TR 331 – HIGHWAY MATERIALS

PART II – BITUMINOUS MATERIALS, AC MIX DESIGN, H/W DRAINAGE

DR. P.M.S. BUJULU

TGE Dept.

Students from:

CE – B.Sc.in Civil Engineering (CE)

PGD – Postgraduate Diploma in Civil Eng.
 3.0 BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
• Also known as Asphaltic Materials.
• Are materials that contain bitumen (US: asphalt), resemble
bitumen, or constitute a source of bitumen.
• They include bitumen (asphalt) and tar binders.
Bitumen (Asphalt)
A solid or semi-solid (viscous) material, black or dark-brown in
colour, having adhesive properties (cementitious), and
consisting essentially of hydrocarbons, derived from petroleum
or occurring in natural asphalt deposits, and soluble in carbon
disulphide, CS2.
Tar
A viscous liquid, black in colour, with adhesive properties,
obtained by destructive distillation of coal or wood. In H/E we
mostly refer to tar derived from bituminous coal.
NB: Tar can also be obtained from petroleum by chemical
treatment (cracking), not physical processes such as fractional
distillation used for production of bitumen (asphalt)

Bitumen (Asphalt)
- Two main categories: Natural asphalt & Petroleum asphalt
Natural Asphalt
Occurs naturally in natural deposits (as native asphalt e.g. in
Trinidad lake, etc; or rock asphalt in sandstone or limestone)
Petroleum Asphalt
Also known as refinery asphalts. It is produced by industrial
(fractional) distillation of crude petroleum (crude oil)
It is the heaviest fraction and the one with the highest boiling
point, boiling at 525 °C (977 °F).
 3.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Those which directly affect the performance of asphalt
in a mixture while being mixed, laid and in service.

• Challenge: To develop physical tests that satisfactorily

characterize key asphalt binder parameters and how
they change throughout the lifetime of a mix.

• Asphalt is a rheological material

→ Its stress-strain characteristics are time-dependent
• Asphalt is a thermoplastic material
→ Its stiffness (or consistency) varies with temperature

→ Physical properties of asphalt are time and

temperature dependent
3.3.1 RHEOLOGY
• Study of deformation and flow of matter
• Important in determining physical properties of asphalt
• HMA deformation closely related to rheology of asphalt
→Rheology determines performance of HMA pavement
• Example:
- High HMA deformations and flow → rutting and bleeding
- High asphalt stiffness → fatigue cracking
Thus:
Comparison of diff binders must be done at some common
reference temperature
Characterizing asphalt binder properties should involve
examining rheological properties over the range of temp
that may be encountered in its lifetime.
Rheological Properties (Consistency parameters)
Measure of hardness or degree of fluidity.
1. Penetration Test (AASHTO T49, ASTM D5)
Penetration depth of a standard needle under specified cond.
of weight (100g), time (5 sec) and temperature (25°C)
- Pen units expressed in 0.1 mm (e.g., 8 mm → 8/0.1 = 80)
- Assumption: same penetration deform similarly
NB: Based on field performance, no relation with test parameter
Asphalt Penetration cont…
- It is an empirical parameter used in grading asphalt
- The harder an asphalt cement, the lower will be its
penetration & vice versa
- Five stand. penetration grades exist: 40-50, 60-70,
85-100, 120-150, 200-300
- The values represent the min & the max pen for each
pen grade
- Two common grades are 60-70 (for hot regions) and
85-100 (for cold regions)
- Asphalt of lower pen grades are used at bus-stops or
parking places where traffic stresses are very high.
2. Softening Point
• Also known as the “ring and ball” softening point.
• Temp. at which asphalt change from solid to liquid
• At this temp. asphalt can no longer support the weight
of a 3.5g steel ball.
• The ball, enveloped in binder, falls through h = 25 mm
(touches the base plate)

• The harder an asphalt, the higher is its softening point

• At the softening temp., many asphalt types have a
penetration of 800 (= 80 mm).
 VISCOSITY (KINEMATIC AND ABSOLUTE)
• Viscosity measures resistance to flow at a given temp.
• It is a fundamental property of fluid (asphalt), whereas
penetration and softening point are empirical tests.
• Asphalt viscosity measured at two temp.:60°C &135°C
• Viscosity at 60°C is called absolute viscosity [poise]
• Corresp. approx. to viscosity of asphalt in HMA pvmnt
during hot summer (most critical state in service)
• Visc. at 135°C is called kinematic viscosity [centistokes]
• At this temp. asphalt is sufficiently fluid to flow under
gravitational forces alone.
• Corresp. approx. to viscosity of asphalt at mixing and
laydown conditions.
3. Absolute Viscosity
• Also known as dynamic viscosity
• Measured at 60°C, using a vacuum viscometer.
μ = τ/γ
Where: μ = viscosity [poise = g/cm-sec]; NB poise = Pa-sec/m2
τ = shear stress
γ = rate of shear (= dγ/dt)
4. Kinematic Viscosity
• Kinematic viscosity = absolute viscosity/density
• Measured at 135°C to simulate the mixing process
• The cross-arm (capillary tube) viscometer is used
• A constant head is maintained, flow under gravity
• Measures time to flow between two timing marks
5. Ductility Test
• Test involves stretching a standard-sized asphalt
briquette (dumbbell) to its breaking point.
• The sample under water at 25°C is stretched at
50mm/min until it breaks.
• The distance at rapture, in cm, is reported as ductility.

