Religious Traditions: Puranic-Hinduism and Tāntricism

Lesson: Religious Traditions: Puranic-Hinduism and Tāntricism

Lesson Developer: Shatarupa Bhattacharya

College/ Department: Lady Shri Ram College, University of Delhi

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 Religious Traditions: Puranic-Hinduism and Tāntricism

Table of Content:

 Introduction

 Puranic-Hinduism

-Division of the Corpus

-Basic Content

-Bardic Traditions

- rān s s rc ist r

-Puranic Trinity

-Br hmā, th Cr t r

- isn , the Preserver

-Śiv , th D str r

- Ś kti C lt

 Ritual Practices

 Tāntricism

 Summary

 Glossary

 Practice Questions

-Fill in the Blanks

-Objective Questions

-Match the Following

- Multiple Choice Questions

-Essay Type Questions

 References

 Justifications

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 Religious Traditions: Puranic-Hinduism and Tāntricism

Introduction

With the changing times, the early medieval period saw major changes in
political, social, economic, as well as in religious traditions. The concept of bhakti has
emerged and gained prominence in the society. The Vedic traditions had lost its
relevance. Besides, with the growth of the heretical sects such as Buddhism, Jainism and
other religious traditions, a change was much required. This transformation could be
seen with the coming of Puranic-Hinduism nd pr min nc tāntric practices in North
India. The Puranic rituals as compared to the Vedic rituals were less cumbersome. They
opened doors for the lower caste and women. They mentioned rituals which could be
performed by all with minor alterations. The aim was to gain popularity among the
masses.
Th rān s r n rm tiv Brahmanical texts, which eulogize various deities.
They describe various gods and sometimes goddesses, celebrated with many legends
nd mph siz n th ir divinit nd ‘pr t ct r ll’ im g . The shift was towards
sectarian gods. Thus the Puranic religion brought in many variations. The emphasis was
on the cult of the particular god and complete devotion. This ideology was popularized
by the Puranic religion hich mpli i d s cts Śiv nd isn s ll s epics such as
the Mahābhārata through Bhagavata-gītā. Prominence was given to construction of
temples and worshipping the deity instead of performing Vedic sacrifices. Besides
containing myths, the texts specified various religious acts to be performed in order to
please the deities. rānas also has Dharmasastric matter as it discusses various issues
of caste, kingship, punishments, social norms etc. Religious acts were recommended for
prosperity, peace, and progeny. Expiation of sin was also a strong motive for ritual
acti n s p rtr d in th rān as. Every religious act such as sacrifices, going to a
sacred place, vowed observance, or even reading and listening to the text was
considered to be pious and would expiate one from the sins of the Kali yuga.
The rānas mention the four yugas i.e. ages. These were rta, Tretā, Dvāpara
and Kali. Kali yuga was seen as representing social change in terms of the coming up of
new castes. The Brahmanical texts explained it in terms of miscegeny of the four var as.
The Brahmanical texts see this change as symbolic of the Kali yuga. As B.D.
Chattopadhyaya mentions, the Kali yuga was believed to be congruous with an actual
historical phase because the texts use concrete social categories such as the state,
human settlement, var as to highlight an upheaval, which heralded a rupture with the
past. R.S. Sharma describes it as a period when there was a deviation from the
established order of things. The Kali was synonymous with neglect of rituals,
predominance and influence of heretical sects and of foreign non-brāh a a rulers. It
was defined as non-p r rm nc ncti ns ssign d in th Dh rm śāstr s t di r nt
social strata or var a. Hence, it was associated with the concept of var asamkara, i.e.
proliferation of caste. During this period, the var a order was distorted and women were
specifically condemned for miscegeny. Uma Chakravarti postulates a relationship
between the caste hierarchy and gender hierarchy. The purity of women was central in
Brahmanical theories because purity of caste was contingent upon them. Women were
the gateway into the caste system. However, the proliferation of caste, on the other
hand, was seen as acculturation of the tribal people into the realm of Brahmanical
s ci t . Th rānas and the Mahābhārata connect the Kali yuga with several
catastrophic developments, such as brāh a as ceasing to performing the Vedic yajña,
śūdras taking on religious duties, mlecchas emerging as a dominant factor in
contemporary life, women devoid of chastity and people taking to evil practices such as
consuming liquor and meat. Therefore was the need to expiate sins through various
religious practices.
Th tāntric pr ctic s r r l t d t Śiva-Śakti cult and permeated many other
religious traditions, such as Budddhism, Jainism, Saivism and Vaisnavism. The tāntric

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practices were probably followed as early as 5th century BCE and by the early medieval
period saw further development. It was based on primitive fertility rites and emphasized
on magical rites according to N.N. Bhattacharyya. It included everyone without caste,
class or gender bias. R. . h rm nd rst nds tāntricism in context of feudalism and
acculturation of aboriginals and their religious rites and practices. This would have been
the reason for its popularity.
Besides textual references there are inscriptional as well as sculptural evidences
to support the popularity of these cults during this period.

Puranic-Hinduism:

Th rānas constitute a large corpus of texts. They are dated from

approximately 3rd – 16th century CE. They have been traditionally considered as sacred
s th d s nd h v b n d scrib d s th ‘ i th d ’. However, present-day scholars
have explored them from different perspectives. For instance, Vijay Nath perceives the
composition of the rān s s str t g r Br hm niz ti n in d l s t p. h
s gg sts th t th rān s r pr s nt pr c ss cc lt r ti n trib l gr ps ithin th
Brahmanical fold. The texts were, in fact, to a great extent instrumental in internalizing
the process of Sanskritization. According to her, the method of acculturation was
effective, as was evident from the degree of popularity of th rān s, especially in the
outlying regions such as Orissa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Northeast and the Deccan, where
tribal population was pr d min nt. n ct, m n th m r rān s s ch s th
ts , Bhāg v t , k nd , nd ārk nd r pr b bl c mp s d in th s r gi ns.
n l Ch kr b rti in his st d n th B ng l rān s h lds th t th rān s t ts
represent a Brahmanical attempt to construct an ideological system, which was region
specific.
Traditionally, it was held that the rān s was a single corpus which was divided
later. It was possible that legends in the form of gāthās and ākhyā as were present and
compiled as a single corpus. Th divisi n int ight n m hāp rān s was a late
development. ch l rs s ch s . . ns r m rk t t tr diti ns th irst c ll d
th cl ssic l st g th rān s th t pr c d s its c mpil ti n nd th s c nd st g
th rān mhitās. Th r r ight n m hāp rān s b t th list di rs in di r nt
rān s.

