539984

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ISW0010.1177/0020872814539984International Social WorkDrolet and Sampson

Article i s w

International Social Work

2017, Vol. 60(1) 61­–73
Addressing climate change from © The Author(s) 2014
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DOI: 10.1177/0020872814539984
Small cities and rural communities’ isw.sagepub.com

adaptation and response to climate

change in British Columbia, Canada

Julie Lynne Drolet

University of Calgary, Canada

Tiffany Sampson
British Columbia, Canada

Abstract
Climate change is having a very real impact, affecting not only ecosystems but also the socio-economic
systems of small cities and rural communities. Globally, climate change is a consequential concern,
since it is contributing to an increase in global temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, raising
sea levels, and natural hazards. Locally, the effects of climate change vary, depending upon the region,
with communities experiencing the impacts of climate change differently and at various degrees.
This article presents research findings from a study on climate change, disasters, and sustainable
development that provide insight into the diverse perspectives of community members on climate
change in six communities in the Interior and Northern regions of British Columbia, Western
Canada. A common denominator between these six communities is how social development is
being applied to address climate change. The concept of social development encompasses social
and economic well-being. The social development approach involves processes, activities, and
institutions working together to develop the social and economic capacities of individuals and
communities. In particular, for social workers working with individuals, families, and communities
impacted by climate change, the social development approach is effective in addressing social
and economic needs. This article will examine the differing perspectives and attitudes of affected
community members and the role of social development with respect to climate change adaptation
and response. It will also provide suggestions on how social workers can support and apply the
social development approach in communities experiencing the impacts of climate change.

Keywords
Adaptation, climate change, community development, social development, sustainable
development

Corresponding author:
Julie Lynne Drolet, University of Calgary, #444, 11044-82 Avenue. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 0T2.
Email: jdrolet@ucalgary.ca
62 International Social Work 60(1)

Climate change impact is becoming a greater reality, not only because it wreaks widespread effects
on the physical environment but also because it directly affects people’s lives by threatening the
economy, culture, and institutions within societies. In 2007, the United Nations Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) declared that there is unequivocal evidence of global warming
caused by greenhouse gas emissions from human activities, and that climate change is threatening
ecosystems, societies, cultures, and economies worldwide. Climate change is defined as ‘. . . a
change of climate, which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the com-
position of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed
over comparable time periods’ (United Nations, 1992: 3). The opening paragraph of Agenda 21
states:

Humanity stands at a defining moment in history. We are confronted with a perpetuation of disparities
between and within nations, a worsening of poverty, hunger, ill health and illiteracy, and the continuing
deterioration of the ecosystems on which we depend for our well-being . . . (United Nations Sustainable
Development, 1992: 1.1)

Climate change has been recognized not only at the international level but also at the regional
level. In British Columbia (BC), Canada, the provincial government points out that different
regions of the province have been warming at a rate that, in some cases, is more than twice the
global average (BC Government, 2008). With a changing climate come risks that may include
natural disasters, unemployment, and forced migration and that are heightened for vulnerable,
marginalized, and at-risk populations. Vulnerability in this context is characterized as a function
of the relative status of socio-economic groups, class, religion, livelihood, race, ethnicity, family,
gender, and age (Ribot et al., 2009). The study finds that climate adaptation and response is criti-
cal for social work practice, since social workers are working alongside vulnerable groups, and
specifically for advocating for environmental change, developing policies, and implementing
programs to improve quality of life.
Human well-being is fundamentally part of social work practice that values human rights, social
justice, and dignity for all, but it is also the foundation for the social development approach.
According to Midgley (1995), social development aims to improve the quality of people’s lives.
Social development is a ‘people-centered’ approach placing people’s welfare above ‘systems
and structures’ (Cox and Pawar, 2006). Furthermore, well-being relates to the current realities of
people and the well-being of future generations, which are part of the concept of sustainable
development.
Sustainable development aims to have sound economic, social, and environmental develop-
ment that is concerned with the physical environment, while considering the quality of people’s
lives in the future (United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, 2012). At the 64th
Annual Conference of the Department of Public Information in Bonn, Germany, it was acknowl-
edged that ‘sustainable development as a means to ensure human-well being requires that inter-
relationships between populations, resources, the environment, and development be fully
understood, recognized, appropriately managed, and brought to harmonious, dynamic balance’
(United Nations, 2012). The Bonn Conference outlines a number of sustainable development
goals for governments and civil society organizations to support and implement, alongside the
Rio+20 goals, in order to ensure the actualization of the latter. These sustainable development
goals include: sustainable consumption and production; sustainable livelihoods, youth and educa-
tion; climate sustainability; clean energy; biodiversity; water; healthy seas and oceans; healthy
forests; sustainable agriculture; green cities; subsidies and investments; new indicators of pro-
gress; access to information; public participation; access to redress and remedy; environmental
Drolet and Sampson 63