6. Rotational (brookfield) Viscometer (RV) test

Will be discussed in the Superpave Mix Design chapter.
 3.3.2 DURABILITY (AGING) TESTS
• Short-term aging → During the mixing process
• Long-term aging → After pvmt construction due to
environmental exposure and loading
• No direct measure for binder aging (age-hardening)
• Aging effects accounted for by subjecting asphalt
binder to simulated aging, then conducting other
standard physical tests to evaluate the changes
• Durability tests include:
1. Thin-film oven test (TFO) – NEXT SLIDE
2. Rolling thin-film oven test (RTFO)→Not covered
3. Pressure aging vessel test (PAV)→ Not covered
1) Thin-film Oven (TFO) Test
• Determines the effect of heat and air on a thin film of a
bituminous material.
• Indicates changes in asphalt properties during
conventional mixing; the residue approximates binder
condition in newly constructed pavement
• A thin film of asphalt heated in oven at 163°C for 5 hrs
• Changes in other properties – penetration, viscosity &
ductility expressed as a %ge of the original values.
- Retained penetration = Penetration of aged sample * 100%
Penetration of original sample

- Aging index = Viscosity of aged sample * 100%

Viscosity of original sample
 3.3.3 Safety Tests
• Measure temperature at which asphalt materials will
burst or flash into flames
• Working temperatures must be controlled (kept below
Flash Point by ~ 50°F) for safety purposes.
• Recommended safe temp for Pen-grade ~ 245-335°C
• Flash Point is the lowest temp at which the vapour
from (heated) asphalt is ignited by an open flame
• Fire Point is the lowest temp at which asphalt continues
to burn without further heat supply.
• Safety tests include:
- Cleveland Open Cup (Flash and Fire Point test)
- Tag Open Cup test and
- Pensky Martin Flash Point test
Safety Tests cont…
 3.3.4 TEMPERATURE SUSCEPTIBILITY
• Refers to the rate at which consistency of asphalt
changes with changes in temperature.
• Consistency is measured by penetration and viscosity
• Two common parameters for temp susceptibility are
the Penetration Index (PI) and Penetration-Viscosity
number (PVN)
Penetration Index (PI)
• If logarithm of penetration, log(Pen), is plotted against
temperature (T), a straight line is obtained; thus:
log(Pen) = A*T + k
where A (= slope) shows the temp susceptibility of the
asphalt, k is a constant.
Temperature susceptibility for different asphalts
 3.4 LIQUEFIED ASPHALTS

• Normal (Pen-grade) asphalts exist as semi-

solids (highly viscous) at room temp.

• May be liquefied so they can be used without

necessity of (or with min.) heating

• Two products are common

- Asphalt emulsions (bituminous emulsions or
emulsified asphalt/bitumen)
- Cutback asphalts (cutback bitumen or cutbacks)
 3.4.1 Asphalt Emulsions
• Liquefied asphalt obtained by dispersion of asphalt
globules in water (containing emulsifying agent/stabilizer).
• Manufacturing involves passing hot asphalt and water
containing emulsifying agent under pressure through a
colloid mill to produce extremely small (< 5-10 μm)
globules or droplets of asphalt suspended in water
Asphalt Emulsion cont…
• Emulsifiers are additives used to promote dispersion
and stability of asphalt-water mixture (w/out segregation)
NB: Asphalt is an organic material → does not mix with H2O
Emulsifying agent imparts an electric charge to surface of
asphalt globules → globules repel one another (→disperse)
• On the basis of the type of electric charge, asphalt
emulsions may be categorized as:
- Cationic emulsion (electro-positively charged), or
- Anionic emulsion (electro-negatively charged)
• Acidic (siliceous) aggreg. (sandstone, quartz & siliceous gravel)
are negatively charged → compatible with cationic emulsions
• Basic aggregates (limestones, dolomite, etc.) are positively
charged and are therefore compatible with anionic emulsions
Classification of Asphalt Emulsions
Based on setting/breaking of emulsions:
• Evaporation of emulsion water leads to formation of a
continuous film of asphalt on the surface of aggregates
(coalescing).
• Depending on the rate of setting or breaking, emulsion
may be classified as:
- Rapid setting (RS)
- Medium setting (MS), or
- Slow setting (SS)
• Depends on composition of emulsion; porosity of aggr;
rate of evaporation of water (wind, RH, temp); surface
chemistry of aggregates.
 3.4.2 Cutback Asphalts
• Obtained when an asphalt is liquefied by dissolution in
an organic solvent (called cutter)
• Curing of cutback-aggregate mixtures occurs by
evaporation of the cutter from the cutback.
• Highly-volatile cutter (e.g. naphtha or gasoline) gives a
“Rapid Curing (RC)” cutback
• Medium-volatile cutter (e.g. kerosene) gives “Medium
Curing (MC)” cutback
• Low-volatile cutter (e.g. diesel or gasoil) gives “Slow
Curing (SC)” cutter
• Common cutback grades are MC-30 and (RC, MC,
RC) – 70, 250, 800 and 3000
• The number gives the min. viscosity at 60°C (cSt)
 3.5 Distillation of Asphalts
• For separation into components:- fugitive
petrolenes and residual asphaltic bitumens
• Can be done on cutbacks as well as emulsions
- Cutbacks (ASTM D-402)
- Emulsions (ASTM D-244) Distillation of Emulsions

