Alethea Carr, Callie Plesco

Dr. Moerdyk

Foundations of Chemistry

December 7, 2018

The Haber-Bosch Process

The Haber-Bosch process is argued to be the most impactful finding in the 20th century

[7]. With gaseous nitrogen and hydrogen originating from the atmosphere, Fritz Haber and Carl

Bosch invented a way to create synthetic ammonia. It has revolutionized the way the food

industry manufactures. It also supplies industries that make commonly used household cleaning

products and refrigeration systems. Most importantly, ammonia is used for fertilizers as a way to

yield larger crops. Ammonia is a good fertilizer because it contains active nitrogen to replenish

the soil with nutrients, vital to crop growth. Before the Haber-Bosch process, the only uniform

source of nitrates was guano. Bird feces was hard to obtain in mass quantities, and with the

growing demand for crops, it was absolutely vital to find another source. It is estimated now that

half of all the crops produced on earth, is grown with fertilizer containing ammonia [26].

Although this process is responsible for supplying the crops that feed about half of the world,

there are some oppositions toward the increasing use of ammonia. Ammonia is controversial

because of to its explosive properties and its possible negative health effects. One of the more

debated uses of ammonia involves the beef industry. Parts of the cow that are more likely to be

infected with bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and salmonella, are sprayed with chemicals to

remove these pathogens. A common chemical used for this procedure is ammonium hydroxide.

This is where the controversy begins. People realized the fatty trimmings from the cow were

being used as filler for ground beef. These fatty trimmings are sprayed with an extra amount of
ammonium hydroxide before being processed in the ground beef. This process is where the

whole pink slime debacle originated [14]. The increase in ammonia accessibility has supported

various industries, but not all of these industries have an interest in the common good. Ammonia

can combine with other compounds to form unstable explosives and can contribute to chemical

warfare [2]. As a result, the mass production of ammonia, via the Haber-Bosch principle, is a

disputable topic. Society should care about ammonia usage since it is an integral component of,

cleaning supplies, refrigeration systems, fuels and since most homes rely on its use for an easier

living.

Nitrogen is arguably one of the most vital elements involved in sustaining life from plants

to animals. From the air we breathe, down to the proteins which comprise our DNA, nitrogen is a

key component in the balance of the world around us. Since nitrogen contributes to so much of

the Earth’s needs, the mass production and availability of synthetic nitrogen was crucial for

supporting the masses of living things. The central problem with nitrogen is that at room

temperature and atmospheric pressure, nitrogen is unreactive with nonmetals [19]. The Haber-

Bosch Process fundamentally changed the world because it created an industrial process where at

high temperature and pressure, a reversible reaction of nitrogen gas from the air and hydrogen

gas react to yield ammonia. This process is now the main source of fixed nitrogen in our world,

and is credited with feeding roughly half the world by its uses in agricultural fertilization among

many other real world functions. Previously, the problem with the reaction was nitrogen gas is

very stable and could not be converted to a less stable molecule, like ammonia, because of issues

with thermodynamics and entropy. However, Haber found the synthesis of ammonia is an

exothermic reaction, meaning at high temperatures, the rate of the reaction is sped up, and at

high pressures, chemical equilibrium (K), is reduced, producing an abundance of ammonia by

shifting the reaction to the right. An increase in temperature for exothermic reactions tends to

shift the reaction to the left, or to make more reactants, but the benefit of increasing the rate

fraction with high temperatures was proven [20]. To counteract the high temperatures required

for the production of ammonia, Haber introduced a catalyst, which is claimed to be the secret

ingredient to the reaction, in order to make the reaction more practical by synthesizing ammonia

at lower temperatures. The common catalysts used for the synthesis of ammonia are a mixture of

iron, potassium oxide, and aluminum oxide. In some cases, finely divided Ruthenium metal is

used because it is less likely to poison its products or cause impurities in production. Nitrogen

and hydrogen gases are placed in a reaction chamber where they can control the conditions of the

experiment. Usually this reaction takes place at about 450 degrees Celsius and between 200-600

atmospheric pressure. After the reaction has taken place, the ammonia is passed through a

cooling chamber. Ammonia has a very low boiling point of -39 degrees celsius, meaning that it

can be separated from its unreacted reactants when it condenses in the cooling chamber.

