musical instruments that have been handed down
through the generations. Included among them are string instruments such as:

the Kayagum (12-string zither)

the Komun-go (6-string zither)

the haegum (2-string fiddle of Chinese origin)

the Taegum (a large transverse flute)

the Sogum (a small flute)

along with percussion instruments such as:

the Ching (a large gong)

the Kkwaenggwari (a small hand gong)

the P’ungmul-puk (folk drum)

the Janggu (hourglass-shaped drum)

The music of the common people, Sogak, tends to be loud and rhythmic with
percussion instruments dominating. Jeongak, on the other hand, features more string
and wind instruments. Samulnori, meaning four, was developed in the 1970’s but is now
viewed as being representative of Korean music. No one who comes to Korea can
leave without having enjoyed at least one Samulnori performance.
Vocal Music

Pansori

Pansori is a long vocal and percussive music played by one singer and 1 drummer. In
this traditional art form, sometimes rather misleadingly called 'Korean Opera', a narrator
may play the parts of all the characters in a story, accompanied by a drummer. The
lyrics tell one of five different stories, but is individualized by each performer, often with
updated jokes and audience participation. One of the most famous pansori singers is
Park Dongjin . In 2003, Pansori was designated as intangible cultural property in
UNESCO's Memory of the world. The National Theatre of Korea provides monthly
opportunities to experience traditional Korean narrative songs or Pansori.

Pungmul: is a Korean folk music tradition that is a form of percussion music that
includes drumming, dancing, and singing.[34] Most performances are outside, with
dozens of players, all in constant motion. Samul Nori, originally the name of a musical
group founded in 1978, has become popular as a genre, even overseas. It is based on
Pungmul musical rhythmic patterns and uses the same instruments, but is faster and
usually played while sitting down.

Jeongak or Chongak means literally "right (or proper) music", and its tradition includes
both instrumental and vocal music, which were cultivated mainly by the upper-class
literati of the Joseon society. The instrumental branch has several versions of a lengthy
chamber, chiefly Yongsan hoesang, while the vocal branch sometimes include the
meaning of jeongga (Right Song) with a wide range of gagok, gasa, and sijo. Although
jeongak has things in common with court music but it can't be categorized as popular
song since most public would never hear of these melodies by incorporating various
court dances. Vocals performed in jeongak are normally sung in a style of kagok, which
is for mixed male and female singers and is accompanied by a variety of
instruments.The best-known piece of jeongak is Yeongsan hoesang of 9 suites which
has now had only instrumental notes.
Wayangkulit, shadow puppets prevalent in Java and Bali in Indonesia, and Kelantan
and Terengganu in Malaysia are without a doubt the best known of the Indonesian
wayang. Kulit means skin and refers to the leather construction of the puppets that are
carefully chiseled with very fine tools and supported with carefully shaped buffalo horn
handles and control rods. Wayang is an Indonesian and Malay word for theatre. When
the term is used to refer to kinds of puppet theater, sometimes the puppet itself is
referred to as wayang. "Bayang", the Javanese word for shadow or imagination, also
connotes "spirit." Performances of shadow puppet theater are accompanied by gamelan
in Java, and by "gender wayang" in Bali. Dalang as a source of recreation, of humor
and of popular philosophy (essential communication between the artist and the
audience). Shadow play is an invention of man which reflects his experience of nature
and of his thought. Puppets are projected by the lamp on a white screen. Non-jointed
puppets were manipulated by the chief performer, the dalang, who told a story to the
accompaniment of several instruments, including some that are part of the present day
gamelan ensemble. Wayangkulit was performed in royal court and widely performed in
public on religious occasions so that knowledge of wayang became widespread among
all classes in Java.
Kabuki, traditional Japanese popular drama with singing and dancing performed in a
highly stylized manner. A rich blend of music, dance, mime, and spectacular staging
and costuming, it has been a major theatrical form in Japan for four centuries. The
term kabuki originally suggested the unorthodox and shocking character of this art form.
In modern Japanese, the word is written with three characters: ka, signifying “song”; bu,
“dance”; and ki, “skill”. Kabuki’s highly lyrical plays are regarded, with notable
exceptions, less as literature than as vehicles for actors to demonstrate their enormous
range of skills in visual and vocal performance. These actors have carried the traditions
of Kabuki from one generation to the next with only slight alterations. Many of them
trace their ancestry and performing styles to the earliest Kabuki actors and add a
“generation number” after their names to indicate their place in the long line of actors.

The Audience

Traditionally, a constant interplay between the actors and the spectators took
place in the Kabuki theatre. The actors frequently interrupted the play to address the
crowd, and the latter responded with appropriate praise or clapped their hands
according to a prescribed formula. They also could call out the names of their favourite
actors in the course of the performance.

Because Kabuki programs ran from morning to evening and many spectators often
attended for only a single play or scene, there was a constant coming and going in the
theatre. At mealtimes food was served to the viewers. The programs incorporated
themes and customs that reflected the four seasons or inserted material derived from
contemporary events. Unlike most Western theatres, in which since the late 17th
century a proscenium arch has separated actors and audience, the Kabuki performers
constantly intruded on the audience. When two hanamichi, elevated passageways from
the main stage to the back of the auditorium, were used, the audience was fenced in by
three stages.

Subject, Purpose, And Conventions

Kabuki subject matter creates distinctions between the historical play (jidaimono)
and the domestic play (sewamono). A Kabuki program generally presents them in that
order, separated by one or two dance plays featuring ghosts, courtesans, and other
exotic creatures. It ends with a lively dance finale (ōgiri shosagoto) with a large cast.
Although the basic purposes of Kabuki are to entertain and to allow the actors to
demonstrate their skills, there is a didactic element, an ideal represented by the notion
of kanzen-chōaku (“reward the virtuous and punish the wicked”). Thus, the plays often
present conflicts involving such religious ideas as the transitory nature of the world
(from Buddhism), and the importance of duty (from Confucianism), as well as more
general moral sentiments. Tragedy occurs when morality conflicts with human passions.
Structurally, the plays are typically composed of two or more themes in a
complex suji (plot), but they lack the strong unifying element for which Western drama
strives. Kabuki plays include a variety of intermingled episodes which develop toward a
final dramatic climax.
Peking Opera also known as Beijing Opera is the quintessence of China. The largest
Chinese opera form, it is extolled as 'Oriental Opera'. Having a history of 160 years, it
has created many 'firsts' in Chinese dramas: the abundance of repertoires, the number
of artists, opera troupes and spectators. Beijing Opera is developed from absorbing
many other dramatic forms, mostly from the local drama 'Huiban' which was popular in
South China during the 18th century. It is a scenic art integrating music, performance,
literature, aria, and face-painting. Certain rules are set up and regulations are
standardized during many artists' long practice on stage. Different from regional plays, it
is stricter on the variety of the workmanship. The combination of virtual and reality - a
special technique of expression, keeps it largely free from the restriction of time and
space on stage performance. Beijing Opera has had many interesting names since it
came into being, such as Jinghuang, Daxi, Pingju, Jingxi.
Four Means of Artistic Presentation

