Introduction: Training is essential for organizational productivity.

Though it is a type of
education, training is job oriented. It is skill learning. Education is wider in scope and general in
purpose whereas training is organization specific and practice based.
Core competencies and expertise give the organizations an edge over their competitors
and training plays a vital role in developing and strengthening these competencies. Change of
technology demands that employees update their knowledge, skills, abilities and technical
expertise. Jobs are becoming more interdependent demanding high interpersonal and problem
solving skills, which can be acquired only through training.
Training is a continuous and perennial activity. Human evolution itself is a part of history
of training. The Stone-age people got themselves trained to fulfill their basic needs. The metal-
age people learnt the art of use of metals and cooking. Thus every page and stage of human
civilization will contain training in the backdrop. Even in the monarchical era, the kings used to
send their wards to gurukul, which is nothing but a form of residential training. Even today, in
the area of skill training we can see apprenticeship as a form of training.
As Alvin Tofler puts it ‘only change is permanent’. In our century the great issue facing
not only the developed nations but also the developing nations is the problem of change and
adapting to change is the main concern of present day. Change that is induced through science
and technology development demands rapid individual and social adjustment. The above two
challenges are met mainly by manpower training and development programmes.
The quest for knowledge for enlightenment is universal. So change is fundamental for the
progress of a dynamic society. Every change is a challenge to be met and knowledge provides
the strength to convert these challenges into opportunities. But to do so, knowledge needs to be
transformed into skills and this is a function of training. Training is an investment in ‘knowledge
capital’. This capital resource is subjected to obsolescence. It needs to be continuously updated
an expanded. Training is a continuous process and has become an important function in the
development and management of human resources.

Edwin B. Flippo defines training as the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an
employee for doing a particular job

The word ‘training’ consists of eight letters, to each of which could be attributed significant
meanings in the following manner:

T – Talent and Tenacity (strong determination)

R – Reinforcement (something positive to be reinforced into memory and system again and
again, until it becomes a spontaneous affair)
A – Awareness (with which one can easily take long strides of progress)
I – Interest (which is invariably accompanied by excitement and enthusiasm)
N – Novelties (the new things the like of which would sustain our interest)
I – Intensity (the training instilled into the trainee’s mind must acquire experience oriented
intensity)
N – Nurturing (it does refer to continuous nurturing of talent, which otherwise would remain
dormant)
G – Grip (a fine grip over the situation solves multiple problems and enables one to acquire a
practical and programmatic approach)
Evolution of Training and Development

There are many examples of effective functioning of HRD throughout the history. A glance into
the history of the profession will help to understand the HRD field in a better way in the present
day context.
The evolution of HRD can be discussed in two stages: 1) a global perspective and 2) an Indian
perspective.

Reasons for HRD evolution in global perspective are:

1. Emergence of apprenticeship training program and collective bargaining mechanisms;
2. Emergence of vocational training program and factory schools;
3. Training programs for semi-skilled and unskilled workers; and
4. Emergence of training as a profession.

1. Emergence of apprenticeship training program and collective bargaining mechanisms:

During the 18th century in America, small shops were operated by skilled artisans. They
produced almost all household articles like utensils, furniture, shoes, clothing etc. it was a one
man show at the beginning. Later, when the demand for the products increased, these shop
owners appointed additional workers. As there were no schools available to train the workers the
shop owners themselves had to educate the workers. Thus the skilled artisans, who were the shop
owners, also turned into trainers and trained the trainees or apprentices who learned the craft for
very little wages.
Apprentices who mastered all the crafts were considered as “yeomen”. At this stage, they
could leave the shop owners and start their own shops if they wished. The growth in business led
to the development of number of yeomen by the craftsman. In order to tackle the growing
number of yeomen master craftsmen established “craft guilds” to regulate aspects relating to
working hours, wages, and apprentice testing procedures, etc. These craft guilds also grew in
power, making it still more difficult for the yeoman to establish their own craft shops.
Yeomen, on the other hand, counter – balanced the powerful craft guilds by establishing
“Yeomanry’s”. The yeomanry served as a collective voice in negotiating higher wages and better
working conditions from the craftsmen.

2. Emergence of vocational training program and factory schools: Dr. W.H. Clinton, in
1609, established the first recognized privately funded vocational school in New York to provide
occupational training to unskilled young people who were either unemployed or had criminal
records.
These schools were the prototype for the vocational education of the present day. Later,
in the late 19th century, with the advent of industrial revolution machines began to replace the
hard tools of the artisans. Scientific management principles gained importance in this period. The
products produced by semi-skilled workers using machines were more in quality and quantity
than that of products produced by skilled workers in a small craft shop.
Due to the growth of factories, there was demand for skilled workers, engineers,
mechanics and skilled mechanics to design build and repair the machines. The supply of skilled
workers from the vocational schools was not sufficient for the growing demand for the workers
from the factories. So to meet the growing demands, factories created factory schools that
offered mechanical and machine training programs.
3. Training programs for semi-skilled and unskilled workers: In the year 1913, Ford motor
company came up with mass production using an assembly line to manufacture affordable to a
larger segment of public. This resulted in greater demand for these cars, thereby forcing
increased production. This led Ford to design more assembly lines. This expansion required
more number of semi skilled workers.
Another significant event which helped in the training of semi-skilled and unskilled
workers was the outbreak of the First World War. This demanded the factories to support the war
effort. Charles Allen, director of training of the US shipping board, introduced a four step
instructional training method called as “show, tell, do and check”. Later this technique was
called “Job Instruction Training” (JIT).

4. Emergence of training as a profession: First World War gave rise to the JIT programs for
the semi and unskilled workers. With the out break of Second World War US government
established Training Within Industry (TWI) service to coordinate training programmers across
defense related industries.

In 1942, the American Society for Training Directors (ASTD) was formed to establish some
standards within the emerging training profession. Slowly, there was transformation during
1960’s and 1970’s in the role performed by the professional trainers. They realized that their role
is not only to train employees but also to coach and counsel employees. This additional
enhancement of role led to the renaming of the society as American society for Training and
Development (ASTD).