Removing the ammonia as a liquid continuously shifts the reaction to the right because the

excess nitrogen and hydrogen left in the chamber can then be recycled to produce more

ammonia. 

As stated before, synthesis of ammonia is a reversible exothermic reaction. Reversible

implies the reaction can proceed to the right, producing ammonia, or to the left, decomposing

ammonia. To understand the reasoning for the phenomenon, you have to understand the

composition of the reaction. There is a ratio of three moles of gas on the left side of the equation

to one mole of gas on the right side of the equation. Increasing the pressure of the reaction shifts

the reaction to the side of the equation with fewer moles. Luckily, in the case of this reaction,

this favors the production of ammonia. According to Le Chatlier’s principle, the composition of
the reaction should indicate a favor towards low temperatures and high pressure. The stability of

nitrogen does not allow the reaction to proceed at low temperature because a lot of energy is

required to break the bonds and dissociate nitrogen. Even the hydrogen molecules involved in

the reaction have weaker molecular bonds than nitrogen but still only dissociate at very high

temperatures. You need to shift the position of equilibrium as far to the right as possible in order

to make the maximum amount of ammonia. Thermodynamics suggests increasing the

temperature in the reactants would then create products. The problem is that an increase in

temperature favors the reactants of exothermic reactions, simply meaning an increase in

temperature with high pressure will not mass produce ammonia as suggested by the laws of

thermodynamics. The introduction of the iron catalyst into this reaction plays a key role in the

synthesis of ammonia. Hydrogen and Nitrogen molecules lose their translational degrees of

freedom when bound to the catalyst. This relationship lowers the activation energy of the

reaction which significantly speeds up the rate of the reaction [21]. The catalyst combats the

thermodynamic front of the challenge because the high temperature normally needed for the

reaction to proceed can be reduced, which would limit the reverse reaction that occurs in

exothermic conditions. However, a reasonably high temperature is still required in the reactor to

dissociate the strong bonds of nitrogen and hydrogen which make the reaction proceed. Synthesis

of ammonia requires constant external input from the surrounding environment in order to allow

the reaction to take place. These characteristics imply the production of ammonia is a

nonspontaneous reaction. Certain factors such as the change in enthalpy, and entropy impact the

spontaneity of a reaction. Entropy is defined as a measure of the disorder or the randomness in a

reaction. In nature, things tend to move from a state of order to disorder. Generally, exothermic

reactions, which have a negative change in enthalpy, are spontaneous but because of the high
temperature which is required for this type of reaction, the reaction is nonspontaneous. Although

exergonic in nature, Gibbs free energy equation suggests the increase in temperature  in relation

to change in entropy has the opposite effect meaning it should be spontaneous. The second law

of thermodynamics suggest the entropy of the universe is always increasing. The synthesis of

ammonia using high temperatures, however, increases the order of the reaction, which in turn,

decreases the entropy of the system. The industrial apparatus, invented by Bosch, was made of

copper to withstand the heat of the reaction. The manufacturing of ammonia requires a large

reactor chamber that resembles a tank that took years for Bosch and his colleagues to perfect.

The tank is connected to a gas compressor or converter which collects the nitrogen from the air

and deposits it into the tank with the catalyst and hydrogen. The industrial apparatus also

requires an external heating apparatus. After being reacted in the tank, the product enters a

cooling tank where the liquid ammonia is produced and removed. The excess reactants are then

filtered back into the tank to be used again in the ammonia production process [5].

Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch both contributed to this process but in different ways. Haber

was a German physical chemist, while Bosch was an industrial chemist. In 1905, Haber

published his book, Thermodynamics of Technical Gas Reactions. Within this publication, Haber

came to the realization he could produce small amounts of hydrogen gas and nitrogen gas at very

high temperatures. For this reaction, he also needed a catalyst. A little while later, Haber started

to conduct experiments which could lead to the successful process of synthesizing ammonia

from nitrogen and hydrogen [12]. To make this process work, he needed to identify the

appropriate catalyst. The catalyst used for this process is considered to be iron, but is actually

much more complex than that. The catalyst ends up being potassium hydroxide, with an added -a

substance [7]. With the correct catalyst, Haber increased the pressure as well as the temperature,
and was able to synthesize ammonia. This process was innovated at Technische Hochschule in

Karlsruhe. The science community realized how impactful this method was and felt there was a

need to mass produce ammonia. This is when Bosch came into play. Bosch’s studies in high

pressure science were his major contributions in the process of producing large amounts of

product [16]. Bosch, with the help of Alwin Mittasch, led to the installation of the Oppau and

Leuana Ammonia Works [12]. In 1908, Bosch was given the process developed by Haber and

asked to modify the process so that ammonia could be manufactured on an industrial scale.

