Fundamental Concepts and Definitions

Components of the Global Ecosystem

ECOSYSTEM

Ecosystems can be huge, with many hundreds of different animals and plants all living in a delicate balance, or

they could be relatively small. In particularly harsh places in the world, particularly the North and South Poles,

the ecosystems are relatively simple because there are only a few types of creatures that can withstand the

freezing temperatures and harsh living conditions. Some creatures can be found in multiple different

ecosystems all over the world in different relationships with other or similar creatures. Ecosystems also consist

of creatures that mutually benefit from each other. For instance, a popular example is that of the clown fish and

the anemone – the clown fish cleans the anemone and keeps it safe from parasites as the anemone stings

bigger predators that would otherwise eat clown fish.

An ecosystem can be destroyed by a stranger. The stranger could be rise in temperature or rise in sea level or

climate change. The stranger can affect the natural balance and can harm or destroy the ecosystem. Its a bit

unfortunate but ecosystems have been destroyed and vanished by man-made activities

like deforestation, urbanization and natural activities like floods, storms, fires or volcanic eruptions.

Types of Ecosystem

Freshwater Ecosystems

These can then be broken up into smaller ecosystems. For instance, in the freshwater ecosystems we find:

 Pond Ecosystems – These are usually relatively small and contained. Most of the time they include
various types of plants, amphibians and insects. Sometimes they include fish, but as these cannot
move around as easily as amphibians and insects, it is less likely, and most of the time fish are
artificially introduced to these environments by humans.

 River Ecosystems – Because rivers always link to the sea, they are more likely to contain fish
alongside the usual plants, amphibians and insects.

These sorts of ecosystems can also include birds because birds often hunt in and around water for small fish

or insects.
As is clear from the title, freshwater ecosystems are those that are contained to freshwater environments. This

includes, but is not limited to, ponds, rivers and other waterways that are not the sea (which is, of course,

saltwater and cannot support freshwater creatures for very long). Freshwater ecosystems are actually the

smallest of the three major classes of ecosystems, accounting for just 1.8% of the total of the Earth’s surface.

The ecosystems of freshwater systems include relatively small fish (bigger fish are usually found in the sea),

amphibians (such as frogs, toads and newts), insects of various sorts and, of course, plants. The absolutely

smallest living part of the food web of these sorts of ecosystems is plankton, a small organism that is often

eaten by fish and other small creatures.

Terrestrial Ecosystems

Terrestrial ecosystems are many because there are so many different sorts of places on Earth. Some of the

most common terrestrial ecosystems that are found are the following:

 Rainforests – Rainforests usually have extremely dense ecosystems because there are so many

different types of animals all living in a very small area.

 Tundra – As mentioned above, tundra usually have relatively simple ecosystems because of the limited
amount of life that can be supported in these harsh conditions.

 Deserts – Quite the opposite of tundra in many ways, but still harsh, more animals live in the extreme
heat than live in the extreme cold of Antarctica, for instance.

 Savannas – These differ from deserts because of the amount of rain that they get each year. Whereas
deserts get only a tiny amount of precipitation every tea, savannas tend to be a bit wetter which is
better for supporting more life.

 Forests – There are many different types of forests all over the world including deciduous forests and
coniferous forests. These can support a lot of life and can have very complex ecosystems.

 Grasslands – Grasslands support a wide variety of life and can have very complex and involved
ecosystems.

Ocean Ecosystems

Ocean ecosystems are relatively contained, although they, like freshwater ecosystems, also include certain

birds that hunt for fish and insects close to the ocean’s surface. There are different sorts of ocean ecosystems:

 Shallow water – Some tiny fish and coral only live in the shallow waters close to land.

 Deep water – Big and even gigantic creatures can live deep in the waters of the oceans. Some of the
strangest creatures in the world live right at the bottom of the sea.
  Warm water – Warmer waters, such as those of the Pacific Ocean, contain some of the most
impressive and intricate ecosystems in the world.

 Cold water – Less diverse, cold waters still support relatively complex ecosystems. Plankton usually
form the base of the food chain, following by small fish that are either eaten by bigger fish or by other
creatures such as seals or penguins.