justice for the poor and marginalized; and basic health (United Nations, 2012). The sustainable
development goals are a holistic approach to people’s welfare, demonstrating the interconnected-
ness of safeguarding the environment in relation to people’s physical, social, financial, cultural,
and spiritual needs. Sustainable development must be achieved at every level of society, and
governments and international and non-governmental organizations should support a community-
driven approach to sustainability (United Nations, 2012).
This article shares the research findings on the impacts of climate change in six communities,
small cities and rural communities in the Interior and Northern regions of British Columbia, from
the perspectives of concerned community members. The research findings, drawn from focus
groups, interviews, and a survey, describe the role of social development in communities impacted
by climate change.

Social development and climate change

As an approach, social development is not a new concept in social work; it became part of the
discourse in the late 1970s as a way to enhance people’s welfare (Mosher, 1979; Omer, 1979;
Paiva, 1977). Social development is a unique approach in that it incorporates the social compo-
nents within society to build the capacities of individuals, families, and communities, rather than
relying on economic development alone. Social development and economic development are
intrinsically connected, requiring both approaches to improve society (Gray, 2006; Healy, 2008;
Midgley, 1995). Midgley (1994) defines social development ‘as a process of planned social change
designed to promote people’s welfare in conjunction with a comprehensive process of economic
development’ (p. 11). The United Nations (2005) explains that social development is a ‘process’
that involves all levels of institutions, from national governments to diverse civil society organiza-
tions, to build an equitable and just society through the apportion of economic opportunities and
social services, while addressing power imbalance. This is similar to Midgley’s view that regards
process as ‘interventionist’, which involves designing and implementing strategies that meet spe-
cific social development objectives (Midgley, 1995). Thus, social development utilizes and/or
changes the processes of societal institutions and systems, through policies and programs, to
strengthen the capabilities and capacities of individuals, families, and communities. For the field
of social work, the social development approach is applicable on theoretical and practical levels,
since it applies an ecological perspective that recognizes the intersectionality of systems within
society (Elliot, 1993; Gray et al., 1996). This is important for social work practice, since social
workers are keenly aware that those with whom they work are not in a social vacuum; rather, other
systems, such as the economy, political landscape, culture, religion, and the physical environment,
are contributing factors affecting people’s lives.
In looking at social development as an approach to build people’s capacity and assets through
both human and social capital (Elliot, 2012), it is necessary to consider how sustainable develop-
ment is part of the social development process. The concept of sustainable development was popu-
larized by the World Commission on Environment and Development (1987), defining it as
‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future gen-
erations to meet their own needs’ (p. 43). Yet how can individuals, communities, and industry build
capacities and assets to avoid or at the very least mitigate environmental degradation for genera-
tions to come? This requires approaching sustainable development by considering three critical
aspects – economic, environment, and social – which are known as the triple bottom line, as part
of the equation for effective development (Elkington, 1998; Peeters, 2012; Rogers et al., 2006).
Another way to view sustainability is to ensure that the need for economic development to improve
human well-being does not outweigh the risks to the physical environment (Erickson, 2012). This
64 International Social Work 60(1)