Beijing Opera presents dramatic plays and figures mainly by infusing four
artistic methods: singing, dialogue, dancing and martial art. Singing is utilized to
intensify the appeal of the art by all kinds of tones. Dialogue is the complement of
singing which is full of musical and rhythm sensation. Dancing refers to the body
movements requiring high performing skills. Martial art is the combination and
transformation of traditional Chinese combat exercises with dances.

Main Roles in Beijing Opera Performance

Sheng:

It's a common name of male characters and composed of Lao Sheng and Xiao
Sheng. Lao Sheng refers to the middle-aged man with a beard who acts as the decency
figure; for example, Zhugeliang in 'Empty City Scheme'. Xiao Sheng means young man
without a beard. Zhangsheng in 'The Story of the West Room' is a representative of
Xiao Sheng.

Dan:

The general name for female characters can be divided into Zhengdan, Huadan,
Laodan, Wudan. Zhengdan is also called 'Qingyi', who mainly plays the part of the
strong-minded middle-aged woman who behaves elegantly. Huadan refers to little girls
who often live in the bottom of society. Laodan refers to the senior woman and Wudan
indicates the female who is good at fighting.

Jing:

Painted face often refers to male characters with unique appearance or

personality, such as Baozheng and Caocao. Besides, Chou is a comic role or villainous
character or righteous person. The actor's nose is painted by a piece of white powder,
making him or her easily recognizable.
Facial painting in Beijing Opera

Lianpu is formed through dramatic artists' long-term practice and their

understanding and judgment of the roles in plays. It is the colorful dressing on actors'
faces. By using transformative and exaggerated figures, professional spectators would
easily tell the characteristic of a role. In this way, it is called 'the picture of hearts'. There
are certain formats of the facial painting in the aspect of color, type and shape. Usually,
eyes, foreheads and cheeks are painted like wings of butterflies, swallows and bats.

Colors of Lianpu are varied with each representing a characteristic. For example,
red symbolizes loyalty, such as Guanyu, a great general during Three Kingdoms Period
(220-280). Black signifies honesty and frankness, such as Lord Bao, a righteous official
during Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127), or abruptness and impertinence, such as
Likui, an important figure in the famous Chinese ancient novel 'All Men Are Brothers'.
White stands for cattiness and cunning, with Caocao as its representative, a famous
politician in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220).

Stage Properties (Qimo)

Qimo is a general designation for all kinds of stage properties and simple settings
used in Beijing Opera performances. It comes from the real life experience. For
example, an actor can practice the scene of galloping the horse simply by using a
horsewhip without riding a real horse on stage. A bridge is made up of two chairs
standing on each side of a table. Storms are realized by performers dancing with
umbrellas. The imaginary performance skills largely bring to performers the freedom to
express more life scenes.
References:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Southeast_Asia

https://prezi.com/p/7nb7ebyiqzre/kabuki-peking-opera-and-wayang-kulit/

Malm, W. P. (2015, Sept. 17). Japanese music. [Web log post]. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc. Retrieve from https://www.britannica.com/art/Japanese-music/Tonal-
system

Malm, W. P. (2017, Nov. 16). Chinese music. [Web log post]. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc. Retrieve from https://www.britannica.com/art/Chinese-music
INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY 1: “Mark My Word” Direction: In your notebook, write words that
describe Southeast Asian music that starts with the letters spelling out Southeast Asia.

S ____________________________________________________________

O ____________________________________________________________

U ____________________________________________________________

T_____________________________________________________________

H_____________________________________________________________

E_____________________________________________________________

A_____________________________________________________________

S_____________________________________________________________

T_____________________________________________________________

A_____________________________________________________________

S_____________________________________________________________

I_____________________________________________________________

A_____________________________________________________________

INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY 2: Direction: On a sheet of paper, write the country where the
following word is connected.

________________1. Khene _________________6. Hsaing Waing

________________2. Nha nhac _________________7. Saung Gauk

________________3. Gamelan _________________8. Kulintang

________________4. Pinpeat _________________9. Mahori

________________5. Piphat _________________10. Orchestra

 Module 4

Western Music

At the end of the module you are expected to:

1. Identify the different instrumental and vocal music according to the style from
each period in the arts;

2. Perform some simplified music from each period in music;

3. Learn the importance of classical music in preparing you for a wide range of
further educational activities that include music as a component and;

4. Make classical music enjoyable and accessible to all people, by making it

understandable and breaking down the barrier of perceived elitism.

The Medieval period dates approximately from 700 A.D. to 1400 A.D

Many musicians were priests or members (predominantly of minor orders) of the

clergy, and as such liturgical singing played an important role in worship. It is thought
that the church discouraged the use of musical instruments although we can infer from
period paintings and literary descriptions that instruments were played. It is thought that
instruments were used when good singers were not available. The instruments would
then either replace the vocal part or help the voice stay in tune. The church discouraged
instruments because it was the desire of the church leaders to keep the congregation's
focus on the words that were being sung. Anything that would detract from that was
considered at odds with the holy purpose of the music.
Gregorian Chant (plainsong)

Pope Gregory by Francisco de Zurbarán - painted 1626-1627. Though there are no

contempoary images existing, the life of Gregory has inspired generations of artists to
put brush to canvas. For over 1000 years, the official music of the Roman Catholic
Church was the Gregorian Chant, which was named after Pope Gregory I. He began
the task of organizing and codifying the chants in the 6th century used by the church. By
the era of Charlemagne in the early 9th century, Gregorian Chant was a mostly unified
body of music throughout western Europe.