Division of the Corpus:

Th r r ight n m hāp rān s b t th list di rs in di r nt rān as. The ūr a

rā a mentions the Vāy rā a instead of the g rā a. The Matsya rā a and
the g rā a mentions the va rā a and omits the Vāy rā a. The Varāha
rā a replaced the ar da rā a and the rah ā da rā a with the Vāy and the
aras ha rā a, while the Mārka deya, V s u, and the hāgavata rā a omits the
Vāy rā a.
Th ight n rān s r divid d int thr cl ss s n th b sis th
sā khya theory of trinity of qualities, g as viz. tā asa, sāttv ka, and rājasa. The six
tā asa r Ś iv rān s r th ts , ūrm , Ling , ā , k nd nd Agni. Th
sāttv ka r isn v rān s r th isn , ār dī , Bhāg v t , r d , Padma, and
rāh . Th rājasa r Br hm rān s r th Br hmānd , Br hm v iv rt ,
ārk nd , Bh vis , ām n , nd th Br hmā rān . In a way the division
represents the sectarian nature of the texts.
. . n cl ssi i d th rān s int thr m in c t g ri s irst, nc cl p dic
s ch s th Agni, r d , nd ār dī . Th s c nd gr p s ch s th dm , k nd ,
nd Bh vis d lt ith tīrthas. Th third c t g r incl d d th s ct ri n t ts, s ch s
th Ling , ām n , ārk nd , nd Br hmānd rān . Besides, th r r m n
p p rān s hich r ritt n l t r nd r m r r gi n l in ch r ct r.

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Basic Content:

Th rān s r s pp s d t c nt in th a a- aksa a, five characteristics,

which included, sarga, creation, pratisarga, re-creation, va śa of gods and sages i.e.
genealogy, cosmic cycle, manvantara and accounts of royal dynasties, va śā ar ta.
Acc rding t . . nt l , th rān s r c rd c ntin it nd ch ng in c nt mp r r
society in the form of the themes dealt therein. Conventionally, th rān s r
supposed to contain accounts of creation, dissolution and re-creation, divine
genealogies, cyclic periods of Manu, royal genealogies, and means of livelihood,
incarnation of gods, as well as discussions on the concept of the individual, s l, nd
Br hm n, th ltim t r lit . v r nd b v th s t pics, th gl ri i d Br hmā,
isn , Śiv , ūr , nd th r d iti s nd ls c nt in disc ssi ns n right s c nd ct,
dharma, economics and polity, artha, erotics, kā a, geography, bh īsa sthā a,
smrti-rules and teaching, architecture, iconography and iconometry, gifts and great gifts,
ahādā a, v s, principl lit r r criticism, m ths, nd l g nds tc. Th s, th r
nc cl p dic in ch r ct r. Acc rding t .C. B n r i th rān s dealt with popular
beliefs and practices.
The table below gives a brief about the eighteen rān s in terms of their major
content besides Puranic stories and proposed date of compilation.

S.No. rān Date of Compilation Content

1. ārk nd rān 300-600 CE Details about dharma, hell,

Karma, duties of caste,
śrāddh , s cri ic s, D vī-
hātm tc.

2. Vayu rān 200-1400 CE Y g dh rm , śrāddh , āśr m

dharma, glorification of Gaya
etc.

3. Br hmānd / ā vi 200-500 CE Y g dh rm , śrāddh , hells,

rān karma, donations etc.

4. isn rān 300-400 CE lls, d ti s āśr m

dh rm , śrāddh ,
yugadharma etc.

5. Matsya 400-1100 CE Śrāddh , g dh rm , gi ts,

vr t , tīrth , d ti s m n,
consecration of temple, altars
and sculptures etc.

6. Bhāg v t 600 CE and later C st nd āśr m dh rm ,

Śrāddh , tīrth tc.

7. ūrm 500-1200 CE t r ūrm inc rn ti n,

C st d ti s, Śrāddh , gi ts,
d scripti n ś p t s,
glorification of Prayag,
Benaras etc.

8. ām n 900-1000 CE Hells, duties c st , imp rit

birth nd d th, vr t ,

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d t ils rship isn tc.

9. Linga 600-1000 CE Linga worship, consecration of

ling , Ś iv vr t s,
hādān , śrāddh , m stic
rites and practices etc.

10. rāh 800-1100 CE Importance of Pañcaratrā,

tīrth , śrāddh , vr t , d ti s
of women, gifts etc.

11. Padma 600-1400 CE Acc nts cr ti n nd

d str cti n, g gr ph , tīrth ,
gi ts, Śrāddh , vr t , rsn
nd Rādhā st ri s, Br hmā
worship, glory of Ganga and
Śāl grām s tc.

12. Brh nnār di nd 850- 1000 CE Śrāddh , vr t , tīrth ,

ār di b ilding t mpl s, d ti s
c st , rship isn , Rādhā
and glory of Ganga etc.

13. Agni 900 CE and later Śrāddh , vr t , tīrth ,

marriage, caste duties,
sacrifices, sin, hell, gifts,
building of temple and
sculptures etc.

