International Journal of

Turbomachinery
Propulsion and Power

Review
Review of Small Gas Turbine Engines and Their
Adaptation for Automotive Waste Heat
Recovery Systems
Dariusz Kozak * and Paweł Mazuro
Department of Aircraft Engines, Warsaw University of Technology, 00-665 Warsaw, Poland; pmazuro@itc.pw.edu.pl
* Correspondence: dariusz.kozak.dokt@pw.edu.pl; Tel.: +48-509-679-182




Received: 28 October 2019; Accepted: 22 April 2020; Published: 30 April 2020


Abstract: Current commercial and heavy-duty powertrains are geared towards emissions reduction.
Energy recovery from exhaust gases has great potential, considering the mechanical work to be
transferred back to the engine. For this purpose, an additional turbine can be implemented behind a
turbocharger; this solution is called turbocompounding (TC). This paper considers the adaptation of
turbine wheels and gearboxes of small turboshaft and turbojet engines into a two-stage TC system for
a six-cylinder opposed-piston engine that is currently under development. The initial conditions are
presented in the first section, while a comparison between small turboshaft and turbojet engines and
their components for TC is presented in the second section. Based on the comparative study, a total
number of 7 turbojet and 8 turboshaft engines were considered for the TC unit.

Keywords: auxiliary power unit; waste heat recovery; turbine engines; turbine wheel; opposed-piston
engine; internal combustion engine; review

1. Introduction
High-temperature exhaust gases from internal combustion engines (ICE) offer the potential for
heat recovery systems. Mechanical turbocompounding (mech-TC) or electric turbocompounding
(el-TC) systems have been used in heavy-duty diesel (HDD) engines. Recently, a few interesting studies
were conducted on TC.
Jääskeläinen and Majewski [1] carried out a review of TC systems for HDD engines; engine
manufacturers such as Scania, Volvo, Daimler MB, Detroit, and Cummins have used serial TC systems
in their engines. Axial turbines were used for the Volvo D13TC, MD13TC, and D12 500TC models,
the Daimler OM 478 model, and the Detroit DD15 model. The implementation of TC resulted in a 3%
efficiency improvement. Radial turbines were used in the Scania DT12, DTC11, and DTC12 models
and the Cummins NTC-400 model; they resulted in a 4.5% efficiency improvement.
The history of Scania engines has been presented in the literature [2]. The author mentions positive
aspects of TC in Scania DT12 engines and that such an engine meets the Euro 5 emission regulations.
In the literature [3], the available energy of the waste heat from a 6-cylinder HDD engine was
analyzed. This engine was equipped with a high- and low-pressure loop exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
system. The authors compared three types of waste heat recovery systems, while 1-stage and 2-stage
turbocharging systems were compared against a turbocharging system using the Rankine combined
cycle (RCC). At full-load, the 1-stage turbocharging system provided 40.0 ÷ 74.8 kW of available energy
from the waste heat, whereas the 2-stage turbocharging system provided 43.0 ÷ 76.3 kW of available
energy. At low-load conditions, the available energy was small compared to high-load conditions.
It was also found that turbocharging with the RCC improved the brake-specific fuel consumption
(BSFC) by about 3%.

Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, 8; doi:10.3390/ijtpp5020008 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijtpp

Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, 8 2 of 15

Ismail et al. [4] conducted a 0-D simulation on a 2 L diesel engine with a series TC unit. By locating
the power turbine behind the turbocharger, the authors showed that the BSFC could be reduced;
this was caused by the increase in the engine’s back-pressure. They also showed the potential of TC
combined with an EGR valve; this combination resulted in a power gain of about 14 kW considering
isentropic expansion.
Furthermore, in their next work, Ismail et al. [5] investigated the effect of parallel TC on a 2 L
diesel engine. It was shown that an engine model with parallel TC provided lower energy recovery
potential than series TC. For low-load conditions, parallel TC had a negative effect on the global power
gain, as most of the exhaust gasses passed through the turbocharger instead of the recovery turbine.
At high load, a minor increase was observed for parallel TC; however, the authors showed the potential
of parallel TC, as it produces lower back-pressure compared to series TC. In addition, in order to
improve parallel TC, the authors suggested implementing a variable turbine geometry (VTG) in the
turbocharger. With proper optimization of the VTG and reconfiguration of the turbocharger to run at
higher efficiency, it is possible for the engine to benefit from parallel TC.
Experimental tests of parallel TC were also performed on an IVECO 3 L engine with two exhaust
configurations [6]—the first was with the original VTG turbocharger and the second was with a
new fixed geometry turbocharger. The first configuration showed good results for the engine at low
loads, however at high loads the advantages were minor compared to the fixed geometry turbine.
However, both systems displayed potential for power recovery of about 2% ÷ 2.5%.
Bin et al. [7] designed and tested a low-pressure turbine for TC applications in a 1.0 L gasoline
engine. They conducted 1D simulations on the 1.0 L gasoline engine using three configurations
of the low-pressure turbine—post-catalyst, pre-catalyst, and waste-gated configurations (in which
the low-pressure turbine was located in a parallel configuration to the turbocharger). In low-speed,
high-load conditions, the post-catalyst turbine position proved to be the best, with a reduction in the
BSFC of 2.38% and an increase in the brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) of 2.4%. The pre-catalyst
turbine position resulted in less of an improvement in both the BSFC and BMEP. This was caused by
an increase in the back-pressure, thus causing higher pumping losses. The waste-gated, pre-catalyst
turbine position had a negative effect on the engine’s performance at low speed. This was mainly
due to the small bypass ratio of the main turbine used to feed the low-pressure turbine due to its
parallel configuration.
A comparison of an ICE diesel engine with TC against a turboshaft engine used as the propulsion
system for a light rotorcraft was carried out in the literature [8]. The authors concluded that the ICE
diesel engine offered a promising reduction in both fuel consumption and CO2 emissions, especially
with medium and high loads and for long-range missions. In addition, implementing the TC system
further increased the reduction in fuel consumption. The reduction in fuel consumption of 25% ÷ 50%
compared to the turboshaft engine depended on the required power. The higher mass of the ICE was
compensated by the lower fuel consumption compared to the turboshaft engine.
He and Xie [9] investigated three modes of TC, namely electric TC, series TC, and parallel TC,
on a 6-cylinder HDD engine. They performed simulations at a steady-state for different engine loads
and speeds. In addition, three different driving cycles were investigated with these modes. The results
showed that electric TC provided the best power increase at high-load and at a high-speed engine
operating point. The best reduction in fuel consumption was achieved by electric TC at high-load and
a high-speed operating point. The smallest power increase and reduction in BSFC were obtained from
parallel TC. All the TC systems worked well for high-load and with a high-speed engine operating
point. In different driving cycles, electric TC provided the best BSFC reduction of more than 7%.
Bin et al. [10] developed and tested a low-pressure turbine for electric TC applications. A TC
turbine was designed for a very low-pressure ratio in order to reduce the impact of the back-pressure on
the engine’s performance. Tests with electric TC were performed on a 1.0 L EcoBoost gasoline engine
in the series configuration. At 2500 rpm, a maximum reduction in the BSFC of 2.6% was achieved.
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, 8 3 of 15

