KQ Booklet PDF

Theory of
Knowledge across
the IB Diploma
2018

Putting TOK to work in your subject
studies, and vice versa

Editor's note
The Core (comprising TOK, CAS and the EE) is the heart of the IB Diploma Programme. The
Core relies on the subject studies to provide enrichment, and individual subjects should be
nourished by the core.
I have created this handbook out of excerpts from IB subject guides, to help you to find
relevant TOK questions in your subject lessons, and to raise awareness of the role of TOK in
all our courses. I hope it is useful to students and teachers alike.
Please forgive any shortcomings in the content or presentation of this first edition.
Max Clark—TOK Coordinator

Contents
Editor's note ...................................................................................................................... 2
Contents ............................................................................................................................ 2
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 3
What is Theory of Knowledge? ................................................................................................... 3
What are Knowledge Questions? ................................................................................................ 3
The Arts and Theory of Knowledge .................................................................................... 4
Knowledge questions in the Visual Arts syllabus ........................................................................ 4
Knowledge questions in the Music syllabus ................................................................................ 5
Knowledge questions in the Theatre syllabus ............................................................................. 6
Design & Technology and Theory of Knowledge ................................................................ 7
Individuals & Societies and Theory of Knowledge ............................................................ 10
Knowledge questions in the Economics syllabus   .................................................................... 10
Knowledge questions in the Geography syllabus   ................................................................... 13
Knowledge questions in the History syllabus ............................................................................ 14
Knowledge questions in the Psychology syllabus ...................................................................... 14
Language, Literature, and Theory of Knowledge .............................................................. 15
Knowledge questions about texts ............................................................................................. 15
Knowledge questions about literature ...................................................................................... 15
Knowledge questions about additional languages .................................................................... 16
Mathematics and Theory of Knowledge .......................................................................... 18
Knowledge questions in the Maths Syllabus ............................................................................. 18
Science and Theory of Knowledge ................................................................................... 20
Knowledge questions in the Biology Syllabus ........................................................................... 20
Knowledge questions in the Chemistry Syllabus ....................................................................... 23
Knowledge questions in the Environmental Systems and Societies Syllabus ............................. 30
Knowledge questions in the Physics Syllabus ............................................................................ 32

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 2

Introduction

What is Theory of Knowledge?
The TOK course (first assessment 2015) engages students in reflection on the nature of
knowledge and on how we know what we claim to know. The course identifies eight ways of
knowing: language, sense perception, emotion, reason, imagination, faith, intuition and
memory. Students explore these means of producing knowledge within the context of
various areas of knowledge: mathematics, natural sciences, human sciences, history, the
arts, ethics, religious knowledge systems and indigenous knowledge systems.  
The course also requires students to make comparisons between the different areas of
knowledge, reflecting on how knowledge is arrived at in the various disciplines, what the
disciplines have in common, and the differences between them.  

What are Knowledge Questions?
The idea of knowledge questions is central to Theory of Knowledge. These are questions
about the nature of knowledge, such as:

• what counts as evidence for X?
• what makes a good explanation in subject Y?
• how do we judge which is the best model of Z?
• how can we be sure of W?
• what does theory T mean in the real world?
• how do we know whether it is right to do S?

While these questions could seem slightly intimidating in the abstract, they become much
more accessible when dealt with in specific practical contexts. They arise naturally in the
subject areas, the extended essay and CAS. The intention is that these contexts provide
concrete examples of knowledge questions that should promote student discussion.

The Arts and Theory of Knowledge
Students of the arts subjects study the various artistic ways through which knowledge,
skills and attitudes from different cultural contexts are developed and transmitted.
These subjects allow students to investigate and reflect on the complexities of the human
condition. By exploring a range of materials and technologies, students should aim to
develop an understanding of the technical, creative, expressive and communicative aspects
of the arts.
Students of the arts subjects have the opportunity to analyse artistic knowledge from
various perspectives, and they acquire this knowledge through experiential means as well as
more traditional academic methods. The nature of the arts is such that an exploration of the
areas of knowledge in general, and knowledge of the different art forms specifically, can
combine to help us understand ourselves, our patterns of behaviour and our
relationships to each other and our wider environment.
The arts subjects complement the TOK ethos by revealing interdisciplinary connections and
allowing students to explore the strengths and limitations of individual and cultural
perspectives. Studying the arts requires students to reflect on and question their own bases
of knowledge. In addition, by exploring other Diploma Programme subjects with an
artistic bias, students can gain an understanding of the interdependent nature of
knowledge through which they are encouraged to become, “active, compassionate and
lifelong learners who understand that other people, with their differences, can also be
right” (IB mission statement).
Knowledge questions in the Visual Arts syllabus
1. To what extent is artistic knowledge something which cannot be expressed in

any other way?  
2. Are ways of knowing employed in radically different ways in the arts than in
other areas of knowledge?  
3. To what extent does imagination play a special role in the visual arts?  
4. What moral responsibilities do artists have?  
5. How can the subjective viewpoint of an individual contribute to knowledge in
the arts?  
6. What are the standards by which we judge artworks?  
7. Why might we be more concerned with process rather than product in the
search for knowledge?  
8. Do the arts have a social function?  
9. To what extent is truth different in the arts, mathematics and ethics?  


Knowledge questions in the Music syllabus
1. Why are the arts important?  

2. What do the subjects that make up the arts have in common?  
3. What are the roles of emotion and reason in the arts?  
4. To what extent do the other Diploma Programme subjects have “artistic”
qualities?  
5. What are the standards by which we judge art? Can we justify these standards
and, if so, how?  
6. What moral responsibilities does the artist have? Are they different to those of
any other “knower”?  
7. It has been said that there is a difference between the condition of humans and
the human condition, and that the sciences can tell us about the former, but we
need the arts to tell us about the latter. Would you agree?  
8. What is the function of music? Is this the same throughout the world, time and
place?  
9. To what extent does music reflect the values, beliefs and attitudes of the time
and place in which it is made?  
10. To what extent can the music of one culture be understood by others?  
11. To what extent does the work of the musician influence an existing culture? To
what extent does an existing culture influence a musician working within it?  
12. What makes an artistic piece “great”? Does this vary within and across time and
culture?  
13. Can it be said that one musical scale is more natural than another?  
14. To what extent does the knowledge gained in a musical performance differ from
other types of knowledge?  
15. Is the composer’s intention important to the listener? To what extent would this
affect the performance?  
16. How can music evoke an emotional response from the listener? Is this a way of
knowing?  
17. Why has some music been feared by the political establishment?  


Knowledge questions in the Theatre syllabus
1. What moral responsibilities do theatre-makers have?  

2. “Art is a lie that brings us nearer to the truth” (Pablo Picasso). Evaluate this
claim in relation to theatre.  
3. Are ways of knowing employed in radically different ways in the arts as
opposed to other areas of knowledge?  
4. To what extent is imagination a fundamental requirement for participation in
theatre?  
5. What do the different subjects that make up the arts have in common?  
6. How can the subjective viewpoint of an individual contribute to knowledge in
the arts?  
7. How do artistic judgments differ from other types of judgment such as moral
judgments?  
8. Why might we be more concerned with process rather than product in the
search for knowledge?  
9. What is the social function of theatre?  


Design & Technology and Theory of Knowledge
TOK lessons can support students in their study of design technology, just as the study of
design technology can support students in their TOK course. TOK provides a space for
students to engage in stimulating wider discussions about questions such as the extent to
which technology is both an enabler and limiter of knowledge. It also provides an
opportunity for students to reflect on the methodologies of design technology, and how
these compare to the methodologies of other areas of knowledge.
In this way there are rich opportunities for students to make links between their design
technology and TOK courses. One way in which design technology teachers can help
students to make these links to TOK is by drawing students’ attention to knowledge
questions which arise from their subject content. Knowledge questions are open-ended
questions about knowledge, and include questions such as:
1. How does knowledge in design technology progress? How does that compare to
how knowledge progresses in other areas of knowledge?  
2. Are intuitively appealing explanations more likely to be true than explanations
supported by other means?  
3. What is the role of imagination in design technology?  
4. Are the methods used in design technology closer to the methods used in the
arts or the methods used in the natural sciences?  
5. What is the relationship between facts/data and theories, and how does this
differ in different areas of knowledge?  
6. What is the impact of culture in the production and distribution of knowledge in
various areas of knowledge?  
7. To what extent does the methodology of an investigation limit or determine the
possible outcomes?  
8. Do the methods of data collection used in design technology have more in
common with disciplines in the human sciences or the natural sciences?
9. How might the collection and interpretation of data be affected by the
limitations of our sense perception?
10. In topics relating to human factors—how do ethical limitations affect the sort of
investigations that can take place where human subjects are involved?
11. To what extent should potential damage to the environment limit our pursuit of
knowledge?
12. The circular economy can be seen as an example of a paradigm shift in design.
Does knowledge develop through paradigm shifts in all areas of knowledge?
13. The Sun is the source of all energy and essential for human existence. Is there
some knowledge common to all areas of knowledge and ways of knowing?
14. International targets may be seen to impose the view of a certain culture onto
another. Can one group of people know what is best for others?
15. Green issues are an area where experts sometimes disagree. On what basis
might we decide between the judgments of experts if they disagree?