14. r d 1000 CE and later Śrāddh , c ns cr ti n

im g s, gi ts, g dh rm ,
rship isn tc.

15. Br hmā 900-1200 CE Tīrth , h ll, k rm , śrāddh ,

duties of caste, marriage,
geography, glory of Konark
etc.

16. Skanda 1000-1300 CE l pl c s, tāntric tr c s,

encyclopedic work

17. Brahmavaivarta 800-1500 CE rship rsn nd Rādhā,

hells, karms, vrata etc.

18. Bh vis 500-1200 CE Duties of caste, duties of

women, marriage, worship,
good and bad signs of men,
women and kings, worship of
Br hmā, k nd , n ś nd
snakes, etc. Later chapters
sh tāntric in l nc .

B s d n R.C. zr , t di s in rānic R c rds n ind Rit s nd C st ms, 1987

Hazra opines that the Puranic a a- aksa a nd th hābhār t h d rigin t d

from the ar ava ākhayā a narrated during the aśva edha sacrifice. The h tr on these
occasions recited the stories and covered the contents of the Puranic a a- aksa a. As

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practice of the sacrifice and rituals associated with it died out, the priests turned into
bards. They intermingled with the ksatr yas and the new caste sūta m rg d. Acc rding
t tr diti ns, th rān s r s id t b th rk ās . He was ls c ll d rsn
Dv ipā n . l t r t ght th l r t his discipl sūta R m h rs n . Th rān s ls
cl im d th t b r ās , th t t s n rr t d b Br hmā t th munis. In order to
solve the complex situation of the original narrator, legends mention three layers. The
first was narrated by the deity to the muni. The second tradition refers to the different
tr diti ns th m nis nd th third l r s ss ci t d ith ās nd his discipl s.
Acc rding t l g nds, th sūt s b rn r m th s cri ici l ir d ring th r ign rth .
Th Agni rān d scrib d th sūta as a rā ka and a dvija different from other sūtas.
The origin of the a rā ka sūta from the brāh a a and ksatr ya lute players of the
aśva edha was well documented in early texts as during the sacrifice these traditions
were brought together and systematized. Therefore, the traditions may have originated
in these rituals.

Bardic Traditions:

Th th rship th rānas is a matter of controversy among scholars. The

rān s were Brahmanical text with the motive to gain popularity in the regions. Hence
the traditions prevalent in the region were accepted and incorporated within the
Brahm nic l r m rk. Th di nc s th rān as were varied. It addressed the
elite as well as ordinary people. Th rl t ts r r ll tr nsmitt d nd th r l
th b rd s st r t ll rs s pr min nt. Th b rds r kn n s ās , ūt , āg dh
nd L m h rs n / R m h rs n . Conferring the authorship t ās s n tt mpt
on the part of the authors to claim a higher status. Bonazzoli and other scholars believe
it t b g n ric n m hich m nt th ‘ dic rr ng r’.
The sūta represented the bardic tradition and marked a turning point in the
evolution th rān s. Th b rds r sp nd d t th n ds cc rding t th r gi n,
tim , nd sit ti ns nd h nc th c nt nt th rān s incr s d. The bards also
introduced their own popular culture and extended the Puranic traditions to all,
irrespective of gender and class. In terms of social status, the position of the sūta was
ambiguous. The sūta was the bard and was extolled as the narrator but later described
as the result of a pratiloma marriage, thus not a desired one according to the
Dh rm śāstr s. Romila Thapar holds that as the genealogical section was incorporated,
the social status of the original narrator was lowered. But overall it explains the
popularity of the texts. And it also explains interpolations in the texts nd h th
rān s might have incorporated societal changes.

uranas as a Source of history:

Th rān s r p rc iv d s s cr d t ts nd h v b n s d t r c nstr ct
r ligi s hist r . t di s h v c s d ith r n th ntir gr p th rān s r n
singl rān . Th rān s r s d s s rc t nd rst nd p litic l hist r b
scholars. Pargiter in his rks n th d n sti s th li g h s s th rān s s
historical material and constructs the political chronology of early India. This was one of
the rl tt mpts t incl d th rān s s s rc r hist ric l r c nstr cti n.
rgit r giv s th list th kings th ksvāk s, g dh s, r v s, Ś ng s nd
other ancient dynasties. His attempt was to use the genealogical tables mentioned in the
rān s nd r c nstr ct th hist r th d n sti s n t kn n r m th r s rc s.
ls s d this s rc t d t th hābhār t r nd th li g d n sti s. R.
rt n mith ls s s th rān s s s rc t d t rmin th nci nt chr n l g . H
m nti ns th rl d n sti s th r v s, ksvāk s, r s, nd Ś ng s b sid s
others. The main emphasis in these works s n th c nstr cti n th chr n l g
th rl kings b sing th rān s. Scholars such as Om Prakash move beyond the
d n sti s nd l k t th p litic l id s in rān s. mph siz s n th Agni, ts ,
isn dh rm tt r , ālikā, Brh ddh rm , nd īl m t rān s. l ks t th iss
kingship, n t r st t s, divin right tc. s m nti n d in th rān s. Romila Thapar

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also uses the gen l gic l s cti n th rānas and attempts to reconstruct the
political history by focusing on the solar and lunar dynasties. She reiterates that it was
important to understand the need to record and the process of legitimiz ti n. Alth gh
th rānas contain fables, they remain relevant as a source to understand social
relations. Th s rān s pr vid v l bl s rc t nd rst nd rl ndi n s ci t ,
polity as well as religion.