Salehi et al. [11] studied the influence of electric TC on a 13 L HDD engine with an asymmetric
twin-scroll turbocharger. The first approach of simply implementing electric TC downstream of the
exhaust system resulted in a reduction in the BSFC and produced smoke emissions. This was a result of
the increase in the back-pressure and higher pumping losses. After modification of the turbocharger’s
volute and exhaust pipes to achieve a symmetrical volume, the BSFC was reduced by 1% at medium
speed and load. Additionally, the transient operation of electric TC with a bypassed valve provided a
1.6% reduction in the BSFC.
Although Yamaguchi et al. [3] revealed a greater potential for turbocharging when combined
with the organic Rankine cycle (ORC), such a solution has not been considered in this paper due to its
complexity and its greater increase in mass. The articles have shown the potential of series TC as a
waste heat recovery system. Parallel TC offers small benefits for power recovery and BSFC reduction.
Additionally, in order to control the back-pressure in the exhaust system, and thus emissions, a VTG
turbine should be introduced into the exhaust system.
A 2-stage mechanical TC system will be implemented in the 6-cylinder opposed-piston engine
that is under development at Warsaw University of Technology. The recovered waste heat will be
returned to the crankshaft by means of the gearbox.

2. Review of Potential TC Solutions

After World War Two, increasing demand for fast travel forced engine manufacturers to increase
the brake power of their engines. Hot exhaust gases from an ICE promised a great source of energy
for increasing an engine’s power. Starting from the 1940’s, the first engines were equipped with an
exhaust turbine coupled with the engine’s crankshaft via the gearbox. Despite the fact that the engine’s
brake power was increased, a great deal of energy was wasted on driving the exhaust turbine. The use
of hot exhaust gases as the energy source for the turbine improved the engine’s overall efficiency,
and thus the engine’s brake power. This application was used in both aircraft and automotive engines.
Further demand for increased aircraft speed and a low power-to-weight ratio for piston engines
made turbine engines more promising as a propulsion system. Turbine engines were first used in
aircraft, however there was consternation about the use of such engines in the automotive industry.
Unfortunately, the difficulty of controlling such engines and the high fuel consumption made them
inappropriate for automotive applications. However, rotary equipment is still widely used in piston
engines for waste heat recovery. In this article, small turbojet and turboshaft engines that are available
on the market, along with their rotary equipment, were considered as a 2-stage TC system for the
6-cylinder OP engine, PAMAR V, which is under development. This is one of the options, aside from
designing a new radial turbine. The reason for this is that adapting turbine engines that are already on
the market is still cheaper than designing a new impeller. Designing a new turbine is also an option,
however it has not been discussed in this paper. Due to the highly isolated combustion chambers
in the previous engines, namely PAMAR III and PAMAR IV, high exhaust temperature is available.
Thus, extremely temperature-resistant turbine components need to be used, especially in the first stage
of TC. A review and comparison of small turbojet and turboshaft engines was carried out, considering
.
the turbine inlet temperature (TIT) Tin , the maximal mass airflow mair , the maximal rotational velocity
nmax or revolutions per minute (RPM), the bearing system, and the gearbox’s gear ratio.

2.1. Review of Small Turbojet Engines

As stated in the literature [12], from the late 1960’s there was an increased interest in smaller
turbojet engines. Engine manufacturers such as Teledyne Turbine Engines, Williams International,
Turbomeca, Noel Penni, and Microturbo were leaders in the market. However, the main disadvantage
of turbojet engines is the lack of an output shaft for transferring the mechanical power to other devices.
The Teledyne J402 was a single-shaft turbojet engine, with a maximal TIT of 1116 K, a maximal
RPM of 41,200 r/min, and a maximal thrust of 2.9 kN [13].
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, 8 4 of 15

Bakaljev et al. [14] presented specification data for the known small turbojet engines that had been
produced in the past. The Teledyne J408 was an example of a single-shaft turbojet engine with a TIT of
1039 K and a nominal RPM of 42,000 r/min; the nominal thrust of this engine was 4.45 kN and the
engine was equipped with a single-stage axial turbine.
Another model, the Teledyne 305-4, was a type of small single-shaft turbojet engine.
However, this engine was much smaller than both the J408 and J402. Its maximal TIT was 1364 K and
its maximal RPM was 81,000 r/min; due to its volume, it generated 0.18 kN of thrust. This engine was
equipped with a single-stage axial turbine.
The last engine from the Teledyne company was the model 312. Its TIT was 1100 K and
maximal RPM was 71,000 r/min. This engine was also equipped with a single-stage axial turbine.
However, no cross-section images could be found. The maximal thrust of this engine was 0.79 kN.
Another interesting engine was the Williams International F107 series engine. Despite the fact that
no cross-section images are available, it is known that it was a twin-shaft engine with high-pressure
(HP) and low-pressure (LP) turbines. The HP turbine had a single stage with a maximal RPM of
64,000 r/min, while the LP turbine had two stages with a maximal RPM of 35,000 r/min; the maximal
TIT was 1282 K and it produced 2.67 kN of thrust.
Another type of Williams International engine was the YJ400 series engine. It was also a type
of bypass engine with both HP and LP turbines; however, both the HP and LP turbines had two
stages. This engine was a twin-shaft engine, with a maximal RPM of 60,000 r/min, a TIT of 1227 K,
and produced thrust measuring 0.89 kN.
Noel Penni was another manufacturer that produced well-known small turbojet engines. Their first
model was the NPT 301. This engine had a single-stage axial turbine, with a maximal TIT of 1130 K
and a maximal RPM of 40,500 r/min; it produced thrust measuring 1.37 kN. The model NPT 754 was
similar to the NPT 301, but its maximal RPM was 34,100 r/min, with thrust measuring 5.09 kN.
The Microturbo company also produced two models of turbojet engines. The first was a single-shaft
model TRS 18-046, with a maximal TIT of 923 K and RPM measuring 47,000 r/min. The second one was
the single-shaft model TRI 60-1, with a maximal TIT of 1198 K and a RPM of 28,500 r/min; the thrust of
these engines measured 0.9 kN and 3.43 kN, respectively.