Bosch had to find cheap ways to create the large furnaces which could withstand the extreme

reaction conditions. He also had to find cheaper catalysts and ways to purify the gases. Alwin

Mittasch is credited for finding the catalyst that worked for industrial sized production. Iron and

a mixture of metal oxides is what Mittasch landed on after testing over 4000 different

possibilities [23].  Additionally, he was also asked to make ammonia available for industries

such as agriculture. Achieving this feat, essentially every country was awarded the accessibility

to nitrogen fertilizers. For this, Carl Bosch was granted the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1938 [6].

Lastly, for innovating the process itself, Fritz Haber was also awarded the Nobel Prize in

Chemistry, in 1919. One hundred years later, the Haber-Bosch Process has barely changed.

Although it is very efficient in producing ammonia for fertilizers, a byproduct of this process is a

substantial amount of carbon dioxide pollution. Scientists today, such as Steven McIntosh from

Lehigh University, are trying to modify the process, in an attempt to limit these emissions.

McIntosh and his team have come up with the idea to extract hydrogen from water, rather than

from methane. This would create a byproduct of oxygen rather than the harmful byproduct of

carbon monoxide. They also have the idea of using tungsten as a catalyst rather than iron,

because iron requires large amounts of pressure [10]. These energy saving, minimally polluting
alternatives are very important for the growing population, and for the increasing demand of

ammonia.

The Haber-Bosch Process has allowed for synthetic ammonia to become increasingly

accessible, resulting in its broad presence in society. Ammonia is most prominent in the

agricultural industry as 80% of the worlds ammonia is used for fertilizers. When plants are

growing, they take up the nitrogen from the soil because they cannot take nitrogen straight out of

the atmosphere. This means during the growing seasons, there will be less and less nitrogen

available for the plants, leading to less crops. Nitrogenous fertilizers have increased crop yield

tremendously because it restores the nitrogen in the soil by pairing it with oxygen. This pair

allows for the plant to absorb the nitrogen [11]. In the 1900s, the Haber-Bosch Process lead to

the Green Revolution [24]. Without it, farmers would not be able to grow enough food to sustain

the population on earth. Ammonia is also converted into its anhydrous form for refrigeration

systems. Anhydrous ammonia is good for refrigeration systems due to its -28℉ boiling point.

Anhydrous ammonia is about 99% pure ammonia and its purity is important to the proper

function of the refrigerator. In the refrigeration system the liquid anhydrous ammonia is stored in

pressurized valves. Theses valves slowly releases the pressure and the liquid ammonia

evaporates. This is what provides the cool temperature. Ammonia will continue to be cool until it

reaches its boiling point [2]. Another household use of ammonia for use in cleaning products.

Ammonia gas evaporates quickly into water, making the solution really useful for cleaning

windows since no residue will be left behind. Ammonia cleaning products are usually used in the

kitchen to clean up greasy messes. These greasy messes are made up of hydrophobic fatty acids,

so water alone would not be sufficient in getting the job done. The fatty acid chains in the grease

do have an extra proton to donate, but water is too weak to use it. This is why using ammonia
diluted in water is more efficient. Ammonia is a weak base, so it is a proton acceptor. The fatty

acids donates its proton to the ammonia. The fatty acid, or stearic acid, now becomes negative

and transforms into its salt form, stearates. The stearates form micelles inside of the water

because even though in their changed form, they are still hydrophobic. The surface on which the

greasy stain was, is now nice and clean after the ammonia solution is wiped off [8]. Another

important use of ammonia is in pharmaceuticals. In pharmaceuticals, a reaction between

ammonia and a sulfonyl chloride make a group of chemical compounds called sulfonamides.