16. There is no waste in nature. Should areas of knowledge look at natural
processes beyond human endeavour?
17. In the construction of a model, how can we know which aspects of the world to
include and which to ignore?
18. Are there aspects of the world that are not amenable to modelling?
19. To what extent does graphical communication shape and limit our knowledge?
20. Models that only show aspects of reality are widely used in design. How can
they lead to new knowledge?
21. How is new knowledge acquired through the use of digital models?
22. Does technology allow us to gain knowledge that our human senses are unable
to gain?
23. Which ways of knowing do we use to interpret indirect evidence gathered
through the use of technology?
24. Through specialized vocabularies, is it the case that shaping of knowledge is
more dramatic in some areas of knowledge than others?
25. How does classification and categorization help and hinder the pursuit of
knowledge?
26. Designers are moving from exploitation of resources towards conservation and
sustainability. Is the environment at the service of man?
27. Designers use natural and man-made products. Do some areas of knowledge see
an intrinsic difference between these?
28. The increased dependency on automation and robots has affected craftsmanship.
How has technology affected traditional ways of knowing?
29. Technology in the form of robots currently serves man. Is man’s place secure?
Will the nature of man change due to technological enhancement? Will he be
superseded altogether by technological developments?
30. What is the role of imagination in invention? Are there limits to what can be
imagined?
31. Sometimes there are unforeseen consequences of inventions. To what extent
might lack of knowledge be an excuse for unethical conduct?
32. Design is always looking to the future and new development. Do other areas of
knowledge have universal, timeless truths or are they continually in flux?
33. Design is continually changing due to its openness to new ideas. Do other areas
of knowledge recognize new influences to the same extent?
34. Design favours collective wisdom. Do other areas of knowledge value
collaborative thinking?
35. Design considers areas other than man in its thinking. Are other areas of
knowledge confined to human influence and values?
36. Design takes into account cultural differences. Are other areas of knowledge
universal or culture specific?

37. Design is evidence-based. How do other areas of knowledge value the
importance of evidence?
38. Classic design often appeals to our emotions. Are emotions universal? Are they
purely physiological or culturally bound?
39. Is aesthetic value purely a subjective matter?
40. Design considers the needs of individuals as paramount. Is this the case in other
areas of knowledge?
41. Is it ever possible to eliminate the effect of the observer?
42. To what extent does the language used on questionnaires shape the results?
43. Design involves making value judgments in deciding between different ways of
interacting with the environment. Is this the case in other areas of knowledge?
44. Eco-warriors sometimes break laws to express their views. Does the rightness or
wrongness of an action depend on the situation?
45. Datschefski developed his five principles of sustainable design to help designers
structure their approach and thoughts. In what ways and areas would the
absence of experts most severely limit our knowledge?
46. Is strategic planning more influenced by reason, intuition or imagination? Or by
a combination of all of the ways of knowing?
47. Gaining information on market sectors often employs many of the methods of
gaining knowledge most closely associated with the human sciences. What are
these methods of gaining knowledge, and how do they compare to the methods
used in the natural sciences?
48. Some advertisers emphasize the “science” behind their products. Does this
suggest that some people may see scientific knowledge as being more reliable
than knowledge in other areas of knowledge?
49. What are the assumptions that underlie methods used to gain knowledge in
market research?
50. Manufacturers decide whether to pursue JIT or JIC as a production strategy
depending on their perception of where the market is going. To what extent do
different areas of knowledge incorporate doubt as a part of their methods?
51. The importance of the individual is recognized in design processes. Is this the
case in other areas of knowledge?
52. Technology has a profound influence in design. How have other areas of
knowledge been influenced by technology?
53. There are commonly accepted ways of assuring quality in design. How do other
areas of knowledge ensure the quality of their outputs?
54. The retail price of a product is partly based on evidence of its potential position
in the market. What counts as evidence in various areas of knowledge?


Individuals & Societies and Theory of Knowledge
There is a variety of ways in which to gain knowledge in group 3 subjects. For example,
archival evidence, data collection, experimentation, observation, inductive and deductive
reasoning can all be used to help explain patterns of behaviour and lead to knowledge
claims. Students in group 3 subjects are required to evaluate these knowledge claims by
exploring knowledge issues such as validity, reliability, credibility, certainty, and individual
as well as cultural perspectives.
Knowledge questions in the Economics syllabus  

1. What distinguishes a social science from a natural science?
2. Is there a “social scientific method” as opposed to a “natural scientific method”?
What might be the similarities and differences?
3. What are the roles played by abstract reasoning and concrete evidence in
constructing economic theory?
4. To what extent is economics value-free? 
5. Are economic theories independent of culture? 
6. Is it possible for economic laws to change over time?
7. What are the limitations of the use of diagrams and charts in economics?
8. What is the role of emotion and creativity in economics?
9. What are the implications of economics being based, ultimately, on human
psychology?
10. To what extent should ideas of fairness and justice inform economic thinking?
11. What is a model in economics? What does it do? Does it matter that many of the
models we use in economics do not correspond well to reality?
12. What are the implications of the assumption of ceteris paribus? Do other areas
of knowledge make a similar assumption?
13. How do we test knowledge claims in economics? Should all knowledge claims
in economics be testable? If a claim is not testable, is it meaningless?
14. Is there a different method of justifying qualitative rather than quantitative
knowledge claims? If so, does this lead to one or other being inherently more
reliable?
15. What criteria should be adopted for evaluating normative statements in
economics? 
16. What is meant by “rationality” in economics? Are there different types of
“economic rationality”? If economics studies actual human behaviour, should it
also study irrational human behaviour?
17. To what extent is it true to say that a demand curve is a fictional entity?
18. What assumptions underlie the law of demand? Are these assumptions likely to
be true? Does it matter if these assumptions are actually false?

19. In what sense are we morally obliged to pay taxes? Is this the result of a
promise that we have made ourselves? When was this promise made? (Make a
distinction here between moral and legal obligations.)
20. To what extent is government morally obliged to provide healthcare and welfare
benefits to the unemployed?
21. To what extent is the obligation to seek sustainable modes of consumption a
moral one?
22. What knowledge issues are involved in assessing the role of technology in
meeting future patterns of consumption and decreasing the negative
externalities of consumption associated with fossil fuels?
23. What are the knowledge issues involved in determining what is a rational cost
to pay for halting climate change?
24. How could we know if economically more developed countries are morally
justified in interfering in the development of economically less developed
countries on the grounds of climate change?
25. How can we know when climate change is sufficiently serious to warrant
government interfering in the freedom of its citizens to consume?
26. How can we calculate the external costs of producing and running items such as
light bulbs or motor vehicles? For example, low energy light bulbs consume
less energy but they require more energy to produce, and some brands contain
materials that are harmful to the environment such as mercury. Hybrid cars
consume less energy to run but consume more energy to produce.
27. What are the problems in knowing whether climate change is produced by
human activity?
28. Is it rational to take into account costs already incurred in deciding whether a
business venture should be terminated or whether it should receive more funds?
29. How can we know how to determine the balance of government policy between
promoting competition in the interest of the consumer and allowing profitability
in the interest of firms?
30. What is the empirical evidence for the existence of the business cycle? How do
we decide whether this evidence is sufficient?
31. Business confidence is a contributing factor to the level of AD. What
knowledge issues arise in attempting to measure business confidence?
32. The Keynesian and Monetarist positions differ on the shape of the AS curve.
What is needed to settle this question: empirical evidence (if so, what should be
measured?), strength of theoretical argument, or factors external to economics
such as political conviction?
33. What criteria can be used to order macroeconomic objectives in terms of
priority? Are such criteria external to economics (that is, normative)?
34. Is economic growth always beneficial? What could be meant by the word
“beneficial”?
35. Is there always a cost to economic growth?