Ocean ecosystems are amongst some of the most interesting in the world, especially in warm waters such as

those of the Pacific Ocean. This is not least because around 75% of the Earth is covered by the sea, which

means that there is lots of space for all sorts of different creatures to live and thrive. There are actually three

different types of oceanic ecosystems: shallow waters, deep waters and the deep ocean surface. In two of

these the very base of the food chain is plankton, just as it is in freshwater ecosystems.

These plankton and other plants that grow in the ocean close to the surface are responsible for 40% of all

photosynthesis that occurs on Earth. From this there are herbivorous creatures that eat the plankton, such as

shrimp, that are then themselves usually eaten by bigger creatures, particularly fish. Interesting, in the deep

ocean, plankton cannot exist because photosynthesis cannot occur since light cannot penetrate that far into

the ocean’s depths. Down in the deepest depths of the ocean, therefore, creatures have adapted very

strangely and are amongst some of the most fascination and the most terrifying and intriguing living creatures

on Earth.

Ecosystems consist of life forms existing in a symbiotic relationship with their environment. Life forms in
ecosystems compete with one another to become the most successful at reproducing and surviving in a given
niche, or environment.

TL;DR (Too Long; Didn't Read)

Two main components exist in an ecosystem: abiotic and biotic. The abiotic components of any ecosystem are
the properties of the environment; the biotic components are the life forms that occupy a given ecosystem.

Abiotic Components

Abiotic components of an ecosystem consist of the nonorganic aspects of the environment that determine what
life forms can thrive. Examples of abiotic components are temperature, average humidity, topography and
natural disturbances. Temperature varies by latitude; locations near the equator are warmer than are locations
near the poles or the temperate zones. Humidity influences the amount of water and moisture in the air and
soil, which, in turn, affect rainfall. Topography is the layout of the land in terms of elevation. For example,
according to the University of Wisconsin, land located in the rain shadow of a mountain will receive less
precipitation. Natural disturbances include tsunamis, lightning storms, hurricanes and forest fires.
Biotic Components

The biotic components of an ecosystem are the life forms that inhabit it. The life forms of an ecosystem aid in
the transfer and cycle of energy. They are grouped in terms of the means they use to get energy. Producers
such as plants produce their own energy without consuming other life forms; plants gain their energy from
conducting photosynthesis via sunlight. Consumers exist on the next level of the food chain. There are three
main types of consumers: herbivores, carnivores and omnivores. Herbivores feed on plants, carnivores get
their food by eating other carnivores or herbivores, and omnivores can digest both plant and animal tissue.

Interaction

Biotic components and abiotic components of an ecosystem interact with and affect one another. If the
temperature of an area decreases, the life existing there must adapt to it. Global warming, or the worldwide
increase in temperature due to the greenhouse effect, will speed up the metabolism rates of most organisms.
Metabolic rate increases with temperature because the nutrient molecules in the body are more likely to
contact and react with one another when excited by heat. According to "Science News," tropical ectothermic --
cold-blooded -- organisms could experience increased metabolic rates from an increase of as little as 5
degrees Celsius because their internal temperature is almost entirely dependent on external temperature. To
adapt to these circumstances, cold-blooded life forms could reside in the shade and not actively search for
food during daylight hours when the sun is at its brightest.

What is an Ecosystem?

Ecosystem is the interconnectedness of organisms including animals, plants, and microbes with each other

and their non-living environment. Examples of the non-living aspects of the environment include climate, soil,

water, sun, earth, rocks, atmosphere, temperature, and humidity. In an ecosystem, every living organism has

an ecological niche. Hence, what makes an ecosystem is the complex and balanced relationship between

abiotic and biotic components with each other in any given location.