Reasons for HRD evolution in Indian perspective are:

In India, state intervention to protect the welfare of workers was felt necessary soon after the
completion of First World War. Emergence of Trade Union movement and finally Trade Union
Act of 1926 gave a formal recognition to the worker union and labour welfare activities
introduced in factories. Tata group implemented employee welfare measures like provident fund
and leave rules. This can be considered as the beginning for HR as a field in India. Factories Act
1948 was introduced making it mandatory for factories to have welfare officers in factories.
In the early 70’s, two consultants Prof. Udai Pareek and Prof. T.V. Rao from the Indian
Institute of Management were approached by L&T for a review exercise of their performance
appraisal system. They recommended that performance appraisal, potential appraisal, feedback
and counseling, career development, career planning and training and development get distinct
attention as unique parts of an integrated system which we call the Human Resource
Development System. This is resulted in development of HRD function.
The recommendations were taken up and L&T created a separate HRD department. Later
the system is adopted by State Bank of India and its associates.
 The establishment of a separate ministry of Human Resource Development (HRD) in
1986 was a logical symptom of the realization of the importance of developing human factor by
the Government of India.
In the year 1985, The National HRD Network was conceived to develop networks among
HRD professionals to facilitate learning from one another.
This later gave birth to the Academy of Human Resources Development in the year 1990.
This was the first family tree of HRD in India. This was established as an academic centre for
training, research and extension services in the field of HRD.

Scope of Training

Traditionally, training has been seen as an event or program to develop specific explicit
knowledge and skills. But mangers and trainers and human professionals have begun to
recognize the potential contribution to business goals of knowledge that is based on experience
and that is impossible to teach in a training program, and thy have broadened the role of training
to include learning and designing ways to create and share knowledge.
Learning refers to the acquisition of knowledge by individual employees or groups of
employees who are willing to apply that knowledge in their jobs in making decisions and
accomplishing tasks for the company. Knowledge refers to what individuals or teams of
employees know or know how to do as well as company rules, processes, tools and routines.
Knowledge is of two types Tacit knowledge and Explicit knowledge.
Explicit knowledge refers to knowledge that can be formalized, codified and
communicated. i.e, it can be found in manuals, formulas and specification.
Tacit knowledge refers to personal knowledge based on individual experience that is
difficult to explain to others because tacit knowledge is difficult to communicate; it is passed
along to others through direct experience.
Well designed traditional training courses can successfully help employees learn explicit
knowledge. But to learn tacit knowledge requires interpersonal interaction and experiences that
are usually not found in training programs.
The organizations find themselves compelled to organize some training activities because
many new entrants lack basic skills. Considerable amount has been spent by employers on
formal training.
A single training event or program will not provide a competitive advantage to the
company because explicit knowledge is well known and programs designed to teach it can be
easily developed and imitated. However, tacit knowledge developed through experience and
shared through interactions between employees still is impossible to imitate.
Training of a company’s workforce results in an increase of productivity and reduces
wastage. It is corporate prudence and cost effective practice to retrain workers for new jobs than
releasing them and hiring new ones.
As training enhances the competency of the workforce, it will result in increased morale.
A large number of different kinds of activities will be positively impacted if training systems are
well designed.
Training can pave way for increased quality both in the production and service sectors.
Training can facilitate employee retention and faster customer service. If designed and delivered
well it will facilitate achievement of organizational objectives – the main purpose of
organizational existence.
 In treating training there are three types of organization. Some organizations regard
training as an unnecessary and time wasting activity. They feel that the cost of training is high
and is not commensurate with the benefits derived from it.
The second type of organizations treats training as a continuous activity. They make
every superior in organization responsible for training which invariably results in learning
updates either in technology, methodology or behavior.
There are some organizations where training is used as a tool to deal with specific
problems. In these organizations training happens only when there is a problem which needs to
be solved. They take up training with a limited objective and discontinued once the problem is
solved.
Company’s selection and promotion policies have a definite bearing on training.
However, certain recent changes in perception have done a lot of good to corporate training.
1. More and more sills are taught and learnt and fewer skills are regarded as inborn.
2. The change of technology is advancing at faster pace making skills of today obsolete
tomorrow, thus making training and re-training imperative.
3. Globalization has resulted in diversity in lifestyles, attitudes of people, working environment,
etc. compelling employees to get trained in various skills like foreign languages, negotiation
techniques, telephone skills, etc.

Objectives of Training

The training objectives are formulated in line with the companies’ goals and objectives.
The major objectives of the training may be enumerated as follows:
1. To train the employees in the companies’ culture and ethics.
2. To prepare the employees both newly recruited and already employed to meet the present as
well as the future requirement of the job and the organization.
3. To train the employees in order to improve the work methods and skills so as to increase
quality and quantity of output.
4. To prevent obsolescence.
5. To prepare employees for higher level responsibilities.
6. To increase the efficiency and effectiveness of employees by updating them on latest concepts
and techniques.
7. To facilitate succession planning i.e. to build up a second line of competent employees.
8. To reduce supervision, wastage and accidents.
9. To ensure economical output with high quality.
10. To develop inter-personal relations.
11. To foster individual and group morale with positive attitude and cordial relations.
Importance / Significance of Training

Training is a systematic process of changing knowledge skill and behavior of employees

to improve their performance on the job as per the goals and objectives of the organization.
Training and development focus on the improvement of the knowledge, skill and abilities
(KSA) of the individual. Training involves a process of providing KSA’s specific to a particular
task or job. Development activities in contrast have a long-term focus on preparing for future
responsibilities while increasing the capacities of employees to perform their current jobs.
Training is important for new as well as old employees.
1. Training is an attempt to improve current or future performance.
2. It is a systematic process of altering the behavior of employees in a direction that will achieve
organization goals,
3. A formal training programme is an effort by an employer to provide opportunities for the
employee to acquire job related skills, attitude and knowledge.

Skill: It is the general capabilities to perform a set of tasks developed as a result of training and
experience. A person skill is reflected by how well he is able to carry out specific action like
interacting with customers, operating a machine and implementing a strategy.
Skills are dependent on the knowledge in the sense the person must know ‘what to do’
and ‘when to do it’. Sometimes a gap may exist in knowing about things and from actually being
able to do them. Skill is a proficiency at doing something beyond just knowing about it.
Acquisition of a skill can be said to have two stages. At the first stage it is called as
compilation (lower level) and second stage is called as automaticity (higher level).
When skill is learned recently then he is said to be in the compilation stage. Here the
process needs to think about what he is doing while performing the task. Ex: If a person learnt to
drive car recently will have to think of the steps and procedures while driving.
A person who masters the skill and uses it often reaches the automaticity stage. As
specified in the above example, the person after repeated usage masters the skill of driving and
so drive without thinking about steps or process.