36. The notion of fairness can be approached from a number of perspectives—
equality of opportunity, maximizing the income of the least well-off group, and
absolute equality of income. Which of these notions seems to be most
attractive? Why? Examine what each of these perspectives suggests is a fair
distribution of income.
37. Equality of opportunity implies correcting for social advantage (for example,
government might devote more resources to the education of a child brought up
in less prosperous circumstances than one brought up in a comfortable home
whose parents are university lecturers). How far should the state go in making
such corrections? Should all parents be forced to read to their children so that no
child should be at a disadvantage? Should the state attempt to correct for the
uneven distribution of natural abilities such as IQ (intelligence quotient) by
devoting proportionally more resources to children of less than average IQ.
38. In one sense the imposition of taxes by government on individuals amounts to a
restriction of individual freedom. How can we know when such government
interference in individual freedom is justified?
39. How can we know whether government should support pure research, which
might contribute to the sum total of human knowledge but which might never
have an impact on technology? What other knowledge issues are relevant to
investment in pure research?
40. Investment in education and training is a common supply-side policy. What
other reasons could there be for supporting the education of the population?
What knowledge issues arise in answering the question as to whether
government should shoulder this responsibility or whether it should be left to
the market?
41. Are there moral as well as economic arguments in favour of free trade?
42. What criteria can be used to assess the benefits and the costs of increased
economic integration?
43. Might increased economic integration ever be considered undesirable?
44. What are the knowledge issues involved in compiling a list of development
goals?
45. Does the term “economic development” mean different things in different
cultures?
46. Are there two ways of thinking about economics: from the point of view of an
economically more developed country or from that of an economically less
developed country? If so, what is the difference? Are there two different sets of
values in which such a distinction is grounded?
47. How can we decide if the distinction between economically more developed
countries and economically less developed countries is a meaningful one given
that economic development itself might not be so clearly defined?
48. What criteria could we use to determine whether a particular method for
measuring development is effective?
49. What knowledge issues might be encountered in constructing a composite
indicator to measure development?

50. For each factor, what would you consider to be sufficient evidence that it plays
a role in enhancing or inhibiting development?
51. What criteria can economists use to decide on the balance between markets and
intervention?
52. Is development economics dependent upon external normative notions such as
what constitutes a good or fulfilled life?
Knowledge questions in the Geography syllabus  

1. Who decides how we classify knowledge? Why might it be useful to classify
knowledge?
2. To what extent are the methods of the human sciences scientific?
3. How is statistical data used differently in different areas of knowledge?
4. How reliable are the methods available for gathering demographic data on
hundreds of millions of people?
5. How has ready access to vast amounts of information, and the way in which the
internet has contributed to our shrinking world, changed our understanding of
knowledge?
6. Does language simply describe knowledge, or is it part of the knowledge itself?
7. To what extent do maps reflect reality? What are the hidden messages in maps
and the stories behind the way maps are presented?
8. Some geographical topics, such as climate change, are controversial. How does
the scientific method attempt to address them? Are such topics always within
the scope of the scientific method?
9. What scientific or social factors might influence the study of a complex
phenomenon such as global warming?
10. On what basis might we decide between the judgments of experts if they
disagree with each other?
11. Arguably, while some aspects of geography can be measured, others cannot. To
what extent does knowledge need to be quantifiable?
12. Many geographers and others value diversity in human affairs. Does
globalization increase opportunities to share knowledge or does it diminish
diversity?
13. What roles do emotion and reason play in individuals’ lifestyle choices?
14. To what extent might possession of knowledge carry with it moral obligations?


Knowledge questions in the History syllabus
History raises questions such as how far we can speak with certainty about anything in the
past, and whether historians’ accounts are necessarily subjective. All of the elements of the
history course provide excellent scope for making links to TOK. However, the most explicit
link to TOK comes in the internal assessment task, where students are required to reflect on
what completing their historical investigation taught them about the methods used by, and
challenges facing, the historian, in comparison to those of other disciplines.
1. What is the role of the historian?  
2. What methods do historians use to gain knowledge?  
3. Is it possible to describe historical events in an unbiased way?  
4. Do we learn from history?  
5. What is the difference between bias and selection?  
6. Who decides which events are historically significant?  
7. To what extent does studying history help us to better understand ourselves in
the present?  
8. What is the role of individuals in history?  
9. How does the context within which historians live affect historical knowledge?
Knowledge questions in the Psychology syllabus
1. To what extent are the methods of the natural sciences applicable in the human
sciences?  
2. Are the findings of the natural sciences as reliable as those of the human
sciences?  
3. To what extent can empathy, intuition and feeling be legitimate ways of
knowing in the human sciences?  
4. Are there human qualities or behaviours that will remain beyond the scope of
the human sciences?  
5. To what extent can information in the human sciences be quantified?  
6. Do knowledge claims in the human sciences imply ethical responsibilities?  
7. To what extent do the knowledge claims of the social sciences apply across
different historical periods and cultures?  
8. Does psychological research ever prove anything? Why do we say that results
only indicate or suggest?  
9. How are ethics involved in the study of psychology? When and how do ethical
standards change?  
10. Noam Chomsky has written, “ ... we will always learn more about human life
and human personality from novels than from scientific psychology.” Would
you agree?  

Language, Literature, and Theory of Knowledge
Our culture, and how we read play a central role in the way meaning is generated when we
read a text. As practices change over time or from place to place, meanings shifts and can
become unstable. In discussing any art as an area of knowledge, the following question
might be asked: “What knowledge (if any) can be gained by focusing attention solely on the
work itself, in isolation from the artist or the social context?”
We need to explore the nature and meaning of art through an understanding of its social,
cultural or historical context and the role of the reader or audience’s response. Students are
also encouraged to take an intercultural perspective by reflecting and thinking beyond their
own cultural assumptions as they engage with the texts in the course.
The relationship between Language & Literature and TOK is central to the Diploma
Programme. The course should enable students to reflect critically on the various ways of
knowing and on knowledge issues.
Knowledge questions about texts
1. How does the reader shape the meaning of a text?  

2. How are our understandings of texts affected by their various historical, social
and cultural contexts?  
3. When does a text become defined as literature?  
4. Language and literature are never simply transparent. They also encode values
and beliefs. To what extent should this be considered when responding to texts?
5. How far do power relationships in society determine what is considered
literature and define the canon?  
6. Texts can be analysed from different critical positions. In the light of this, how
can their effectiveness be judged relative to one another?  
7. If meaning is inherently unstable, conditional on the contexts of the text and
reader, how can we ever determine what a text means?  
Knowledge questions about literature
1. Is a work of literature enlarged or diminished by interpretation? What makes

something a good or bad interpretation?  
2. How can a literary work of fiction, which is by definition non-factual, convey
knowledge?  
3. What is the proper function of literature—to capture a perception of reality, to
teach or uplift the mind, to express emotion, to create beauty, to bind a
community together, to praise a spiritual power, to provoke reflection or to
promote social change?  
4. Does familiarity with literature itself provide knowledge and, if so, of what
kind—knowledge of facts, of the author, of the conventions of the form or
tradition, of psychology or cultural history, of oneself?  