Distillation of Cutbacks
 4.0 ASPHALT MIX TYPES AND DESIGN
• Methods of preparing asphalt mixtures for
pavements include
- Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) – heated asphalt + heated aggreg.
- Cold Mix Asphalt – cutback or emulsion mixed with aggreg.
and laid at ambient temperature.
- Penetration Method – heated asphalt sprayed over and
allowed to penetrate compacted crushed aggregates
- Inverted Penetration Method – spreading asphalt binder
over the roadway surface and laying selected aggregates to
penetrate the asphalt.
• Asphalt mixes so produced include
(i) Asphalt concrete (AC); (ii) Rolled asphalt; (iii) Mastic
asphalt; (iv) Surface treatment (slurry seals, dressing);
(v) Bituminous macadam; (vi) Penetration macadam
 Principal Bituminous Mix Types
1. Asphalt Concrete: A high quality, thoroughly controlled
mixture of hot asphalt binder and hot mineral aggregates
2. Rolled Asphalt: A high quality mortar type produced using
fine aggregate and penetration grade asphalt. These mixes
are more flexible and durable than asphalt concrete
3. Mastic Asphalt: A mortar type of bituminous mix usually
cast into blocks, with 14-17% hard asphalt binder (10-25 pen).
For crack sealing, to prevent attrition of aggregates, etc.
4. Bitumen Macadams: They contain coarsely graded
mineral aggregates coated with asphalt in premix plants. They
have higher air voids than AC
5. Penetration Macadams: Produced by spraying heated,
dissolved or emulsified asphalt over compacted crushed
aggregate in-situ.
6. Surface Treatments: Inc. surface dressing, tack coats etc
5.1 Types of Bituminous Surfacing
 OTTA SEAL CONSTR.

Spreading of aggregate
over cutback asphalt spray

Rolling with pneumatic

Rollers in Otta seal
construction
 4.1 ASPHALT CONCRETE
• Produced by the HMA method
• Primarily used for construction of flexible pavements
• Very strong paving material, can sustain very heavy
traffic loads (roads & airfields) - structural strength to pvmt
• May be designed as “open-graded” or “dense-graded”
• Large-stone open-graded mixtures are more suitable
for supporting heavy truck traffic

• Important (required) properties of AC:

(i) Stability; (ii) Durability; (iii) Flexibility; (iv) Fatigue
resistance; (v) Skid resistance; (vi) Impermeability;
(vii) Workability
 Required Properties of AC
1) Stability:
- Resistance to deformation due to applied load
- Depends on cohesion of binder and internal friction
of mineral aggregate
- Associated with low asphalt contents, dense aggreg
gradation & well compacted impervious mixtures
- Insufficient stability leads to rutting and corrugations
2) Durability:
- Resistance of AC to disintegration by weathering
and traffic. Weather → oxidation (age-hardening)
- Controlled by thickness of asphalt film around aggr
- Enhanced by high AC contents, dense aggregate
gradations and well-compacted impervious mixtures
3) Flexibility
- Ability of AC to conform to base deformations (e.g.
localized/differential settlements) without cracking
- Enhanced by high asphalt contents and relatively
open-graded aggregates

4) Fatigue resistance
- Resistance to pavement failure due to repeated
traffic loading (failure in form of alligator cracking)
- Dense-graded mixtures offer higher fatigue resist.
5) Skid resistance
- Controlled by aggregate physical characteristics
(texture, shape & resistance to polish)
- Also, low asphalt content & open-graded aggregate
6) Impermeability
- Resistance to penetration of water and air
- Improves pavement durability and stability
- Facilitated by high asphalt content, dense gradation
and sufficient compaction (→ imperviousness)

7) Workability
- Ease of AC placement and compaction (with
reasonable effort)
- Factors that promote high stability cause workability
problems (→ a compromise required)

8) Others include “Resistance to temperature cracking”

and “Resistance to stripping”
MIX Bitumen Aggregate Air Voids (in
PROPERTY content gradation compacted mix)
High Low Dense Open High Low