Knowledge: Knowledge consists of these elements:

Declarative – The information we acquire and place into memory
Procedural – How information is organized for use into what are already known
Strategic – Our understanding of how, when and why information is used and is useful
Declarative knowledge is the store of factual information about a subject matter. Facts are
those that are verifiable blocks of information, such as procedures for hiring employees in
organization, leave rules, etc. Factual learning exists when the learner is able to recall blocks of
information.
An individual understanding about how and when to apply facts already learnt by him is
a procedural knowledge.
Strategic knowledge consists of a person’s awareness of what he knows and the internal
rules learned for accessing the relevant facts and procedures to be applied towards achieving
some goal.

Attitudes: Attitudes are the employees’ belief and opinion that support or inhibit behavior. The
belief and opinion the person holds about objects or events (such as management, union and
training) create positive or negative feelings about these objects / events. Thus, changing the
person’s belief / opinion can change the desirability or feeling of the person towards the said
object / event.

Problems of Training

1. Training is not a panacea (sanjeevini) for all organizational ills. Sometimes trainers fall into
the trap that many problems can be solved by a training solution. If training is not the best
solution it will not address the root cause of the problem and organization may loose time,
money, effort, image and credibility.
2. Mismatch between objectives and needs may make the training programme useless.
3. If the intervention methodology is chosen properly the training will be ineffective and
incomplete.
4. While initiating training efforts the difference between results based training and activity
based training is to be recognized.
5. Sometimes training is conducted on what’s “nice to know”. Instead training should be focused
on what learners must learn and use on the job.
6. Sometimes programmes that no longer meet work related needs are conducted for the sake of
numbers. Such programmes are to be avoided.
7. Trainer’s competencies are not properly assessed while mounting a training programme. This
may defeat the very purpose of the training programme, as delivery may not lead to learning.

Factors arising need for training / Factors influencing working and learning

- Globalization
- Need for leadership
- Increased value placed on intangible assets and human capital
- Focus on link to business strategy
- Attracting and retaining talent
- Customer service and quality emphasis
- Changing demographics and diversity of the workforce
- New technology
- High performance models of work systems
- Economic changes

Globalization: Every business must be prepared to deal with the global economy. Global
business expansion has been made easier by technology. Many companies are entering
international markets by exporting their products overseas, building manufacturing facilities in
other countries, entering into alliances with foreign companies, and engaging in e-commerce.
Competition for local managers exceeds the available supply. As a result companies have to take
steps to attract and retain mangers. Beside, training and development many companies are
sending employees and managers to work in international location. Cross-cultural training is
important to prepare employees for overseas assignments.

Need for leadership: The aging of workforce and globalization mean that companies will need
to identify, train and develop employees with managerial talent. Executive, administrative and
managerial occupations will experience the greatest turnover due to death or retirement. This will
result in a significant loss of managerial talent. Many companies do not have employees with the
competencies necessary to mange in a global economy. For example 85% of Fortune 500
companies believe that they do not have enough employees with global leadership skills. To
manage the global economy successfully, managers need to be self-aware and be able to build
international teams, create global management and marketing practices, and interact and manage
employees form diverse cultural backgrounds.

Increased value placed on intangible assets and human capital: Today more and more
companies are interested in intangible assets and human capital as a way to gain an advantage
over competitors. Training and development can help a company’s competitiveness by directly
increasing the company’s value through contributing to intangible assets. A company’s value
includes three types of assets:
• Financial assets (cash and securities)
• Physical assets (property, plant and equipment) and
• Intangible assets
Intangible assets consist of,
Human capital refers to the sum of the attributes, life experiences, knowledge, innovation,
energy and enthusiasm that employees invest in their work.
- Tacit knowledge - Knowledge
- Work related know-how - Work relate competence
Customer capital refers to the value of relationships with persons or other organizations outside
the company for accomplishing goals of the company.
- Customer relationships - Brands
- Customer loyalty - Distribution channels
Social capital refers to relationships in the company.
- Corporate culture - Management philosophy
- Management practices - Informal networking systems
- Coaching / Mentoring relationships
Intellectual capital refers to the codified knowledge that exists in the company.
- Patents - Copy rights
- Trade secrets
Intangible assets have been show to be responsible for a company’s competitive advantage.
Training and development has a direct influence on human and social capital because it affects
education, work related know-how and competence and work relationships. Training and
development can have an indirect influence on customer and intellectual capital by helping
employee’s better serve customers and by providing knowledge to create intellectual property.

Focus on link to business strategy: Given the important role that intangible assets and human
capital play in a company’s competitiveness, manages are beginning to see a more important role
for training and development as a means to support a company’s business strategy, that is, its
plans for meeting broad goals such as profitability, market share, and quality. Managers expect
training and development professionals to design and develop learning activities that will help
the company successfully implement its strategy and reach business goals.
Attracting and retaining talent: Retention is an important part of talent management. Talented
employees are looking for growth and a career path. Training and development is a key to
attracting and retaining talented employees. A recent survey on changes in the American
workforce in the context of ongoing social change identified that a large group of workers are
more concerned with opportunities for mentoring and growth than job security and stable
employment. According to survey conducted by career systems international, the top two reasons
for staying at a job are 1) exciting work and challenge and 2) career growth, learning and
development. At well point, a California based health care company, employee attitude survey
results suggested that the reason for turnover was lacking of training.

Customer service and quality emphasis: Customers can judge quality and performance.
Customer driven excellence includes understanding what the customer wants and anticipating
future needs customer driven excellence includes reducing defects and errors, meeting
specifications and reducing complaints.
Due to increased availability of knowledge and competition, consumers are very
knowledgeable and expect excellent service. This presents a challenge for employees who
interact with customers. Customer service is a strategic training and development initiative.

Changing demographics and diversity of the workforce: Companies face several challenges
as a result of increased diversity in the workforce, skill deficiencies, and changes in work place.
Companies are facing not only the issues of race, gender, ethnicity and nationality to provide a
fair workplace, but they must also develop training programs to help immigrants acquire the
technical and customer service skills required in a service economy.

New Technology: Technology has reshaped the way we play (eg: games on internet).
Communicate (eg: cell phones), plan our lives (eg: electronic calendars) and where we work (eg:
laptop). The internet has created a new business model – e-commerce in which business
transactions and relationships can be conducted electronically. Technology also allows
companies to use contingent workforce such as independent contractors, on call workers,
temporary workers. So advances in technology demand for potential training applications.

High performance models of work system: New technology causes changes in skill
requirements and work role and often results in redesigned work structures. For example,
computer – integrated manufacturing uses robots and computers to automate the manufacturing
process.
Work teams involve employees with various skills who interact to assemble a product or
provide a service. Work teams may assume many activities. To give teams maximum flexibility,
cross training is required. Cross training refers to training employees in a wide range of skills so
they can fill any of the roles needed to be performed on the team.