5. What knowledge of literature can be gained by focusing attention on the author?
Can, or should, authors’ intentions and the creative process itself be understood
through observing authors or knowing something of their lives? Is the creative
process as important as the final product, even though it cannot be observed
directly? Are an author’s intentions relevant to assessing the work? Can a work
of art contain or convey meaning of which the artist is oblivious?  
6. What knowledge of literature can be gained by focusing attention solely on the
work itself, in isolation from the author or the social context?  
7. What knowledge of literature can be gained by focusing attention on its social,
cultural or historical context?  
8. How important is the study of literature in individual/ethical development? In
what ways?  
9. What constitutes good evidence within the study of literature?  
10. What knowledge can be gained from the study of literature?  
11. What is lost in translation from one language to another? Why?  
12. Can literature express truths that cannot be expressed in other ways? If so, what
sort of truths are these? How does this form of truth differ from truth in other
areas of knowledge?  
Knowledge questions about additional languages
Learning an additional language involves linguistic and metalinguistic,

sociolinguistic, pragmatic and intercultural skills and competencies. Students need to
reflect upon how these skills and competencies are acquired by the language learner
and, equally, imparted by a teacher.
What follows are some questions that could be used in the language classroom to
investigate the link between the four ways of knowing (reason, emotion, perception
and language) and additional language acquisition:
1. Do we know and learn our first language(s) in the same way as we learn
additional languages?  
2. When we learn an additional language, do we learn more than “just” vocabulary
and grammar?  
3. The concept of intercultural understanding means the ability to demonstrate an
understanding of cultural diversity and/or similarity between the target
culture(s) and one’s own. To what extent is this definition true?  
4. “Those who know nothing of an additional language know nothing of their
own” (Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, playwright, poet, novelist, dramatist,
1749–1832). By learning another culture are we able to enrich our own?  
5. We can learn grammar intuitively, without conscious thought, or formally, by
stating rules. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each approach? Are
these the same for learning in other areas of the curriculum?  

6. To what extent does membership of a group (a cultural group, a gender group or
another group) affect how we come to linguistic knowledge? Are there factors
to consider between individuals within a group and between groups?  
7. To what extent does the learning environment (the physical setting) have an
impact on the way an additional language is acquired?  
8. If you were to learn a language from a textbook only, how would this differ
from learning through interaction only?  
9. Do you understand the world differently when you learn another language?
How (for example, time, humour, leisure)?  
10. How is perception encoded differently in different languages (for example,
colour, orientation)? What does this tell us about the relationships between
perception, culture, reality and truth?  
11. How are values encoded differently in different languages (for example, family,
friendship, authority)?  
12. When, if ever, is it possible to make a perfect translation from one language into
another? What might “perfect” mean in this context?  
13. What is the relationship between language and thought? Do you think
differently in different languages? If so, does it make a practical or discernible
difference to how you interpret the world?  
14. If mathematics is a language, it is clearly different from natural languages. In
your experience, do we learn the two differently? What does your answer tell us
about the nature of mathematical and linguistic knowledge?  


Mathematics and Theory of Knowledge
The Theory of Knowledge guide (March 2006) identifies four ways of knowing, and it could
be claimed that these all have some role in the acquisition of mathematical knowledge.
While perhaps initially inspired by data from sense perception, mathematics is dominated
by reason, and some mathematicians argue that their subject is a language, that it is, in
some sense, universal. However, there is also no doubt that mathematicians perceive
beauty in mathematics, and that emotion can be a strong driver in the search for
mathematical knowledge.
As an area of knowledge, mathematics seems to supply a certainty perhaps missing in other
disciplines. This may be related to the “purity” of the subject that makes it sometimes seem
divorced from reality. However, mathematics has also provided important knowledge about
the world, and the use of mathematics in science and technology has been one of the
driving forces for scientific advances.
Despite all its undoubted power for understanding and change, mathematics is in the end a
puzzling phenomenon. A fundamental question for all knowers is whether mathematical
knowledge really exists independently of our thinking about it. Is it there “waiting to be
discovered” or is it a human creation?
Students should be encouraged to question the nature of mathematical knowledge in both
maths and TOK lessons.

Knowledge questions in the Maths Syllabus
1. How did Gauss add up integers from 1 to 100? Discuss the idea of mathematical
intuition as the basis for formal proof.
2. Debate over the validity of the notion of “infinity”: finitists such as L.
Kronecker consider that “a mathematical object does not exist unless it can be
constructed from natural numbers in a finite number of steps”.
3. What is Zeno’s dichotomy paradox? How far can mathematical facts be from
intuition?
4. Are logarithms an invention or discovery? (This topic is an opportunity for
teachers to generate reflection on “the nature of mathematics”.)
5. Is zero the same as “nothing”?
6. Is mathematics a formal language?
7. How accurate is a visual representation of a mathematical concept? (Consider
limits of graphs in delivering information about functions and phenomena in
general, relevance of modes of representation.)
8. Which is a better measure of angle: radian or degree? What are the “best”
criteria by which to decide?
9. Euclid’s axioms as the building blocks of Euclidean geometry. Link to non-
Euclidean geometry (e.g. angle sum on a globe greater than 180°)

10. Trigonometry was developed by successive civilizations and cultures. How is
mathematical knowledge considered from a sociocultural perspective?
11. How do we relate a theory to the author? Who developed vector analysis: JW
Gibbs or O Heaviside?
12. Are algebra and geometry two separate domains of knowledge? (Vector algebra
is a good opportunity to discuss how geometrical properties are described and
generalized by algebraic methods.)
13. Do different measures of central tendency express different properties of the
data? Are these measures invented or discovered? Could mathematics make
alternative, equally true, formulae? What does this tell us about mathematical
truths?
14. How easy is it to lie with statistics?
15. Equation of the regression line of y on x—can we predict the value of x from y,
using this equation?
16. Can all data be modelled by a (known) mathematical function? Consider the
reliability and validity of mathematical models in describing real-life
phenomena.
17. To what extent does mathematics offer models of real life? Is there always a
function to model data behaviour?
18. Is mathematics useful to measure risks?
19. Can gambling be considered as an application of mathematics? (What should
the role of mathematics in society be?)
20. What value does the knowledge of limits have? Is infinitesimal behaviour
applicable to real life?
21. How do mathematicians formulate and test hypotheses? Do mathematicians use
inductive reasoning as well as deductive reasoning?


Science and Theory of Knowledge
The Theory of Knowledge (TOK) course can support students in their study of science, just
as the study of science can support students in their TOK course. TOK provides a space for
students to engage in stimulating wider discussions about questions such as what it means
for a discipline to be a science, or whether there should be ethical constraints on the
pursuit of scientific knowledge. It also provides an opportunity for students to reflect on the
methodologies of science, and how these compare to the methodologies of other areas of
knowledge. It is now widely accepted that there is no one scientific method, in the strict
Popperian sense. Instead, the sciences utilize a variety of approaches in order to produce
explanations for the behaviour of the natural world. The different scientific disciplines share
a common focus on utilizing inductive and deductive reasoning, on the importance of
evidence, and so on. Students are encouraged to compare and contrast these methods
with the methods found in, for example, the arts or in history.
In this way there are rich opportunities for students to make links between their science and
TOK courses.
One way in which science teachers can help students to make these links to TOK is by
drawing students’ attention to knowledge questions which arise from their subject content.
Knowledge questions are open-ended questions about knowledge, and include questions
such as:
1. How do we distinguish science from pseudoscience?  
2. When performing experiments, what is the relationship between a scientist’s
expectation and their perception?  
3. How does scientific knowledge progress?  
4. What is the role of imagination and intuition in the sciences?  
5. What are the similarities and differences in methods in the natural sciences and
the human sciences?  
Knowledge questions in the Biology Syllabus
1. There is a difference between the living and the non-living environment. How
are we able to know the difference?
2. The world that we inhabit is limited by the world that we see. Is there any
distinction to be drawn between knowledge claims dependent upon observations
made by sense perception and knowledge claims dependent upon observations
assisted by technology?
3. The explanation of the structure of the plasma membrane has changed over the
years as new evidence and ways of analysis have come to light. Under what
circumstances is it important to learn about theories that were later discredited?
4. Biology is the study of life, yet life is an emergent property. Under what
circumstances is a systems approach productive in biology and under what