2.2. Review of Small Turboshaft Engines

Small turboshaft engines are frequently used in aircraft to start the main engines and to produce
electrical energy. Sometimes such engines are also used to provide auxiliary air for the aircraft;
thus, they are equipped with a power output shaft. Nowadays there are many manufacturers of such
engines around the world, most of which are located in the USA or Russia.
Radikovic and Jevgjenievic [15] reviewed every Russian-made small turboshaft unit up to the
year 2020. In their work, the AI-450, RU-19A-300, TA-6A, TA-8V, TA-12-60, AI-8, AI-9W, and VSU-10
units were mentioned.
The AI-450 is a type of two-shaft auxiliary engine with a compressor turbine and a free turbine [16].
Its maximal TIT is over 1200 K, with a maximal RPM of 40,000 r/min and a 294 kW power rating
(Nmax ). Additionally, the maximal mass airflow rate for this engine is 1.127 kg/s and the reduction in
the gearbox’s gear ratio is 6.5:1.
A cross-section of this engine is shown in Figure 1, where the reduction gearbox and the free
turbine can be seen.
Another type of engine that might be suitable for the first stage of a TC unit is the RU-19A
engine [17]. It is a single-shaft engine with a single-stage axial turbine and a 7-stage axial compressor.
Little is known about its maximal TIT, however the maximal temperature after the turbine is 1173.15 K.
Also, the maximal RPM is 16,000 r/min, with a Nmax of 720 kW. The turbine drives an AC generator via
a set of bevel and helical gearboxes; the gearbox gear ratio is 0.447. The engine has its own fuel and
lubrication system and the lubrication oil pressure varies from 1.2 bar at idle to 4.0 bar at 80% of the
engine’s maximal speed. The cross-section of this engine is shown in Figure 2.
 Figure 1. Cross-section of the AI-450 engine [16]. (Reproduced with permission from Ivchenko-
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, 8 5 of 15
Progress, AI-450M Turboshaft gas turbine engines;
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW published by Ivchenko-Progress,
5 of2012.)
16
Figure 1. Cross-section of the AI-450 engine [16]. (Reproduced with permission from Ivchenko-
Another
Progress,typeAI-450M
of engine that might
Turboshaft gasbe suitable
turbine for the
engines; first stage
published of a TC unit is the 2012.)
by Ivchenko-Progress, RU-19A engine
[17]. It is a single-shaft engine with a single-stage axial turbine and a 7-stage axial compressor. Little
Another
is known typeits
about of maximal
engine that TIT,might be suitable
however for the first
the maximal stage of a after
temperature TC unit
theisturbine
the RU-19A engine
is 1173.15 K.
[17]. It the
Also, is a maximal
single-shaft
RPM engine withr/min,
is 16,000 a single-stage
with a Naxial max ofturbine
720 kW. and Thea 7-stage
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drives compressor. Little
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Thetheengine
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and lubrication RPM and
system is 16,000 r/min, with
the lubrication oila pressure
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maximal speed. gearboxes;
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Figure 2. has its own fuel
Figure
Figure 1. Cross-section
1. Cross-section of the
of the AI-450
AI-450 engine
engine [16].[16]. (Reproduced
(Reproduced with with permission
permission from Ivchenko-
from Ivchenko-Progress,
and lubrication system and
Progress,
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AI-450M
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AI-450M Turboshaft gas Turboshaft gas turbine
turbine engines; engines;
published published by Ivchenko-Progress,
by Ivchenko-Progress, 2012.) 2012.)
the engine’s maximal speed. The cross-section of this engine is shown in Figure 2.
Another type of engine that might be suitable for the first stage of a TC unit is the RU-19A engine
[17]. It is a single-shaft engine with a single-stage axial turbine and a 7-stage axial compressor. Little
is known about its maximal TIT, however the maximal temperature after the turbine is 1173.15 K.
Also, the maximal RPM is 16,000 r/min, with a Nmax of 720 kW. The turbine drives an AC generator
via a set of bevel and helical gearboxes; the gearbox gear ratio is 0.447. The engine has its own fuel
and lubrication system and the lubrication oil pressure varies from 1.2 bar at idle to 4.0 bar at 80% of
the engine’s maximal speed. The cross-section of this engine is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Cross-section of the RU-19A engine (Adapted from[17]).

The TA-6A is aFigure single-shaft

2.
Figure 2.engine
Cross-section with
of of
Cross-section thea RU-19A
the3-stage axial
engine
RU-19A engine turbine
(Adapted
(Adapted and
from a 3-stage compressor [18]. Its
from[17]).
[17]).
maximal TIT is 1110 K at a RPM value of 29,950 r/min, with a maximal Nmax of 45 kW; its maximal
The TA-6A is a single-shaft engine with a 3-stage axial turbine and a 3-stage compressor [18].
massThe TA-6A
airflow is aissingle-shaft
rate 1.35 kg/s. The engine with
turbine a 3-stage
drives axial turbine
accessory devicesand andaan 3-stage compressor
AC generator via [18]. Its
a helical
Its maximal TIT is 1110 K at a RPM value of 29,950 r/min, with a maximal Nmax of 45 kW; its maximal
Figure 2. Cross-section of the RU-19A engine (Adapted from[17]).
maximal
gearbox.TIT
The isreduction
mass 1110
airflowKrate
atratio
isa1.35
RPMof value
the
kg/s. of 29,950
gearbox
The turbine to drive
drives r/min,
the with
accessory a and
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is 0.2505
an Nmax
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via kW; its maximal
generator.
helical The
mass airflow
engine, with rate
itsThe
gearbox. isTA-6A
1.35reduction
multi-stage
The kg/s. The
ratioturbine
turbine,
is a single-shaft is
thevery
ofengine drives accessory
promising
gearbox
with a to
3-stage for
driveaxial
the devices is aand
TC applications.
generator
turbine and 0.2505 an
3-stage AC Itsgenerator
[18]. Itsvia aishelical
cross-section
forcompressor
the AC generator. shown
gearbox. The engine, with its multi-stage turbine, is very promising for TC applications. Its cross-section is
in FigureThe reduction
3.maximal TIT isratio
1110 Kof atthe
a RPMgearbox
value ofto drive
29,950 the with
r/min, generator
a maximalis N0.2505
max of 45for the
kW; its AC generator. The
maximal
shown
mass in Figure
airflow rate3.is 1.35 kg/s. The turbine drives accessory devices and an AC generator via a helical
engine, with its multi-stage turbine, is very promising for TC applications. Its cross-section is shown
gearbox. The reduction ratio of the gearbox to drive the generator is 0.2505 for the AC generator. The
in Figure 3. engine, with its multi-stage turbine, is very promising for TC applications. Its cross-section is shown
in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Cross-section of the TA-6A engine (Adapted from [18]).

Figure Figure
3. Cross-section ofofthe
3. Cross-section TA-6A
the TA-6A engine
engine (Adapted
(Adapted from [18]).
from [18]).

Figure 3. Cross-section of the TA-6A engine (Adapted from [18]).

Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

AInt.single-shaft TA-8V
J. Turbomach. Propuls. engine
Power 2020, 5, with
8 a radial inflow turbine wheel was another option for6 the of 15 first
stage of TC [19]; its maximal TIT and RPM are 1100 K and 40,139 r/min, respectively. The Nmax of this
A single-shaft TA-8V engine with a radial inflow turbine wheel was another option for the first
engine is 30 kW and the maximal mass airflow rate is 0.85 kg/s. The turbine drives an AC generator
stage of TC [19]; its maximal
A single-shaft TIT and
TA-8V engine RPM
with are 1100
a radial K and
inflow 40,139
turbine wheelr/min, respectively.
was another optionThe Nmax
for the of this
first
via a planetary gearbox. The gear ratio to drive the AC generator is 0.14952 and the engine has its
stage of TC [19]; its maximal TIT and RPM are 1100 K and 40,139 r/min,
engine is 30 kW and the maximal mass airflow rate is 0.85 kg/s. The turbine drives an max respectively. The N of this
AC generator
own engine
fuel and lubrication
is 30 kW system.
and theThemaximal The
massrequired
airflow oil pressure is The
4.5 turbine
bar, while theanminimal pressure
via a planetary gearbox. gear ratio to driverate
theisAC
0.85generator
kg/s. drives
is 0.14952 and AC engine
the generator has its
should
via not
a be lower
planetary than 1.2
gearbox. Thebar.
gearThe cross-section
ratio to drive the of this
AC engine
generator is is shown
0.14952 andinthe
Figure
engine4.has its own
own fuel and lubrication system. The required oil pressure is 4.5 bar, while the minimal pressure
fuel and lubrication system. The required oil pressure is 4.5 bar, while the minimal pressure should not
should not be lower than 1.2 bar. The cross-section of this engine is shown in Figure 4.
be lower than 1.2 bar. The cross-section of this engine is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Cross-section of the TA-8V engine (Adapted from [19]).

Figure 4. Cross-section of the TA-8V engine (Adapted from [19]).

Figure 4. Cross-section of the TA-8V engine (Adapted from [19]).
Another option is the single-shaft TA12-60 unit, which has a three-stage axial turbine with a
maximal Another
RPM of 24,470
option r/min and a TIT of
is the single-shaft 1115 Kunit,
TA12-60 [20].which
The maximal mass airflow
has a three-stage is 2.1 kg/s,
axial turbine withwith a a
Another option is the single-shaft TA12-60 unit, which has a three-stage axial turbine with a
Nmax maximal
of 60 kW.RPM However,
of 24,470it r/min
was not andpossible to obtain
a TIT of 1115 K [20].a The
cross-section
maximal mass image of this
airflow engine.
is 2.1 kg/s, with a
maximal RPM of 24,470 r/min and a TIT of 1115 K [20]. The maximal mass airflow is 2.1 kg/s, with a
N
The of 60 kW. However, it was not possible to obtain a cross-section image of
maxAI-8 and AI-9 are well-known engines that are used in helicopters. The first one is a two- this engine.
Nmax of 60The kW. However,
AI-8 and it was
AI-9 are not possible
well-known to that
engines obtain aused
cross-section
areaxial image
in helicopters. of this
TheTIT
first one engine.
is aengine
two-shaft
shaft engine with an axial compressor turbine and an free turbine. The of this is 1200
The
engine AI-8
withand
an AI-9
axial are well-known
compressor turbine engines
and an that
axial are
free used in
turbine. helicopters.
The TIT of The
this first
engine one
is is aKtwo-
1200
K and its maximal RPM is 38,500 r/min. The reduction gearbox ratio to drive the AC generator is 0.25.
shaftand
engine with anRPM
its maximal axialiscompressor
38,500 r/min.turbine and angearbox
The reduction axial free turbine.
ratio The
to drive theTIT
ACof this engine
generator is 1200
is 0.25.
Unfortunately, no cross-section images are available for this engine. The output power (Nmax) of this
K and its maximalno
Unfortunately, RPM is 38,500 r/min.
cross-section images The reduction
are available forgearbox ratioThe
this engine. to drive
outputthe
powerAC (N generator is 0.25.
max ) of this
engine is 14 kW.
engine is 14 no
Unfortunately, kW.cross-section images are available for this engine. The output power (Nmax) of this
As for the AI-9 engine, its single-shaft axial turbine is capable of withstanding 1100 K, its peak
engine isAs 14for
kW.the AI-9 engine, its single-shaft axial turbine is capable of withstanding 1100 K, its peak
RPMRPM is at is39,150
at r/min, and itsitsNNmax is 3 kW; its maximal mass airflow rate is 1.1 kg/s. The turbine
As for the39,150
AI-9 r/min,
engine, and max is 3 kW;
its single-shaft its turbine
axial maximalismass airflow
capable of rate is 1.1 kg/s. 1100
withstanding The turbine
K, its peak
drives an AC
drives generator
an AC generator viaviaa gearbox,
a gearbox,withwith aa gear ratio ofof0.2.
gear ratio 0.2.TheThecross-section
cross-section of this
of this engine
engine is is
RPM is at 39,150 r/min, and its Nmax is 3 kW; its maximal mass airflow rate is 1.1 kg/s. The turbine
presented in Figure 5.
presented in Figure 5.
drives an AC generator via a gearbox, with a gear ratio of 0.2. The cross-section of this engine is
presented in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Cross-section of the AI-9W engine (Adapted from [20]).

Figure 5. Cross-section of the AI-9W engine (Adapted from [20]).

Figure 5. Cross-section of the AI-9W engine (Adapted from [20]).

The VSU-10 is a two-shaft engine with a 2-stage axial compressor turbine and a 2-stage axial free
turbine [21]. The maximal TIT for the compressor turbine is 1050 K, with a maximal RPM of 31,975
The VSU-10 is a two-shaft engine with a 2-stage axial compressor turbine and a 2-stage axial free
r/min. The free turbine has a maximal RPM of 19,625 r/min and it drives an auxiliary compressor via
turbine [21]. The maximal TIT for the compressor turbine is 1050 K, with a maximal RPM of 31,975
 Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, 8 7 of 15

Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16

The VSU-10 is a two-shaft engine with a 2-stage axial compressor turbine and a 2-stage axial
free turbine [21]. The maximal TIT for the compressor turbine is 1050 K, with a maximal RPM of
the gearbox,31,975
withr/min.a reduction gearhas
The free turbine ratio of 0.62.
a maximal RPM The maximal
of 19,625 mass
r/min and airflow
it drives for this
an auxiliary engine is 3.9 kg/s.
compressor
The cross-section of thiswith
via the gearbox, engine is shown
a reduction in Figure
gear ratio 6. maximal
of 0.62. The
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW
The compressor
mass airflow turbine has isa3.9
for this engine roller
kg/s. bearing on
7 of 16
The cross-section of this engine is shown in Figure 6. The compressor turbine has a roller bearing on
either side, while the free turbine has a roller and ball bearing on one side.
either
the side, while
gearbox, with the free turbine
a reduction gearhas a roller
ratio and
of 0.62. ball
The bearingmass
maximal on one side. for this engine is 3.9 kg/s.
airflow
The cross-section of this engine is shown in Figure 6. The compressor turbine has a roller bearing on
either side, while the free turbine has a roller and ball bearing on one side.

Figure 6. Cross-section of the VSU-10 engine (Adapted from [21]).

Figure 6. Cross-section of the VSU-10 engine (Adapted from [21]).