Economic changes: Global competition, changes from a manufacturing to a service economy,

increased merger and acquisition activity, and company downsizing all means that many
employees who were able to earn high wages in low skilled factory jobs may have to turn to
service jobs with less security and fewer benefits. Also, companies are struggling with the rise in
health care costs, retirement benefit costs, and pension costs. The political unrest across the
globe causes on economic uncertainty and affects investment decision in physical and human
capital. New technology combined with economic uncertainty will lead to training that is
developed on an as needed basis.

Current Training and Development Practices in Indian Perspective

The Indian corporate sector did not evince much interest in training and developing in human
resources until 1991. The new industrial policy resolution brought out in 1991 liberalizing,
privatizing and globalizing the Indian corporate sector. As a result HRD function as a whole
received greater recognition and importance in newly emerged market.
According to study conducted by Yadapadithaya P.S on HRD policies and practices in
Indian industries, some of the findings bring out the trend in Indian industries.
1. Training and development policies and practices vary across industries depending upon their
nature, size.
2. Organizations have shifted their focus from target-based to need-based training.
3. Training expenditure is slowly being recognized as an investment in human capital.
4. Some of major objectives of training and development reported by sample organizations are,
• Prevention of organizational obsolescence
• Modification of desirable knowledge, skills and attitudes
• Promotion of value towards quality
• Transformation of organization vision, mission and goal
• Adoptive strategic adjustment with social and technological changes
There are a few institutions and organizations which play a major role in the development
of training and development. Indian society for training and development (ISTD) started in 1970
is a national professional non-profit society with membership of institutions involved in training
and development.
All India management association (AIMA) is an association of leading management
schools. It conducts customized in-company training programs, management development
programs and workshops.
The national institute of industrial engineering (NISE) was established in 1963 by the
government of India. It engages in conducting short-term executive development programmes in
the area of industrial engineering and management.

HRD in public sector: Public sector plays vital role in India which contributes most towards
national economy. Most of these organizations use costly technology and equipments. Therefore,
HRD in these organizations assumes greater importance to improve their efficiency.
HRD is a process by which an individual learns and develops creativity and help the
organization it also includes mechanism like performance appraisal feedback and counseling
assessment of training and development needs, designing suitable programmes, evaluation of
programme and feedback.
A number of central and state level institutions Lal Bahadur Shastri Institute of National
Academy, Administrative staff college of India, Hyderabad, Institute of public enterprise,
Hyderabad, Academy of administration, Bhopal have started conducting HRD programmes for
civil administrative and public sector organizations.

HRD in private enterprises: The private sector is on the growth path in India. The private
sector is now going for employee stock ownership scheme, grater representation t the employees
on the board and professionalization. But it is to be admitted that the status of management
development and training in private enterprises is not better than public enterprises. Some big
business houses such as Tatas (Tata management centre), Birlas (Birla management centre), and
Reliance (Reliance management academy) have their own academics. Though there is a
technology boom in India and the TMT (Technology Media-Telecom) business is on the rise. It
has not led to any increased commitment to the management development and training. Even
Infosys, Wipro, Bharathi Telecom, Zee Tele etc. have no academies of their own.

Current Training and Development Practices in International Perspective

Training in Singapore: Singapore is probably the best known prototype (example) of a nation
that has successfully up skilled its workforce over the last 40 years. For the fifth consecutive
year, the world economic forum has rated Singapore’s labor force first in terms of computer
literacy and second in the world in terms of availability of skilled people as well as worker
motivation. The global competitiveness report 2000 rated Singapore’s education system first in
terms of its ability to meet the needs of a competitive economy. And various executive-opinion
surveys reported that Singapore is ranked first amongst all developing nations in terms of a
number of human resource dimensions, including the availability of skilled people, equal
opportunity, industrial disputes, worker motivation, attitude of the work force and competitive
values. On both education and training dimensions and national human resource development,
therefore, Singapore’s achievements are excellent.
Factors contributing to the success of the Singaporean skills development system:
• The linkage between skills development and economic development
• The EDB’s evolving model of technology transfer
• Foreign investment and skills development
• Skills development fund
• Long term skills development: Education policy

Training in United States: US primary and secondary education varies greatly in quality, as
does vocational training. Company sponsored training focuses on managers and technicians but
the quality varies. US automobile plants provide an average of 30 hours of training annually.

Training in Germany: Germany’s major strength is that primary and secondary schooling is
closely integrated with subsequent training programs and in general educational programmes
have high quality but Germany is best known for its apprenticeship programme. More than half
of the German workforce has completed apprenticeship programme.

Training in Japan: Employers in Japan are well regarded for their significant and long-term
commitment to developing the skills of their employees. Japanese employee development is a
key factor in its economic advantage. Once employed, Japanese workers receive extensive,
ongoing, company sponsored training. Workers in Japanese automobile plants receive an average
of 90 hours of training annually.

Training in Canada: Canada’s training and education system is quite similar to the US primary
and secondary education. Companies provide relatively little training.
Training in Korea: Korea’s training and educational system has made great strides in the last
few years. A strong primary and secondary school system has increased the quality of workers’
basic skills and vocational education has become remarkably strong in Korea. However,
company sponsored training programmes are scarce, and their quality is generally poor.