With Gregorian Chant, there is no definite sense of rhythm, the timing is very
flexible and there is no sense of beat. This creates a floating, improvisational quality to
the music. The chant essentially consists of a Melody, set to a sacred Latin text, sung
unaccompanied which moves predominantly in stepwise motion within a narrow range
of pitches. It may be either Syllabic - one note for each syllable - or Melismatic - many
notes to one syllable. The composers of the chants were anonymous, and the chants
were based on church modes (Ionian, Dorian etc...).
Development of Polyphony

Polyphony was developed during the period of 700 A.D. to 900 A.D. where the
chant melody was duplicated at an interval of a 4th or a 5th. The voices moved in
parallel motion with the actual chant being sung by the bottom voice. Medieval music
consisting of Gregorian chant and one or more melodic lines moving in parallel motion
is called Organum. From 900 A.D. to 1200 A.D Organum became truly polyphonic, with
the melodic lines becoming independent and each line had its own rhythm and own
melody. Generally, the chant in the bottom voice was sung in very long, drawnout notes,
while the added melody on top moved in shorter note values. Early polyphony was still
quite rhythmically free.

Then during the period of 1170 A.D. to 1200 A.D. the Notre Dame School of
Composers developed rhythmic innovations. The leading composers at the school were
Leonin and Perotin, who used measured rhythm with definite time values and a clearly
defined meter. The newly developed notation indicated precise rhythms and pitches.
However, the beat could only be subdivided into threes, which was symbolic of the
Trinity. Few triads were used, resulting in Medieval polyphony sounding very hollow,
thin and stark to the modern ear. The interval of a 3rd was hardly ever used as it was
considered to sound dissonant...

Secular Music

The first large body of decipherable, secular songs that have survived, comes from
the 12th and 13th centuries. It was written by French noblemen Troubadours (coming
from Southern France) and the Trauvéres (coming from Northern France). Most of the
songs deal with the subject of love. There were also dance and spinning songs
(spinning songs come from when the maidens would spin cloth and sing songs to pass
the time). Their songs were played mainly by court minstrels. Many of the songs have
been preserved because the nobility had clerics to write down the songs. Secular songs
also appear in Italy, Spain, England and Germany. They use a regular beat, unlike the
Gregorian Chant. Instruments used included : Harps; Fiddles, Recorders; Lutes; Flutes;
Shawms; and Bagpipes.

Ars Nova (new art)

Ars Nova began in the 14th century as a result of a conscious effort to write
music in a new style. An essay entitled “Ars Nova”, by Phillipe de Vitry (a musical
theorist), was published describing the new characteristics of style in music. A
significant development in rhythm which occurred during this period was that the beat
could now be subdivided into two equal parts. Syncopation was introduced and
polyphonic compositions became increasingly complex and sophisticated. One
important form of music was the Mass, consisting of the PROPER and the ORDINARY.
Composers set the ordinary to music which contained five sung prayers : Kyrie; Gloria;
Credo; Sanctus; Agnus Dei.

Music in the Renaissance Era

Around 1450 A.D. the printing press was invented. This widened the circulation of
music. This helped music to play an increasingly important role in daily life. Musicians
worked for the church, courts and towns. Church choirs grew in size, and the church
remained an important patron of music. However, musical activity shifted to the courts.
Kings and princes competed for the finest composers. Many leading important
composers came from Holland, Belgium and Northern France, called the ‘Franco-
Flemish’ composers. They held important positions throughout Europe, especially in
Italy. Other countries with vibrant musical lives include Germany, England and Spain.

Music

Renaissance vocal music was more important than instrumental music.

Nevertheless, many songs were accompanied by instruments. These instruments were
commonly members of the lute, organ, recorder, or viol families. There was a close
relationship between the words and the music. Composers wanted to enhance the
meaning and emotion of the text, and did so by means of ‘word painting’ - trying to
project poetic imagery through link between music and words. As vocal music was more
important, most music was sung a cappella.

Texture

Two basic textures existed. Firstly HOMOPHONIC, where parts move in step with
one another (like a hymn) – rhythms are the same. Secondly POLYPHONIC, where
each voice is of equal importance and contrapuntal imitation was an important
procedure. The bass register was now used for the first time, producing richer
harmonies, and extending the range of the voices. There was a change from successive
to simultaneous writing in music. That is, from linear, voice-by-voice to ‘cyclical’,
considering all voices at once whilst writing.

NOTE : contrapuntal imitation adjective of counterpoint the ability to say two things at
once comprehensibly. In essence, counterpoint is the same as polyphony.

Rhythm and Melody

In Renaissance music, there is a gentle flow, moving away from sharply defined beats.
Melodies are easy to sing as they move along a scale with few leaps. This is called
conjunct motion. However, Melodies were still modal.

Sacred Music

Two main forms of sacred music existed. Firstly, the motet; a short, polyphonic,
choral work set to a sacred Latin text. The motet was performed as a short religious
ritual such as the communion. Secondly the Mass; a longer work, comprised of all five
movements of the Ordinary.

Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525 – 1594)

Palestrina was a very prolific composer of the Late Renaissance period who was
born in the town of Palestrina, near Rome. Though he also wrote secular madrigals, he
is most famous for his masses and sacred motets. His works are known for their beauty
and the relative ease for a listener to understand the texts compared to those in other
polyphonic works.

Secular Music

During the Renaissance, secular vocal music became increasingly popular. Music
was set to poems in various languages, including Latin, Italian, French, Spanish,
German, Dutch and English. The invention of the printing press helped to spread
popular music. Thousands of song collections became available. This led to a rise in
more national genres. These included the Parisian Chanson, the Italian Frottola, the
Italian Madrigal, the English Madrigal, and the English Lute Song. Music became
important for leisure purposes, with every educated person being expected to play an
instrument. Music was generally written for solo voices with instrumental
accompaniment. However, with the rise of printing, instrumental music was becoming
more important, with wide variety of instruments being used. These included recorders,
viols, keyboard instruments and woodwinds.

Musical Styles in the Baroque Era

Mood

A Baroque piece expresses only one basic mood, and follows what is termed the
‘doctrine of affect’. Composers used musical language to depict particular affective
states, specific rhythms and melodic patterns being associated with each. Word-
painting was especially used to associate what one was playing to certain texts of
music, for example, "Primavera" (Spring) within Vivaldi's "Four Seasons." The sonnet
that precedes each movement describes what the music will be representing (i.e. violins
emulating birds, thunderstorms, dogs, etc).