Puranic Trinity:
The Puranic religion emph siz s n th trinit Br hmā, isn nd Śiv . Br hmā
the creator, isn the preserver and Śiv th d str r. Th uranic religion emphasizes
through various stories and legends about the gods and goddesses related to the three
main deities. The major change that we see in comparison to the Vedic religion is loss in
position of Indra, Soma, Agni and other gods. They are sometimes mentioned in the
rān s but importance is given to the Puranic deities. dd ss s s ch s ārv tī also
had a prominent role to play. The role of consort became important as the image of a
h s h ld r s imp rt nt. Th t ts ls mph siz n th ‘pr t ct r ll’ im g .
Besides legends, the texts mention many rituals such as vrata, śraddha, tīrtha, dāna
which should be performed. In a way devotional practices become important. Religious
acts were performed to gain prosperity, peace, health, wealth and progeny. The need
was to expiate sins which were related to the kaliyuga. The early medieval period saw
the emergence of the notion of bhakti or devotion. The emphasis through various
legends was on the supreme god or goddess. But at the same time they acknowledged
the presence of other gods, i.e. henotheism was a feature in this p ri d. Th c lt Ś kti
also became prominent during this period.

Brahmā, the Creator:

n th trinit Br hmā seems to have a lesser role to play nd b th l t r r n as
he is just mentioned while focus is on other deities. He was described as the creator god
but soon the other deities seem to have become more prominent. He created besides the
universe, the mountains, seven oc ns, riv rs tc. cr t d brāhm na. He was called
r āpati and s r h d d g d. Br hmā represented priesthood, religion and
sovereignty. He was said to be born from a golden egg. Later Puranic stories mention
Br hmā b rn r m th n v l isn . Thus was closely linked to isn . Br hmā s ls
d scrib d s r s . is i s r s tī who was also call d his d ght r. is
inc st s r l ti n ith his d ght r s p p l r l g nd in th rān s hich pl ins
the essence of the divine relation. He was represented as white bodied, jeweled and
wearing white garments. He was described as a sacrificer and in sculptural
representations as seen in the Dula Deo temple at Khajuraho, he was shown with a
book, rosary, k m nd l , small water jug, whereas at Pushkara temple he is shown as a
swan. He was overshadowed by the other two Puranic gods.

isnu, the Preserver:

isnu was a popular Puranic deity and was originally part of the solar cult. He was
related to kingship. It is believed by scholars that the cult of Nārā na was absorbed into
Vaishnavism. Vedic Indra seems to have given his place to isn . And the story of his
thr st ps s m nti n d in th d s nd in th rān s it s ss ci t d ith his
ām n /d r v tār.
Did you know?
The earliest reference to the
c lt Bhāg v t s c m s
from the Besnagar Pillar
Inscription of Heliodorus
belonging to the 2nd century
BCE.

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s d scrib d s rsik ś , J g nnāth, J n rd n , śava etc. He created the

niv rs nd s ‘svaya bhū’ i. . s l b rn. cr t d t r nd br hm nda i.e.
Br hm ’s gg. s d scrib d s h ving l t s s, r rmed and having a śrīvatsa
l. inc rn t d t s v th rth r m th ‘as ras’ i.e. demons and establish order.
He was known for his ten avatars or inc rn ti ns, s ts , ūrm , ām n , rsimha,
r h , B l rām, D tt tr , Rām , rsna and last Kalki. The list of the ten incarnations
differs in different texts. The incarnations were also understood as a method of bringing
together different ideologies and forms. Totemic form, animistic forms and hero-
worshippers were brought together in one religion according to Sukumari Bhattacharji.
The Matsya avatār was the one which saved Manu from deluge and thus saved the earth. One
of the early incarnation s rsimha who killed the daitya king ir n k śip . Th
ām n avatāra made the daitya king B li c ptiv . Th rāh inc rn ti n kill d th
daitya ir n āksa with his tusks and divided the ocean into two. The Kūrma avatār was
linked to churning of the ocean to obtain nectar and kill d ir c n , s n r hlād .
Rāmacandra, son of Daśaratha came to earth to kill Rāvana. Kalki was the future incarnation
which would come at the end of the kaliyuga. . The Kalki avatāra would kill evil śūdra
kings, purify śūdras and end the mixture of var as. According to Sukumari Bhattacharji
the first few incarnations represent evolution and the rest belong to the mythical epochs.
Th v ri s rms isnu are well represented in sculptures for example in the
D ś v tār t mpl t D g rh. ll th inc rn ti ns, rsna emerged as the most
popular one. According to the legend he was born in the rsni family and had sixteen
th s nd iv s, m ngst h m th m st pr min nt r R kminī, t bhāmā, t ā,
bhāmā, Ś iv ā, āndhārī, nd th rs. s p p l riz d r sl ing ms nd ls
l t r s s d v - rsn . The Bhāgv t ītā is an important text which extols the notion
of bhakti. Th im g isnu was related to kingship as he was related to the various
wars between the gods and the demons. According to the Puranic texts, isnu had taken
different incarnations to protect the universe and establish righteousness.
isn is ss ci t d ith r d , serpents, lotus and gold. In sculptural
representations isn is always bejeweled. is c ns rt s Śrī or L ksmī. She was
related to fortune, kingship nd th s i isnu. She was also associated with fertility.
She was also associated with lotus. She was described as holding the lotus and is seated
on it as well. h s ls l t r d scrib d s rm D rgā.

Did you know?

It is interesting that Radha
was not mentioned in early
texts. Gita-Govinda by
Jayadeva, a 12th century
texts describes in detail the
love between Krsna and
Radha.

Th d v ti n isnu gained popularity in South ndi ith th c ming th Ālvārs.