Stability X X X

Durability X X X

Flexibility X X X

Fatigue resist X X X

Skid resist. X X X

Impermeab. X X X

Workability X X X
 4.2 ASPHALT MIX DESIGN
• Two primary properties desirable in design of asphalt
concrete mixtures are stability and durability (i.e.
getting a stable AC mix that is durable)
• Factors to also consider are economy and workability
• Aim is therefore “to find an economical gradation and
blend of aggregate and asphalt that will yield a mix
having:-
1. Sufficient asphalt binder to ensure a durable pavmnt
2. Sufficient mix stability to serve without distortion or
displacement at the anticipated traffic load
3. Sufficient voids in the compacted mix to avoid bleeding
4. Sufficient workability to facilitate proper compaction”
Addit. requirements: Flexibility, fatigue- & skid resistance
 4.2.1 MARSHALL MIX DESIGN
• Developed by Bruce Marshall in the US
• Aims at obtaining a dense mix of high stability but with
adequate void content to allow sufficient binder
content for good durability and flexibility
• Standardized in ASTM D1559 and AASHTO T245
• Standard procedure involves:
(i) Prep. of test specimens, h ≈ 63.5 mm, Ф ≈ 101.5 mm
- heating, drying, mixing and compacting in mould
- both faces of sample receives same number of
compaction blows, determined by the traffic levels
Traffic level Number of blows/face
Light (ESAL < 104) 35
Medium (ESAL = 104-106) 50
Heavy (ESAL > 106) 75
 Marshal Mix Design cont…
(ii) Bulk density test
Determined on compacted cooled specimens by
the water displacement method, with a thin coat of
paraffin wax on it
(iii) Stability and flow test
Specimens are conditioned for 30-40 min in water
bath at 60ºC. They are compressed in the Marshall
test machine (rate 51mm/min) for determination of
Stability and Flow
NB: Stability is the max load resistance (kN) that the test
specimen will develop at 60ºC in the Marshall test.
:Flow is the total deformation (in 0.25 mm units) of
the specimen at failure when subjected to
compression in the Marshall stability test
Marshall Mix Design Test Set-up
 Marshal Mix Design cont…
(iv) Density-voids analysis
- This involves determination of voids using known
and computed density (specific gravity) values
- Three types of voids are considered, namely:
VMA = Voids in Mineral Aggregates
VTM = (Air) Voids in Total Mix
VFB = Voids Filled with Binder (also VFA - asphalt)
(v) Interpretation of test results
The obtained data are used to prepare plots which
are used to determine the optimum binder content
(vi) Determination of the optimum binder content
The content that fulfills the requirements
 Density-Voids Analysis
• Mineral aggregates are porous; can absorb water and
asphalt to a var. degree.
• For Marshall mix design, we consider Bulk SG and
Effective SG
1. Bulk Specific Gravity, Gsb
• This includes the volume of the water permeable voids
in the aggregate (often termed the “”saturated surface
dry” or SSD volume of the aggregate.
2. Effective Specific Gravity, Gse
• Includes the volume of the water permeable voids in
the aggregate that cannot be reached by the asphalt.
 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
1. Voids in Total compacted Mix (VTM)
Total volume of the small pockets of air existing between the
coated aggregate particles in a compacted asphalt paving
mixture, expressed as a percentage of the bulk volume of the
compacted mixture
 VTM = (Va/Vm)* 100%
2. Asphalt binder content (Pb)
 Pb = (Mb/Mm)* 100%
3. Effective asphalt binder (volume) (Vbe)
The volume of total asphalt (content) minus the portion of
asphalt „lost‟ by absorption into the aggregate particles
 Vbe = Vb – Vba
NB: Absorbed binder: Pba = (Mba/Mg)*100%
 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS cont…
4. Voids in Mineral Aggregate (VMA)
The volume of inter-granular void space between the aggregate
particles of compacted paving mixture that includes the air voids
(VTM) and effective asphalt binder content (Pbe), expressed as
a percent of total volume of the mixture specimen
VMA = [(Va + Vbe) / Vm] *100%
5. Volume Filled with Binder (VFB)
The percentage of the voids in the mineral aggregates (VMA)
that is „occupied‟ by the effective asphalt binder (i.e. voids in
mineral aggregate minus voids in the compacted total mix,
expressed as a percent of the voids in mineral aggregates)
VFB = (Vbe/VMA)*100%
= [(VMA-VTM)/VMA] * 100%
 SUMMARY OF RELATIONSHIPS
1) M m = M b + Mg
= Mbe + Mba + Mg
2) Vm = Vg + Vbe + Va
= Vg + (Vb - Vba) + Va
3) ρmb = Mm/Vm ; (Gm = ρmb/ ρw)
4) Vgb = Mg/ ρgb = Mg/(Ggb*ρw)
5) Mb = Pb * Mm ; Vb = Mb/ρb = Mb/(Gb* ρw)
6) Mba = Pba * Mg ; Vba = Mba/ ρba = Mba/(Gb* ρw)
7) Vbe = Vb - Vba
8) Va = Vm - (Vg + Vbe) = 1 - (Vg + Vbe), cons. unit volume
 SUMMARY OF RELATIONSHIPS cont…
9) VTM = (Va/Vm)*100% = (Va/1)*100% if Vm = 1 m3