The definition of an ecosystem also involves the biological and behavioral interactions between living and non-

living aspects that constitute the ecological system. Perhaps by considering a small pond next to your area

you’ll get to notice there exists numerous sorts of living things such as plants, insects, birds, frogs, worms,

bacteria, and fungi that depend on non-living things including water, sunlight, temperature and nutrients. Thus,

this intricate interaction between living and non-living things is defined as an ecosystem.
Earth as an ecosystem stands out in the all of the universe. There’s no place that we know about that can

support life as we know it, not even our sister planet, Mars, where we might set up housekeeping someday,

but at great effort and trouble we have to recreate the things we take for granted here.

~ Sylvia Earle

According to Wikipedia,

“An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their

environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic

components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. As ecosystems are

defined by the network of interactions among organisms, and between organisms and their environment, they

can be of any size but usually encompass specific, limited spaces (although some scientists say that the entire

planet is an ecosystem).”

Components of an Ecosystem

The elements of ecosystems are primarily grouped into two, which are the abiotic and biotic components. The

elements of an ecosystem detail the ecosystem structure, relationship of the organisms, their distribution, and

characteristics of their environments. The concept seeks to describe the non-living (abiotic) and living (biotic)

features of the environment which are defined in four basic components.

Abiotic Components

The abiotic elements of an ecosystem include all the non-living things in an environment. Examples are

elements such as water, temperature, air, soil, rocks, atmosphere, minerals, nutrients, humidity, and so on.

Abiotic components may also depend on how much they receive the energy from the sun that will determine

temperature variation or how much rain falls in an area that determines water availability.

The physico – chemical aspects such as soil may as well determine whether a water resource is fresh or salty.

These are the components that the biotic factors interact with, and are widely categorized under three

divisions:
  Edaphic factors which are associated with the composition and structure of the including its
chemical and physical properties such as minerals, soil profile, soil organic matter, soil moisture,
and soil types.

 Inorganic and organic components. The inorganic components include phosphorous, carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and so on. Substances such as lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates include
the organic components.

 Climatic aspects which include the physical and climatic elements of the environment such as
atmospheric temperature, wind, humidity, and water.

Biotic Components

The biotic elements of an ecosystem include all the living things in an environment. Producers such as green

plants are at the bottom produce their own energy without consuming other life forms. Next are consumers.

Consumers are living organisms that prey on producers or other living organisms. There are three main types

of consumers: herbivores, carnivores and omnivores. Next are Decomposers or saprobes or saprophytes.

They are also the living organisms that break down on the dead protoplasm of producers and consumers.

Producers at the bottom

Producers are the autotrophic organisms, mainly green plants and the photosynthetic as well as

chemosynthetic bacteria and algae. They are the producing components of the ecosystem because they use

the sun’s energy to make their food and store some of the energy in the form of chemical compounds.

Producers occupy the base of the food chain and are the most prominent in the ecosystem. They are also the

factors that directly interact with the abiotic elements of the ecosystem during the nutrient cycles as they make

their food. Because heterotrophic organisms depend on green plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria for

nourishment, the amount of energy made by the producers determines the availability of energy in the

ecosystem.

Consumers in the food chain

Consumers are the heterotrophic organisms in the ecosystem that acquire energy by consuming other living

organisms. Consumers are of various categories and are grouped based on what they eat. The categories
include herbivores that eat producers (autotrophs), carnivores that eat herbivores and other carnivores, and

omnivores that eat both producers and herbivores. Humans are also grouped under consumers. Nutrient and

energy is transferred from the organism being eaten to the eater thereby forming complex food chains in the

ecosystem. Only 10% of the energy is received by the eater and the energy transferred becomes even less as

the trend moves up the food chain.

Decomposers or Saprotrophs

Decomposers are also known as saprotrophs or reducers. They are heterotrophic organisms that break down

waste and dead matter. Examples of decomposers include dung beetles, crabs, earthworms, vultures and

certain species of bacteria and fungi. These organisms secrete special enzymes on dead or waste matter

which digests the materials into minute particles and absorbs the obtained energy for their metabolism. As they

do this, they undertake a critical recycling function of returning the nutrients in the dead organisms back into

the soils where plants can take them up to manufacture food. In this process, the decomposers also release to

the very last all the energy trapped from the sun by the producers. Thus, decomposers complete the cyclical

ecosystem processes.