Śiva, the Destroyer:

Śiva was an equally important d it . Śiv s d scrib d s itī, nth , rāla,
Kapardin etc. He is also called C ndr ś kh r , ngādh r , ś p ti nd Ardhnār śvara
etc., vari s l g nds r t ld in th rānas explaining the epithets ascrib d t Śiva. He
was described as a forester, householder and controller of passion. He was known as the
deity of the masses. He is commonly worshipped in the ga form and thus represents
fertility and power. s d scrib d s th l rd ll cr t r s nd spirits, piśāc s. His
antecedents were linked to Vedic Rudra who was described as one who could kill with
arrows and worshipped for his healing power. He is popularized as an ascetic. he was
ś p ti, th l rd nim ls. is ss ci t d ith th b ll, ndī. B ll s mb liz s
strength, vegetation and reproduction according to Suk m ri Bh tt ch r i. is ls
cl s l r l t d t sn k s. s l s s rr nd d b g n s, who were described as

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intoxicated. He was described as wearing tiger skin, smeared with ash, living on the
mountain. h d th pith t Bhārg v , ir nya, thān , D nd bhi tc. s
described as the forester, householder, and controller of passion besides other forms.
Th s nlik isn , Śiv s d scrib d s th g d th m ss s. s t ll d s th
friend of the brāh a a but not a brāh a a himself.
He was Śiv m rri g ith ārv tī/ tī and ls tī’s d th r p p l r
stories. Deities such as n śa and Skanda-karttikeya were later incorporated into the
Saiva cult as his son. Śiv s ms t h v t k n th pl c dic Agni in r nic
religion. ri s l g nds ss ci t d ith Agni r n r l t d t Śiv . He was
described both as an ascetic and a householder. Śiv ’s c lt h s Agni, v r , Y m ,
ūs n, r ts b sid s th rs. s d scrib d s hākāla, supreme destroyer. Śiv
burning Cupid to ashes, burning the city Trip ri, his m rri g t tī nd d str ing
D ks ’s s cri ic r s m th ll kn n r nic st ri s. Th ts rān
m nti ns th t m sic nd d nc t b p r rm d in h n r Śiv . s ls
pop l riz d s trā , th gr t d nc r.
Trivia:
Th rih r rm sh s v r
int r sting tt mpt t bring
t g th r t p r l d iti s,
isn nd Śiv . A famous
Harihara temple is in Osian,
Rajasthan.

The sects like the śupatas, āpālika, and Kalamukhas became quite famous in
the early medieval period. The Kalamukhas were believed to have emerged from the
Paśupatas. These sects had their monasteries. R.G. Bhandarkar points out on the basis
of inscriptional evidence that these two sects had m rg d r m L k līś ś p t s ct.
They were known for their weird practices such as smearing with ash, sleeping on
ground, making erotic gestures at women, laughing loud, eating food from a skull, being
in a state of intoxication etc. The āpālik s w r b li v d t b p rt Tāntric Saivism.
They lived in forests and were known for their hard austere practices. Many philosophical
scho ls c m p nd th Āgamic texts were held as authoritative. Many variant sects
m rg d s ch s Ś iv iddhāntas, Kashmir Saivism and Virasaivism. Another sect was
th tt m ūr cl n Śaiva ascetics who were referred to in many inscriptions. They
were popular in Central India roughly from 9th-12th century CE. The Kalacuri dynasty
mentioned them in their inscriptions. They were known for their knowledge and austere
practices, monasteries and other such activities. Th Śaiva cult had a strong following in
Southern India s th ānmars.

Śakti Cult:
ārv tī r Śakti, i Śiva, was a prominent deity with many legends which
extols her independent status as well. The texts mention various religious places, tīrthas
associated with the goddesses which reflects her popularity. The rise and growth of the
Ś kti and her incorporation into Śiv ’s p nth n h s b n nd rst d s ‘sp si ic ti n’
of Puranic gods. t p p l riz d th h s h ld r im g Śiv . As Śiv ’s i mā, sh
s s mb liz d s c hil Śiv s r pr s nt d s b ll. v r h r rm s D rgā
was different.
Trivia:
The Chaunsat Yogini temple
found in Khajuraho belonged to
9th century CE. Such temples
have been found in other places
as well. This reflects that the
cult of the goddess was quite
popular and was later
incorporated into the texts.
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 Religious Traditions: Puranic-Hinduism and Tāntricism

The Śakti cult became p rt th r nic l g nds ith th ins rti n th ‘D vī

hātm ’ in th ārk nd r na. It is a later addition to the original text but
represents the popularity of the cult of the goddess. She has been described as the
destroyer of evil and also as a creator. The P rānas brought together various goddesses
s rm Śakti. The cult is linked to Yoginis and Matrikas. There are references to sixty-
four Yoginis and temples have been found in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa besides other
places. The Matrikas were generally seven in number. And their temples were found in
eastern India. Kunal Chakrabarti talks about how acculturation between Brahmanism
and local cults led to the m rg nc c lt hisās r m rdinī, the great goddess.
Various places i.e. pithas associated with the goddess were mentioned in the texts. This
gave prominence to sacred geography in Indian context. The Matsya rā a m nti n d
the hundred and eight names of the goddess and the sacred places associated with her.
h s rshipp d s L litā in r g, Ling dhārinī in imisār n , J ntī in
Hastinapura etc.
She is described s h sv rī, ś nī, hād vī besides others. In her fierce form
sh is lī, rālī, Bhimā, C ndī etc. Th s lik Śiva she was both malevolent and benign
and that could be reason why the two cults could be brought together. This was best
represented in sculptures in the ardh āreśvara form i.e. one h l Śiv nd th r h l
ārv tī. She was described as a mother and also as a blood thirsty warrior goddess.
Stories of her killing the buffalo-h d d d m n b sid s Ś mbh nd iś mbh r q it
popular. She was described as riding the lion which symbolized kingship, authority and
supremacy according to Sukumari Bhattacharji. She was believed to omnipotent and
creator of heaven and earth. She was described as ādhyāśakt i.e. supreme power.
Those who believe that the female principle was the main creative force are called
Śākt s. . . Bh tt ch r b li v s th t it s a continuation of the primitive Mother
goddess cult. The rituals were based on fertility rites and were cl s l r l t d t Tāntric
beliefs and practices s s n r m th ārv tī t mpl t chn , h r h . According
t i th p p l rit th c lt Ś kti s link d t th ris Tāntricism.