10) VMA = [(Vbe + Va)/Vm] *100% = (Vbe+Va)*100%

11) VFB = [Vbe/(Vbe+Va)] *100%

= [(VMA-VTM)/VMA] *100%
NB: Theoretical maximum density (max. s/gravity, Gmm):
Imaginary density that would result if the specimen had been
compacted so that there were no voids in the aggregate-
binder mixture (i.e. Va = 0; VTM = 0%)
Gmm = Mm/(Vbe+Vg) = Mm/(Vb+Vge) = Mm/[(Mb/Gb) + (Mg/Gge)]
= 100/[(Pb/Gb) + (Pg/Gge)]
 Marshall Mix Design - EXAMPLE
An asphalt concrete mix has a bulk density of 2440kg/m3,
a binder content, Pb of 5.8% and aggregate binder
absorption of 0.8%. If the specific gravities of
aggregates and asphalt binder are 2.67 and 1.03
respectively, find the AV (VTM), VMA and VFB
SOLUTION:
Considering 1 m3 of AC mixture:
Mm = ρm *1 = 2440 kg
Mb = Pb * Mm = 0.058 * 2440 = 142 kg
Mg = Mm - Mb = 2440 - 142 = 2298 kg
Mba = Pba * Mg = 0.008 * 2298 = 18 kg
Mbe = Mb - Mba = 142 – 18 = 124 kg
SOLUTION cont…
Vg = Mg/(Ggb * ρw) = 2298/(2.67 * 1000) = 0.861 m3
Vbe = Mbe/(Gb * ρw) = 124/(1.03 * 1000) = 0.120 m3
Va = Vm – (Vgb + Vbe) = 1 – (0.861 + 0.120) = 0.019 m3

Therefore:

VTM = (Va/Vm) * 100% = (0.019/1)*100% = 1.9%

VMA = [(Va+Vbe)/Vm]*100% = [(0.019 + 0.120)/1]*100% = 13.9%

VFB = [Vbe/(Va+Vbe)]*100% = [0.120/(0.019+0.120)]*100%

= 89.5%
 INTERPRETATION OF DATA
From the test results, prepare the following plots:

• Binder content vs. Corrected Marshall Stability

• Binder content vs. Marshall Flow
• Binder content vs. Density
• Binder content vs. VTM
• Binder content vs. VMA
• Binder content vs. VFB
 DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM ASPHALT CONTENT

Two methods available:

• The Asphalt Institute‟s Method
• The NAPA Method (National Asphalt Paving Association)

1. The Asphalt Institute‟s Method

(a) Determine the asphalt content at:
- maximum stability
- maximum density
- mid-point of specified air voids range (e.g. 4 for 3-5)
Find the average of the three values obtained
(b) In the respective plots and at average asphalt
content (from (a)), determine
Stability, Flow, Air voids (VTM), VMA and VFB

(c) Compare the values of the above parameters

obtained from the plots with the specification values or
limits (next slide).
- If any of the values fails to meet the specifications,
the mixture should be redesigned, otherwise the mix
formulation is accepted
2. The NAPA Method
Emphasis is placed on the air voids in the total mix, VTM
(a) Determine the asphalt content corresponding to the
median of the specifications air voids content
(usually 4%). Take this value as the tentative
optimum asphalt content, then:
(b) Determine the values of the following parameters
(from the plots) at the tentative asphalt content:
Marshall stability, Flow, VMA and VFB
(c) Compare the values of each of the above parameters
against the specifications or limits (tables). If all are
within the requirements, then the tentative asphalt
content is adopted, otherwise redesign the mixture
 SELECTION OF THE JOB FORMULA

The Job Mix Formula is the gradation and the asphalt

content which satisfy all specification requirements
and upon which plant mixtures are to be produced for
the construction. This is selected at the final stage of
the laboratory design as the mix that was most
economical and give the most satisfactory results 
OPTIMALITY
 6.0 SUPERPAVE MIX DESIGN SYSTEMS

• Was developed to give highway engineers and

contractors the tools for designing asphalt pavements
that will perform better under extremes of temperature
and heavy traffic loads.
• Superpave = SUperior PERforming Asphalt PAVEments
• was developed by the Strategic Highway Research
Program (SHRP), USA
• It primarily addresses two pavement distresses:
- Permanent deformation, which results from inadequate
shear strength in the asphalt mix; and
- Low temperature cracking, which is generated when an
asphalt pavement shrinks and the tensile stress exceeds the
tensile strength.
SUPERPAVE MIXTURE BEHAVIOUR

PERMANENT DEFORMATION (Rutting):

Is the distress that is characterized by a surface
cross section that is no longer in its design
position. This deformation cannot be recovered.
Wheel path rutting is the most common form of
permanent deformation. It has two principal
causes.

Weak subgrade or base

Weak asphalt Layer

 weak subgrade
or base

weak asphalt
layer
 SUPERPAVE MINERAL AGGREGATE

GENERAL REQUIREMENT ARE:

• A strong skeleton (matrix) to
resist repeated load applications
• Cubical, rough textured are
better than Rounded, smooth
textured aggregates
Cubical Aggregate

Rounded Aggregate
When a mass of aggregate is loaded, aggregate particles
begin to slide by or “shear” with respect to each other,
which results in permanent deformation of the mass.
shear plane

Before Load After Load

 SUPERPAVE AGGREGATES cont.
TWO GROUPS OF PROPERTIES
• Source Properties
• Consensus Properties
SOURCE PROPERTIES
•Toughness,
•Soundness, and
•Deleterious materials
CONSENSUS PROPERTIES
•Coarse aggregate angularity
•Fine aggregate angularity
•Flat, elongated particles
•Clay content.
 RUTTING
Rutting of most concern here is the deformation in the
asphalt layers. This rutting results from an asphalt
mixture without enough shear strength to resist the
repeated heavy loads. mixture.