circumstances is a reductionist approach more appropriate? How do scientists
decide between competing approaches?
5. A number of scientific discoveries are claimed to be incidental or serendipitous.
To what extent might some of these scientific discoveries be the result of
intuition rather than luck?
6. Claims about the “memory of water” have been categorized as pseudoscientific.
What are the criteria that can be used to distinguish scientific claims from
pseudoscientific claims?
7. There are conflicting views as to the harms and benefits of fats in diets. How do
we decide between competing views?
8. Development of some techniques benefits particular human populations more
than others. For example, the development of lactose-free milk available in
Europe and North America would have greater benefit in Africa/ Asia where
lactose intolerance is more prevalent. The development of techniques requires
financial investment. Should knowledge be shared when techniques developed
in one part of the world are more applicable in another?
9. The story of the elucidation of the structure of DNA illustrates that cooperation
and collaboration among scientists exists alongside competition between
research groups. To what extent is research in secret ‘anti-scientific’? What is
the relationship between shared and personal knowledge in the natural sciences?
10. There is a link between sickle cell anaemia and prevalence of malaria. How can
we know whether there is a causal link in such cases or simply a correlation?
11. In 1922 the number of chromosomes counted in a human cell was 48. This
remained the established number for 30 years, even though a review of
photographic evidence from the time clearly showed that there were 46. For
what reasons do existing beliefs carry a certain inertia?
12. Mendel’s theories were not accepted by the scientific community for a long
time. What factors encourage the acceptance of new ideas by the scientific
community?
13. The use of DNA for securing convictions in legal cases is well established, yet
even universally accepted theories are overturned in the light of new evidence in
science. What criteria are necessary for assessing the reliability of evidence?
14. The precautionary principle is meant to guide decision-making in conditions
where a lack of certainty exists. Is certainty ever possible in the natural
sciences?
15. Evolutionary history is an especially challenging area of science because
experiments cannot be performed to establish past events or their causes. There
are nonetheless scientific methods of establishing beyond reasonable doubt
what happened in some cases. How do these methods compare to those used by
historians to reconstruct the past?
16. Natural Selection is a theory. How much evidence is required to support a
theory and what sort of counter evidence is required to refute it?
17. The adoption of a system of binomial nomenclature is largely due to Swedish
botanist and physician Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778). Linnaeus also defined
four groups of humans, and the divisions were based on both physical and social

traits. By 21st-century standards, his descriptions can be regarded as racist. How
does the social context of scientific work affect the methods and findings of
research? Is it necessary to consider the social context when evaluating ethical
aspects of knowledge claims?
18. A major step forward in the study of bacteria was the recognition in 1977 by
Carl Woese that Archaea have a separate line of evolutionary descent from
bacteria. Famous scientists, including Luria and Mayr, objected to his division
of the prokaryotes. To what extent is conservatism in science desirable?
19. Our current understanding is that emotions are the product of activity in the
brain rather than the heart. Is knowledge based on science more valid than
knowledge based on intuition?
20. Highly repetitive sequences were once classified as “junk DNA” showing a
degree of confidence that it had no role. To what extent do the labels and
categories used in the pursuit of knowledge affect the knowledge we obtain?
21. The nature versus nurture debate concerning the relative importance of an
individual’s innate qualities versus those acquired through experiences is still
under discussion. Is it important for science to attempt to answer this question?
22. Many metabolic pathways have been described following a series of carefully
controlled and repeated experiments. To what degree can looking at component
parts give us knowledge of the whole?
23. Peter Mitchell’s chemiosmotic theory encountered years of opposition before it
was finally accepted. For what reasons does falsification not always result in an
immediate acceptance of new theories or a paradigm shift?
24. The lollipop experiment used to work out the biochemical details of the Calvin
cycle shows considerable creativity. To what extent is the creation of an elegant
protocol similar to the creation of a work of art?
25. Plants communicate chemically both internally and externally. To what extent
can plants be said to have language?
26. The law of independent assortment was soon found to have exceptions when
looking at linked genes. What is the difference between a law and a theory in
science?
27. Punctuated equilibrium was long considered an alternative theory of evolution
and a challenge to the long established paradigm of Darwinian gradualism. How
do paradigm shifts proceed in science and what factors are involved in their
success?
28. In medicine the concept of death is defined in terms of brain function, but
sometimes conflicts can occur when the medical criteria for death differ from
the family’s criteria for death. To what extent should the views of the family
members be given priority when making decisions in medical ethics? What
criteria should be used to make ethical decisions?
29. Other organisms can detect stimuli that humans cannot. For example, some
pollinators can detect electromagnetic radiation in the non-visible range. As a
consequence, they might perceive a flower as patterned when we perceive it as
plain. To what extent, therefore, is what we perceive merely an individual
construction of reality?

30. It is easy for us to guess how the behaviour of an animal might influence its
chance of survival and reproduction. Is intuition a valid starting point for
scientists?
31. The “Just So” stories by Rudyard Kipling are literary explanations of animal
behaviour. What are the features of a scientific explanation rather than a
historical or literary explanation?
32. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in England in 1928, on a discarded
petri dish. To what extent was Dr Fleming’s discovery a lucky observation, or
do we only perceive what we are open to?
33. Emergent properties are the outcome of the interaction of the elements of a
system. In what context is a reductionist approach to science productive and in
what context is a reductionist approach problematic?
34. There have been cases around the world where subjects have died as a
consequence of participating in a gene therapy research protocol. How is the
decision to proceed with risky procedures made? What constitutes an acceptable
level of risk for allowing humans to be involved in scientific research?
35. Knowledge claims justified by reference to databases raise unique knowledge
questions. How reliable are knowledge claims justified by reference to data
sources developed for different purposes by different researchers using different
methods?
36. Random samples are taken in studies involving large geographical areas or if
limited time is available. Is random sampling a useful tool for scientists despite
the potential for sampling bias?
37. Do the entities in scientists’ models, for example trophic levels or Gersmehl
diagrams, actually exist, or are they primarily useful inventions for predicting
and explaining the natural world?
38. There are positive effects of exposure to sun such as the production of Vitamin
D as well as health risks associated with exposure to UV rays. How can
conflicting knowledge claims be balanced?
39. Excessive alcohol consumption may cause liver cirrhosis. Are attitudes to drugs
and alcohol an example of something that is relative to culture? Is all
knowledge dependent on culture?
40. Symbols are used as a form of non-verbal communication. Why is the heart
used as a symbol for love? What is the importance of symbols in different areas
of knowledge?
Knowledge questions in the Chemistry Syllabus
1. Chemical equations are the “language” of chemistry. How does the use of
universal languages help and hinder the pursuit of knowledge?
2. Lavoisier’s discovery of oxygen, which overturned the phlogiston theory of
combustion, is an example of a paradigm shift. How does scientific knowledge
progress?

3. The magnitude of Avogadro’s constant is beyond the scale of our everyday
experience. How does our everyday experience limit our intuition?
4. Assigning numbers to the masses of the chemical elements has allowed
chemistry to develop into a physical science. Why is mathematics so effective
in describing the natural world?
5. The ideal gas equation can be deduced from a small number of assumptions of
ideal behaviour. What is the role of reason, perception, intuition and
imagination in the development of scientific models?
6. Richard Feynman: “If all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed and only
one sentence passed on to the next generation, I believe it is that all things are
made of atoms.” Are the models and theories which scientists create accurate
descriptions of the natural world, or are they primarily useful interpretations for
prediction, explanation and control of the natural world?
7. No subatomic particles can be (or will be) directly observed. Which ways of
knowing do we use to interpret indirect evidence, gained through the use of
technology?
8. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle states that there is a theoretical limit to the
precision with which we can know the momentum and the position of a particle.
What are the implications of this for the limits of human knowledge?
9. “One aim of the physical sciences has been to give an exact picture of the
material world. One achievement ... has been to prove that this aim is
unattainable.” —Jacob Bronowski. What are the implications of this claim for
the aspirations of natural sciences in particular and for knowledge in general?
10. What role did inductive and deductive reasoning play in the development of the
periodic table? What role does inductive and deductive reasoning have in
science in general?
11. The predictive power of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table illustrates the “risk-
taking” nature of science. What is the demarcation between scientific and
pseudoscientific claims?
12. The Periodic Table is an excellent example of classification in science. How
does classification and categorization help and hinder the pursuit of knowledge?
13. General rules in chemistry (like the octet rule) often have exceptions. How
many exceptions have to exist for a rule to cease to be useful?
14. What evidence do you have for the existence of ions? What is the difference
between direct and indirect evidence?
15. Does the need for resonance structures decrease the value or validity of Lewis
(electron dot) theory? What criteria do we use in assessing the validity of a
scientific theory?
16. The nature of the hydrogen bond is the topic of much discussion and the current
definition from the IUPAC gives six criteria which should be used as evidence
for the occurrence of hydrogen bonding. How does a specialized vocabulary
help and hinder the growth of knowledge?