Ritual Practices:
Instead of s cri ic s mph sis s n r ding th rān s s c mm n l ctivit
in the temple associated with the deity. The rān s reiterated the need to perform
various religious rites in order to attain freedom from all sins. This was related to the
Kali yuga paradigm. The rān s, because of their need to bring more people into their
fold, made the religious acts simpler. The most important transformation from the earlier
Brahmanical texts such as the Vedas was that women and śūdras could be now brought
within the Brahmanical realm. Among the religious acts, the construction of a temple in
honor of a deity was considered one of the pious acts. But it was restricted to the elite
section of the population as it required resources. The rān s popularized religious acts
such as going to a tīrtha, performed vrata, and śrāddha for not just elites but also the
masses. The rān s, thus, had adopted measures to gain popularity among the people.
Vijay Nath perceives these traditions as an ideological construct for social control. The
emphasis was on rāyaś tta, sin-expiation, hence dā a, vrata, śrāddha and visiting a
tīrtha was enumerated in the Purānas.
Tīrtha:
Puranic traditions lay emphasis on visiting sacred places. Large rivers, mountains,
and forests were venerated as the abode of the gods. In the gveda, the term tīrtha
denoted a road or a way. The tīrtha were revered on three counts, natural characteristics
of the locality, the peculiarity of water body or austerities performed by sages. The spot
was one where one could accumulate merit. According to the ka da rā a, a spot on
the earth resorted to by the sages for attainment of merit was called a tīrtha. They were
generally related to the water bodies. According to the ad a rā a all rivers were
holy, whether flowing through a village or a forest. Rivers were commonly deified and
were revered as sacred. It was believed that they not only purified one physically but
also freed one from the sins incurred. Mountains were also considered sacred. According

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 Religious Traditions: Puranic-Hinduism and Tāntricism

to the Vā a a rā a, the seven forests in Kuruksetra were sacred and remover of all
sins. There was mention of places like Prayag, Kasi besides rivers such as Ganga,
Yamuna, Narmada etc. Vijay Nath holds the tīrtha as representing an acculturation of
tribal culture by introducing Brahmanical religious acts in remote areas, as most of the
pilgrimage centers were away from the Brahmanical core cultural zone. Going to a tīrtha
was a practice which was open to both men and women. the Matysa rā a mentioned
that even listening to the glory of a tīrtha, barren women, va dyā beget sons, the
unfortunate become fortunate, sa bhāgya, a maid, ka yā gets a handsome husband, the
brāh a a becomes versed in the Vedas, the ksatriya becomes victorious in war, the
va śya becomes wealthy, the śūdra attains emancipation from the bondage and ūrkha
the idiot becomes learned and one who hears it never suffers from the pangs of
separation and hell.
Vrata:
A vrata is a vowed observance, a religious act of devotion and austerity,
performed for the fulfilment of a specific desire. Vratas were to be performed in th
h n r th d iti s, isn , Śiv , nd ārv tī b sid s th rs. Th rānas understand
vrata as niyama for the purpose of tapas. It included the observance of a fast, sleeping
on the ground, bathing, abstaining from sexual intercourse etc. Vratas were also
instrumental in reinforcing Brahmanical ideology such as var āśra a dharma. S.C.
Banerji believes that the patriarchal social order based on gender differentiation was also
established through the vratas such as the at sa bhāgyavardha a vrata, performed by
m rri d m n r th ir h sb nd’s l ng li . Th r were vratas specifically for women,
who observed vrata with an aspiration to get a desirable husband or a son. The
performance of the vrata was a compulsory religious duty for women. There was
mention of vratas which could be performed by the poor. It was important to give gifts
to brāh a as with a family. Vratas, which were household affairs, were institutionalized
with a position of importance to brāh a as. At the same time the communal nature of
the ritual s ls m int in d. t s imp rt nt t r d th rānas, sing, and dance in
honor of the deities while performing the vratas. And vratas were to be performed by
both men and women. There were references to vratas performed by sex workers,
śūdras besides the poor.
Śrāddha:
The śrāddha was a religious activity which was r c mm nd d r ll. Th rāna
mentioned the importance of giving gifts to the brāh a a. The gift as compared to those
recommended in the context of dā a was simpler and less expensive. Thus it was
evident that all sections of the society could perform it. This would have made these
religious practices more popular. These rituals were thought as giving of health, wealth,
and progeny. The emancipation from all sins and the satisfaction of the ancestors could
ls b chi v d. Th rānas mention these rituals as compulsory for the householder.
Various places were also associated with the performance of the śrāddha. The śrāddha
was divided into three categories, nitya, naimittika, and kā ya. The tya śrāddha was
to be performed daily or on a fixed day such as a āvasyā or the new moon day. The
performer should not expect rewards. The naimittika was to be performed on an
occasions such as the birth of a son and the kā ya śrāddha was to be performed when
one wished for a reward. The resultant benefit from these rituals was not only spiritual
but also worldly. The expected return was in terms of wealth, health, and progeny
besides others. Thus it was important to please the pitr for a successful life and
brāh a as were the agents for that. Donations were mentioned in the Matysa rā a
for the successful completion of the śrāddha ritual. In this case, the donation was not of
gold, land etc. rather it was clothes, bed, utensils and other household articles. The
rāna also mentioned that the gift should be given to a brāh a a with a family and
preferably with a large family.
Dāna:
Another method to expiate sins was to give donations. In th v ri s rit ls th
rāna mentioned gifts to be given to brāh a as. Time and again the text dealt with the

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 Religious Traditions: Puranic-Hinduism and Tāntricism

issue of dā a along with its rules and regulations. There was detailed description on the
procedures to be followed during the process of giving gifts. Emphasis was laid on what
was to be given, its time, place, eligibility of the person to whom gift was to be given
etc. Th rān s m nti ns th id ‘ ahādā a’, hich cc rding t i th sh s
the feudal nature. Gifts included distributing gold, land, precious and semi-precious
stones, animals such as cow besides other objects to a number of brāh a as.
Inexpensive gifts such as bed, utensils, clothes, food, umbrella etc. were also
mentioned. The performance of the ritual was for the elites as it required resource
mobilization. Besides the ahādā a, the rān s also mentioned simpler dā a to be
given during the performance of rituals such as śrāddha, tīrtha etc. The Matsya rā a
also mentioned sixty simpler dā a such as lighting the lamp, cleaning the floor of the
temple etc. Thus again the aim was to popularize the ritual.