Rhythm

Unity is achieved through rhythmic continuity. The same rhythmic patterns are
repeated throughout a Baroque piece of music. Some might think that this repetition
would become tedious, but this, however, has the opposite effect, propelling the music
forward. The beat is emphasized very strongly, which is a huge leap from the
rhythmically free nature of the Medieval Gregorian Chant.

Melody

The Baroque melodies also create a feeling of continuity. The melody was also
repeated in the same way as the rhythm. An unraveling, unwinding and expansion of
the melody was gradually created as the piece goes along. As a result, melodies of this
era tend to lack the kind of symmetry and balance associated with Classical era
melodies.

Dynamics

Baroque music uses terraced dynamics. This means that the volume stays the same for
a period of time, then there is a sudden shift to a different dynamic level. There are no
gradual changes in dynamics (such as a crescendo or decrescendo). Terraced
dynamics were used as the main keyboard instrument was the harpsichord, which could
only be played in two modes, either loud (forte) or soft (piano), precluding the ability to
accomplish crescendos or decrescendos.

Texture

Textures used in the Baroque period, especially in the early part (c. 1600-1660),
were predominantly homophonic, or melody with basso continuo, typical of Baroque
music. In the late Baroque era, German composers such as Telemann, Bach, and
Handel experimented with counterpoint and helped to create, in no small degree,
Baroque polyphonic music.

Harmony

Chords became increasingly important in the Baroque period. Before then,

composers were concerned with the individual beauty of melodic lines, rather than with
chords. Chords were previously a mere by-product of the motion of several
simultaneously sounding melodic lines. In Baroque, chords become significant in
themselves, due to the emphasis on the Bass Voice. The entire structure of the
Baroque piece rested on the Bass Voice. This new emphasis on chords and the Bass
part results in the most characteristic feature of all Baroque music – the Basso
Continuo (alternatively translated as Thoroughbass or Figured Bass).

The Basso Continuo consists of a bass part together with numbers below each note
which specify the chord to be played above it. It is played by at least two instruments,
usually the organ or harpsichord (to produce the chords) reinforced by a cello or
bassoon. The performer was given a great deal of freedom with regards the realization
of the figured bass. The Basso Continuo was also used in the early classical period,
particularly in some works by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, who will be covered in the
next chapter.

Words and Music

Word painting was still important, and composers emphasized words through their
music.

Orchestra

The orchestra was based on the string instruments, and usually consisted of 10 to
40 instruments. However, there was a very flexible arrangement of instruments. At its
nucleus were the basso continuo and upper strings. The use of woodwinds, brass and
percussion was variable.

Genres

Compositions include sets of movements/pieces. A movement is considered an

independent piece. The musical genres used during the Baroque era include: opera,
oratorio, cantata, suite, sonata, mass, concerto and fugue. Opera in the early Baroque
Era

The Baroque era invented opera. "Opera" can be simply defined as a drama, set to
an orchestral accompaniment. It originated in the courts of kings and princes, and does
not deal with the ordinary and mundane, but rather deals with the spectacular and the
wonderful. An opera is the joint effort between a composer and a librettist (dramatist).
The Libretto is the text, which is set to music by composer(s). Some operas are serious,
comic or a mixture of both, and may contain spoken dialog, but most are sung entirely.
They can consist of one to five acts subdivided into scenes. The main attraction is the
aria, which is a song for solo voice set to orchestral accompaniment. The Opera may
include recitatives, where the vocal line imitates the rhythms and pitch fluctuation of
speech. Words are sung quickly on repeated notes, and are not melodic. Also, duets,
trios, quintets etc... are used. The Chorus is important, as it generates atmosphere, and
makes comments on the actions. Dance may be included. Most operas open with an
overture or prelude, which is purely an orchestral composition.

Opera was born in Italy. Prepared by musical discussions between a group of nobles,
poets and composers, which met regularly in Florence around 1575, and were known
as the Camerata (Translated : “Fellowship” or “Committee”). They included Vincenzo
Galilei, the father of Galileo. The Camerata wanted a new vocal style based on the
music of ancient Greek tragedy. These Grecian dramas were sung in a style midway
between melody and speech. They wanted vocal lines to be speech-like. This speech-
like style became known as recitative. The earliest opera that has survived is “Euridice”
by Jacopo Peri (1561-1633). The first-known great opera is “Orfeo” by Monteverdi. It
was written for the court of the Gonzago family in Mantua and based on Greek myth.
The first commercial opera house, opened in Venice in 1637, which was one of the
factors which caused Venice to became a major tourist attraction.
Important Figures

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)

Life

Bach came from a very long line of musicians. Each generation learned the musical
craft from the previous generation. Bach had twenty children, although only nine
survived; of those nine, four became composers. When he was 18 years old he became
an organist. The church complained about his dense polyphony and questioned his
strange meeting with a maiden in the church (which happened to be his cousin, who he
then married). He then started working for the Duke of Weinstad and was promoted, but
did not want the promotion, so he was put in jail for a month. He then moved to Cöthen,
where he wrote the Brandenburg concertos. He then moved to Leipzig and became
municipal director of all four churches. He sent his children to the local university to
study. He was completely blind towards the end of his life, only to have regained his
sight briefly before his death.

Music
 Bach created masterpieces in every Baroque genre except opera. Instrumental
music - especially keyboard works - were prominent in his output. It was also during the
Baroque period that the public witnessed the emergence of the orchestra. Bach used
dense polyphonic textures and rich harmonies. His harmony and counterpoint is still
used as a model for music students today. His 'Art of Fugue' displays all resources of
fugal writing.

Antonio Vivaldi (1678 – 1741)

Vivaldi was an Italian composer born in Venice. His father was a violinist in St.
Marks’s cathedral. Vivaldi is best known for his 400 concerto grossi and solo concerti. In
particular, he exploited the resources of the violin. His solo concertos include
instruments like piccolo, flute, cello, bassoon, and mandolin. He also composed many
operas, many of them lost. Despite being known for his concerti today, in his own time
he was known largely for his operas (indeed, he was the most performed composer in
Venetian theaters from 1713 to 1719).