17. What criteria do we use in judging discrepancies between experimental and
theoretical values? Which ways of knowing do we use when assessing
experimental limitations and theoretical assumptions?
18. Hess’s Law is an example of the application of the Conservation of Energy.
What are the challenges and limitations of applying general principles to
specific instances?
19. The Kelvin scale of temperature gives a natural measure of the kinetic energy of
gas whereas the artificial Celsius scale is based on the properties of water. Are
physical properties such as temperature invented or discovered?
20. Scientists investigate the world at different scales; the macroscopic and
microscopic. Which ways of knowing allow us to move from the macroscopic
to the microscopic?
21. Chemistry uses a specialized vocabulary: a closed system is one in which no
matter is exchanged with the surroundings. Does our vocabulary simply
communicate our knowledge; or does it shape what we can know?
22. The career of Fritz Haber coincided with the political upheavals of two world
wars. He supervised the release of chlorine on the battlefield in World War I
and worked on the production of explosives. How does the social context of
scientific work affect the methods and findings of science? Should scientists be
held morally responsible for the applications of their discoveries?
23. Acid and base behaviour can be explained using different theories. How are the
explanations in chemistry different from explanations in other subjects such as
history?
24. Chemistry makes use of the universal language of mathematics as a means of
communication. Why is it important to have just one “scientific” language?
25. The strength of an acid can be determined by the use of pH and conductivity
probes. In what ways do technologies, which extend our senses, change or
reinforce our view of the world?
26. All rain is acidic but not all rain is “acid rain”. Scientific terms have a precise
definition. Does scientific vocabulary simply communicate our knowledge in a
neutral way or can it have value-laden terminology?
27. Chemistry has developed a systematic language that has resulted in older names
becoming obsolete. What has been lost and gained in this process?
28. Oxidation states are useful when explaining redox reactions. Are artificial
conversions a useful or valid way of clarifying knowledge?
29. Is energy just an abstract concept used to justify why certain types of changes
are always associated with each other? Are entities such as energy real?
30. The label “organic chemistry” originates from a misconception that a vital force
was needed to explain the chemistry of life. Can you think of examples where
vocabulary has developed from similar misunderstandings? Can and should
language ever be controlled to eliminate such problems?
31. Kekulé claimed that the inspiration for the cyclic structure of benzene came
from a dream. What role do the less analytical ways of knowledge play in the
acquisition of scientific knowledge?

32. Science has been described as a self-correcting and communal public
endeavour. To what extent do these characteristics also apply to the other areas
of knowledge?
33. Graphs are a visual representation of data, and so use sense perception as a way
of knowing. To what extent does their interpretation also rely on the other ways
of knowing, such as language and reason?
34. Electromagnetic waves can transmit information beyond that of our sense
perceptions. What are the limitations of sense perception as a way of knowing?
35. “What we observe is not nature itself, but nature exposed to our method of
questioning.”—Werner Heisenberg. An electron can behave as a wave or a
particle depending on the experimental conditions. Can sense perception give us
objective knowledge about the world?
36. The de Broglie equation shows that macroscopic particles have too short a
wavelength for their wave properties to be observed. Is it meaningful to talk of
properties which can never be observed from sense perception?
37. The medical symbols for female and male originate from the alchemical
symbols for copper and iron. What role has the pseudoscience of alchemy
played in the development of modern science?
38. Covalent bonding can be described using valence bond or molecular orbital
theory. To what extent is having alternative ways of describing the same
phenomena a strength or a weakness?
39. Hybridization is a mathematical device which allows us to relate the bonding in
a molecule to its symmetry. What is the relationship between the natural
sciences, mathematics and the natural world? Which role does symmetry play in
the different areas of knowledge?
40. Entropy is a technical term which has a precise meaning. How important are
such technical terms in different areas of knowledge?
41. Reaction mechanism can be supported by indirect evidence. What is the role of
empirical evidence in scientific theories? Can we ever be certain in science?
42. The equilibrium law can be deduced by assuming that the order of the forward
and backward reaction matches the coefficients in the chemical equation. What
is the role of deductive reasoning in science?
43. We can use mathematics successfully to model equilibrium systems. Is this
because we create mathematics to mirror reality or because the reality is
intrinsically mathematical?
44. Many problems in science can only be solved when assumptions are made
which simplify the mathematics. What is the role of intuition in problem
solving?
45. The same phenomenon can sometimes be explored from different perspectives,
and explained by different theories. For example, do we judge competing
theories by their universality, simplicity or elegance?
46. Is a pH curve an accurate description of reality or an artificial representation?
Does science offer a representation of reality?

47. The standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) is an example of an arbitrary reference.
Would our scientific knowledge be the same if we chose different references?
48. A retro-synthetic approach is often used in the design of synthetic routes. What
are the roles of imagination, intuition and reasoning in finding solutions to
practical problems?
49. The existence of optical isomers provide indirect evidence for a tetrahedrally
bonded carbon atom. Which ways of knowing allow us to connect indirect
evidence to our theories?
50. Stereoisomerism can be investigated by physical and computer models. What is
the role of such models in other areas of knowledge?
51. One of the challenges for the scientist and the artist is to represent the three-
dimensional world in two dimensions. What are the similarities and differences
in the two approaches? What is the role of the different ways of knowing in the
two approaches?
52. The intensity ratio of the lines in the high resolution NMR spectrum is given by
the numbers in Pascal's triangle, a mathematical pattern known independently
over a thousand years ago by a number of different cultures. Why is
mathematics such an effective tool in science? Is mathematics the science of
patterns?
53. Although it is convenient to classify materials into categories no single
classification is “perfect”. How do we evaluate the different classification
systems we use in the different areas of knowledge? How does our need to
categorize the world help and hinder the pursuit of knowledge?
54. What factors/outcomes should be used to determine how time, money, and
effort is spent on scientific research? Who decides which knowledge is to be
pursued?
55. Some materials used as effective catalysts are toxic and harmful to the
environment. Is environmental degradation justified in the pursuit of
knowledge?
56. Developments in technology mean that we can store more and more information
available on an increasingly smaller scale. Does this mean that we can access
more knowledge?
57. The use of the scanning tunnelling microscope has allowed us to “see”
individual atoms, which was previously thought to be unattainable. How do
these advances in technology change our view of what knowledge is attainable?
58. Some people are concerned about the possible implication of nanotechnology.
How do we evaluate the possible consequences of future developments in this
area? Is the knowledge we need publicly available or do we rely on the
authority of experts?
59. The products of science and technology can have a negative impact on the
environment. Are scientists ethically responsible for the impact of their
products?
60. X-ray diffraction has allowed us to probe the world beyond the biological limits
of our senses. How reliable is our knowledge of the microscopic world
compared to what we know at the macroscopic level?

61. What responsibility do scientists have for the impact of their endeavours on the
planet?
62. Different countries have very different standards towards food labelling. Is
access to information a human right? What knowledge should be universally
available?
63. What are the different responsibilities of government, industry, the medical
profession and the individual in making healthy choices about diet? Public
bodies can protect the individual but also limit their freedom. How do we know
what is best for society and the individual?
64. The use of aspartame as an artificial sweetener has been controversial for many
years as the side effects are not fully investigated. Should scientists be held
morally responsible for the adverse consequences of their work?
65. What are the ethical considerations in adding supplements to commonly
consumed foods, such as fluoride to water or iodine to salt? Public bodies can
protect the individual but also limit their freedom. How do we know what is
best for society and the individual?
66. Linus Pauling is the only man to win two individual Nobel Prizes. His claim
that vitamin C supplements could prevent diseases such as the common cold led
to their widespread use. What is the role of authority in communicating
scientific knowledge to the public?
67. The term “lock-and-key” is an effective metaphor but the “induced fit” model is
a better model. How are metaphors and models used in the construction of
knowledge?
68. DNA stores information but not knowledge; what are the differences between
information and knowledge?
69. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962 was awarded jointly to Crick,
Watson and Wilkins "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of
nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material".
What is the role of collaboration in advancing knowledge?
70. The existence of DNA databases opens up questions of individual privacy and
the extent to which government has the right of access to personal information.
Who has the right to access knowledge of an individual’s DNA?
71. Experiments show that our appreciation of food is based on an interaction
between our senses. How do the different senses interact in giving us empirical
knowledge about the world?
72. “I have no doubt that we will be successful in harnessing the sun’s energy. If
sunbeams were weapons of war we would have had solar energy centuries ago.”
(Lord George Porter). In what ways might social, political, cultural and
religious factors affect the types of research that are financed and undertaken, or
rejected?
73. There are many ethical issues raised by energy generation and its consequent
contributions to pollution and climate change. What is the influence of political
pressure on different areas of knowledge?