difference
Training Development
1. Training focuses on technical, mechanical 1. Development focuses on theoretical skill and
oriented operations. conceptual ideas.
2. Training is concerned with specific job skills
2. Development is concerned with related
and behavior. enhancement of general knowledge and
understanding of non-technical organization
functions.
3. Training is mostly for non-managers. 3. The development is for managers and
executives.
4. Training focuses on current jobs. 4. Development prepares for future jobs.
5. Training focuses on short term gains. 5. Development focuses long-term gains.
6. The training is job oriented process and is 6. The development is general in nature and
vocational in nature. strives to inculcate initiative, enterprise,
creativity, dedication and loyalty amongst
executives.
7. Training is one shot deal. 7. Development is a continuous on going
process.
8. Training may result in enhancement of a 8. Development may result in personal growth
particular job skill. and development of overall personality.
9. Training is the result of organizational 9. In development motivation is intrinsic.
initiative and hence motivation is extrinsic.
10. Training can be classified into 2 major 10. No such classification is possible.
types a) on the job training b) off the job
training.
11. Training is usually imposed. 11. Development activities, such as those
supplied by management. Development
programmes, are generally voluntary.
12. The staff members may have no clear 12. Here, the staff members have experience
perception of the relationship between learning and knowledge; a clear, direct relationship
and career development. between self development and career success.
13. Evaluation for training is considered to be 13. No evaluation is possible for development.
essential.
BEST TIME TO IMPART TRAINING TO EMPLOYEE
1. NEW RECRUITS TO THE COMPANY
These have a requirement for induction into the company as a whole in
terms of its
business activities and personnel policies and provisions, the terms,
conditions and
benefits appropriate to the particular employee, and the career and
advancement
opportunities available.
2. TRANSFEREES WITHIN THE COMPANY
These are people who are moved from one job to another, either within the
same work
area, i.e. the same department or function, or to dissimilar work under a
different
management. Under this heading we are excluding promotions, which take
people into
entirely new levels of responsibility.
3. PROMOTIONS
Although similar to the transferee in that there is a new job to be learned in
new
surroundings, he is dissimilar in that the promotion has brought him to a new
level of
supervisory or management responsibility. The change is usually too
important and
difficult to make successfully to permit one to assume that the promotes will
pick it up as
he goes along and attention has to be paid to training in the tasks and the
responsibilities
and personal skills necessary for effective performance.
4. NEW PLANT OR EQUIPMENT
Even the most experienced operator has everything to learn when a
computer and
electronic controls replace the previous manual and electro-mechanical
system on the
process plant on which he works. There is no less a training requirement for
the
supervisors and process management, as well as for technical service
production control
and others.
5. NEW PROCEDURES
Mainly for those who work in offices in commercial and administrative
functions but also
for those who we workplace is on the shop floor or on process plant on any
occasion on
which there is a modification to existing paperwork or procedure for, say the
withdrawal
of materials from stores, the control of customer credit the approval of
expense claims,
there needs to be instruction on the change in the way of working in many
instances, a
note bringing the attention of all concerned the change is assume to be
sufficient, but
there are cases, such as when total new systems in corporating IT up dates
are installed,
when more thorough training is needed.
6. NEW STANDARDS, RULES AND PRACTICES
Changes in any one these are likely to be conveyed by printed note or by
word of mouth
by the manager to his subordinates, and this can be the most satisfaction
way of dealing
with the change from the point of view of getting those affected to
understand their new
responsibility. However not all changes under this heading can be left to this
sort of
handling. Even the simplest looking instruction may be
regarded as undesirable or impracticable by whoever has to perform it he
may not
understand the purpose behind the change and lose confidence in a
management which he
now believes to be ‘messing about’, or he may understand the purpose and
have a better
alternative to offer if it is not too late.
7. NEW RELATIONSHIP AND AUTHORITIES
These can arise, as a result of management decisions, in a number of ways.
In examples,
the recognition of the accounts department can result in a realization of
responsibilities
between the section leaders of credit control, invoicing and customer
records, although
there is no movement of staff between the sections (i.e. no transfers).
Although the
change in work content for each clerk and supervisor is defined clearly for
each person in
the new procedures, there is nevertheless a need for each person to know
where he stands
in the new set up, which is responsible for what, and where to direct
problems and
enquiries as they arise in the future.
8. MAINTENANCE OF STANDARDS
We are here concerned with maintenance of standards through training, for
it must be
remembered that supervision and inspection and qualify control are
continuously
responsible for standards and exercise their own authorities to this end.
Although it is
generally agreed that some retraining from time to time, taking varied forms
even for the
on group of employees, does act as both a reminder and a stimulus, there is
not much
agreement on the next frequency and form that such retraining should take,
of there is as
yet little scientific knowledge on this subject which is of much use in
industrial
situations.
9. THE MAINTENANCE OF ADAPTABILITY
Again, whilst there is little scientific study of the loss of ability to learn new
skills in
those cases where people spend a long time without change, and without
the need to
learn, there is increasing evidence in current experience to suggest that this
is the case in
industrial employment. Add, of course, there is the inference arising from the
laboratory
experiments of psychologists.
10. THE MAINTENANCE OF MANAGEMENT SKILLS &
STANDARDS
Skills in supervising, employee appraisal, communications, leadership etc are
important
in all companies. Some of these skills are seen to be critical to major
developments in
company organisation, culture, employee empowerment and so on. Initial
training in
these skills is not uncommon in the largest companies on appointment into
management
and supervision. But continuous training and performance monitoring is rare,
despite the
common knowledge that standards are as varied as human nature.
11. RETIREMENT AND REDUNDANCY
Employees of any position in the company who are heading towards
retirement will
benefit from learning about health, social life, work opportunities money
management
etc. Internal or external courses are best attended a year or two before
retirement date, in
a few companies a member of Personnel will act as a counselor as required.

Methods of Training (on the job missing)