The lastFigure 6. Cross-section
of the Russian of the
small turboshaft VSU-10
engines engine
is the GTDE-117 (Adapted
[22]. Thisfrom [21]).
unit is used to provide
auxiliary power supply for the MIG-29 aircraft and to provide compressed
The last of the Russian small turboshaft engines is the GTDE-117 [22]. This unit is used air to start tothe main
provide
engines
The lastauxiliaryof the
of the power aircraft.
Russian Its
small
supply cross-section
turboshaft
for the is shown
MIG-29 aircraftenginesin Figure 7. It is a
is the GTDE-117
and to provide two-shaft
compressed air engine
[22]. with
This
to start a compressor
theunit
main is used to provide
engines
turbine and a free turbine; the maximal N max for this engine is 16 kW. The compressor
of the aircraft. Its cross-section is shown in Figure 7. It is a two-shaft engine with a compressor turbine turbine’s
auxiliary power
maximal
supply forK,the MIG-29 aircraft andr/min.
to provide compressed air to start the main
and a freeTIT is 1123
turbine; with a maximal
the maximal Nmax for RPM of 43,000
this engine is 16 kW. The Thecompressor
maximal mass airflow
turbine’s rate for
maximal this
TIT is
engines of the
1123aircraft.
engineK, is
with Its
1.0 akg/s. cross-section
The compressor
maximal RPM of 43,000 is shown
turbine
r/min.hasThein Figure
a maximal
roller 7. Itbehind
bearing
mass is a two-shaft
airflow the for thisengine
rateturbine wheel
engineandiswith a compressor
1.0a kg/s.
ball
turbine andbearing
The freeat turbine;
a compressorthe front
turbineof
the themaximal
has a turbine wheel,
Nmax
roller bearing close to
for the
behind the
this place
engine
turbine where
wheel 16the
isand shaft
kW.
a ball couples
The
bearing thewith
frontthe
compressor
at of turbine’s
compressor.
the turbine The
wheel, free turbine
close to the has roller
place and
where ball
the bearings
shaft couples on one
with side,
the and due
compressor. to its
The short
free shaft,
turbine ithas
is
maximal TIT is 1123 K, with a maximal RPM of 43,000 r/min. The maximal mass airflow rate for this
easier to balance.
roller and ball bearings on one side, and due to its short shaft, it is easier to balance.
engine is 1.0 kg/s. The compressor turbine has a roller bearing behind the turbine wheel and a ball
bearing at the front of the turbine wheel, close to the place where the shaft couples with the
compressor. The free turbine has roller and ball bearings on one side, and due to its short shaft, it is
easier to balance.

Cross-section of
Figure 7. Cross-section of the
the GTDE-117
GTDE-117 engine (Adapted from [22]).

Woodhouse [23] carried out a revision and comparison of the different models of small
turboshaft engines from the United States manufacturers, such as Garrett, Honeywell, Pratt and
Whitney, and others. A great amount of information was provided for the Garrett GTCP331 model,
with its single-shaft and a 3-stage axial turbine. Different variants of the GTCP331 were produced,
starting with the GTCP331-250, GTCP331-9 (A, B, D), and GTCP331-500. The last version produced
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, 8 8 of 15

Woodhouse [23] carried out a revision and comparison of the different models of small turboshaft
engines from the United States manufacturers, such as Garrett, Honeywell, Pratt and Whitney,
and others. A great amount of information was provided for the Garrett GTCP331 model, with its
single-shaft and a 3-stage axial turbine. Different variants of the GTCP331 were produced, starting
with the GTCP331-250, GTCP331-9 (A, B, D), and GTCP331-500. The last version produced the highest
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16
amount of power. The TIT for the GTCP331-500 was 1050 K, with a maximal RPM of 39,044 r/min and
a Nmax of 169 kW. The highest value of the mass airflow rate was 3.53 kg/s. A cross-section of this
39,044 r/min and a Nmax of 169 kW. The highest value of the mass airflow rate was 3.53 kg/s. A cross-
engine is shown in Figure 8.
section of this engine is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8. The
Figure 8. The GTCP331-500
GTCP331-500 engine: (a) cross-section;
engine: (a) cross-section; (b)
(b) isometric
isometric view
view (Adapted
(Adapted from
from [23]).
[23]).

Another interesting engine is the Garrett AiResearch Model 85 [23]; however, very little is known
Another interesting engine is the Garrett AiResearch Model 85 [23]; however, very little is known
about this engine. It is a single-shaft engine equipped with a radial inflow turbine and its maximal
about this engine. It is a single-shaft engine equipped with a radial inflow turbine and its maximal
RPM is about 35,000 r/min.
RPM is about 35,000 r/min.
Another engine is the Garrett Model 700 [23], which is a two-shaft engine with HP and LP
Another engine is the Garrett Model 700 [23], which is a two-shaft engine with HP and LP axial
axial turbines. An interesting fact is that variable guide vanes are installed before the LP turbine.
turbines. An interesting fact is that variable guide vanes are installed before the LP turbine. However,
However, no information about the performance of this model is available.
no information about the performance of this model is available.
The next model is the Allied Signal RE220 [23]. This is a two-shaft unit with a 2-stage axial turbine.
The next model is the Allied Signal RE220 [23]. This is a two-shaft unit with a 2-stage axial
Its maximal TIT is 1055 K and its maximal RPM is 45,585 r/min. Its mass airflow rate is 1.22 kg/s and
turbine. Its maximal TIT is 1055 K and its maximal RPM is 45,585 r/min. Its mass airflow rate is 1.22
the Nmax is 66.2 kW. However, no cross-section images were available.
kg/s and the Nmax is 66.2 kW. However, no cross-section images were available.
The model T-62T [23] is another engine that was widely used in military helicopters. It is a
The model T-62T [23] is another engine that was widely used in military helicopters. It is a single-
single-shaft engine with a maximal RPM of 61,565 r/min and a maximal TIT of 1000 K; the engine’s
shaft engine with a maximal RPM of 61,565 r/min and a maximal TIT of 1000 K; the engine’s Nmax is
Nmax is rated at 44.1 kW. This engine is equipped with a radial inflow turbine, as shown in Figure 9.
rated at 44.1 kW. This engine is equipped with a radial inflow turbine, as shown in Figure 9.
 Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16

Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, 8 9 of 15

Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16

Figure 9. Turbine wheel from the T-62T engine.

Figure 10 presents an Figure

isometric
Figure Turbine
9.9.Turbine wheel
of anfrom
viewwheel the
theT-62T
APS3200
from engine.
engine’s
T-62T engine.cross-section [23]. It is a two-shaft
engine with a 2-stage axial turbine. The engine’s maximal RPM is 49,300 r/min, with a maximal TIT
Figure 10 presents an isometric view of an APS3200 engine’s cross-section [23]. It is a two-shaft
Figure
ofengine 10Additionally,
1173 K. presents an isometric viewmass
of anairflow
APS3200 rateengine’s cross-section [23]. ItNismaxa is
two-shaft
with a 2-stage axialthe maximal
turbine. The engine’s maximal is 1.8iskg/s
RPM andr/min,
49,300 the engine’s
with a maximal 91 kW. The
TIT
engine with
turbine a 2-stage axial turbine. The engine’s maximal RPM is 49,300 r/min, with a maximal TIT
of 1173 drives an AC generator
K. Additionally, the maximalvia amass
gearbox, with
airflow rateaisgear ratioand
1.8 kg/s of 0.4875.
the engine’s Nmax is 91 kW.
of 1173
TheK. Additionally,
turbine drives an the
AC maximal
generator mass airflow with
via a gearbox, rate is 1.8 kg/s
a gear ratioand the engine’s Nmax is 91 kW. The
of 0.4875.
turbine drives an AC generator via a gearbox, with a gear ratio of 0.4875.