necessitates adaptation strategies for individuals, families, and communities to adjust behavior to
respond to environmental changes, but also to promote changes in behavior to minimize the impact
of climate change. Adaptation is the response to experienced changes or outcomes of climate
change, ‘which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities’ (IPCC, 2001: 365). Therefore,
it is important to consider climate change adaptation with respect to social development, ensuring
that building the capacities and assets of individuals and communities reflects the nature of sustain-
ability, as well as encouraging adaptation that is appropriate for the local environment.
By promoting sustainable development and climate change adaptation through the social devel-
opment approach, social workers advocate for ecological justice, recognizing that social and eco-
logical systems are interconnected and intrinsically linked to human rights, social justice, and
environmental justice (Miller et al., 2012). In applying an ecological perspective to social develop-
ment, social workers demonstrate the connection of environmental care with the quality of life for
individuals, families, and communities (Dominelli, 2010). Dominelli (2011) asserts, ‘[Social
workers] can promote clean, renewable energy to enable people’s living standards to rise, without
increasing greenhouse emissions at the unsustainable rates set by carbon-based technologies’ (p.
435). Social work practice has a vital role in promoting, advocating, and implementing sustainable
and adaptive strategies in social development, ultimately balancing people’s needs with environ-
mental concerns. Sustainability development is fundamentally part of social development, relating
closely to social work practice, such as ‘social justice and human well-being’ (Gray and Coates,
2012). As the Commission for Social Development (CSocD) looks beyond 2015 in terms of the
global international agenda, it believes that social development has a vital role in sustainable devel-
opment, as the social pillar for ‘achieving social sustainability’ (UN ECOSOC, 2013: 7). According
to the CSocD, it is necessary to advance social development through international cooperation by
promoting environmental protection, shifting towards a green economy and creating new objec-
tives for future development, such as sustainable development goals; however, CSocD recognizes
that to advance social development, new frameworks will need to be developed that incorporate
‘social justice, equality, social inclusion, and participation’ (UN ECOSOC, 2013: 8).

Theoretical framework and research questions

The theoretical framework guiding the research and methodology of the study stems from a commu-
nity-based participatory action research (CBPAR) framework. CBPAR is a collaborative approach
to research that equitably involves all partners in the research process and recognizes the unique
strengths that each brings. CBPAR has the potential to create knowledge and research capacity by
and with communities, practitioners, and key individuals. Historically, a variety of social work theo-
rists have sought to develop and affirm the importance of an integrated framework of person/envi-
ronment transactions (Besthorn and McMillen, 2002). Ecological models of social work practice
view problems in living as a result of stress associated with inadequate fit between people and their
environments (Berger, 1995; Besthorn, 1997; Kemp et al., 1997). These problems often revolve
around stressful life transitions, maladaptive interpersonal processes, and unresponsive environ-
ments. In the words of Germain (1978), ‘people and their environments are viewed as interdepend-
ent, complementary parts of a whole in which person and environment are constantly changing and
shaping the other’ (p. 539). Environmental change and climate change impact social work practice
in many ways. The profession of social work in BC is involved in disaster psychosocial services
through the BC Provincial Health Services Authority, as well as through local, regional, provincial,
and international disaster recovery efforts. This study aims to better understand the reality of climate
change by affected communities from their perspective and experiences, and how they can be sup-
ported to deal with future challenges, by using qualitative research methods.
Drolet and Sampson 65