George Frideric Handel (1685 – 1759)

Handel studied the organ at the age of 9, and was teaching and composing by the
time he was 11. His output consists mainly of English oratorios and some 39 Italian
operas, the latter based on ancient Greek and Roman history and mythology (e.g.,
'Julius Caesar'). With the exception of the "Messiah", stories from the Old Testament
form the basis of his oratorios. He also wrote a great deal of instrumental music, ranging
from solo harpsichord works and sonatas for small combinations to orchestral concerti
grossi and celebratory music (e.g. "The Water Music"). His music, which embraces both
homophonic and polyphonic styles, contains frequent changes of texture and sharp
changes of mood, and often shifts between major and minor keys.

Georg Philipp Telemann (1681 - 1767)

Telemann, a German, was the most famous composer in Europe during his lifetime,
over Bach and Handel, both of whom are now, ironically, more highly renowned than
Telemann. He was born in Magdeburg. He wrote the first of his 40 operas at the age of
12. Other than operas, Telemann wrote numerous sacred music, but is best known
today for his instrumental music. Among his most notable works is the Suite for
recorder, strings, and continuo in A minor, TWV 55:a2, the Hamburger Ebb und Fluht,
TWV 55:C3 overture in C major, and the Trumpet Concerto in D major, TWV 51:D7.

Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683 - 1764)

Like Couperin, Rameau was one of the most famous French composers of the
Baroque era. Besides composing instrumental music, he also composed a handful of
ballets, motets, and during the second half of his career, many operas, making him a
versatile composer. Some of his most famous works include Pièces de clavecin, Pièces
de clavecin en concerts, and operas such as Hippolyte et Aricie, Castor et Pollux, and
Zoroastre. He also wrote an influential treatise on music theory that paved the way for
many developments which followed.

The Classical era occurred between 1750 and 1820. It was an age of
enlightenment, set in motion by the great philosophers Voltaire, Diderot and Rousseau.
People of the Classical period believed in reason, moving away from custom. They
attacked the privileges of the aristocracy. The four great composers of the Classical
Period were Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert. The latter two made the
transition to the succeeding Romantic period. The first three were drawn to Vienna, and
Schubert born there. The middle class was more powerful in the Classical era than
before, now having access to music, music lessons, printed music etc… which used to
be a privilege of the aristocracy. Public concerts were now given for the first time.

Mood

There is a much greater variety and contrast in mood, with lots of fluctuation. This is
contrasted with Baroque pieces, which convey a single mood according to the "Doctrine
of Affection".
Rhythm

There is now an enormous flexibility of rhythm. Classical pieces contain a wealth of

rhythmic patterns, which make use of syncopations, or stresses of the upbeat, changes
in note values etc… In a Baroque piece, few patterns are reiterated throughout. In
Classical pieces, there is constant rhythmical change.

Texture

Most Late Baroque music is polyphonic. Classical music moves back towards
homophonic textures consisting of melody + accompaniment.

Melody

In contrast the relatively asymmetrical and elaborate melodies of Baroque music,

classical era melodies are generally balanced and symmetrical, and often have a
question-answer relationship in the cadences.

Dynamics

There is a widespread use of dynamics. With the invention of the piano (pianoforte),
crescendos and decrescendos come into widespread use. The music is not restricted to
the terraced dynamics typifying that of the Baroque era.

Harmony

The basso continuo and the figured bass are abandoned in the Classical era, as
there were many amateur musicians who could not improvise from the figured bass.
Another reason for this was that composers wanted more control over their workMajor-
minor tonality provides the structural framework for all musical forms and genres.

Orchestra

In Baroque music, the orchestra changes from piece to piece. In the Classical
period, there is a standard group of instruments constituting the orchestra:
Strings

The Strings form the most important group (and still are the foundation of the
modern orchestra). The first violins carry main melody. The lower strings play
accompaniment.

Woodwind

The purpose of the Woodwind section is to add contrasting tone colours to the
accompaniment and to provide occasional melodic solos.

Brass

The Brass give power to the music and fill out the harmonies.

Percussion

Timpani give rhythmic bite and emphasis.

Forms

Classical pieces consist of several movements that contrast each other in character
and in tempo. Forms carried over from the Baroque era include the Concerto, Opera
and Symphony. The new emerging forms in the Classical era are the String Quartet
(four movements - Fast; Slow; Dance-like; Fast), the Sonata (four movements - Fast;
Slow; Dance-like; Fast).

Various forms employed in the classical period include: Binary (A | B), and Ternary
(A | B | A). Ternary may be used in an individual movement, and often the third
movement in a symphony, string quartet, sonata, etc. There was also the Minuet (A |
Trio B | Minuet A), for example, the third movement of Eine Kleine Nachtmusik (Mozart).
The Rondo form was also employed (A | B | A | C | A, etc.) For example: Mozart’s String
Quartets, only found in last movements. The Minuet and Trio (A | B | A), where A –
Minuet, B – Trio. Theme and Variation form (A | A1 | A2 | A3 | etc… ) is basically the
theme followed by variations,for example, Haydn’s Surprise Symphony, 2nd movement.
 The most important new form of the Classical period was sonata form. It can be
found in solo form, chamber music, concertos, and symphonies. Sonata form divides a
movement into three basic parts:

Exposition: The theme or themes of the movement are introduced, often in different
keys.

Development: The composer experiments with his or her theme(s), changing their keys
around or writing variations of them.

Recapitulation: The themes are restated in more or less the original form, but are now
all in the tonic, i.e. the key of the piece.

Sometimes a composer also uses a slower-paced introduction or an extra concluding

passage called a coda.

Symphony

One of the great contributions to the classical era is the symphony. Haydn wrote an
amazing 104 symphonies, Mozart wrote over 40, and Beethoven wrote 9 (the first two of
which best fit the classical style). The classical symphony lasts between 20 and 45
minutes, consisting usually of four movements:

1st movement : Sonata form

2nd movement : Slow. May use sonata, ternary or theme-and-variation form.

3rd movement : Dance-like. Minuet and Trio form.

4th movement : Brilliant and heroic. May use sonata, rondo or sonata-rondo form.