Figure 10. Cross-section of the APS3200 engine (Adapted from [23]).

Figure 10. Cross-section of the APS3200 engine (Adapted from [23]).
There is a smaller version, which is the APS2300 [23]. This has a TIT of 1120 K, with a maximal
RPMThere is a r/min,
of 45,225 smaller
Figurewhileversion,
10. whichof
Cross-section
the engine’s ismax
N theAPS3200
the isAPS2300 [23].
44 kW.engine
No This has from
(Adapted
cross-section aimages
TIT[23]).
ofwere
1120available
K, with for
a maximal
RPM of 45,225 r/min, while the engine’s Nmax is 44 kW. No cross-section images were available for
this unit.
There isAPS5000
this unit.
The a smaller is version,
the biggest which
of all is
thethe
APS APS2300 [23].
series [24]. This11
Figure has a TIT this
presents of 1120 K, with
engine, whicha has
maximal
a
RPM2-stage
of The
45,225APS5000 is the biggest of all the APS series [24]. Figure 11 presents this engine, whichfor
axial r/min,
turbine while
drivingthea engine’s
centrifugal N is 44
compressor
max kW.
and No cross-section
two DC images
generators. were
However, available
no data is has a
available
this2-stage
unit. regarding
axial turbine itsdriving
performance.
a centrifugal compressor and two DC generators. However, no data is
The For this
APS5000
available paper,
is theaits
regarding bigger
biggest GTD-350
of all theturboshaft
performance. APS series engine
[24]. was also11
Figure considered
presents [25]. It is a two-shaft
this engine, which has a
engine with a compressor turbine and a free turbine. For the compressor
2-stage axial turbine driving a centrifugal compressor and two DC generators. However, turbine, the maximal noTIT
data is
is 1228.15 K and the maximal RPM is 45,000 r/min. It has a maximal mass airflow rate of 2.19 kg/s,
available regarding its performance.
which makes its compressor turbine wheel very promising for use as the first stage of TC; its maximal
power (Nmax ) is 294 kW. The cross-section of this axial compressor turbine is shown in Figure 12.
 Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, 8 10 of 15
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16

Figure 11. Cross-section of the APS5000 engine [24]. (Reproduced with permission from Pamintuan,
E., MESA/Hamilton Sundstrand Training Academy; published by Mathematics Engineering Science
Achievement (MESA), 2012)

For this paper, a bigger GTD-350 turboshaft engine was also considered [25]. It is a two-shaft
engine with a compressor turbine and a free turbine. For the compressor turbine, the maximal TIT is
1228.15 KFigure
and the
Figure maximal RPM
11. Cross-section
11. isAPS5000
of the 45,000 r/min. It has
engine [24]. a maximalwith
(Reproduced
(Reproduced mass
with airflowfrom
permission
permission ratePamintuan,
from of 2.19 kg/s, which
Pamintuan,
makes itsE.,
compressor
MESA/Hamiltonturbine wheel
Sundstrand very promising
Training Academy;
E., MESA/Hamilton Sundstrand Training Academy; for use as
published the
by first stage
Mathematics of TC; its
Engineering maximal
Science
Science power
Achievement (MESA), 2012)
(Nmax) is 294 kW. The cross-section of this axial compressor
Achievement turbine is shown in Figure 12.
(MESA), 2012)

For this paper, a bigger GTD-350 turboshaft engine was also considered [25]. It is a two-shaft
engine with a compressor turbine and a free turbine. For the compressor turbine, the maximal TIT is
1228.15 K and the maximal RPM is 45,000 r/min. It has a maximal mass airflow rate of 2.19 kg/s, which
makes its compressor turbine wheel very promising for use as the first stage of TC; its maximal power
(Nmax) is 294 kW. The cross-section of this axial compressor turbine is shown in Figure 12.

Figure
Figure 12.12.
The The GTD-350engine,
GTD-350 engine,with
withaa cross-section
cross-section of
ofthe
thecompressor
compressorturbine assembly
turbine (Adapted
assembly (Adapted
from [25]).
from [25]).
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
For the first stage of TC, small turbojet and turboshaft units were both considered. Figure 13
Figure 12. The GTD-350 engine, with a cross-section of the compressor turbine assembly (Adapted
For the
shows first stage of
a comparison ofthe
TC,TIT
small turbojet
and the Nmax of and turboshaft
both units
small turbojet andwere both considered.
turboshaft engines. Figure 13
from [25]).
shows a From Figure 13,
comparison ofitthe
canTIT
be noted that N
and the the turbine
max wheels
of both from
small turbojet
turbojet engines
and such asengines.
turboshaft the Noel Penni
NPT754, the NPT301, the Teledyne J402, the 312, the 305-4, the Microturbo TRI60-1, the Williams YJ400,
3. Results and Discussion
and the F107 are capable of withstanding temperatures above 1100 K, which is considered to be the
For the of
temperature first
thestage of TC,
exhaust fromsmall turbojet opposed-piston
a developed and turboshaft engine.
units were both considered.
Additionally, Figure
the maximal 13
RPM
shows a comparison of the TIT and the N of both small turbojet and turboshaft engines.
of such engines is relatively high, which is desirable in exhaust turbines for automotive applications.
max

The low TIT of the Microturbo TRS 18-046 engine (923 K) makes it less suitable for TC applications.
Apart from the Williams F107 and YJ400, all the engines have a single-shaft configuration, which makes
it easy to disassemble and assemble them. The main drawback of every turbojet engine is the lack
of an output shaft and a reduction gearbox. In order to make TC operational, the power output
shaft for a gearbox should be designed and manufactured to transfer the mechanical energy back to
the crankshaft.
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, 8 11 of 15
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

1370
Teledyne 305-4
1320
Williams F107
1270
GTD-350
1220 Microturbo TRI60-1 Williams YJ400

RU-19A AI-8 AI-450

1170 Noel Penni NPT301 APS3200
T*in [o K] Noel Penni NPT754
GTDE-117

1120 TA12-60 APS2300 Teledyne 312

Teledyne J402
TA-8V
TA-6A GTCP331-500
AI-9
1070
RE220

1020 VSU-10 Teledyne J408

T-62T

970
Microturbo TRS 18-046

920
10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000
nmax [r/min]

Figure
Figure 13. Comparison
13. Comparison of the
of the TITTIT
(T*(T
*in) and nmax of small turbojet and turboshaft engines.
in ) and nmax of small turbojet and turboshaft engines.