Any drug that falls under sulfonamides is used for treating bacterial infections [28]. Lastly,

ammonia is used to make explosives and other weapons of war. The reaction of ammonia and

nitric acid, makes ammonium nitrate. Ammonium nitrate has many real world applications. From

here, one could make fertilizers, explosives, or nitrous oxide. If ammonium nitrate is made into a

water solution and heated, it creates nitrous oxide. The common term for nitrous oxide is

laughing gas [3]. Ammonia is important for many industries and has a major impact on the

population as a whole. 

The applications of ammonia are prominent in things like agriculture which is a major

contributor in sustaining the growing population of people in the world. Although this process is

responsible for important different life functions, the Haber Bosch process was not originally

created with the intention to sustain lives. In european countries, guano was used as a source of

natural nitrogen fertilizer. Guano is an agricultural fertilizer obtained from bird feces. The supply

of guano being produced could not compete with the growing amount of crops which needed

fertilized. A new way of fertilizing crops was needed to keep up with the growing world. This

source of fixed nitrogen was running out and the race for scientists to find a way to use the

nitrogen from the air to produce ammonia was more serious than ever before. Unlike most
scientific discoveries, ammonia was not created by accident but rather in a highly competitive

time period of agriculturally focused scientific discovery. Haber was the first to invent this

process using a small tabletop reactor. A German chemical company, Badashe Analine und Soda

Fabrik (BASF), bought this idea from Haber and used the process to make ammonia with the

help of Carl Bosch, who industrialized the process. The agricultural benefits went far beyond

what anyone could have imagined, but the chemical uses of the process at this time went further

than just crops. With World War I in progress, Germany needed fuel for the war effort. As it

turns out, the technology of this process allowed Germany to make thousands of explosives used

in the war. The same factory that was producing ammonia for fertilization of crops was now also

mass producing munitions for the war effort [26]. The process is believed to have been a major

factor in prolonging World War I for many years and in creating more danger at the start of

World War II.  During World War I, Haber was in charge of the german poison gas program

[19]. His first uses of chlorine gas on the Western Front resulted in five thousand fatalities.

Haber’s wife, who was also a chemist, was mortified by the implementations of her husband’s

discoveries and her disposition to the immoral role displeased her so much so that she committed

suicide. She was found dead in the living room of their home and Haber supposedly returned to

work on the Eastern Front the next day. The synthetic nitrogen fertilizers are fundamentally

crucial in the agricultural world to produce crops and to keep the world running, yet it can also

be highly destructive. The same process that helps so many can also effectively kill just as many

people as is shown throughout the history of World War I. Perhaps Haber’s process for the

production of ammonia was not created intentionally with the intent of producing explosives

responsible for so many deaths, but his blind allegiance to Germany and the war effort caused a

good thing to turn very bad.

 The ability to synthetically form ammonia on the industrial level, has given rise to many

possibilities. Arguably, the most important is its use in nitrogen soil. This contribution is so

impactful because it supplies farmers with the ability to yield more crops. With increased

availability of food, the population rises. Currently the world has a population of around seven

billion people. Many may argue there is not enough food for everyone as it is and the Earth is

already too close to its carrying capacity. In 2050, scientists predict the world's population will

have already increased by two billion people [27]. This population will require double the crop

yield grown today. The agricultural industry is already a main polluter of greenhouse gases and a

main user of water. If the same farming methods continue to be used, and at double the rate, the

Earth may not be able to handle it as pollution will rise and resources will be depleted at an

exceptional rate [13]. The increase in availability of crops is one of the main causes of

overpopulation. An idea to conside in the future is to stop producing so much ammonia. It is

apparent that the increased use of ammonia in fertilizers and population have been rising at the

same rate. If the use of nitrogen fertilizer remains at the same level as it is now, or decreases

slightly, it could help with the skyrocketing population. If ammonia production is not limited,

then the role of the Haber-Bosch Process will continue to grow in importance. Ammonia will

have to be synthesized at very fast rates. Fertilizer will have to be produced and food will have to

be grown just as swiftly to keep up with the enormous overpopulation. In turn, pollution will

rise. Methane released by cattle, nitrous oxide released by fertilized fields, and carbon monoxide

generated from harvesting are all greenhouse gas emissions which will increase. Also water

pollution from field runoff along with excessive water usage needed to grow crops will be

increased [13]. Overpopulation will cause enormous problems for earth in the near future, which

will intimately be linked to the Haber Bosch Process.