Concerto

The Concerto is a three-movement work for instrumental soloist (or occasionally

two or three soloists) and orchestra. The first movement is always in a lively, brisk
tempo. A cadenza often appears near the end of the first movement, during which the
orchestra is silent and the soloist is given an opportunity to demonstrate technical
ability. The second movement is generally slow, and any form may be used. the third
movement is contrasted from the second and usually quite fast, usually employing
rondo form. The concerto uses a specialized sonata form containing two expositions,
the first of which is normally for the orchestra alone, the second for the soloist with the
orchestra accompanying. The concerto lasts between 20 and 45 minutes.

String Quartet

The string quartet is for two violins, viola and cello. It consists of four movements,
using the same forms as used in a symphony.

Joseph Haydn (1732-1809)

Joseph Haydn is referred to by many scholars as the "Father of the Symphony". He

was born in Austria, and his father made wagon wheels. Haydn incorporates folk tunes
in his music which his father sang to him as a child. He was a pioneer in the
development of the symphony and the string quartet. Mozart and Beethoven influenced
his style, even as did he theirs. He was a master at developing themes, often using
contrasts of key, mood, texture, rhythm, dynamics and orchestration. His music contains
unexpected pauses and tempo changes. He wrote over 100 symphonies, 68 string
quartets, piano sonatas, concerti, operas and masses. His last 12 symphonies are
called his "London symphonies". The London Symphonies each have a nickname, such
as “Surprise”; “Clock”; “Military”; “Drum Roll” etc.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 – 1791)

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born in Austria. He is one of the most versatile of
composers in the entire history of music. He wrote masterpieces in all musical forms. All
his music has a ‘singing’ quality, even his instrumental melodies seem to grow out of the
human voice. His music conveys a feeling of ease, grace, balance and perfect
proportion. He created compositions with ease (e.g., writing his last three symphonies in
6 weeks!). He wrote over 600 compositions, all of which were catalogued by Von Köchel
(a botanist) in chronological order. Thus, we refer to Mozart’s work by the “K” number,
which indicates the chronological position of the work in his output. Many of his
concertos were among his finest works; he wrote many for piano, several for violin and
for horn, as well as two flute concertos, one bassoon concerto, one clarinet concerto
and one oboe concerto. He was a master of opera, with most of his operas being
comedies. The Italian operas were sung throughout, whereas the German operas
included speech. Some of his better known operas were :The Marriage of Figaro", "Don
Giovanni ", and "The Magic Flute". Additionally, Mozart wrote forty-one symphonies.
Ludwig Van Beethoven (1770 – 1827)

Ludwig van Beethoven's career has 3 phases. His first phase was between 1770 –
1802, during which his music was strongly influenced by Mozart and Haydn. He wrote
his first two piano concertos, first two symphonies, string quartets Op.18 and first 10
piano sonatas all during this period. His second phase was between 1802 – 1815.
During this stage he was going deaf. He greatly expanded upon existing forms, and
infused his music with heroic expression. his works include the Kreutzer Sonata for
violin and piano; his only violin concerto; 3rd, 4th and 5th piano concertos and some of
his greatest piano sonatas including “Les adieux”, “Waldstein” and “Appassionata”. His
third phase was from 1815 – 1827. Now he was totally deaf, leaving him completely
isolated from society. He departs substantially from established conventions, both in
form and in style. His works include the 9th symphony, the Missa Solemnis, the last
piano sonatas and the late string quartets.

Beethoven believed that there was a moral force behind music. He revised and
refined his work repeatedly. He used classical forms and techniques but gave them new
power and intensity, creating a bridge between classicism and Romanticism. His works
convey tension and excitement through syncopations and dissonances. Entailing many
contrasts in mood, tiny rhythmic ideas are repeated over and over to create momentum.
There is an enormous range of expression in his work: tempo, dynamic and expressive
indications are marked far more extensively in his scores than in those of his
predecessors. Often he had markings such as “< p”. He uses extremes of pitch far
more. He unified the movements of his symphonies, sonatas and string quartets. Often,
one movement leads directly into another with out a pause (attacca). There are also
thematic inter-relationships between movements. Many of his movements use sonata
form, but the development section and the coda are greatly expanded. He uses the
scherzo rather than the minuet for the 3rd movements of his pieces. His scherzos have
rapid movement with rhythmic drive. His most famous works are his nine symphonies,
which were conceived for large orchestras. In some of them he adds piccolos,
trombones and contrabassoon. All instruments play difficult music, and Beethoven was
the first composer to make dynamic use of brass instruments within the orchestra.
Beethoven's odd numbered symphonies are more forceful, whereas the even numbered
symphonies are very calm and lyrical. His Symphony No. 9 is the first up to that time in
music history to use a choir, which we hear in the "Ode to Joy" finale movement. He
wrote 32 piano sonatas, 16 string quartets, five piano concertos, one opera (“Fidelio”),
two ballets, one violin concerto, and two masses. He incorporated fugues extensively in
his later works.
Franz Schubert (1797-1828)

Franz Schubert was a Viennese composer and child prodigy. His earliest works,
like that of his predecessor Beethoven, were in the Classical style. His output consists
of over 600 songs, nine Symphonies, eight completed operas, six masses, and an
abundance of piano music, string quartets and other chamber works. His songs
embrace a wide spectrum of moods, and his melodies range from simple folk-like tunes
to complex lines. He makes use of very rich harmonies and rich accompaniment.

The Romantic era spans from 1820 A.D. up until 1900 A.D. It can be characterized
by the individuality of style, where there is an emphasis of self-expression and
individuality in compositional style. The music is generally very programmatic, where the
instrumental music depicts a story, idea or a poem - e.g., Smetena’s “The Moldau”
depicts scenes along the Moldau River. The programmatic style can also be seen in the
titles, which are usually very descriptive. Nationalism becomes important during this era,
where composers created music using folk song, history and dances of their
homelands.
 There is a variety of mood, atmosphere and tone color. The orchestra expanded
due to the growing size of concert halls and opera houses, causing an increase in the
power of the brass section. The woodwind section takes on new tone colors, with the
addition of the contrabassoon, bass clarinet, piccolo and the cor anglais. There are
huge technological improvements in musical instruments which made them more
musically flexible and accurate. New sounds were now created/used in all instruments.
i.e. flutes were required to play in the breathy, lower registers; violins were asked to
strike the strings with the wood of the bow – col legno. All instruments were required to
play with more virtuosity.