From Figure
Additionally, the13, it can
small be noted engines
turboshaft that the turbine
TA12-60, wheels
TA-6A, from turbojet
TA-8V, AI-8,engines such asGTDE-117,
AI-9, AI-450, the Noel
Penni NPT754, the NPT301, the Teledyne J402, the 312,
APS2300, APS3200, and GTD-350 have a maximal TIT equal or greater than 1100 K and a high the 305-4, the Microturbo TRI60-1, the
Williams YJ400, and the F107 are capable of withstanding
maximal RPM. Due to the lower TIT of the turbine wheels from the VSU-10, RE220, T-62T, temperatures above 1100 K, which is
andconsidered
GTCP331-500 to be the temperature
engines, they cannot of be
theconsidered
exhaust from for the a developed opposed-piston
TC unit. Additionally, due engine.
to the
Additionally, the maximal RPM of such engines is relatively
low maximal RPM value of the RU-19A engine (16,000 r/min), such an engine cannot be considered high, which is desirable in exhaust
turbines for automotive applications. The low TIT of the Microturbo TRS 18-046 engine (923 K) makes
for the TC unit. Small turboshaft engines are equipped with a power output shaft and a reduction
it less suitable for TC applications. Apart from the Williams F107 and YJ400, all the engines have a
gearbox, which makes it easier to adapt them for use in a TC unit. Figure 14 shows a comparison of the
single-shaft configuration, which makes it easy to disassemble and assemble them. The main
maximal TIT (Tin )Propuls.
and the maximal ṁairPEER
of small turbojet and turboshaft engines.
drawback of every turbojet
Int. J. Turbomach. engine
Power 2020, is the lack
5, x FOR of an output shaft and a reduction gearbox. In
REVIEW 12 order
of 16 to
make TC operational, the power output shaft for a gearbox should be designed and manufactured to
transfer the mechanical energy back to the crankshaft.
1370
Additionally,
Teledynethe
305-4small turboshaft engines TA12-60, TA-6A, TA-8V, AI-8, AI-9, AI-450, GTDE-
1320
117, APS2300, APS3200, and GTD-350 have a maximal TIT equal or greater than 1100 K and a high
maximal RPM. Due Williams to theF107lower TIT of the turbine wheels from the VSU-10, RE220, T-62T, and
1270
GTCP331-500 engines, they cannot be considered for the TC unit. Additionally, due to the low
Williams YJ400
maximal RPM value of theGTD-350 RU-19A engine (16,000 r/min), such an engine cannot be considered for
1220 Microturbo TRI60-1
the TC unit. Small turboshaft engines are equipped with a power output shaft and a reduction
gearbox, 1170
which makesAI-450 it easier
APS3200to adapt them for use in a TC unit. Figure 14 shows a comparison of
RU-19A
GTDE-117
theT maximal
* o
in [ K]
TIT (Tin) and the maximal ṁair of small turbojet and turboshaft engines.
Noel Penni NPT301 Noel Penni NPT754
APS2300 Teledyne J402
1120 AI-9
TA12-60
TA-8V TA-6A GTCP331-500
1070 Teledyne 312
RE220
VSU-10
1020 Teledyne J408

T-62T
970 Microturbo TRS 18-046

920
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
ṁair [kg/s]

Figure
Figure 14. Comparison
14. Comparison of the
of the TITTIT * in) )and
(T(T ṁair ofofsmall
and ṁ smallturbojet
* andand
turbojet turboshaft engines.
turboshaft engines.
in air

From Figure 14, it can be seen that the TA-8V, Teledyne 305-4, and T-62T engines operate at very
low values of mass airflow rate. Such values are not acceptable for the TC unit, since the expected
exhaust mass flow rate will be greater than 1 kg/s. With such a low mass flow rate, the exhaust gases
would be choked during the exhaust phase.
 970 Microturbo TRS 18-046

920
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
ṁair [kg/s]
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, 8 12 of 15
Figure 14. Comparison of the TIT (T*in) and ṁair of small turbojet and turboshaft engines.

FromFigure
From Figure14,
14,itit can
can be
be seen
seen that the TA-8V,
TA-8V,Teledyne
Teledyne305-4,
305-4,and
andT-62T
T-62Tengines
enginesoperate
operateatatvery
very
low values
low values of
of mass
massairflow
airflowrate.rate. Such
Such values
values are
are not
not acceptable
acceptable for
for the
the TC
TC unit,
unit, since
since the
theexpected
expected
exhaustmass
exhaust massflow
flowrate
ratewillwillbe
begreater
greaterthan
than11kg/s.
kg/s. With
Withsuch
suchaalow
lowmass
massflow
flowrate,
rate,the
theexhaust
exhaustgases
gases
wouldbe
would bechoked
chokedduring
duringthe theexhaust
exhaustphase.
phase.

4.
4. Adaptation
Adaptation for
for OP
OP Engine
Engine
The
Theconcept
conceptof ofan
anexhaust
exhaustsystem
systemwith
withananadaptation
adaptationof ofthe
theturbine
turbineengines
enginesforforthe
theOPOPengine
engineisis
presented in Figure 15. Such a system consists of a first-stage turbine, a turbine housing,
presented in Figure 15. Such a system consists of a first-stage turbine, a turbine housing, a second- a second-stage
turbine, a hydraulic
stage turbine, coupling,
a hydraulic and a gearbox.
coupling, The turbine
and a gearbox. housinghousing
The turbine has six inlets to inlets
has six prevent to leakage
prevent
of exhaust
leakage of gases
exhaustduring
gasesthe exhaust
during thevalve overlap.
exhaust valve The turbine
overlap. Thehousing
turbinewill be designed
housing will be from the
designed
beginning and its configuration will depend on the first-stage turbine. The type
from the beginning and its configuration will depend on the first-stage turbine. The type of turbine of turbine impeller
(radial or axial)
impeller (radialfororboth first
axial) forand second
both first turbines
and seconddepends on the
turbines chosen on
depends turbine engine.turbine
the chosen The first-stage
engine.
turbine needs to withstand extremely high temperature from exhaust gases, which
The first-stage turbine needs to withstand extremely high temperature from exhaust gases, which is is why turbine
engines with high
why turbine TITwith
engines should
highbeTIT
considered.
should beSuch a turbineSuch
considered. should also withstand
a turbine should alsomass flow rates
withstand massof
at least
flow 1.0 kg/s
rates of at without
least 1.0 choking. The choking.
kg/s without second-stage
The turbine
second-stageshould be coupled
turbine should with the gearbox
be coupled withand
the
the hydraulic coupling in order to transfer torque back to the crankshaft.
gearbox and the hydraulic coupling in order to transfer torque back to the crankshaft.

Figure 15. Conceptual

Figure15. Conceptual adaptation
adaptation of
ofturbine
turbinewheels
wheelsfor
foran
anOP
OPengine.
engine.