 = c + (tan 
shear strength normal
stress
asphalt binder aggregate
contribution contribution
 shear shear
stress () stress ()

“weak” binder “strong” binder

large “c”
small “c”

normal stress () normal stress ()

 shear shear
stress () stress ()

“weak” aggregate “strong” aggregate


small  large 

normal stress () normal stress ()

 COARSE AGGREGATE ANGULARITY
Ensures a high degree of aggregate internal friction and
rutting resistance. It is defined as the percent by weight
of aggregates larger than 4.75 mm with one or more
fractured faces.
The requirements apply to the final aggregate blend,
although estimates can be made on the individual
aggregate stockpiles

FINE AGGREGATE ANGULARITY

• Ensures a high degree of fine aggregate internal
friction and rutting resistance. It is defined as the
percent air voids present in loosely compacted
aggregates smaller than 2.36 mm.
 Uncompacted Void Content of Fine Aggregate

funnel
fine aggr sample (190 g)

cylinder of known volume (V)

measured uncompacted voids =

mass
V - W/Gsb
x 100%
M V

W/Gsb = volume of loose fine aggregate

in filled cylinder
 Superpave Fine Aggregate Angularity
Requirements
Percent, Minimum
Traffic, million Depth from Surface
ESALs < 100 mm > 100 mm
< 0.3 - -
0.3 to < 3 40 40
3 to < 10 45 40
10 to < 30 45 40
> 30 45 45
NB: Numbers represent the minimum uncompacted
void content as a percentage of the total sample volume
FLAT, ELONGATED PARTICLES
Superpave Flat, Elongated
Particle Requirements
Traffic, million Percent, maximum
ESALs
< 0.3 -
0.3 to < 3 10
3 to < 10 10
10 to < 30 10
> 30 10
 CLAY CONTENT
• Clay content is the percentage of clay
material contained in the aggregate
fraction that is finer than a 4.75 mm sieve.

• It is measured by AASHTO T 176, Plastic

Fines in Graded Aggregates and Soils by
Use of the Sand Equivalent Test.
 graduated
cylinder

flocculating clay reading

solution

suspended clay
sand reading

sedimented
aggregate
 Superpave Clay Content
Requirements
Traffic, million Sand Equivalent,
ESALs minimum
< 0.3 40
0.3 to < 3 40
3 to < 10 45
10 to < 30 45
> 30 50
 6.3 Superpave Binder Tests
Three ‘new’ tests are used to measure the
physical properties of Superpave binders:
• Dynamic shear test, which measurer the
binder's stiffness and phase angle at
intermediate and high temperatures.
• Bending beam test, which measures the low-
temperature stiffness of the binder.
• Direct tension test, which measures the low-
temperature tensile and fracture properties.
DTT RV

DSR

BBR

- 20 20 60 135

Pavement Temperature, C
 SUPERPAVE BINDER PURPOSE
TEST
Dynamic Shear Rheometer Measure properties
(DSR) at high and
intermediate
temperatures
Rotational Viscometer (RV) Measure properties
at high temperatures
Bending Beam Rheometer Measure properties
(BBR) at
Direct Tension Tester (DTT) low temperatures
Rolling Thin Film Oven Simulate hardening
(RTFO) (durability)
Pressure Aging Vessel characteristics
(PAV)
 Fatigue Low Temp
Cracking Cracking
Construction Rutting

[DTT]

[RV]
[DSR] [BBR]

Pavement Age
RTFO - aging
No aging
PAV - aging
 Superpave Binder Tests cont…
6.3.1 The Rolling Thin-Film Oven (RTFO) Test
• The test simulates short-term aging by heating a
moving film of asphalt binder in an oven for 85
minutes at 163° C (325° F).
• The effects of heat and air are determined from
changes incurred in physical properties measured
before and after the oven treatment by other test
procedures.
• The moving film is created by placing the asphalt
binder sample in a small jar (figure next slide) then
placing the jar in a circular metal carriage that rotates
within the oven.
The Rolling Thin-Film Oven Test

RTFO Samples
(left - after aging in the RTFO,
The Rolling Thin-Film Oven
center - before aging in the RTFO,
right - empty sample jar)
 6.3.2 The Pressure Aging Vessel (PAV)
• The test was adopted by Superpave to simulate the
effects of long-term asphalt binder aging that occurs
as a result of 5 to 10 years HMA pavement service.
• The PAV is an oven-pressure vessel combination
that takes RTFO aged samples (figure next slide)
and exposes them for 20 hours to high air pressure
(2070 kPa) and temp. (90° C, 100° C or 110° C),
depending upon expected climatic conditions.