Potential Threat to Ecosystems

Environmental Pollution

Air, land, water, and soil pollution simply destroy the health of crucial ecosystems. Be it as a result of natural or

anthropogenic causes, pollution potentially releases noxious substances and destructive chemicals into the

environment that damage the health of living things and degrades the nature of non-living things.

In an aquatic system, for instance, water pollution can disturb the ecological balance by accelerating plant and

nutrient growth thereby causing the death of fish because of suffocation resulting from dissolved oxygen

depletion. The various implication of pollution is the interference with natural cycles in the ecosystem such as

the oxygen cycle, the nitrogen cycle, the water cycle and the food chain, which results in adverse ecosystem

damage.

Over-exploitation of Natural Resources

The exploitation of the natural resources to the point of diminishing returns has significantly destroys the

ecosystem. Activities such as over hunting, over fishing, over mining, and excessive logging have led to a

reduction in community structures, population distributions, and species breeding. For instance, excessive

fishing has led to population collapse of more than a third of all fish species and some are currently

endangered.

Invasive Species

Foreign species that find way into an ecosystem, either by human or natural initiation can wreck serious havoc

on the native members of the ecosystem. Whenever this happens, the native species can be wiped out

completely or may find it tough to survive.

Invasive species often compete for food with the native species and can also alter the habitat. This gradually

destroys ecosystems and leads to the extinction of species. According to WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature),

the introduction of alien Nile Tilapia into Lake Victoria in the 1970s led to the extinction of more than half of the

native cichlid fish family.

Eutrophication

Eutrophication is the excessive concentration of chemical nutrients in water bodies to an extent that it

encourages the dense growth of plant life and algae blooms. Based on the degree of eutrophication, the

effects are depletion of oxygen, extensive deterioration of water quality, poisoning of seafood and degradation

of recreational opportunities. As a result, it affects the survival of fish and other aquatic life forms. The

presence of toxic algal blooms in water bodies has endangered aquatic life and availability of quality water thus

posing a threat to ecosystems.

Climate Change and Global Warming

Climate change and global warming are leading threats to the ecosystems. Changes in climates and global

temperatures directly impact the abiotic factors essential for sustaining the biotic elements. The present rate of

rising global temperatures is destroying and altering the coral reefs, mountain regions, water cycles, which are
vital ecosystems resources. For instance, different species requires particular abiotic factors to thrive. If global

warming and climate change continue, 10% of the entire world species might go extinct by 2050.

The Earth's structure consists of three major parts: the crust, the mantle, and the innermost part known as the
core. The crust forms the surface of the Earth and is also constituted by several parts, one of which is the
pedosphere. The pedosphere is the part of the crust that is made up of soil and where the soil-forming
processes are still active. This part of the crust co-exists with other parts of the Earth’s structure including the
atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere. The pedosphere forms the foundation of all terrestrial
life on the planet.

PEDOSPHERE

Formation of the Pedosphere

Soil is formed as a result of the breakdown of rocks either by water, air, or other factors of erosion. Rocks that
form the crust of the Earth today are millions of years old. However, some mineral particles found in the soil
are estimated to be as old as 4.4 billion years. This suggests that the Earth has had solid ground for at least
4.4 billion years. Soil development is determined by the chemical composition found in the rocks that will
eventually result in the formation of soil. The different types of rocks that often underlie the soil profile are
either sedimentary, igneous, or volcanic rock. These rocks are exposed to the Earth’s surface as a result of
tectonic activity.
Weathering and Erosion

Scientists in the late 19th century identified five factors that have a significant influence on the rate of rock
breakdown and soil development. These factors include topography, climate, organisms, parent material, and
time. The process of soil formation is primarily controlled by chemical weathering of the silicate minerals in
rocks. This process is facilitated by acidic products from plants and other organisms, as well as carbonic acid
from the atmosphere. Carbonic acid is produced in the atmosphere by the dissolution of carbon dioxide in
rainwater. Although a weak acid, with time it ‘eats’ into rock, breaking them down into fine particles which form
soil. Living organisms influence soil by altering the quantity and quality of organic matter.
Variations in Pedosphere