There are various methods of training, which can be divided in to cognitive
and
behavioral methods. Trainers need to understand the pros and cons of each
method, also
its impact on trainees keeping their background and skills in mind before
giving training.
Cognitive methods are more of giving theoretical training to the trainees.
The various
methods under Cognitive approach provide the rules for how to do
something, written or
verbal information, demonstrate relationships among concepts, etc. These
methods are
associated with changes in knowledge and attitude by stimulating learning.
The various methods that come under Cognitive approach are:
LECTURES – A Method of Training
It is one of the oldest methods of training. This method is used to create
understanding of
a topic or to influence behavior, attitudes through lecture. A lecture can be in
printed or
oral form. Lecture is telling someone about something. Lecture is given to
enhance the
knowledge of listener or to give him the theoretical aspect of a topic.
Training is basically
incomplete without lecture. When the trainer begins the training session by
telling the
aim, goal, agenda, processes, or methods that will be used in training that
means the
trainer is using the lecture method. It is difficult to imagine training without
lecture
format. There are some variations in Lecture method. The variation here
means that some
forms of lectures are interactive while some are not.
Straight Lecture: Straight lecture method consists of presenting information,
which the
trainee attempts to absorb. In this method, the trainer speaks to a group
about a topic.
However, it does not involve any kind of interaction between the trainer and
the trainees.
A lecture may also take the form of printed text, such as books, notes, etc.
The difference
between the straight lecture and the printed material is the trainer’s
intonation, control of
speed, body language, and visual image of the trainer. The trainer in case of
straight
lecture can decide to vary from the training script, based on the signals from
the trainees,
whereas same material in print is restricted to what is printed.
A good lecture consists of introduction of the topic, purpose of the lecture,
and priorities
and preferences of the order in which the topic will be covered.
Main Features of Lecture Method
Some of the main features of lecture method are:
• Inability to identify and correct misunderstandings
• Less expensive
• Can be reached large number of people at once
• Knowledge building exercise
• Less effective because lectures require long periods of trainee inactivity
Demonstration Training Method
This method is a visual display of how something works or how to do
something. As an
example, trainer shows the trainees how to perform or how to do the tasks of
the job. In
order to be more effective, demonstration method should be should be
accompanied by
the discussion or lecture method.
To carry out an effective demonstration, a trainer first prepares the lesson
plan by
breaking the task to be performed into smaller modules, easily learned parts.
Then, the
trainer sequentially organizes those modules and prepares an explanation
for why that
part is required. While performing the demonstration, trainer:
Demonstrates the task by describing how to do, while doing
• Helps the focusing their attention on critical aspects of the task
• Tells the trainees what you will be doing so they understand what you will
be
showing them
• Explains why it should be carried out in that way
The difference between the lecture method and the demonstration method is
the level of
involvement of the trainee. In the lecture method, the more the trainee is
involved.
The financial costs that occur in the demonstration method are as follows:
• Cost of training facility for the program
•Cost of materials that facilitate training
•Food, travel, lodging for the trainees and the trainers
•Compensation of time spent in training to trainers and trainees
•Cost related to creating content, material
•Cost related to the organization of the training
After completing the demonstration the trainer provide feedback, both
positive and or
negative, give the trainee the opportunity to do the task and describe what
he is doing and
why.
Discussion Training Method
This method uses a lecturer to provide the learners with context that is
supported,
elaborated, explains, or expanded on through interactions both among the
trainees and
between the trainer and the trainees. The interaction and the communication
between
these two make it much more effective and powerful than the lecture
method. If the
Discussion method is used with proper sequence i.e. lectures, followed by
discussion and
questioning, can achieve higher level knowledge objectives, such as problem
solving and
principle learning.
The Discussion method consists a two-way flow of communication i.e.
knowledge in the
form of lecture is communicated to trainees, and then understanding is
conveyed back by
trainees to trainer.
Understanding is conveyed in the form of verbal and non-verbal feedback
that enables
the trainer to determine whether the material is understood. If yes, then
definitely it
would help out the trainees to implement it at their workplaces and if not,
the trainer may
need to spend more time on that particular area by presenting the
information again in a
different manner.
Questioning can be done by both ways i.e. the trainees and the trainer.
When the trainees
ask questions, they explain their thinking about the content of the lecture. A
trainer who
asks questions stimulates thinking about the content of the lecture. Asking
and
responding questions are beneficial to trainees because it enhance
understanding and
keep the trainees focused on the content. Besides that, discussions, and
interactions allow
the trainee to be actively engaged in the material of the trainer. This activity
helps in
improving recall.
Computer-Based Training (CBT)
With the world-wide expansion of companies and changing technologies, the
demands
for knowledge and skilled employees have increased more than ever, which
in turn, is
putting pressure on HR department to provide training at lower costs. Many
organizations
are now implementing CBT as an alternative to classroom based training to
accomplish
those goals
Some of the benefits of Computer-Based Training are:
According to a recent survey, about 75% of the organizations are providing
training to
employees through Intranet or Internet. Internet is not the method of
training, but has
become the technique of delivering training. The growth of electronic
technology has
created alternative training delivery systems. CBT does not require face-to-
face
interaction with a human trainer. This method is so varied in its applications
that it is
difficult to describe in concise terms.
The various methods that come under Cognitive approach are :
o INTELLEGENT TUTORIAL SYSTEM(ITS)
o PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION (PI)
o VIRTUAL REALITY
Behavioral methods are more of giving practical training to the trainees. The
various
methods under Behavioral approach allow the trainee to behavior in a real
fashion. These
methods are best used for skill development.
The various methods that come under Behavioral approach are:
 GAMES AND SIMULATIONS
o BEHAVIOR-MODELING
o BUSINESS GAMES
o CASE STUDIES
o EQUIPMENT STIMULATORS
o IN-BASKET TECHNIQUE
o ROLE PLAYS
Both the methods can be used effectively to change attitudes, but through
different
means.
Another Method is MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT METHOD –
COACHING
Coaching is one of the training methods, which is considered as a corrective
method for
inadequate performance. According to a survey conducted by International
Coach
Federation (ICF), more than 4,000 companies are using coach for their
executives. These
coaches are experts most of the time outside consultants.
A coach is the best training plan for the CEO’s because
 It is one-to-one interaction
 It can be done at the convenience of CEO
 It can be done on phone, meetings, through e-mails, chat
 It provides an opportunity to receive feedback from an expert
 It helps in identifying weaknesses and focus on the area that needs
improvement This
method best suits for the people at the top because if we see on emotional
front, when a
person reaches the top, he gets lonely and it becomes difficult to find
someone to talk to.
It helps in finding out the executive’s specific developmental needs. The
needs can be
identified through 60 degree performance review.
PROCEDURE OF THE COACHING
The procedure of the coaching is mutually determined by the executive and
coach. The
procedure is followed by successive counseling and meetings at the
executive’s
convenience by the coach.
1. Understand the participant’s job, the knowledge, skills, and attitudes, and
resources required to meet the desired expectation
2. Meet the participant and mutually agree on the objective that has to be
achieved
3. Mutually arrive at a plan and schedule
4. At the job, show the participant how to achieve the objectives, observe the
performance and then provide feedback
5. Repeat step 4 until performance improves.
For the people at middle-level management, coaching is more likely done by
the
supervisor; however experts from outside the organization are at times used
for upand-
coming managers. Again, the personalized approach assists the manger
focus on
definite needs and improvement
Mentoring
Mentoring is an ongoing relationship that is developed between a senior and
junior
employee. Mentoring provides guidance and clear understanding of how the
organization
goes to achieve its vision and mission to the junior employee
The meetings are not as structured and regular than in coaching. Executive
mentoring is
generally done by someone inside the company. The executive can learn a
lot from
mentoring. By dealing with diverse mentee’s, the executive is given the
chance to grow
professionally by developing management skills and learning how to work
with people
with diverse background, culture, and language and personality types
Executives also have mentors. In cases where the executive is new to the
organization, a
senior executive could be assigned as a mentor to assist the new executive
settled into his
role. Mentoring is one of the important methods for preparing them to be
future
executives. This method allows the mentor to determine what is required to
improve
mentee’s performance. Once the mentor identifies the problem, weakness,
and the area
that needs to be worked upon, the mentor can advise relevant training. The
mentor can
also provide opportunities to work on special processes and projects that
require use of
proficiency.
Some key points on Mentoring
• Mentoring focus on attitude development
• Conducted for management-level employees
• Mentoring is done by someone inside the company
• It is one-to-one interaction
It helps in identifying weaknesses and focus on the area that needs
improvement
Job Rotation
For the executive, job rotation takes on different perspectives. The executive
is usually
not simply going to another department. In some vertically integrated
organizations, for
example, where the supplier is actually part of same organization or
subsidiary, job
rotation might be to the supplier to see
how the business operates from the supplier point of view. Learning how the
organization
is perceived from the outside broadens the executive’s outlook on the
process of the
organization. Or the rotation might be to a foreign office to provide a global
perspective.
For managers being developed for executive roles, rotation to different
functions in the
company is regular carried out.
This approach allows the manger to operate in diverse roles and understand
the different
issues that crop up. If someone is to be a corporate leader, they must have
this type of
training. A recent study indicated that the single most significant factor that
leads to
leader’s achievement was the variety of experiences in different
departments, business
units, cities, and countries.
An organized and helpful way to develop talent for the management or
executive level of
the organization is job rotation. It is the process of preparing employees at a
lower level
to replace someone at the next higher level. It is generally done for the
designations that
are crucial for the effective and efficient functioning of the organization.
Benefits of Job Rotation
Some of the major benefits of job rotation are:
• It provides the employees with opportunities to broaden the horizon of
knowledge, skills, and abilities by working in different departments, business
units, functions, and countries
• Identification of Knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) required
• It determines the areas where improvement is required
• Assessment of the employees who have the potential and caliber for filling
the
position
OFF THE JOB TRAINING –
There are many management development techniques that an employee
can take in off
the job. The few popular methods are:
 SENSITIVITY TRAINING
 TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
 STRAIGHT LECTURES/ LECTURES
 SIMULATION EXERCISES
Case Study on Training Methods
SALES TRAINING AT ABC COMPANY
Few years ago, ABC Company developed a training strategy for training its
global sales
force. An important feature of the strategy was to create a master training
plan for each
year. The organization’s strategic plans, objectives, and functional tactics
would drive t
this plan. Once an initial procedure was designed it was then evaluated and
critiqued the
top management, different units, and training council. The input from these
stakeholderswould be summarized and transferred into a master training
Plan.
The major question that was asked by the designers of training program was,
“what
results do we want from salespeople after the training program is over?”
Answer to this
question becomes the objective of the training program.
Then training content was designed, videos were made. The videos took 3 to
6
months to
produce. Video contains live production plants, clients’ offices, partner
offices, suppliers,
manufacturers’ locations, and other locations.
Videos were used to train sales people in various areas, such as:
• Market information i.e. about customer profile, market updates, and
computer
integrated manufacturing applications, etc
• Sales Process i.e. how to deal in the situation of conflicts with customer,
coaching
on undesirable behavior, supplement skills developed during live courses
• Product information, such as, product usage, applications, system
description,
product description, comparison with competitor’s products, etc
• Policies and procedures, i.e. about sales contests, incentive plans on
achieving
targets, annual bonuses, winners receiving the best salesperson award to
motivate
the sales force
Representatives then watch video, follow the directions, and refer to the
material if faces
any problem. When salespeople feel they have mastered the
Around thousands of sales persons were getting a specific video training. The
sales
people were getting training material along with the video. Sales
material, they would take an exam and call a toll-free number to transmit
responses to
exam.
Salespeople who successfully passed an exam were factored into
performance and merit
reviews as well as promotional opportunities. Those who couldn’t pass the
exam were
asked to go through the material and video again before retaking the exam.
If the
salesperson failed an exam again, the reporting manager was notified.
This case gives rise to few important questions. These questions are:
• In today’s technological world, is video still the best way to deliver training?
• Is video the most effective way to achieve training objectives?
• What role did cost of development, cost of delivery, and other constraints
play in
selection of video delivery system?