Tāntricism:
Tāntricism was based on the practical concerns of humans. Its practices
concerned fertility in terms of progeny as well as agriculture besides medicines etc.
Tantra was basically a way to understand life. In the Vedic texts it was used in a sense
of a loom. But later it meant an act or a process. Soon texts were written concerning
‘tattva’ i. . th r nd ‘ a tra’ i.e. practical/ technical. The aim was to satisfy the
material needs of the follower. It gave importance to women in rituals. It is linked to
energy, yogic practices, and sex rites. The Tantras mentioned two primary principles,
Śakti, the female principle which justifies the existence of an individual and is the
dynamic force. The male principle is static. The p rp s th tāntric sadha ā or
practice is to achieve the confluence of these two. It involved secret initiation of the
follower. Mantras i.e. prayer and formulae and bijas i.e. magical syllables associated with
various deities had an important role to play in the process. The Tantras are associated
with five elements called the panch- akāras, i.e. mada, i.e. alcohol, ma sa i.e. meat,
matsya i.e. fish, drā i.e. parched grain or gestures and maithuna i.e. sexual
intercourse. An th r imp rt nt sp ct th tāntric practice was yantras i.e. diagrams,
meditation and symbolic gestures. Emphasis was laid on both mukti i.e. liberation as well
as bhukti i.e. enjoyment. It also popularized the notion of bhakti to the god also to the
initiator i.e. guru. Overall the attempt was to attain union with the Supreme Being. Th
c lt m th r g dd ss s pr v l nt d ring th rl p ri d. B th rl m di v l
tim s, s R. . h rm m nti ns th c lt b rigin l m th r g dd ss s r
rshipp d s Ś kti r B ddhist Tārā. m s g dd ss s ch s D mbinī, C nd lī,
t lī, āt ngī tc. r l cts this tr ns rm ti n. B sid s m st th tāntric t ts r
written in Nepal, Kashmir, Bengal, Assam, Orissa and western and Central India which
were peripheral regions and not centers of Brahmanical religion according to R.S.
Sharma. This pr c ss r ligi s ch ng s link d t d lism nd incr s l nd
gr nts t brāhm n s. Mostly land was given in peripheral regions and was understood as
a m th d ‘c l niz ti n’ th trib l r gi ns into Brahmanical system. Gradually, as
R.S. Sharma points out bhakti nd tāntricism p rm t d th Br hm nic l religious
traditions and became popular among the masses.

Summary:
The early medieval period saw many transformations such as land grants,
regional political formations, new genre of literary texts and other such developments.
There was also a spurt in building temples by the royalty. In relation to these changes
religious traditions also saw transformations. There was a need to change according to
the needs of the new society. With regional developments many new cults had to be
incorporated into Hinduism. Th mph sis s n th trinit , Br hmā, th cr t r,
isn , th pr s rv r nd Śiv , th d str r. Al ng ith it th Ś kti c lt ls b c m
important. Stories of the deities were popularized. Along with these changes rituals of
the earlier period had lost its importance and were replaced by new rituals such as vrata,

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 Religious Traditions: Puranic-Hinduism and Tāntricism

tīrthas, dā a and śrāddha. Besides gender and caste barriers were no longer functional
as other religious traditions accepted them within their folds. Therefore, Hinduism also
had to change according to the times. This would explain the Puranic changes. New
deities were incorporated either as spouse or as children. The emphasis was on sin
expiation and thus new rituals were incorporated.
Tāntricism also became popular and permeated other religious belief systems. The
importance was given rituals and practices which would benefit the follower. Tantra and
mantra became prominent. Devotion had become an important aspect in religion. The
male and female principles and th ir ni n s th im th tāntric practices besides
dealing with common concerns such as illness. R.S. Sharma has tried to understand the
p p l rit tāntricism d ring th rl m di v l p ri d n th b sis of the socio-
economic changes. He links it to the early medieval practice of land grants and
brahmanization of peripheral regions. Besides incorporating the tribal beliefs it had an
immense impact on Buddhism, Jainism and Brahmanism as well. This influence could be
understood through various texts which document change. It was seen as a tacit process
of acculturation with no class, caste and sex bias.
After the 9th -10th c nt ri s, rān s r in l nc d ith tāntricism. Additi ns
s ch s m ntr , dr ing c l r d l t s, r circl s d ring vr t s nd c ns cr ti n r
tāntric in n t r . Th c nc pt dīkś s disc ss d in r d rān , dm rān ,
Agni rān ls sh tāntric in l nc s. In a way the early medieval period saw major
transformation in terms of religion and rituals.