Research methodology
A CBPAR approach was used to empower members of communities to become active participants
in the project and position them as actors of change. The study emerged from an ongoing partner-
ship between the author’s institution and a community partner, a nonprofit grassroots women’s
organization in British Columbia. The study was conducted in six small cities and rural communi-
ties: Kamloops, Quesnel, Prince George, Clearwater, 100 Mile House, and Merritt, which are all
located in the Interior and Northern regions of British Columbia.
This qualitative research study utilized interviews, focus group discussions, a survey, documenta-
tion, and observations to learn about community members’ experiences. In-depth individual inter-
views were conducted with key informants, such as community leaders, government officials,
practitioners, activists, disaster managers, policy-makers, First Nations, and female community lead-
ers. Each interview was recorded using a digital voice recorder and later transcribed for the purposes
of data analysis. In addition, five focus group discussions were conducted: three focus groups with
women members of women’s grassroots organizations in Kamloops, Prince George, and Quesnel,
and two mixed-gender focus groups with environmental groups in Kamloops. Each focus group
comprised five to 11 participants. Focus groups were organized in the respective host communities
and held with women or mixed-gender groups, depending on the priorities and mandate of the organi-
zation. The focus group discussions were videotaped to record nonverbal communication and later
transcribed. All transcripts were recorded in Word and imported into NVivo 9.0 for qualitative data
analysis. A survey was completed with members of the public at two community forums on health
promotion and sustainability. The survey was self-administered and used as a means of reaching a
large number of respondents in the shortest possible time. It contained close-ended questions in a
Likert scale, for participants to share their attitudes and perspectives on climate change.
Analysis of qualitative data involved careful reading and analysis of respondents’ answers to
the questions. Transcripts and survey results were analyzed using NVivo 9.0 to support multiple
strategies concurrently such as reading, coding, annotating, memoing, discussing, and visualiz-
ing the results of the data collection activities in nodes and memos. The tools in NVivo 9.0 allow
for flexibility in data analysis to provide space for changes in conceptualization and organization
as the project developed. Comparisons were drawn across cases, using purposive sampling of
diverse cases, and by reviewing what the literature had to say on the topic. Transcripts were
coded line-by-line to identify concepts and thinking about meanings grounded in the data.
Through a method of triangulation, data were gathered from multiple sources and multiple per-
spectives to ensure credibility of the findings (Tripodi and Potocky-Tripodi, 2007). Qualitative
content analysis focused on creating a picture embedded within a particular context, of which 22
codes (nodes) were identified.
The research findings are based on data collected with 121 participants, including 19 key
informant interviews, 32 focus group participants, and 70 survey respondents. Interviews and
focus groups revealed information about community services and programs, and participants
offered their opinions and positions on various subjects related to the project, as well as on impor-
tant insights. Respondents were asked to share their thoughts on climate change today; their per-
ceptions of how climate change has affected their community; their perceptions of who is affected
by climate change, including vulnerable populations and how the community is responding and/or
adapting to the impacts of climate change; and their thoughts on what information or resources are
needed to better respond or adapt, on what organizations/groups/services have helped the most, on
the role of the government, and on what they would like to see in the future. Focus groups were
organized in their respective host communities and held with women’s groups or mixed-gender
groups, depending on the priorities of the organization.
66 International Social Work 60(1)

Participants agreed to participate in the study on a voluntary basis, and research ethics approval
was obtained through the university’s research ethics board. While it is not possible to generalize
the findings of this study due to its limited sample size, the methods in this exploratory study
allowed rich qualitative data to emerge on the social context, opinions, and meanings of climate
change in the lives of community members.
A second phase of the study was initiated for the period 2011–2013 to engage in public out-
reach, during which the researchers returned to participant communities to share study findings
and learn about emergent sustainability plans and challenges.

Community impacts
The study found that each of the six communities experienced the impacts of climate change in dif-
ferent ways. Respondents highlighted the need for different approaches that supported a place-based
approach grounded in local community experience. A provincial government policy analyst explained:

Climate change is a problem that is going to impact every community in a different way. We can’t have
one policy that covers off everybody . . . (Woman interviewee, provincial government)

The need to contextualize responses adds to the complexity of climate change adaptation.
Respondents also discussed the need for localized processes to address climate change:

I think it is unrealistic with climate change that we use the same processes for rural communities and urban
communities. It’s not going to work. (Woman interviewee, government policy official)

The study found that the impacts of climate change are already evident across the province, and the
insurance sector is concerned with accessibility and affordability:

We have seen an increased trend in the cost of providing home owners insurance, and that has been caused
to a large extent with an increase with extreme weather related events and infrastructure failure. (Male
interviewee, insurance sector of BC)

The research findings demonstrate that the impacts of climate change are experienced locally,
at the community level. Community members and concerned citizens are interested in planning
for a more integrated and holistic response that takes into consideration social, economic, and
environmental dimensions.

Social, economic, and environmental impacts

In BC, the mountain pine beetle epidemic has destroyed over 18 million acres of forest, due to
warmer winter conditions that favor reproduction and spread throughout BC (BC Ministry of
Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, 2013). While the landscape has changed, the
mountain pine beetle has also had an important social, economic, and environmental impact.

I think most British Columbians are probably well aware of the devastating impact of the mountain pine
beetle on the forest industry. In conjunction with other non-climate change-related impacts on the forest
industry, together they have created a kind of perfect storm, which has had a massive impact on communities
in central BC. There is social dislocation and social disruption as a result of the mountain pine beetle
problem. This is compounded by the global economic conditions and American lumber prescriptions that
do not favor access to markets. It is not climate change alone, but with the mountain pine beetle, it makes
Drolet and Sampson 67

it harder for communities to adjust and survive . . . it is a significant problem with multi-faceted dimensions
to it, socially, economically, as well as environmentally. (Male interviewee, Prince George)

Small cities and rural communities dependent on the natural resource sector are experiencing the
impacts of climate change in a more direct way than urban cities. Alternative development options
are needed to facilitate the transition to a more sustainable path.