The environment determines the structure and composition of the pedosphere. Forests have the thickest
humus layers as a result of the diverse plants and animals that inhabit them. In the tropics, rainforests receive
heavier precipitation than any other type of environment, as well as more insolation than forests outside the
tropics. These higher temperatures and large amounts of water result in increased rates of chemical
weathering. Deserts and grasslands have the lowest rates of chemical weathering due to the significantly low
levels of precipitation, and therefore soil development is heavily dependent on other agents of weathering such
as wind.
Human Influence on the Pedosphere

Human activity has dramatically changed the structure of the pedosphere over time. In regions where there is
industrial or construction activity, soils are more likely to contain significant amounts of chemicals which leach
nutrients in the soils, leaving them barren and unusable for agricultural activity. Agricultural activities have also
affected the structure of the pedosphere, leading to massive erosion in some parts of the Earth.

The pedosphere is the soil cover (blanket) of the Earth, which consists of specific natural bodies (elements),
i.e. of soils, which are diverse by their compositions and properties. The soil cover was formed on the surface
of the land as a result of centuriesold effects (actions) of solar radiation, atmospheric moisture, vegetation,
animals (animal kingdom), and microorganisms on surface layers of rocks.

The Earth’s mantle of soil (the pedosphere) is the zonal-regional type of a spatial structure, reflecting diverse
influences of biological-climatic (bioclimatic) and lithologic-geomorphologic conditions of the soil formation as
well as of geological history of different regions of the Earth.

Despite the diversity of soils, making up the pedosphere, all of them possess a special type of structure and
consist of organic and mineral components, and therefore they are so-called “bio-stagnant” natural bodies.

Among numerous properties and functions of soils and the pedosphere as the whole, the following ones,
having especially important ecological significance, are isolated:

- functions of soils as unique habitat for a great diversity of life forms; - function of soil cover as a link between
geological and biological substance circulation in terrestrial ecosystems and the biosphere; and - function of
the soil fertility in agriculture and biological productivity in natural landscapes.
Pedosphere (from Greek words pedon – soil, and sphaira – ball) is the soil shell (cover) of the Earth, similar to
other terrestrial envelopes, i.e. geospheres those are the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere.
The term pedosphere is synonymous with the notion “the soil cover of the Earth”.

The term “pedosphere” was for the first time introduced by scientist A.A. Yarilov in his monograph “Pedology
as independent natural-scientific discipline about the Earth” that was published in 1905 in the Yur’ev University
(now Tartu, Estonia).

During the following years, this term together with the notion of the pedosphere was used by the great Russian
scientist V.I. Vernadsky in his doctrine on the biosphere and geological envelopes of the Earth as a planet
(1942). Now, this term is widely used in both scientific and educational literature on pedology (soil science).
Unlike other geospheres, whose thickness is measured by tens and hundreds of kilometers, the pedosphere is
the finest shell, it is literally (naturally) a film on the land surface, which is as thin as only one-two meters.
Therefore, the pedosphere is also called as an Earth’s skin, i.e. Geoderma. Despite this insignificant thickness,
the pedosphere is the envelope of the greatest density and diversity of the Life on the Earth. The pedosphere
plays an irreplaceable ecological role for the stable functioning of the biosphere, and hence, for preservation of
favorable conditions for human life.

The pedosphere, i.e. the soil cover of the Earth, consists of a great number of very diverse soils, was formed
as a result of centuries-old effect of the solar heat, the atmospheric moisture, flora and fauna upon surface
layers of the land and rocks. This concept was first developed in 1883 by outstanding Russian scientist
Vasilii .V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903).

In his well-known book “Russian chernozem” (1883), he proposed to understand soils as “fully independent
natural-historic bodies, which are a result of extremely complicated interaction between (of) local climate,
vegetable and animal organisms, composition and structure of parent (mother) rocks, relief of terrain, and, at
last, an age of the country” (Dokuchaev, Works, vol. III, 1949). Further on, this notion served theoretical basis
for new natural-historic science that was genetic soil science (pedology).