As Int.
canJ. Turbomach. Propuls.Figure
be seen from Power 2020,
15,5,the
x FOR PEER
first REVIEW
and second turbine stages will not be connected13 of 16
mechanically.
Engines such as the APS500, APS 2300, APS3200, GTCP331-500, AI-9W, TA-6A, RU-19, J402, J408,
As can be seen from Figure 15, the first and second turbine stages will not be connected
TD 312, mechanically.
NPT 301, NPT 754, and
Engines such TRI
as the 60-1 unitsAPS
APS500, are 2300,
single-shaft
APS3200,engines equipped
GTCP331-500, with
AI-9W, one HP
TA-6A, RU-turbine.
Such configurations can only be addressed by the first-stage turbine. Additionally, for
19, J402, J408, TD 312, NPT 301, NPT 754, and TRI 60-1 units are single-shaft engines equipped with the second-stage
turbine,one
an HPLP turbine.
turbineSuch from such engines
configurations canas thebeGTD-350,
only addressed GTDE-117, AI-450,
by the first-stage AI-8,
turbine. YJ400, and F107
Additionally,
for the second-stage turbine, an LP turbine from such engines as the
units should be considered. Great care has to be taken considering the gearbox and the GTD-350, GTDE-117, AI-450, AI-
reduction gear
8, YJ400, and F107 units should be considered. Great care has to be taken considering the gearbox and
ratio to ensure the turbine matches with the engine. Figure 16 shows the first-stage turbine from the
the reduction gear ratio to ensure the turbine matches with the engine. Figure 16 shows the first-stage
GTD-350 engine that was obtained for the project. It is an axial-type turbine, the operating parameters
turbine from the GTD-350 engine that was obtained for the project. It is an axial-type turbine, the
of whichoperating
are shown in Figure
parameters 12. are shown in Figure 12.
of which

Figure
Figure 16. 16. Compressorturbine
Compressor turbine from
fromthe
theGTD-350
GTD-350engine.
engine.

This turbine wheel benefits from high mass flow rate and high efficiency; however, such
efficiency is achievable within a narrow range of linear speed.
It was possible to obtain a K44 automotive turbocharger turbine. This turbine is shown in Figure
17, along with the scanning process and turbine model generated in the Unigraphics NX software.
 Figure 16. Compressor turbine from the GTD-350 engine.
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, 8 13 of 15
This turbine wheel benefits from high mass flow rate and high efficiency; however,
iency is achievable within
This turbine wheela benefits
narrow fromrange
high massofflow
linear speed.
rate and high efficiency; however, such efficiency
is achievable within a narrow range of linear speed.
It was possible to obtain a K44 automotive turbocharger turbine. This turbine is shown in F
It was possible to obtain a K44 automotive turbocharger turbine. This turbine is shown in Figure 17,
long with the scanning
along process
with the scanning and
process andturbine model
turbine model generated
generated in theNXUnigraphics
in the Unigraphics software. NX softwa

Figure 17. (a) Geometry of the K44 turbine, (b) turbine wheel scanned with the 3D scanner,
Figure 17. (a) Geometry of the K44 turbine, (b) turbine wheel scanned with the 3D scanner, and (c) the
and (c) the turbine wheel model.
turbine wheel model.
5. Conclusions
To conclude, small turbojet and turboshaft engines were considered for automotive adaptation in an
onclusions opposed-piston engine that is under development at Warsaw University of Technology. The adaptation
aimed to recover waste heat energy from exhaust gases using a two-stage TC unit. The ORC system
To conclude,
wassmall turbojet
considered and turboshaft engines were considered for automotive
in this paper. adapt
n opposed-piston
• The engine thatshowed
literature review is under development
that parallel at BSFC
TC offered smaller Warsaw University
reduction of Technology
compared to series
ptation aimed toTC.recover waste
This is attributed heat
to the energy
fact that from
in a parallel exhausta greater
configuration, gasesamount
using a two-stage
of exhaust gases TC unit
flow through a compressor turbine rather than a power turbine.
C system was• considered in thissmaller
Parallel TC produced paper.back-pressure compared to series TC, as the power turbine is not
The literature review showed
placed directly behind that parallel
turbocharger. This TC offered
position smaller
of the power turbineBSFC
does notreduction compared to s
limit the pressure
ratio of the turbocharger.
TC. This is •attributed to the fact that in a parallel configuration, a greater amount of exh
In total, 25 turbine engines were compared, considering their maximal TIT, RPM, and ṁair .
gases flow through
• The Noel a compressor turbine
Penni NPT754, NPT301, rather
Teledyne than
J402, a powerTRI60-1,
312, Microturbo turbine. Williams YJ400,
and F107 turbojet engines were considered appropriate for the TC unit. However, such engines
Parallel TC produced smaller back-pressure compared to series TC, as the power turbine i
are not equipped with a power output shaft, which has to be manufactured.
placed directly
• Thebehind turbocharger.
TA12-60, TA-6A, ThisAPS2300,
AI-8, AI-9, AI-450, position of and
APS3200, theGTD-350
power turbine
turboshaft does not limi
engines
were considered. These engines meet the requirements regarding the TIT, RPM, and ṁair .
pressure ratio of the turbocharger.
Additionally, these engines are equipped with a power output shaft and a gearbox. The output
In total, 25 turbine engines
shaft and were
the gearbox can becompared,
used to transmit considering their maximal TIT, RPM, and ṁair.
torque onto the crankshaft.
• The adaptation of the turbine engine into an ICE engine was presented, including the turbine
wheels of the GTD-350 engine and the K44 radial inflow turbine.

6. Plans for Further Research

As mentioned in the previous sections, a two-stage TC unit will be used for the PAMAR V engine,
which is a six-cylinder, opposed-piston engine with the cylinder axis positioned parallel to the main
shaft. The engine is being developed at Warsaw University of Technology. The TC unit will be used as a
waste heat recovery system, placed between the cylinders and the silencer. Additionally, the possibility
of using automotive radial inflow turbine wheels for the two-stage TC unit was considered.
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2020, 5, 8 14 of 15

In the near future, an initial calculation of the first stage of the TC unit will be conducted, including
numerical computational fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations.

Author Contributions: writing—original draft preparation, D.K.; writing—review and editing, P.M. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge Military Aviation Works No. 4 in Warsaw for
sharing the GTD-350 compressor turbine wheel. Additionally, the authors would like to acknowledge BorgWarner
company Poland for sharing the K44 turbine wheels.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
The following nomenclature is used in the manuscript:
Symbols
Tin Turbine inlet temperature [◦ K]
.
mair Air mass flow rate [kg/s]
r
nmax Maximal turbine revolutions per minute [ min ]
Nmax Maximal engine power [kW]
Abbreviations
TC Turbocompounding
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
mech-TC Mechanical Turbocompounding
el-TC Electric Turbocompounding
HDD Heavy-Duty Diesel
EGR Exhaust Gas Recirculation
RCC Rankine Combined Cycle
BSFC Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
VTG Variable Turbine Geometry
BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure
ORC Organic Rankine Cycle
TIT Turbine Inlet Temperature
RPM Revolutions Per Minute
HP High-Pressure Turbine
LP Low Single-Pressure Turbine
AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current

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