In the resource sectors, everyone’s laid off or not working. We’ve got a whole bunch of unemployed
forestry people. Everyone who was on contract by the government has been let go . . . the smaller
communities that are highly dependent on [natural resources], there will be no industry there. There will
be no community in say 20 years unless some alternative is developed. (Female interviewee, Kamloops)

Government officials reported that those who are relying on natural resources to sustain traditional
lifestyles (including Aboriginal Peoples which refers to First Nations, Inuit and Métis people living
in Canada under the Canadian Constitution Act, 1982), may be more affected than those living in
urban areas of the province.

. . . people who rely on food sources, whether they are growing food, hunting, or fishing . . . will experience
a change in livelihoods and a change in their economic circumstances and community dynamics. (Female
interviewee, provincial government)

With the loss of decent work and livelihoods, women respondents spoke of the migration of men
from their households to other communities in search of waged employment. In some cases,
women reported an increased workload in the household.

Because of how the society is changing, the lack of employment for men in mills, and sometimes the
women had to go to work, and the men had left town to work. (Female interviewee, 100 Mile House)

Women participants shared their experiences of hardship, and practitioners reported an increase in
the number of clients seeking assistance in rural communities.

. . . it’s a scary time for most families, and so when you get that type of a stress on a family, they also tend
to experience other things, like their health declines, family violence goes up, and then there are economic
issues. (Female interviewee, 100 Mile House)

Respondents in the interviews and focus groups acknowledged that while many of the impacts of
climate change are experienced locally, there is a need to consider the global dimensions of climate
change, particularly for mitigation.

The impacts of climate change are taking place not only here but around the world. When the impacts hit
people in other parts of the world really hard, it will have political consequences and economic consequences
on a global level. Those global consequences might increase health problems locally by way of stress. With
political disruption and destabilized political systems like wars or migration . . . where are they gonna go?
The ripple effects of political and social disruption elsewhere will reach us. Severe impacts will force people
around the globe to reckon with problems on a scale we have never had to deal with before. (Male
interviewee, Prince George)

Interdependency of the international economic and political system, potential health impacts, and
migration of affected vulnerable populations emerged as a concern. This inter-connection between
the local and global arena further compels many individuals to explore sustainability.
68 International Social Work 60(1)

Sustainability
We are really interested in sustainability through the whole North Thompson. (Male interviewee, Clearwater)

Respondents spoke of their experience in terms of bridging a social development and sustainability
approach:

We tend to look at things in dollars and cents, and I think we are missing out on a number of social,
environmental, and cultural components. If we would look at the total system, and see the impacts on the
social level . . . we would start to say it is not a dollar figure but a health impact . . . it’s going to be pretty
profound. (Male interviewee, Clearwater)

Women focus group respondents in Prince George, Northern BC, critically questioned dominant or
mainstream approaches that favor extractive industries, particularly oil and gas, mining, and the
exploitation of natural resources.

What I am concerned about is a mainstream approach to climate change and disasters . . . exploitation of
resources, resource movements, and resource structures, instead of stepping back and just thinking how we
can learn to live differently, and how can we learn to be more sustainable in ways of doing things. (Women
Focus Group, Prince George)

Women respondents were more convinced of the impacts of climate change in their communities,
and tended to embrace a more transformative approach to address sustainable development, than
the male respondents in the study.

What still needs to be done is a major shift in our society, from [an] automobile culture or heavily
consuming culture, it needs to be shifted to a sustainable one, and I think that needs to be the common
thought for everyone. (Female interviewee, Kamloops)

The respondents in the study identified some of the ways in which community members are
actively engaged in climate change adaptation at the local level, despite the lack of government
support for these community efforts.

. . . they are total volunteers, they don’t have any funding at all, not that they are asking to be paid a salary
or anything, but you would think that there would be enough interest for the provincial government to look
at how they can assist or support groups like that. (Male interviewee, Clearwater)

The relationship between social and economic development and leisure and recreation activities
was expressed by a male respondent, who spoke of the need to consider quality of life in smaller
communities.