DEFINITION OF SOIL

Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Earth's
body of soil is the pedosphere, which has four important functions: it is a medium for plant growth; it is a means
of water storage, supply and purification; it is a modifier of Earth's atmosphere; it is a habitat for organisms; all
of which, in turn, modify the soil.
The pedosphere interfaces with the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere.[1] The
term pedolith, used commonly to refer to the soil, translates to ground stone. Soil consists of a solid phase of
minerals and organic matter (the soil matrix), as well as a porous phase that holds gases (the soil atmosphere)
and water (the soil solution).[2][3][4] Accordingly, soils are often treated as a three-state system of solids, liquids,
and gases.[5]
Soil is a product of the influence of climate, relief (elevation, orientation, and slope of terrain), organisms, and
its parent materials (original minerals) interacting over time.[6] It continually undergoes development by way of
numerous physical, chemical and biological processes, which include weathering with associated erosion.
Given its complexity and strong internal connectedness, it is considered an ecosystem by soil ecologists.[7]
Most soils have a dry bulk density (density of soil taking into account voids when dry) between 1.1 and
1.6 g/cm3, while the soil particle density is much higher, in the range of 2.6 to 2.7 g/cm3.[8] Little of the soil of
planet Earth is older than the Pleistocene and none is older than the Cenozoic,[9] although fossilized soils are
preserved from as far back as the Archean.[10]
Soil science has two basic branches of study: edaphology and pedology. Edaphology is concerned with the
influence of soils on living things. [11] Pedology is focused on the formation, description (morphology), and
classification of soils in their natural environment.[12] In engineering terms, soil is included in the broader
concept of regolith, which also includes other loose material that lies above the bedrock, as can be found on
the Moon and other celestial objects, as well. [13] Soil is also commonly referred to as earth or dirt; some
scientific definitions distinguish dirt from soil by restricting the former term specifically to the displaced soil

A soil is anisotropic. That's a fancy way to say that it is vertically differentiated into layers that soil scientists
call horizons. To fully understand soils, you need to understand the soil scientists concept of the soil.

2.1 Naming of parts.

A soil is a three phase system, containing solid, liquid and gas phases at all times.

Another important concept to appreciate about the study of soils as natural bodies is that of scale. We will
consider scales that vary by 1012; 12 orders of magnitude. When we study soils, we study processes at
mineral surfaces at the nanometer (10-9 m) and smaller scale. When we discuss interpreting soils or soil
genesis, we may discuss them at the landscape scale of kilometers (103 m).

Soil may be a sample, but a single sample never represents an entire soil individual. Soil individuals occur on
landscapes. To fully understand a soil, we need to know something about where it lives.

Some different definitions:

Geologist - unconsolidated material at the earth's surface that covers up the really interesting rocks beneath
the soil.

Engineer - anything that can be moved without blasting

Agronomist - a growth media for plants - a friable unconsolidated mixture which hold nutrients, water and
organisms and allows for exchange of gases.

To a soil scientist, the three-dimensional soil individual is represented by the pedon. In your text we build and
interpret a pedon to help you learn about soil components and how soils "work".

Figure 1-3 is "our" pedon (transparency). Here in its most simple form and showing its minimum dimensions.
The pedon is just large enough to contain all the properties of the soil individual. The minimum size is 1 m2 by
sufficient depth to include all layers and parent material

This pedon is empty, but of course soils are not empty. They are composed of mineral and organic particles,
holes filled with air and fluid. Living organisms occupy space in the pores and on the surfaces of mineral and
organic particles. Before describing these components in detail, a few more naming of parts.

Figure 1-4 (transparency) is the same pedon, but now it has layers that we soil scientists call horizons. The
horizon designations have special meanings and convey much information. It is important for you to be able to
recognize horizons and to understand their function and origin in soils.

Soil horizons are roughly parallel with the soil surface but may tongue downward or undulate due to
perturbations by animals and plants. The boundaries of vertical movement of oxygen, water and heat are
roughly parallel to the surface since these alter parent material, the horizons are also roughly parallel to the
surface and intensity varies with depth.