Glossary:
ākhyā as- tales
aśva edha- horse sacrifice
av tār- incarnation
bhakti –devotion
bhukti i.e. enjoyment
bijas - magical syllables
dā a- gift
dīks - initiation
dvija- t ic b rn, Brāhm n
ga a- ll rs Śiv
gāthās- song
guru- teacher
mantra- prayer
mlecchas- foreigners
mukti- liberation
muni- sage
niyama- norm
a a- aksa a- five distinguishing marks
piśāc - spirits
pitr- forefathers
pratiloma- against direction of hair i.e. rule
prāyaś tta- sin-expiation
s dh nā- practice
śrāddha- a ritual to be performed after death in family
sūta- a caste
tapas- austerity
tattva- matter/ theory
tīrtha- pilgrimage

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 Religious Traditions: Puranic-Hinduism and Tāntricism

va śā ar ta- royal genealogy

v rn - color, caste
v rn ś nk r - proliferation of caste
var āśra a dharma- d t cc rding t n ’s c st
vrata- vow/fast
yuga- age/period

Practice Questions:
1. Fill in the Blanks:
1. Br hmā s ls c ll d ---------------.
2. Ardhnāriśv r rm Śiv in sc lpt r s r pr s nts Śiv nd -------------.
3. Mudra is an important aspect of ----------- practices.
4. ------------------ is a text which epitomizes the concept of Bhakti.
5. Śiv is p p l rl rshipp d in ----------- form.

2. Objective questions:
Question Number Type of question

1. m n nd śūdr s c ld True or False

participate in Puranic rituals.
2. Tantric practices were secretive in True or False
nature.
. rān s r s l t nd rst nd True or False
the religious history only.

4. Ś kti r th m l principl s True or False

dominant in tantric rituals.
. Bh kti s c nc pt h s its True or False
b ginning in th p ri d b r th
rān s.

3. Match the following:

Śrīv ts l Śiv
ś p t s Tāntric practice
Ascetic deity Saiva cult
Yantras isn
ś ni ārv tī

4. Multiple Choice questions:

. D vī hātm is p rt hich . ts rān
rān ? . ārk nd rān
3. isn rān

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 Religious Traditions: Puranic-Hinduism and Tāntricism

4. None of the above

. Th rān s r s id t b rigin ll 1. Romaharsana
compiled by whom? 2. Lomaharsana
. ās
4. ūt
3. Yoginis were linked to which cult? . isn c lt
2. Saiva cult
. Ś kti c lt
4. All of the above
4. R dh nd rsn st r s t ll d in 1. Gita- Govinda
which text? 2. isn rān
. Tāntric texts
4. Bhāgv t ītā
5. Where is Chausath Yogini temple was 1. Haridwara
found? 2. Dwarka
3. Khajuraho
4. Mathura

5. Essay type questions:

1. What were the main changes in religious terms that were seen during
the early medieval period?

2. Puranic religion was acculturation of regional non-brahamanical religious

traditions. Discuss.

3. What were the reasons for popularity of the Puranic deities?

4. Why Tantric practices became popular?

5. Disc ss th s ct ri n n t r th rān s.

References:
Banerjea, J.N., a rā a d a tr e g , University of Calcutta, Calcutta,
1966.

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 Religious Traditions: Puranic-Hinduism and Tāntricism

aner i, , o lar ife and elief as Related in the rā as , ā a, Vol. 22, I,

1980, p. 23.

Bhattacharji, Sukumari, Indian Theogony, Calcutta: 1970.

Bhattacharyya, N.N., H st ry f the ākta e g , Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi,

1996 (2nd edition).

History of the Tantric Religion, A Historical Ritualistic and Philosophical

Study, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1982.

B n zz li, ., ‘ rānic r mp rā’, rā a, Vol. 22, No. 1 and 2, 1980, pp. 33-
60.

Chakrabarti, Kunal, e g s r ess he rā as and the Making of the

Regional Tradition, Oxford University Press, Delhi: 2001.

Chitgopekar, Nilima, E ter g avs , he De ty, he M e , he E t rage,

Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi: 1998.

Dange, Sadashiv A., Encyclopedia of rā be efs a d ra t es, Navrang

Publishers, New Delhi: 1987.

Doniger, W., (ed.), rā a ere s e r ty a d ra sf r at H d a d

Jaina Texts, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi: 1993.

Hazra, R.C., t d es rā e rds the tes a d st s, Motilal

Banarsidass, Delhi: 1987.

Kantaw l , . ., ‘ rānas and Indian History and Culture- An v rvi ’, rā a,

Vol. 34, No. 1, 1992, pp. 5-13.
Nath, Vijay, rā a and Acculturation, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi: 2001.

Pargiter, F.E., he rā ic Text of the Dynasties of the Kali Age, Deep

Publications, Delhi: 1975, (reprint).
Sharma, R. . ‘ t ri l ili Tāntricism’, in D. . Jh ( dit d), Th F d l
Order State, Society and Ideology in Early Medieval India, Manohar Publishers
and Distributors, Delhi, 2002, pp. 441-54.

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 Religious Traditions: Puranic-Hinduism and Tāntricism

Justifications:
1. Fill in the Blanks:
1. r āp ti
2. ārv tī
3. Tāntric
4. Bhāgv t ītā
5. Ling

2. True or False:
Correct answer 1. True
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. False

3. Match the following:

Correct option:
Śrīv ts l isn
ś p t s Saiva cult
Ascetic deity Śiv
Yantras Tāntric practice
ś ni ārv tī

4. Multiple Choice Questions:

. D vī hātm is p rt hich . ārk nd rān
rān ?
. Th rān s r s id t b rigin ll . ās
compiled by whom?
3. Yoginis were linked to which cult? 3. Ś kti c lt

4. R dh nd rsn st r s t ll d in 1. Gita- Govinda

which text?
5. Where is Chausath Yogini temple was 3. Khajuraho
found?

5. Essay type questions justification:

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 Religious Traditions: Puranic-Hinduism and Tāntricism

1. Prominence of trinity, new rituals, inclusion of women and lower caste, and less
cumbersome practices.
2. Inclusion of tribal and other regional deities.
3. They were popular and were closer to the masses.
4. Concern with the issues of the people such as agriculture, medicines etc.
5. Divisi n rān s int thr sects and each believing in the supremacy of
their god. Henotheism being the main aspect of Puranic religion.

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