When I lived up here before, the community was very energetic, it felt like it was full of potential. It still
is but it’s a different potential. I used to go to the Cougars [hockey] games once in a while, and they were
packed all the time, and now there’s hardly anyone there. People just don’t have any work . . . we really
need to come up with a way to inject some hope back into it [the community], and not just focus on climate
change or air quality or anything that is gonna be bad for the community. But also what can we do about
it, how do we empower people into thinking of ways to address it and adapt to new opportunities? (Male
interviewee, Prince George)

Community members expressed a need to share information, network, and engage the public to
raise awareness of climate change and the environment.
Drolet and Sampson 69

We have a very fast-paced technological society, and we have a planet undergoing very significant fast-paced
changes, and if we are going to create a sustainable society on this planet, even in regards to things other than
climate change, like say toxins in the environment, we really need to be on top of it, and it means understanding
what is going on at all times, or being more aware of what’s going on. (Women interviewee, Kamloops)

Many provincial structures rely on community members and volunteers to address local emer-
gency issues, such as responding to disasters. Yet there remains a need to listen and to plan for new
realities.

. . . thinking about the way our provincial structure works, we rely on our communities to be the first
responders. We don’t activate anything unless a request is made. The science is telling us and informing us
that things are going to change, and I think it’s up to emergency managers to embrace that and to actually
listen, and I don’t think we do a great job of actually doing that. (Woman interviewee, provincial government)

The research findings show that:

There will be economic and social adjustments that need to take place to the changing environmental
conditions. (Male interviewee, Prince George)

Discussion
The major global summits of the 1990s and the 2000s produced outcome documents such as
Agenda 21 and the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, the Johannesburg Plan of
Implementation, and the 2010 Cochabamba Peoples’ Trade Agreement. Specifically, principle 10
of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development focused on the need to ensure participa-
tion of all concerned citizens in environmental decision-making and access to environmental infor-
mation and environmental justice, and principles 20 to 22 highlight the need to promote the
participation of women, youth, and Aboriginal peoples (United Nations Environment Programme,
1992).
The study found great promise in community development and organizing by affected commu-
nity members at the local level. Respondents demonstrated an interest and a willingness to
strengthen their communities and expressed an interest in working towards sustainable develop-
ment. The study found that community members value and appreciate their natural environment
and have a willingness to preserve it and work to sustain it. The study further revealed a reliance
on natural resources, and it showed that people acknowledge interdependence between social and
economic dimensions.
Yet while many individuals are taking local action towards a more sustainable path, volunteers
are seeking greater government commitment at various levels. The implementation of a sustainable
development agenda requires strong political action and leadership, as well as the voluntary actions
of civil society organizations. There is a need to recognize and enhance the impact of volunteering
on climate change adaptation and the development of sustainable livelihoods. The participants
recognize that the impacts of climate change are experienced locally, but action is needed at a pro-
vincial, national, and international level for mitigation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. There
is evidence of individual and collective action towards sustainable development, and yet there
remains a need to address gaps and emerging issues. Volunteers are mobilizing communities in
community-centered sustainable development, education, and learning to foster sustainability and
civic engagement.
The public outreach component found that there is an interest in communities to engage in a
process to recommit various levels of government to achieving sustainable development, given
70 International Social Work 60(1)