 Scientific discoveries can be used for multiple different purposes. Here, the Haber-Bosch

Process can be used as a positive or negative influence on the world. Sometimes there is no way

to say if a finding or innovation is inherently good or evil. There are many examples of scientist

inventing or finding something, and someone else using what they discovered for another reason.

For example, Ascanio Sobrero invented nitroglycerin. He, himself, found little use for it. Then

Alfred Nobel came in and became infatuated with its possibilities. From here Nobel took

Sobrero’s findings and created what everyone knows today as dynamite. It is noted, though, that

Sobrero is mortified by his finding of nitroglycerin and felt awful for the horrible ways it was

being used [18]. Later though, nitroglycerin was found to help people with chest pains and other

heart problems [22]. It is hard to differentiate if this finding is evil or good. A similar occurrence

happened with the invention of agent orange. Originally, Arthur Galston invented the herbicide

to combat the weeds which were overpopulating their crops and become resistant to other

herbicides. Agent Orange contains chemicals which are highly damaging to crops. Farmers have

to be careful where they spray agent orange because the environmental damage it causes can be

deadly. In the Vietnam War, the United States used the chemical agent orange as a form of

chemical warfare. They sprayed this chemical all over, destroying vegetation, poisoning the

water supply, and causing birth defects of Vietnamese people for years to come. The effects of

agent orange devastated the economy and had a staggering impact on the health of Vietnam for

years after the war was over. This chemical agent produced to help with weed infestation and aid

farmers during their growing season took a drastic turn for the worst in chemical warfare. In a

similar way, the drug MDMA, or more commonly known as Ecstasy, was created by a German

pharmaceutical company and given to patients as a psychological aid. The therapeutic purpose of

the drug was overlooked when it was found to be an effective recreational drug. People found
this drug to be more effective in the party scene as soon it was banned by the United States

because the abusive tendencies did not outweigh medical benefits. Another major scientific

discovery of the fusion of the atomic nuclei of two hydrogen atoms became one of the most

deadly reactions known to man. The process of nuclear fusion is the reaction used in producing

the hydrogen bomb. In the hands of the wrong person, nuclear weaponry by hydrogen bombing

can be an extremely destructive source. All of these scientific discoveries, much like the Haber

Bosch process, have both constructive and destructive characteristics which make them both

necessary and dangerous. Sometimes researchers and inventors do not foresee the disastrous

outcomes of inventions made in good conscience.

Overall, the Haber Bosch Process is highly applicable in many aspects of life. For

example, synthetic ammonia is a key component in the production of plastics, fuels, refrigeration

systems, pharmaceuticals, and household cleaners. It’s uses in agriculture are arguably the most

important implementations of the process, as synthetic nitrogen fertilizer supplies half of the

world’s crop yield. The process can also be linked to manufacturing, production and agriculture

in many destructive ways. With the increased accessibility of fertilizer, the agricultural industry

has been able to meet the increase in crop demand. Since the demand is being constantly met,

due to the rising production of ammonia, food supply is seldom a concern. This results in a

directionally proportional growth of population. As the population increases, ammonia

production will be forced to meet its needs. The process and its subsets are major contributors to

the pollution of the atmosphere, and the contamination of the world’s freshwater supply.

Additionally, its uses in Word War I as a form of a chemical weapon impinges on the integrity of

the Haber Bosch Process. There are some things to consider when taking a stance on the

production of synthetic ammonia and its uses. If the industry were to hinder the amount of
 ammonia produced in response to the risks, the world’s food supply could be decreased

substantially. Conversely, if ammonia production continues to rise with demand, overpopulation

and pollution could result. It remains to be seen if the benefits outweigh the risks.

Works Cited

[1] "Agent Orange, exposed: How U.S. chemical warfare in Vietnam unleashed a slow-moving

disaster." The Conversation, The Conversation US, 3 Oct. 2016, theconversation.com/agent-

orange-exposed-how-u-s-chemical-warfare-in-vietnam-unleashed-a-slow-moving-disaster-

84572. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[2] "Ammonia Refrigeration." United States Department of Labor, U.S. Department of Labor,

www.osha.gov/SLTC/etools/ammonia_refrigeration/ammonia/. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[3] "Ammonium nitrate." Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, 21 Jan. 2016,

www.britannica.com/science/ammonium-nitrate#ref125609. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[4] Boerner, Leigh. "Category Archives: Haber-Bosch process." The Bunsen Boerner, 24 Jan. 2011,

ljkboerner.wordpress.com/category/haber-bosch-process/. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[5] Carl Bosch – Nobel Lecture. NobelPrize.org. Nobel Media AB 2018. Wed. 5 Dec 2018.