74. The use of nuclear energy carries risks as well as benefits. Who should
ultimately be responsible for assessing these? How do we know what is best for
society and the individual?
75. The claims of “cold fusion” were dismissed as the results are not reproducible.
Is it always possible to obtain replicable results in the natural sciences? Are
reproducible results possible in other areas of knowledge?
76. Some people question the reality of climate change, and question the motives of
scientists who have “exaggerated” the problem. How do we assess the evidence
collected and the models used to predict the impact of human activities?
77. Does scientific language and vocabulary have primarily a descriptive or an
interpretative function? Are the terms “electric current” and “internal
resistance” accurate descriptions of reality or metaphors?
78. “There is no likelihood that humans will ever tap the power of the atom.”
(Robert Millikan, Nobel Laureate Physics 1923 quoted in 1928). How can the
impact of new technologies be predicted? How reliable are these predictions?
How important are the opinions of experts in the search for knowledge?
79. The release of energy during fission reactions can be used in times of peace to
generate energy, but also can lead to destruction in time of war. Should
scientists be held morally responsible for the applications of their discoveries?
Is there any area of scientific knowledge the pursuit of which is morally
unacceptable?
80. A conjugated system has some similarities with a violin string. How useful is
this metaphor? What are the underlying reasons for these similarities? What role
do models and metaphors play in the acquisition of knowledge?
81. The same drug can be identified by different names. Are names simply labels or
do they influence our other ways of knowing?
82. Drugs trials use double blind tests. When is it ethically acceptable to deceive
people?
83. All drugs carry risks as well as benefits. Who should ultimately be responsible
for assessing these? Public bodies can protect the individual but also limit their
freedom. How do we know what is best for society and the individual?
84. Different painkillers act in different ways. How do we perceive pain, and how
are our perceptions influenced by the other ways of knowing?
85. “Chance favours only the prepared mind.” (Louis Pasteur). Fleming’s discovery
of penicillin is often described as serendipitous but the significance of his
observations would have been missed by non-experts. What influence does an
open-minded attitude have on our perceptions?
86. Cultures often clash over different perspectives and ideas. Is there any
knowledge which is independent of culture?
87. Sometimes we utilize different approaches to solve the same problem. How do
we decide between competing evidence and approaches?
88. How do we balance ethical concerns that appear to be at odds with each other
when trying to formulate a solution to the problem?

89. There is often no reference to the term “nuclear” in MRI. Are names simply
labels or do they influence our other ways of knowing? How does public
perception influence scientific progress and implementation?
90. Developments in technology have increased the chances of people being caught
using illegal substances. How do changes in technology influence our ethical
choices?
Knowledge questions in the Environmental Systems and Societies Syllabus
1. EVSs shape the way we perceive the environment—which other value systems
shape the way we view the world?
2. Models are simplified constructions of reality—in the construction of a model,
how can we know which aspects of the world to include and which to ignore?
3. The laws of thermodynamics are examples of scientific laws—in which ways
do scientific laws differ from the laws of human science subjects, such as
economics?
4. EIAs incorporate baseline studies before a development project is undertaken—
to what extent should environmental concerns limit our pursuit of knowledge?
5. Experts sometimes disagree about pollution management strategies—on what
basis might we decide between the judgments of the experts if they disagree?
6. Through the use of specialized vocabulary, is the shaping of knowledge more
dramatic in some areas of knowledge compared to others?
7. Feeding relationships can be represented by different models—how can we
decide when one model is better than another?
8. The Sun’s energy drives energy flows, and throughout history there have been
“myths” about the importance of the Sun—what role can mythology and
anecdotes play in the passing on of scientific knowledge?
9. Ecosystems are studied by measuring biotic and abiotic factors—how can you
know in advance which of these factors are significant to the study?
10. When is quantitative data superior to qualitative data in giving us knowledge
about the world?
11. Controlled laboratory experiments are often seen as the hallmark of the
scientific method, but are not possible in fieldwork—to what extent is the
knowledge obtained by observational natural experiment less scientific than the
manipulated laboratory experiment?
12. The term “biodiversity” has replaced the term “nature” in much literature on
conservation issues—does this represent a paradigm shift?
13. Diversity index is not a measure in the true sense of a word, but merely a
number (index), as it involves a subjective judgment on the combination of two
measures: proportion and richness. Are there examples in other areas of
knowledge of the subjective use of numbers?
14. The theory of evolution by natural selection tells us that change in populations
is achieved through the process of natural selection—is there a difference
between a convincing theory and a correct one?

15. There may be long-term consequences when biodiversity is lost—should people
be held morally responsible for the long-term consequences of their actions?
16. There are various approaches to the conservation of biodiversity—how can we
determine when we should be disposed to act on what we know?
17. The hydrological cycle is represented as a systems model—to what extent can
systems diagrams effectively model reality, given that they are only based on
limited observable features?
18. Aid agencies often use emotive advertisements around the water security
issue—to what extent can emotion be used to manipulate knowledge and
actions?
19. The Inuit people have an historical tradition of whaling—to what extent does
our culture determine or shape our ethical judgments?
20. A wide range of parameters are used to test the quality of water and judgments
are made about causes and effects of water quality—how can we effectively
identify cause–effect relationships, given that we can only ever observe
correlation?
21. The soil system may be represented by a soil profile—since a model is, strictly
speaking, not real, how can it lead to knowledge?
22. Consumer behaviour plays an important role in food production systems—are
there general laws that can describe human behaviour?
23. Our understanding of soil conservation has progressed in recent years—
what constitutes progress in different areas of knowledge?
24. Fertile soil can be considered as a non-renewable resource because once
depleted, it can take significant time to restore the fertility—how does our
perception of time influence our understanding of change?
25. The atmosphere is a dynamic system—how should we react when we have
evidence that does not fit with an existing theory?
26. The Montreal Protocol was an international agreement created by the UN—can
one group or organization decide what is best for the rest of the world?
27. Environmental problems are often emotive—under what circumstances should
we maintain a detached relationship with the subject matter under investigation?
28. To what extent does the recognition of the ethical responsibility of knowledge
influence the further production or acquisition of knowledge?
29. The choice of energy sources is controversial and complex—how can we
distinguish between a scientific claim and a pseudoscience claim when making
choices?
30. There has been considerable debate about the causes of climate change—does
our interpretation of knowledge from the past allow us to reliably predict the
future?
31. There is a degree of uncertainty in the extent and effect of climate change—how
can we be confident of the ethical responsibilities that may arise from
knowledge when that knowledge is often provisional or incomplete?