Harmony

In Romanticism, a broader harmonic vocabulary was used, such as chromatic

harmonies, adding color to the music. Dissonant, unstable chords where also used
more freely. Delayed resolution of dissonances gave an increased feeling of angst.
Extensive modulation was now used much more than previously in the Classical era.
Because of this extensive modulation, there is less tonal gravity (the centration around
one common key).

Dynamics And Rhythm

Romantic music uses a wide range of dynamics from fff (fortississimo: very, very
loud) to ppp (pianississimo: very, very soft). The range of pitch is expanded. Tempo
becomes another tool in the hands of the Romantic composers as indicated by the
increased use of accelerandos (speeding up) and ritardandos (slowing down), as well
as extensive use of rubato (the bending of tempo/rhythm).

Forms

Composers wrote musical miniatures as well as monumental pieces. Some genres

are carried over from classicism, but are more greatly exploited, such as sonatas and
symphonies. Additionally, a few new forms are invented.
Art Song

One of the forms of the Romantic Era is the Art Song. It is standardly a composition
for solo voice and piano. The piano accompaniment is an integral element in the piece,
and serves as an interpretive partner to the voice, rather than a simplistic
accompaniment. Poetry and music are thus intimately fused. The best Art Song
composers of the Romantic era include Schubert, Schumann and Brahms. The Art
Songs based on German texts tended to favour the poets Heine and Goethe. The song
composers interpret the poems, translating their mood and atmosphere into music. Most
songs have a piano introduction and in many cases a postlude.

Types of Art Songs: Strophic - The same music is used for each stanza. Like a hymn in
structure. Through-composed - New music is used for each stanza. Allows music to
reflect changing moods in the poem. Song Cycles - Contains several art songs, grouped
into a set. Often unified by a single story line. i.e. : Schubert's “The Winter Journey”

'Tone Poem

Schumann (1810 – 1856)

Robert Schumann was a very conservative composer, whose works are very
autobiographical and programmatic in nature. He was the founder of the first musical
journal – “The New Journal of Music”. His most famous Art Song is considered to be "In
The Lovely Month Of May", an example of an Art Song which makes use of Strophic
form.

Berlioz (1803 – 1869)

Berlioz was a French composer, whose work contains abrupt contrasts in dynamics
and tempo changes. He assembled hundreds of musicians in his orchestras to achieve
an enormous range of power. He made use of unusual orchestral effects such as col
legno, and the combination of bells and brasses. His melodies are long, irregular and
asymmetrical. All his works are for orchestra or for orchestra with chorus and vocal
soloist, and have a literary program and are dramatic and use new forms.

Brahms (1833 – 1897)

Brahms was a German composer, influenced by Schumann to a small extent. He

created masterpieces in all forms except opera. His output includes four symphonies,
two piano concertos, one violin concerto, short piano pieces, many songs (over 200)
and a large number of choral pieces. He was a master of ‘Theme and Variation’ form.
Strongly influenced by Bach, Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, his music embraces a
wide range of moods and uses intricate and dense polyphonic textures. He makes
extensive use of imitation, canon and fugue, with intricate rhythmic patterns, including
polyrhythms (various rhythms placed against each other E.g. : 2 against 3, or 3 against
2). Brahms treated tonality with greater freedom whilst adhering to strict, formal
classical forms and standards. Each of his 4 movements are arranged in the traditional
sequence: Allegro, Slower 2nd, Scherzo and massive finale. He employs extensive
modulation throughout. He was very fond of mellow instruments / tone colors such as
viola, clarinet and French horn.

Liszt (1811 – 1886)

 Liszt wrote very controversial music. His output consists mainly of piano
compositions. He found new and exciting ways to exploit the piano. He uses an
enormous range of dynamics, reminiscent of Beethoven's symphonic compositions.
Pianists are required to play rapid octaves and daring leaps. He transcribed many
operas and symphonies for the piano. He is said to have created the symphonic poem,
a one movement orchestral composition, based on a literary or pictorial idea. A single
musical idea recurs throughout the work and its character is transformed. Similar in
nature to the idée fixe utilized by Berlioz. Many of Liszt’s compositions deal with the
devil or death. He makes constant changes of tempo and mood in his pieces.

Chopin, Frederic (1810 – 1849)

Frederic Chopin wrote relatively few works, but almost all of them remain in the
pianist’s repertory today. Most of his music are short, musical miniatures, which evoke a
variety of moods. Even his virtuoso passages are melodic. His music is nationalistic,
and expresses his love of Poland (his home country) through his many Mazurkas and
Polonaises. Chopin does not use literary titles or programs in his music, but rather, his
poetic effects are created by the exploitation of the pedal. All of his harmonies blend
together in a rich fashion.

Verdi (1813 – 1901)

Verdi's music has a great variety of moods. His operas are fast moving, and involve
characters who are quickly plunged into extremes of hatred, love, jealousy and fear.
The vocal melody is the soul of Verdi’s opera. He uses many trios, duets and quartets in
which the emotions of each character are clearly depicted. Verdi’s last three operas are
among his greatest: Aida, Falstaff and Otello.

Wagner (1813 - 1883)

Wagner was one of the few great composers who was able to write his own
librettos, which he based on legends and myths such as the story of Tristan and Isolde
and of the Norse gods. He called his works “music dramas” or “Universal Art Works”
(gesamtkunstwerk in German). Wagner shifted the musical gravity from the voice to the
orchestra, and so expands his orchestra, which is treated symphonically. His orchestral
interludes were used to describe the present scene. He exploited the power of brass
instruments fully and even invented a new instrument, the Wagner tuba. He used
leitmotifs, which are a recurring, short musical idea associated with a person or object in
the drama. He varied and transformed these leitmotifs to convey changes of character,
and these leitmotifs are what unify Wagner’s operas. He uses chromatic and dissonant
harmonies, and frequent modulation, but avoids resolution of dissonances, leading to
the breaking down of tonality.

Impressionism is the name given to a movement in painting that emerged primarily

in France during the latter part of the 19th Century. It featured visual renderings that
were intended more for decoration than as records of the precise appearance of people
or objects.
The invention of photography provided a faster, cheaper means of recording
appearances. Impressionism, instead, was a visual means of recording supposed
"impressions" of the subject matter--emphasizing selected features while minimizing
others. In practical terms, impressionistic effects were achieved by (1) reducing the
detail in a picture, (2) eliminating subtle color mixtures, and (3) exaggerating proportions
and perspective to convey motion or lassitude.