INPUTS IN TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENTS

Any training and development programme must contain inputs which enable the participants to
gain skills, learn theoretical concepts and help acquire vision to look into distant future. In
addition to these, there is a need to impart ethical orientation, emphasize on attitudinal changes
and stress upon decision-making and problem-solving abilities.

Skills

Training, as was stated earlier, is imparting skills to employees. A worker needs skills to operate
machines, and use other equipments with least damage or scrap. This is a basic skill without
which the operator will not be able to function. There is also the need for motor skills. Motor
skills refer to performance of specific physical activities. These skills involve training to move
various parts of one’s body in response to certain external and internal stimuli. Common motor
skills include walking, riding a bicycle, tying a shoelace, throwing a ball and driving a car. Motor
skills are needed for all employees – from the clerk to the general manager. Employees,
particularly supervisors and executives, need interpersonal skills popular known as the people
skills. Interpersonal skills are needed to understand one self and others better, and act
accordingly. Examples of interpersonal skills include listening, persuading, and showing an
understanding of others’ feelings.

Education

The purpose of education is to teach theoretical concepts and develop a sense of reasoning
and judgement. That any training and development programme must contain an element of
education is well understood by HR specialist. Any such programme has university professors
as resource persons to enlighten participants about theoretical knowledge of the topic proposed
to be discussed. In fact organizations depute or encourage employees to do courses on a part
time basis. Chief Executive Officers (CEO’s) are known to attend refresher courses conducted
by business schools. Education is important for managers and executives than for lower-cadre
workers.
Development

Another component of a training and development is development which is less skill oriented
but stressed on knowledge. Knowledge about business environment, management principles
and techniques, human relations, specific industry analysis and the like is useful for better
management of the company.

Ethics

There is need for imparting greater ethical orientation to a training and development
programme. There is no denial of the fact that ethics are largely ignored in businesses.
Unethical practices abound in marketing, finance and production function in an organization.
They are less see and talked about in the personnel function. If the production, finance and
marketing personnel indulge in unethical practices the fault rests on the HR manager. It is
his/her duty to enlighten all the employees in the organization about the need of ethical
behavior.

Exhibit # 1 White Collar Crimes

The findings of the KPMG’s fraud survey for 1998, confirm the prevalence of white collar crimes
in corporate India. The survey has pegged the loss due to delinquencies at Rs.200 crores but
KPMG feels that it is only the tip of the iceberg. According to the study, 66% of the respondents
feel that the frauds will increase.

Respondents have cited kickbacks and expenses accounts as the most frequent types of
internal frauds, and patent infringements, false representation and secret commissions as the
most favored external crimes. Among management frauds, window dressing of balance sheets
is the hot favorite followed by more creative ones like fudging MIS and giving wrong information.

