A Critical Study of the Psychological, Ethical and Social Bases of the Buddhist Theory of Karma

Conclusion
One main and basic study is that any karma has a psychological basis, irrespective of whether it
has the ethical or social bases or not, and this the most vital aspect in karma. This is what
makes a man to be born again and again, and suffer in the saṁsāra.

Paṭicca Samuppāda is to be understood in two ways: (i) as a process over a very long period of
time. i.e, as cyclical existence with three divisions, and (ii) as a repeatedly manifesting process
in the casual continuum of the present life with emphasis upon the present moment. The first
version helps one to see the misery of the endless saṁsāra and the significance of liberation,
while the second is important for the person concerned about liberation in the present life. The
causal continuum of the contemporary middle section of the life cycle is the stage of free
volitional action and the causal process can be given a new direction delineating oneself from
the feeling of self, carrying out all his actions with awareness every moment. Even for a person
at a lower stage of development, this is a good opportunity as lobha and dosa can be
attenuated with mindfulness.

There are statements by some contemporary Buddhist scholars with misconceptions and
misinterpretations of paṭicca samuppāda – that ‘paṭicca samuppāda covering three lifetimes
given in Visuddhimagga is contrary to the Buddha’s teaching; the Buddha did not teach
anything as rebirth consciousness etc.; and what is correct is only the moment-to-moment
paṭicca samuppāda as a continually occurring process’. In this regard, it cannot be said in any
way that ‘the analysis covering three lifetimes is irrelevant or not necessary’. Concerning the
writing of the Aṭṭhakathā, the reason why the one-mind-moment interpretation is not given in
the Visuddhimagga may be presumed that it was not only very difficult, but also it may have
had disappeared from scholastic circles at the time, which may have resulted in slight
deviations from what has been taught in early Buddhism. Also this can be assumed from the
fact that in the Vibhaṅga Aṭṭhakathā (Sammohavinodanī) itself the description of the one-
mind-moment interpretation is extremely brief, whereas, the principle of Dependent
Origination on a lifetime-to-lifetime basis is quite lengthy as in the Visuddhimagga.

With respect to the two interpretations of paṭicca samuppāda, it can be summed up saying that
the moment-to-mement causal process occurring in the causal continuum of the contemporary
middle section of the life cycle is part and parcel of the life cycle covering three lifetimes.

Rebirth without a soul: In the paṭicca samuppāda – saṅkhārā-paccayā viññāṇaṃ means

dependent on the kamma (saṅkhāra) of the past birth, the present birth is conditioned.
Viññāṇa is the first factor of origination (nidāna) and also the first of the conditioning links
belonging to the present existence. So this is the first of the stream of consciousness (viññāṇa-
sota) belonging to this existence (bhava). Thus it is also known as paṭiccasandhiviññāṇa,
relinking or rebirth consciousness. In the analysis of the rebirth process, the three terms we
come across, paṭiccasandhiviññāṇa gandhabha and bhavaṅga can be considered as the same
karmic force, identified differently in the three contexts. Determined byt the maraṇāsanna-
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javana the paṭiccasandhiviññāṇa comes into effect for the formation of the embryo or
gandhabha, which then lapses into the state of bhavaṅga. All three terms mean the karmic
force that is reborn in the next life without anything transmigrating from one life to next
resulting in unbroken continuity and there is no breach in the stream of consciousness. How the
new being grows as given in the simile, kammaṃ khettaṃ, viññāṇaṃ bījaṃ, taṇhā jalaṃ, is the
seed viññāṇa nurtures in the field khetta (that is old karm – nāma-rūpa, saḷāyatana, phassa,
vedanā), supported by moisture taṇhā from the previous life). In the present causal continuum,
phassa results in cetanā followed by saṅkhāra, which results in viññāṇa conditioning the next
bhava. This continues on and on life after life.

Defilements (kilesa), hindrances (nīvaraṇa) and unskillful attainments (akusalasamāpatti)

prevailing in a man (puthujjana) are purely psychological. There will be no ethical or social
bases present in these, except for the fact that some of these may serve as roots for akusala
karma with ethical or social bases, that could result in harmful effects to those immediately
around him or in the society. Likewise, in all meditation and mental development activities to
acquire wholesome merits for abandoning these and for entering the noble paths there is only
the psychological basis present.