Debussy is said to have resisted the comparisons of his music to the paintings of the
Impressionists, but the vague melodic and harmonic structures of works such as
"L'après-midi d'une faune", "Syrinx" (for Solo Flute) and "Nuages" seem to be in much
the same spirit as the blurred, sensuous visual images of the painters with whom he
would have been familiar.
 Again in practical terms, Debussy was able to differentiate his compositions from
what had come before by deliberately writing music that was contrary to the norms that
he and every other young composer were taught at the Conservatoire. He abandoned
the major and minor scales for other combinations of pitches. He also abandoned 7-
note scales for groupings of five notes (pentatonic scales) and six notes (whole-tone
scales). Debussy frequently based his harmonies on so-called "parallel fifths." These
were produced by simultaneous melodies that were always exactly seven semitones
apart, and they were strictly forbidden by the common practice taught at the time.
Debussy's experiments with new ways of organizing music would not have been nearly
as successful if he had not possessed true genius. Even his most vigorous critics were
compelled to acknowledge his substantial talent. He continued to exploit this style of
music from 1891, when he introduced "L'après-midi d'une faun" until his death in 1917.
He made such thorough and brilliant use of the "impressionist" techniques that other
composers were hard pressed to successfully follow his lead.

Maurice Ravel, in full Joseph-Maurice Ravel, (born March 7, 1875, Ciboure, France—
died December 28, 1937, Paris), French composer of Swiss-Basque descent, noted for
his musical craftsmanship and perfection of form and style in such works as Boléro
(1928), Pavane pour une infante défunte (1899; Pavane for a Dead Princess), Rapsodie
espagnole (1907), the ballet Daphnis et Chloé (first performed 1912), and the opera
L’Enfant et les sortilèges (1925; The Child and the Enchantments.

Other notable composers who are usually categorized as impressionists include and the
American composer Charles Tomlinson Griffes. In the generation that followed, Darius
Milhaud, Selim Palmgren, and others were obviously influenced by Debussy's music but
found their own paths by incorporating American jazz or German "expressionist"
elements.

Atonality

Atonal music is characterized by the absence of a key or tonal center.

Serialism

Serialism, in its purest form, is a style of music in which each tone in the twelve
note chromatic scale is used exactly once in succession until all twelve are used, at
which time the cycle may be repeated using the same series of notes or a similar series
derived from the original. The twelve note series is sometimes referred to as a "tone
row". From this initial row of tones, a matrix can be calculated by inverting the intervals
of the row to form a column descending from the first note of the row and then creating
new rows by transcribing the intervals of the original row beginning on each of the tones
of the inversion. By aligning these rows and columns in a twelve by twelve grid, one
derives a total of 48 variations of the row by beginning at any point on the outside of the
grid and proceeding vertically or horizontally, as the case may be. A tone row from left
to right is referred to as "prime" as it is the initial set of intervals. A column from top to
bottom is referred to as an inversion. From right to left is called "retrograde".
Consequently, from bottom to top is "retrograde inversion". Any one of these 48 rows
may be used but only one row is typically used per part at any given time. However, two
parts playing simultaneously - voice and piano, for instance - can use completely
separate rows at the same time. At some time after the initial development of serialism
composers began using "subsets", or fragments of a row repeated. This allowed
freedom to create compositions that were more pleasing to the traditional ear. This style
of composition was initially developed in Austria by Arnold Schoenberg, and was further
developed by students of his, including Anton Webern and Alban Berg.

Post Romantic

Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Tchaikovsky also spelled Chaikovsky, Chaikovskii, or

Tschaikowsky, name in full Anglicized as Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky, (born April 25 [May 7,
New Style], 1840, Votkinsk, Russia—died October 25 [November 6], 1893, St.
Petersburg), the most popular Russian composer of all time. His music has always had
great appeal for the general public in virtue of its tuneful, open-hearted melodies,
impressive harmonies, and colourful, picturesque orchestration, all of which evoke a
profound emotional response. His oeuvre includes 7 symphonies, 11 operas, 3 ballets,
5 suites, 3 piano concertos, a violin concerto, 11 overtures (strictly speaking, 3
overtures and 8 single movement programmatic orchestral works), 4 cantatas, 20 choral
works, 3 string quartets, a string sextet, and more than 100 songs and piano pieces.

Sergey Rachmaninoff, in full Sergey Vasilyevich Rachmaninoff, Rachmaninoff also

spelled Rakhmaninov, or Rachmaninov, (born March 20 [April 1, New Style], 1873,
Oneg, near Semyonovo, Russia—died March 28, 1943, Beverly Hills, California, U.S.),
composer who was the last great figure of the tradition of Russian Romanticism and a
leading piano virtuoso of his time. He is especially known for his piano concerti and the
piece for piano and orchestra titled Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini (1934).
References:

Grout, Donald Jay (1973). A History of Western Music. W. W. Norton.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music

Strathern, Paul The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance (2003)

Bukofzer, Manfred F. (1947). Music in the Baroque Era: From Monreverdi to Bach. New
York: E. W. Norton & Company, Inc

Opera: A Concise History, by Leslie Orrey and Rodney Milnes, World of Art, Thames &
Hudson
Student Activity

Listen to the following works of music and identify thexture, form, and what musical
period it belong:

1. “Dis Irae” - Thomas of Celano/Latino Malabranca Orsini

2. “Fugue No 2 in Cm BWV 847” - J. S. Bach (Well Tempered Clavier)

3. “Aria” (Der Holle Rache) - W. A. Mozart (The Magic Flute)

4. “Symphony No. 5 in Cm, Op. 67, 1st Movement” - L. V. Beethoven

5. “Nocturne in E-flat major, Op. 9, No. 2 - F. Chopin

6. “Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 in C#minor - F. Lszt

7. “Ave Maria” - F. Schubert

8. “Clair De Lune” in D-flat in D-flat Major - C. Debussy (Suite Bergamasque)

9. “Triumphal March” - G. Verdi (Aida)

10. “Piano Concerto in B-flat minor Op. 23, 1st Movement” - P. I. Tchaikovsky