Attitudinal Changes

Attitudes represent feeling and beliefs of individuals towards others. Attitude affects motivation,
satisfaction and job commitment. Negative attitudes need to be converted into positive attitudes.
Changing negative attitudes is difficult because –

1. Employees refuse to changes

2. They have prior commitments
3. And information needed to change attitudes may not be sufficient

Nevertheless, attitude must be changed so that employees feel committed to the organization,
are motivated for better performance, and derive satisfaction from there jobs and the work
environment

Decisions Making and Problem Solving Skills

Decision making skill and problem solving skills focus on method and techniques for making
organizational decisions and solving work-related problems. Learning related to decision-
making and problem-solving skills seeks to improve trainees’ abilities to define structure
problems, collect and analysis information, generate alternative solution and make an optimal
decision among alternatives. Training of this type is typically provided to potential managers,
supervisors and professionals.

Exhibit # 2 Training inputs at HLL

The training and development affords at HLL are designed to develop the following:
1. Helping employees satisfy personal goals through higher level of skills and
competencies
2. Facilitating higher contribution at there present jobs and preparing them for the next level
of responsibilities
3. Developing individuals and teams to meet the total needs of the organization

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT AS SOURCE OF COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE

Companies derive competitive advantage from training and development. Training and
development programmes, as was pointed out earlier, help remove performance deficiencies in
employee. This is particularly true when - (1) the deficiency is caused by a lack of ability rather
than a lack of motivation to perform, (2) the individual(s) involved have the aptitude and
motivation need to learn to do the job better, and (3) supervisors and peers are supportive of the
desired behaviors.

Training & Development offers competitive advantage to a firm by removing performance

deficiencies; making employees stay long; minimized accidents, scraps and damage; and
meeting future employee needs.

There is greater stability, flexibility, and capacity for growth in an organization. Training
contributes to employee stability in at least two ways. Employees become efficient after
undergoing training. Efficient employees contribute to the growth of the organization. Growth
renders stability to the workforce. Further, trained employees tend to stay with the organization.
They seldom leave the company. Training makes the employees versatile in operations. All
rounders can be transferred to any job. Flexibility is therefore ensured. Growth indicates
prosperity, which is reflected in increased profits from year to year. Who else but well-trained
employees can contribute to the prosperity of an enterprise?

Accidents, scrap and damage to machinery and equipment can be avoided or minimized
through training. Even dissatisfaction, complaints, absenteeism, and turnover can be reduced if
employees are trained well.

Future needs of employees will be met through training and development programmes.
Organizations take fresh diploma holders or graduates as apprentices or management trainees.
They are absorbed after course completion. Training serves as an effective source of
recruitment. Training is an investment in HR with a promise of better returns in future.

A company's training and development pays dividends to the employee and the organization.
Though no single training programme yields all the benefits, the organization which devotes
itself to training and development enhances its HR capabilities and strengthens its competitive
edge. At the same time, the employee's personal and career goals are furthered, generally
adding to his or her abilities and value to the employer. Ultimately, the objectives of the HR
department are also furthered.
THE TRAINING PROCESS

Training Process Model

Need
analysis

Design
Phase

Triggerin Developmen
g event t Phase

Implementati
on Phase

Outcome Process
evaluatio Evaluation Phase
data
n data

Analysis phase: Organizations that are able to meet the changing needs of the customers and the
markets are the ones that are effective. Similarly, an effective training process is one which
begins with the determination of customers needs in the Need Analysis phase. Here the
customers are the organization and the employees.
Needs may be identified in the form of performance deficiency. It would be indicated by
lesser profitability, lowering of customer satisfaction, more wastage or more idle time of
machine or employees etc. this deficiency may be the current state of the organization.
Next at the employee level if he is not able to perform as per the expectations then also
deficiency exists. Also, anticipated performance deficiencies may be identified for future
handling of the employees.
Once performance deficiencies are identified, the cause must then be determined. If
deficiency is due to lack of KSA then training is the way to solve it. Problems like motivation or
equipment may be solved through training. So performance deficiency to be addressed by
training is then prioritized.
The process of doing such analysis is termed as Training Needs Analysis (TNA). This
TNA is normally carried out in three phases namely organization analysis, task analysis, or
person analysis
Organization analysis Analysis of environment, strategies and resources to determine when to
emphasize training.
Task analysis Analysis of the activities to be performed in organization to determine
the KSA needed.
Person analysis Analysis of knowledge and skills in order to determine who needs
training.
Design Phase: Organizational and operational analysis are carried out to get additional inputs on
aspects like
1. Constraints placed on training and areas of expected support like organizational plan,
resources and business cycle etc.
2. Input from the theories of learning which will help in designing the training programme for
effective training and proper transfer of learning.
Training objectives are formulated as part of the design phase by examining the training
needs in relation to the identified organizational constraints and support. The training objective
specifies the employee and organizational objective that should be achieved as a result of
training.
The second part of the design process is identifying the factors needed in the training
programme to facilitate learning and transfer back to the job, including the method of instruction.
These become the inputs for the development phase of the training system.

Development Phase: Instructional strategy like order timing and combination of elements used
for training programme are carried out to meet the training objective. The output of the
development phase forms the input for the implementation phase.

Implementation Phase: A pilot training group consisting of small number of trainee’s

representative of the large population can be tried so that many opportunities may be available to
influence the effectiveness of the training programme.
1. Trainee reaction to training
2. How much they learn
3. Process evaluation data
All these allow trainees to identify areas of self-improvement. Also, pilot group
evaluation input will also be helpful. Once these refinements are made, the training is ready for
full implementation.
The output of the implementation phase is the actual training that is conduced, the
trainee’s responses, their learning, their behavior and the effect on key organizational outcomes.
They form the input for the evaluation phase.

Evaluation Phase: Evaluation objectives that are the output of the design phase organizational
constraints, time, money and staff all are input for training evaluation. Two types of evaluation
are carried out namely process evaluation and outcome evaluation.

Process Evaluation: Each phase of the training process model constitutes a process with input
and output. Evaluation of the process is concerned with the determination of how well a
particular process has achieved the objectives; for this collecting and analyzing process data can
provide warning of potential problems in the training programme.
Outcome evaluation is conducted at the end of training to determine the effect of training
on the trainees, like job and the organization using the training objectives as the standard. This
can be used to improve the training process. Outcome evaluation when combined with process
evaluation data will serve as a powerful tool in improving programmes.