new economic challenges and the emergent focus on economic development initiatives in oil and
gas, pipelines, and mining expansion across the province.
Community members expressed concern about the current economic model that promotes
unsustainable consumption and production patterns, fails to eradicate poverty, and assists in the
exploitation of natural resources, which has induced multiple crises and needs to be replaced by
sustainable economies in the local community. Community members expressed a need to
strengthen local economies and to ensure the rights and interests of local communities and
Aboriginal peoples.
A sustainable development policy is any policy intended to make economic and social activity
supportive of environmental resilience and able to ensure sustainability through many generations
into the indefinite future (Honadle, 1999: 10). Sustainable livelihoods offer an opportunity to bring
together social development and sustainable approaches. According to the International Institute
for Sustainable Development, a ‘sustainable livelihoods approach is an integrated development
method, which brings individual approaches together to achieve sustainable development’ (IISD,
1999). The United Nations also recognizes that there is a correlation between sustainable liveli-
hoods and sustainable development. An outcome from Rio+20 is the recognition that ‘it is essential
to generate decent jobs and incomes that decrease disparities in standards of living in order to bet-
ter meet people’s needs and promote sustainable livelihoods and practices and the sustainable use
of natural resources and ecosystems’ (United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development,
2012). Several participants noted the severe impact that the mountain pine beetle has had on their
livelihoods, forcing some community members to look for work outside of their community.
Regional governments and local municipalities, with the input of social workers, need to work
together in creating and implementing sustainable development policies that incorporate a sustain-
able livelihoods approach to support individuals as they encounter deepening challenges due to
climate change. This may require skills training, local investments in new technology, and innova-
tion in developing a local green economy.
There are several ways that social workers can support and address climate change from a social
development approach. Social workers play key roles in working with affected community mem-
bers by engaging in community development to transform oppressive structures. Community
development is an approach that is underpinned by principles of empowerment, participation, and
collection action, and aims to work alongside communities to meet their aspirations and to mobi-
lize local knowledge, culture, skills, and resources to address needs and issues. Social workers can
facilitate partnerships between service providers, different levels of government, and stakeholders
to develop short- and long-term strategies to foster sustainability at the community level. Dominelli
(2011) argues that the profession of social work has an important role to play in helping people
understand the issues, promoting sustainable energy production and consumption, mobilizing peo-
ple to protect their futures through community social work, proposing solutions to greenhouse gas
emissions, and fostering climate change endeavors that are equitable for all. Social workers can
advocate to government leaders to substantively reconsider supports to manage the consequences
of climate change, and to ensure transparent and participatory decision-making processes. Social
workers can support professional and community change by designing more holistic approaches
that better meet individual, family, and community needs affected by climate change. Social work-
ers can build community capacity by supporting the efforts of volunteers. This will be informed by
a more sophisticated understanding of the interdependency of economic, social, and environmental
issues, and the social dimensions of climate change. The social dimensions of climate change
account for the fulfilment of basic needs (water, food, energy, shelter, transport, security); individual
needs (health, decent work, social protection, empowerment, mobile assets); and social needs
(equity and social inclusion, human rights, participation, governance, cooperation and solidarity,
Drolet and Sampson 71

and education) (World Health Organization, n.d.: 4). Achieving social justice through the reduction
of poverty and inequality are therefore a key part of reducing the risks from climate change (Moth
and Morton, 2009). Towards this end, social workers can participate in environmental grassroots
movements to sustain social action. Finally, social workers can participate in local, national, and
international alliances to create new ways to engage as agents of change in solidarity with others.

Conclusion
Climate change is a sustainable development challenge. Climate change adaptation strategies need
to acknowledge the different capacities of men and women to cope with the adverse effects and to
acknowledge their ability to become actively engaged in community efforts to promote social
development. Affected community members revealed an interest in sharing local knowledge and
practices in support of sustainable social development and recognized the interdependency of
social, economic, and environmental considerations.
Governments should provide a supportive environment for sustaining volunteerism, with
resources and supports for infrastructure, enhancing the capacity of volunteers in organizations for
achieving sustainable development. Future research is needed to understand better the value and
impact of volunteers on sustainable development and disaster prevention and response. Community
members recognize that unsustainable consumption and production patterns are major contributors
to climate change and poverty, and sustainable development can only be ensured if policies embrace
humane, sustainable, low-carbon lifestyles and adopt a sustainable livelihoods approach.
Social workers can play an important role in facilitating understanding of the social dimensions
of climate change, and build on the principles of equity and social justice, especially for the most
vulnerable people. This would be a valuable contribution for climate change policy. There is an
emerging role for the social work professional to support individuals, families, and communities as
key actors in achieving sustainable consumption and production and empowering local communi-
ties through education and advocacy to assume responsibility for achieving sustainable approaches
and lifestyles throughout the world.

Funding
This research received funding from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of
Canada, and the Canadian Foundation for Innovation.

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Author biographies
Julie Lynne Drolet is Associate Professor in the Faculty of Social Work, University of Calgary, Alberta,
Canada, and Adjunct Professor, Thompson Rivers University.

Tiffany Sampson is a graduate of Thompson Rivers University, Canada.