• Aging the asphalt binder samples under pressure is

advantageous because:
- There is a limited loss of volatiles
- The oxidation process can be accelerated without
resorting to extremely high temperatures
 The Pressure Aging Vessel Test

Pressure Aging Vessel PAV Sample

6.3.3 Rotational (or Brookfield) Viscometer (RV)
• The test (figures next slide) is used to test high
temperature viscosities (is conducted at 135°C).
• The basic RV test measures the torque required to
maintain a constant rotational speed (20 RPM) of a
cylindrical spindle while submerged in an asphalt
binder at a constant temperature. This torque is then
converted to a viscosity and displayed automatically
by the RV.
• The RV high-temperature viscosity measurements
are meant to simulate binder workability at mixing
and laydown temperatures (pumping and mixing).
• Normally, Superpave specifies a maximum RV
viscosity.
 Rotational Viscometer Test

Rotational Viscometer
Rotational Viscometer (Schematic)
 6.3.4 The Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)
• The test is used for testing medium to high temper.
viscosities (it is conducted between 46° C and 82° C).
• The actual temperatures anticipated in the area where
the asphalt binder will be placed determine the test
temperatures used.
• The basic DSR test uses a thin asphalt binder sample
sandwiched between two plates. The lower plate is
fixed while the upper plate oscillates back and forth
across the sample at 1.59 Hz to create a shearing
action.
• These oscillations at 1.59 Hz (10 radians/sec) are
meant to simulate the shearing action corresponding
to a traffic speed of about 90 km/hr
 Dynamic Shear Rheometer Test

Dynamic Shear Rheometer Dynamic Shear Rheometer Samples

 6.3.5 The Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR)

The test is used to test asphalt binders at low

temperatures where the chief failure mechanism is
thermal cracking.
• The BBR basically subjects a simple asphalt beam to
a small (100 g) load over 240 seconds (figure). Then,
using basic beam theory, the BBR calculates beam
stiffness (S(t)) and the rate of change of that stiffness
(m-value) as the load was applied.
• The BBR test is meant to simulate asphalt binder
stiffness after two hours of loading at the minimum
HMA pavement design temperature.
The Bending Beam Rheometer
 6.3.6 The Direct Tension Tester (DTT)
• The test is used to compliment the BBR in testing
asphalt binders at low temperatures.
• The DTT is used because creep stiffness, S(t), as
measured by the BBR is not sufficient to predict
thermal cracking in some asphalt binders that exhibit
high creep stiffness (> 300 MPa). Recall that a high
creep stiffness BBR test value implies that the asphalt
binder will possess high thermal stresses in cold
weather as a result of shrinkage.
NB: The DTT is only used for testing asphalt binders
with a high BBR creep stiffness (300 – 600 MPa);
asphalt binders with BBR creep stiffness values below
300 MPa are assumed satisfactory and the DTT is not
needed.
 SELECTION OF BINDER
GRADE

• Pavement Temperature
• Adjust for Speed of Traffic
• Adjust for Axle Load
 PG SPECIFICATIONS

• The Physical Properties remain the same for

any PG specification

• Temperature at which these properties must

be achieved vary with (depending on) climate

• PG 58-22 can sustain the required properties

from 58 deg. C to minus 22 deg C
Design Pvmt Temp. Adjustments for Slow, Stationary and Excessive Loads

Grade for Slow Grade for 20-yr ESALs

Transient Loads Stationary Loads > 30 million
Original Grade
(increase 1 grade) (increase 2 grades) (increase 1 grade)

PG 58-22 PG 64-22 PG 70-22 PG 64-22

PG 70-22* PG 76-22 PG 82-22 PG 76-22

*the highest possible pavement temperature in North America is about 70°C but
two more high temperature grades were necessary to accommodate transient and
stationary loads.
 Sample Preparation
The Superpave gyratory compactor
• It was developed to improve mix design's ability to
simulate actual field compaction particle orientation
with laboratory equipment
• Compaction pressure = Typically 600 kPa (87 psi)
• Simulation method - The sample is inclined at 1.25°
and rotates at 30 revolutions per minute as the load is
continuously applied. This helps to achieve a sample
particle orientation that is somewhat like that achieved
in the field after roller compaction
• Number of gyrations at three levels of compaction are
used for determination of opt. binder content (Ninitial,
Ndesign & Nmax.)
 Gyratory Compactor cont…
Key parameters of the gyratory compactor are:
• Sample size = 150 mm (6-inch) diameter
cylinder approximately 115 mm (4.5 inches) in
height (corrections can be made for different
sample heights). Note that this sample size is
larger than those used for the Hveem and
Marshall methods (see the figure).
 Selection of Optimum Asphalt Binder Content

The optimum asphalt binder content is selected as that

asphalt binder content that results in 4 percent air
voids at Ndesign. This asphalt content then must meet
several other requirements:
1) Air voids at Ninitial > 11 percent (for design ESALs ≥ 3 mil).

2) Air voids at Nmax > 2 percent (See Table for specifications)

3) VMA above the minimum listed in Specification Table

4) VFA within the range listed in Specification Table.