[6] "Carl Bosch Biographical." The Nobel Prize, Nobel Media AB,

www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1931/bosch/biographical/. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[7] Clark, Jim. "The Haber Process." chemguide, Jim Clark, Apr. 2013,

chemguide.co.uk/physical/equilibria/haber.html. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[8] "The Dirt on Ammonia as a Cleaning Agent." Beth Nissen, correspondent. NBC Learn.

NBCUniversal Media. 15 Apr. 2011. NBC Learn. Web. 3 November 2018

[9] "Ecstasy History." Narconon, Narconon Arrowhead,

www.narcononarrowhead.org/addiction/ecstasy/ecstasy-history.html. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[10] "Electrochemically-produced ammonia could revolutionize food production." Phys.org, 9 July

2018, phys.org/news/2018-07-electrochemically-produced-ammonia-revolutionize-food-

production.html. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[11] Fritz Haber – Nobel Lecture. NobelPrize.org. Nobel Media AB 2018. Wed. 5 Dec 2018.

[12] "Fritz Haber Biographical." The Nobel Prize, Nobel Media AB,

www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1918/haber/biographical/. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[13] "The Future of Food." National Geographic, National Geographic Society,

www.nationalgeographic.com/foodfeatures/feeding-9-billion/. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[14] Geller, Martine. "Ammonia used in many foods, not just 'pink slime.'" Reuters,

www.reuters.com/article/us-food-ammonia/ammonia-used-in-many-foods-not-just-pink-slime-

idUSBRE8331B420120404. Accessed 2 Dec. 2018.

[15] "Gibbs Free Energy and Spontinuity." Khan Academy,

www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/thermodynamics-chemistry/gibbs-free-

energy/v/gibbs-free-energy-and-spontaneity. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[16] "Haber-Bosch process." Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., 29 Oct. 2018,

www.britannica.com/technology/Haber-Bosch-process. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[17] "The Haber Process." Chemistry LibrePrints, 25 Apr. 2017,

chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Sup

plemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Equilibria/Le_Chatelier's_Principle/

The_Haber_Process. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[18] "The Man Who Invented Nitroglycerin Was Horrified By Dynamite." Smithsonian.com,

www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/man-who-invented-nitroglycerin-was-horrified-

dynamite-180965192/. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[19] Masterton, William L, and Cecile N. Hurley. Chemistry: Principles & Reactions. Philadelphia:

Saunders College Pub, 2014. Print.

[20] May, Paul. "The Haber Process Nitrogen from the Air." The Compost Gardener,

     The-Compost-Gardener, www.the-compost-gardener.com/haber-process.html.

     Accessed 5 Dec. 2018.

[21] Modak, Jayant M. "Haber Process for Ammonia Synthesis." researchgate.org, Research Gate, Aug.

2002, www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/reso/007/09/0069-0077. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[22] "Nitroglycerin Sublingual." Medline Plus, AHFS, 22 Oct. 2018,

medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a601086.html. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[23] "A Question of Ethics." SYFI, scienceyourfacein.wordpress.com/2012/10/30/a-question-of-ethics/.

Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[24] Schneider, Steffen. "The Haber-Bosch Process." Institute for Mindful Agriculture, Squarespace, 24

Mar. 2018, www.instituteformindfulagriculture.org/writings-1/2016/3/24/the-haber-bosch-

process-1. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018.

[25] "Tell USDA, Reject “Agent Orange” GMO Corn and Soybean Seeds Action Alert." Farmer-to-

Consumer Defense Fund, 6 Feb. 2014, 

[26] "Fertilizer History: The Haber-Bosch Process." The Fertilizer Institute, 19 Nov.

      2014, www.tfi.org/the-feed/fertilizer-history-haber-bosch-process. Accessed

       5 Dec. 2018. 

[27] Smaje, Chris. "Can organic farming feed the world?" Statistics Views, 21 May

      2013, www.statisticsviews.com/details/feature/4795851/

     Can-organic-farming-feed-the-world.html. Accessed 5 Dec. 2018.