32. A variety of models and indicators are employed to quantify human population
dynamics—to what extent are the methods of the human sciences “scientific”?
33. As resources become scarce, we have to make decisions about how to use
them—to what extent should potential damage to the environment limit our
pursuit of knowledge?
34. The circular economy can be seen as a paradigm shift—does knowledge
develop through paradigm shifts in all areas of knowledge?
35. Human carrying capacity is difficult to quantify and contains elements of
subjective judgment. It has been claimed that historians cannot be unbiased—
could the same be said of environmental scientists when making knowledge
claims?
Knowledge questions in the Physics Syllabus
1. What has influenced the common language used in science? To what extent
does having a common standard approach to measurement facilitate the sharing
of knowledge in physics?
2. “One aim of the physical sciences has been to give an exact picture of the
material world. One achievement of physics in the twentieth century has been to
prove that this aim is unattainable.” – Jacob Bronowski. Can scientists ever be
truly certain of their discoveries?
3. What is the nature of certainty and proof in mathematics?
4. The independence of horizontal and vertical motion in projectile motion seems
to be counter-intuitive. How do scientists work around their intuitions? How do
scientists make use of their intuitions?
5. Classical physics believed that the whole of the future of the universe could be
predicted from knowledge of the present state. To what extent can knowledge of
the present give us knowledge of the future?
6. To what extent is scientific knowledge based on fundamental concepts such as
energy? What happens to scientific knowledge when our understanding of such
fundamental concepts changes or evolves?
7. Do conservation laws restrict or enable further development in physics?
8. Observation through sense perception plays a key role in making measurements.
Does sense perception play different roles in different areas of knowledge?
9. When does modelling of “ideal” situations become “good enough” to count as
knowledge?
10. The harmonic oscillator is a paradigm for modelling where a simple equation is
used to describe a complex phenomenon. How do scientists know when a
simple model is not detailed enough for their requirements?
11. Scientists often transfer their perception of tangible and visible concepts to
explain similar non-visible concepts, such as in wave theory. How do scientists
explain concepts that have no tangible or visible quality?
12. Wavefronts and rays are visualizations that help our understanding of reality,
characteristic of modelling in the physical sciences. How does the methodology

used in the natural sciences differ from the methodology used in the human
sciences?
13. Huygens and Newton proposed two competing theories of the behaviour of
light. How does the scientific community decide between competing theories?
14. There are close links between standing waves in strings and Schrodinger’s
theory for the probability amplitude of electrons in the atom. Application to
superstring theory requires standing wave patterns in 11 dimensions. What is
the role of reason and imagination in enabling scientists to visualize scenarios
that are beyond our physical capabilities?
15. Early scientists identified positive charges as the charge carriers in metals;
however, the discovery of the electron led to the introduction of “conventional”
current direction. Was this a suitable solution to a major shift in thinking? What
role do paradigm shifts play in the progression of scientific knowledge?
16. Sense perception in early electrical investigations was key to classifying the
effect of various power sources; however, this is fraught with possible
irreversible consequences for the scientists involved. Can we still ethically and
safely use sense perception in science research?
17. Battery storage is seen as useful to society despite the potential environmental
issues surrounding their disposal. Should scientists be held morally responsible
for the long-term consequences of their inventions and discoveries?
18. Field patterns provide a visualization of a complex phenomenon, essential to an
understanding of this topic. Why might it be useful to regard knowledge in a
similar way, using the metaphor of knowledge as a map – a simplified
representation of reality?
19. Foucault’s pendulum gives a simple observable proof of the rotation of the
Earth, which is largely unobservable. How can we have knowledge of things
that are unobservable?
20. The laws of mechanics along with the law of gravitation create the deterministic
nature of classical physics. Are classical physics and modern physics
compatible? Do other areas of knowledge also have a similar division between
classical and modern in their historical development?
21. The role of luck/serendipity in successful scientific discovery is almost
inevitably accompanied by a scientifically curious mind that will pursue the
outcome of the “lucky” event. To what extent might scientific discoveries that
have been described as being the result of luck actually be better described as
being the result of reason or intuition?
22. The acceptance that mass and energy are equivalent was a major paradigm shift
in physics. How have other paradigm shifts changed the direction of science?
Have there been similar paradigm shifts in other areas of knowledge?
23. Does the belief in the existence of fundamental particles mean that it is
justifiable to see physics as being more important than other areas of
knowledge?
24. The use of nuclear energy inspires a range of emotional responses from
scientists and society. How can accurate scientific risk assessment be
undertaken in emotionally charged areas?

25. The debate about global warming illustrates the difficulties that arise when
scientists cannot always agree on the interpretation of the data, especially as the
solution would involve large-scale action through international government
cooperation. When scientists disagree, how do we decide between competing
theories?
26. Are explanations in science different from explanations in other areas of
knowledge such as history?
27. Most two-slit interference descriptions can be made without reference to the
one-slit modulation effect. To what level can scientists ignore parts of a model
for simplicity and clarity?
28. The resolution limits set by Dawes and Rayleigh are capable of being surpassed
by the construction of high quality telescopes. Are we capable of breaking other
limits of scientific knowledge with our advancing technology?
29. How important is sense perception in explaining scientific ideas such as the
Doppler effect?
30. Although gravitational and electrostatic forces decrease with the square of
distance and will only become zero at infinite separation, from a practical
standpoint they become negligible at much smaller distances. How do scientists
decide when an effect is so small that it can be ignored?
31. Terminology used in electromagnetic field theory is extensive and can confuse
people who are not directly involved. What effect can lack of clarity in
terminology have on communicating scientific concepts to the public?
32. There is continued debate of the effect of electromagnetic waves on the health
of humans, especially children. Is it justifiable to make use of scientific
advances even if we do not know what their long-term consequences may be?
33. The duality of matter and tunnelling are cases where the laws of classical
physics are violated. To what extent have advances in technology enabled
paradigm shifts in science?
34. Much of the knowledge about subatomic particles is based on the models one
uses to interpret the data from experiments. How can we be sure that we are
discovering an “independent truth” not influenced by our models? Is there such
a thing as a single truth?
35. Much of the knowledge about subatomic particles is based on the models one
uses to interpret the data from experiments. How can we be sure that we are
discovering an “independent truth” not influenced by our models? Is there such
a thing as a single truth?
36. When scientists claim a new direction in thinking requires a paradigm shift in
how we observe the universe, how do we ensure their claims are valid?
37. Can paradoxes be solved by reason alone, or do they require the utilization of
other ways of knowing?
38. In what ways do laws in the natural sciences differ from laws in economics?
39. Although Einstein self-described the cosmological constant as his “greatest
blunder”, the 2011 Nobel Prize was won by scientists who had proved it to be

valid through their studies on dark energy. What other examples are there of
initially doubted claims being proven correct later in history?
40. Models are always valid within a context and they are modified, expanded or
replaced when that context is altered or considered differently. Are there
examples of unchanging models in the natural sciences or in any other areas of
knowledge?
41. The mythology behind the anecdote of Archimedes’ “Eureka!” moment of
discovery demonstrates one of the many ways scientific knowledge has been
transmitted throughout the ages. What role can mythology and anecdotes play in
passing on scientific knowledge? What role might they play in passing on
scientific knowledge within indigenous knowledge systems?
42. Could sign convention, using the symbols of positive and negative, emotionally
influence scientists?
43. However advanced the technology, microscopes and telescopes always involve
sense perception. Can technology be used effectively to extend or correct our
senses?
44. “It’s not what you look at that matters, it’s what you see.” – Henry David
Thoreau. To what extent do you agree with this comment on the impact of
factors such as expectation on perception?
45. The vast distances between stars and galaxies are difficult to comprehend or
imagine. Are other ways of knowing more useful than imagination for gaining
knowledge in astronomy?
46. The information revealed through spectra needs a trained mind to be interpreted.
What is the role of interpretation in gaining knowledge in the natural sciences?
How does this differ from the role of interpretation in other areas of knowledge?
47. Experimental facts show that the expansion of the universe is accelerating yet
no one understands why. Is this an example of something that we will never
know?

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Theory of

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 2

What is Theory of Knowledge?

What are Knowledge Questions?

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 3

Knowledge questions in the Visual Arts syllabus

1. To what extent is artistic knowledge something which cannot be expressed in

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 4

1. Why are the arts important?

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 5

1. What moral responsibilities do theatre-makers have?

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 6

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 7

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 8

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 9

Knowledge questions in the Economics syllabus

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 10

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 11

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 12

Knowledge questions in the Geography syllabus

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 13

Knowledge questions in the Psychology syllabus

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 14

Knowledge questions about texts

1. How does the reader shape the meaning of a text?

Knowledge questions about literature

1. Is a work of literature enlarged or diminished by interpretation? What makes

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 15

Knowledge questions about additional languages

Learning an additional language involves linguistic and metalinguistic,

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 16

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 17

Knowledge questions in the Maths Syllabus

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 18

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 19

Knowledge questions in the Biology Syllabus

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 20

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 21

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 22

Knowledge questions in the Chemistry Syllabus

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 23

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 24

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 25

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 26

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 27

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 28

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 29

Knowledge questions in the Environmental Systems and Societies Syllabus

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 30

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 31

Knowledge questions in the Physics Syllabus

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 32

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 33

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 34

Compiled from IB Subject Guides by Max Clark 35

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