Some scholars expand on the vipāka in the petavatthu and Vimānavatthu for urging people to
do wholesome and then avoid immoral. This charisterises the concept known as kamma
sarikkhatā, which is the similarity and proportionality of kamma and Vipāka, the accuracy or
inaccuracy of which can be seen only by knowing how kamma vipāka operates in different
situations. This is among the four unthinkable (acinteyya) that is beyond the thinking faculty of
human beings and this can be grasped only by a Buddha. Whatever the disputes about the
accuracy or society, for adhering to moral and ethical aspects in their behavior, being conscious
of how these would be reflected in the society, and also whether these would be accepted or
rejected in the household, community and in the society at large.

In the ethical basis of karma, when analyzing whether the moral values in Buddhism are
negative all the time as indicated by some Western scholars, it can be concluded that the
statement “veramaṇi sikkhā padaṃ samādiyāmi” in any given precept, though presented in the
negative form, is a very strong statement, indicating that one is undertaking the precept as a
part of training, which is more powerful than recommending a positive precept. It means
thinking with yonisomanasikāka, refraining from doing the particular evil action requiring a
strong will power and determination. Unless one is mindful all the time, it is easy for one to give
way to various kinds of temptations. As such, the morality recommended in Buddhism is not in
any way negative. Also after observing the five precepts, a Buddhist is expected not to just
refrain from doing the particular evil, but also to engage in special practices as the positive
corollary of each of the the apparently negatively worded precepts.

In looking at the five characteristics that should be fulfilled for pāṇātipāta to become a papa
kamma, these are found in the commentaries, and not in the discourses. The cetanā, with
which the killing is done, includes the motive, its immediate intention and the immediate
mental impulse associated with it. As such, even if the condition, that the living being should
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die has not been fulfilled, it would become a pāpa / akusala kamma, as the person has acted
with the intention of killing the living being, in spite of the fact that the accompanying bodily
and verbal karma may not have been fulfilled as the full course of the action.

All karma with an ethical basis, when going beyond the level of interpersonal relationships, are
reflected at social level. If an individual performs a karma that will affect the society, it can be
considered as karma with a social basis. Depending on the Cetanā, with which one would
perform such kusala or akusala karma, the psychological basis also would be present. When
almost all counties in the world use indicators such as, GDP focusing largely on market
transactions, covering trade, monetary exchange rates, stock market, growth, etc., in Bhutan,
the development is measured by an index termed as the Gross National Happiness (GNH),
which can be assumed as Buddhist thinking put into practice in the society. GNH indicators have
been developed to enable some kind of a measurement system reflecting the living patterns of
people, so that GNH could guide the practical policies and programs in the country. This is a
good example for other countries to pursue.

Although according to the Buddha, a society with communistic ownership of property is ideal,
such systems to be sustainable, needs a society of egoless individuals, highly developed
spiritually and intellectually, where greed, hatred and ignorance do not exist or are minimal.
This could be seen from socialist states established in Europe starting with the USSR in the early
part of the 20th century, followed by other states, which made great efforts with commitment
to provide equal status to all individuals in all aspects of life. After the passage of around 70
years or so the system started to collapse, signifying the impermanence of everything in nature.
The cycle of causal phenomena takes place with the ignorance of groups of people rising up and
coming into effect with greed for power and/or wealth.

Adverse collective karma would include – large scale financial misappropriations, frauds and
thefts; arbitrary exercising of power by rulers resulting in violence and misappropriation; mass
killings, arms manufacturing including atomic and nuclear weapons and dealings that support
the wars with damaging effects caused to the environment; spreading or trying to spread
wrong beliefs or religions with wrong views suppressing those with right views etc. Beneficial
collective karma would include – great actions beneficial to the society by groups of people or
by the initiation of one person leading the activity and others following suit with commitment
to establish a just society etc.

In the Savāstivāda doctrine, collective karma is looked at in a different manner. Skillful and
unskillful karma of a person has repercussions not only for himself, but for the whole universe
as well; all karma have a threefold result- fruit of retribution, fruit of emanation (niṣyanda-
phala) and fruit of dominance (adhipati-phala); the ten paths of karma are in fact said to be
established on account of these three fruits. For e.g., the path of karma of killing repeatedly,
the fruit of retribution is rebirth in hell, among animals or among pretas, the fruit of emanation
is short life-span when the transgressor is subsequently reborn in the human world, and the
fruit of dominance is the lack of vitality and non-durability of eternal things such as plants, the
planets etc. Accordingly, an individual’s karmic action has both personal and collective aspects.