VMA and VFA must meet the values specified in Table below

Minimum VMA Requirements and VFA Range Requirements (from

AASHTO, 2001)

Minimum VMA (percent)

20-yr Traffic Loading

VFA Range
(in millions of
(percent)
ESALs)
9.5 mm 12.5 mm 19.0 mm 25.0 mm 37.5 mm
(0.375 inch) (0.5 inch) (0.75 inch) (1 inch) (1.5 inch)

< 0.3 70 - 80

0.3 to < 3 65 - 78

3 to < 10 15.0 14.0 13.0 12.0 11.0

10 to < 30 65 - 75

 30
 Selection of Optimum Asphalt Binder Content – Contd…

• If requirements 1,2 or 3 are not met the

mixture needs to be redesigned.
• If requirement 4 is not met but close, then
asphalt binder content can be slightly adjusted
such that the air void content remains near 4
percent but VFA is within limits.
• This is because VFA is a somewhat redundant
term since it is a function of air voids and VMA
 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE AND CONTROLS
SURFACE AND SUB-SURFACE MOISTURE CONTROL
Importance of adequate drainage systems:
1. Water standing on the carriage-way poses a danger
to high-speed traffic
2. Water seeping into the pavement and subgrade
leads to development of soft spots which result in
breakup of the surfacing and the need for expensive
maintenance works
3. The wash-out of culverts or collapse of bridges
constitute a hindrance to the traffic and, of course,
additional maintenance cost
 MOISTURE CONTROL cont…
Water can enter the subgrade and pavement by:
1. Through permeable surface (joints, cracks, pores)
2. Infiltration into the shoulders
3. Suction from shoulders
4. Seepage from high ground
5. Suction from ground water table (capillary rise)
6. Upward movement of ground water table
7. Condensation of water vapour from lower layers/GWT
Road drainage can be divided into two categories:
1) Surface drainage: Measures taken to control the
movement of water over the ground for disposal
2) Subsurface moisture control: Flow of water within soils
 SURFACE DRAINAGE
Considers three aspects of interest to the highway eng.
1. Precipitation – types (rain, snow, hail, sleet) and
intensity (in order to estimate the
amount of surface run-off water to be
disposed of)
2. Methods for intercepting and disposing of water in
permanent minor streams and temporary water
courses (i.e. culverts and dykes)

3. Bridging of rivers and relatively large streams

(bridges)
 Culverts vs. Bridges
• Culverts (pipe, arch, box) are conduits that
convey water through an embankment; i.e. the
top of a culvert is always beneath the
carriageway (which is therefore continuous)
• The bridge surface forms a part of the carriage-
way as it connects two roads on either side
of a river/valley.
NB: Culverts may very often be designed to flow
full, whereas bridges are normally designed to
pass floating debris and sometimes boats
 SURFACE RUN-OFF
The highway engineer is concerned with the maximum
rate of surface run-off from a catchment area.
Principal factors governing the amount of run-off are:
1) Size and shape of catchment area
2) Length and steepness of slopes
3) Irregularity of ground surface (depression will hold water…)
4) Natural and manmade drainage channels in catchment area
5) Type and condition of soil w.r.t. infiltration
6) Kind and extent of cultivation and/or vegetation
7) Changes in land use (built up area, paved areas, etc)
8) Temperature of the air and water (→ evaporation)
 HYDRAULIC DESIGN
• Refers to the design of a structure intended to convey
the amount of water that reaches the drainage point
as surface run-off. This may be a ditch or a culvert.
• Involves the principles of hydraulics (fluid flow) related
to open channels and closed conduits
NB: Side ditches may be in the form of V-shape or
trapezoidal shape
- They intercept surface water running off the
carriageway and shoulders
- In cut sections they prevent water running down
the back slopes from invading the roadway.
 HYDRAULIC DESIGN cont…
Typical formulas used in hydraulic design include:
1) Chezy formula: v = C√(RS) where R = A/P
Q = A.v
where: A = x-sectional area of flow; P = wetted perimeter;
R = average hydraulic radius; S = slope of hyd. Gradient
C = coefficient of roughness, dep. on nature of surface

2) Manning formula: C = R1/6/n, then v = R2/3.S1/2/n,

Thus: Q = A.v = A. R2/3.S1/2/n = (1/n).(A. R2/3.S1/2)
where n = Manning‟s roughness coefficient
 SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE
If water from carriageway is likely to enter a pavement
that is resting on a vulnerable subgrade, the design
should ensure that it is removed immediately before
the water trickles down to the formation.
This requires imposing a free-draining sub-base across
the full width of the pavement and providing a carrier
pipe to take away the collected water.
The sub-base drainage layer will also help to stop
capillary rise water from going into the pavement.
The drainage course should be highly permeable, with
the permeability of at least 100 times that of the upper
pavement and shoulder layers. Also it should have a
low capillary rise (thickness ≈ twice the capillary rise)
 SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE cont…
Minimum thickness of drainage layers for drainage materials
and typical values of capillary rise

MATERIAL Particle Size Capillary rise Min. thickness of

Range (mm) (mm) drainage layer (mm)
Fine sand 0.05 – 0.25 300 – 1000 2000
Medium sand 0.25 – 0.5 150 – 300 600
Coarse sand 0.5 – 2 100 – 150 300
Well-graded sand 0.25 – 2 150 – 1000 2000
Fine gravel 2–6 20 – 100 200
Coarse gravel 6 – 20 5 – 20 100 (nominal)
One-sized aggregate >5 <5 100 (nominal)
HOPE YOU ENJOYED TR 331

THANK YOU!!