ELECTRICAL KNOWHOW-Power and Distribution Transformers Sizing Calculations

Power and Distribution Transformers Sizing Calculations –
Part One
Power and Distribution Transformers Sizing Calculations – part one
http://www.electrical-knowhow.com/2017/11/power-and-distribution-transformers-sizing-calculations.html
Today, we will start explaining the Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations in details
and I’d like to from all of you to review our course “EP-3: Electrical Procurement – Transformers
Course” to be more familiar with the contents of our new articles about the Power and Distribution
Transformers sizing calculations.
The contents of our articles for Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations will include
the following points:
• Glossary of Sizing Power and Distribution Transformers,

• Power and distribution transformer components,
• Power and distribution transformer classification: construction and application,
• Three-phase power and distribution transformer connections,
• Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations.
The following points were explained before ( or will be explained) in our course “EP-3: Electrical
Procurement – Transformers Course” :

• Three-phase power and distribution transformer connections.
So, we will not go through these points here, we will focus only on the following two points:

Now, we will start with the first point; Glossary of Sizing Power and Distribution Transformers.
Glossary of Sizing Power and Distribution Transformers
Term Explanation
AA Ventilated, self-cooled rating of a dry-type transformer.

AFA Ventilated, forced-air-cooled rating of a dry-type transformer.
The polarity designation of a transformer that has the primary and
Additive polarity secondary terminals of corresponding polarity directly opposite of each
other.
ANSI American National Standards Institute
BIL Basic Impulse Level
A device that permits a conductor to pass through an enclosure, yet to
Bushing be isolated from the enclosure. Typically the conductor is insulated from
the enclosure by a porcelain or epoxy cylinder.
Transformer power losses that are caused by the resistance of the
Copper losses
windings. Copper losses are also called I2R losses.
A permeable metal frame around which transformer windings are
Core
wound. Usually made from silicon steel.
An instrument transformer that is intended to have its primary winding
Current transformer
connected in shunt with a power supply circuit, the voltage of which is to
(CT)
be measured or controlled.
The insulation quality of a material or oil that is measured in kilovolts
Dielectric strength
(kV).
A small transformer that is used to supply low voltage residential loads.
Distribution
Pole-mount and pad-mount transformers fall into this category. A
transformer
distribution transformer usually has a kVA rating less than 500 kVA.
Distribution
Installations that contain transformers 500 kVA and less are designated
transformer
distribution transformer installations.
installation
A transformer in which the windings are immersed in air or some other
Dry-type dry gas, e.g., nitrogen. For Saudi Aramco purposes, a dry-type
transformer transformer in which neither of the windings is cast in resin is called a
conventional dry-type transformer.
One component of transformer iron losses. Eddy current loss is the loss
Eddy current loss caused by the currents that are induced in the iron core of a
transformer.
The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of real power output to real
Efficiency
power input, and it is usually expressed in percent.
The process by which an electromotive force is produced in a conductor
Electromagnetic
when there is relative motion between the conductor and a magnetic
induction
field.
Excitation current is the current that flows in any winding used to excite
the transformer when all other windings are opened circuited, and it is
Excitation current
usually expressed in percent of
the rated current of the winding in which it is measured.
FA Forced-air-cooled rating of a liquid-filled transformer
One component of transformer iron losses. Hysteresis loss is the amount
Hysteresis loss of energy required to overcome residual magnetism of the transformer
core.
Transformer power losses that are caused by resistance of the windings.
I2R losses
I2R losses are also called copper losses.
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
The voltage at rated frequency that is applied to the line terminals of
one of the windings of a two winding transformer to cause the rated
Impedance voltage current to flow through these terminals when the terminals of the other
winding are short circuited. The applied voltage is measured while the
windings are at the same specified winding temperature.
Inert gas A gas that does not chemically react with other substances.
A transformer that is intended to reproduce in its secondary circuit, in a
Instrument definite and known proportion suitable for utilization in measurement,
transformer control of protective devices, the voltage or current of its primary circuit
with its phase relationships substantially preserved.
Iron losses The combination of eddy current and hysteresis losses.
The load or copper losses of a transformer are those losses incidental to
Load losses
the carrying of load.
Load tap changer A tap changer designed so that the transformer’s turns ratio can be
(LTC) changed without interrupting the power source.
MRD Mechanical Relief Device
No-load losses are the losses in a transformer that is excited at rated
voltage and frequency but which is not supplying load. Note: No-load
No-load losses
losses include core loss, dielectric loss, and the loss in the windings due to
exciting current.
No-load tap
A tap changer that can only be operated when the transformer is
changer
completely de-energized from the power source.
(NLTC)
OA Self-cooled rating of a liquid-filled transformer
An outdoor distribution-type transformer that is used as part of an
Pad-mounted underground distribution system, with enclosed compartments for high
transformer voltage and low voltage cables entering from below, and that is
mounted on a foundation pad.
A distribution-type transformer that is suitable for mounting on a pole or
Pole-mounted platform on overhead installations up to 69 kV, with ratings of 1 kVA to
transformer 167 kVA single-phase and 15 kVA to 500 kVA three-phase. Sometimes
called an overhead transformer.
A large transformer that is used to deliver large amounts of power to
Power transformer industrial loads or to transmission and distribution systems. A power
transformer usually has a kVA rating greater than 500 kVA.
The primary rated current should be equal to the secondary current
Primary rated
divided by the turns ratio. Note: This definition of primary rated current
current
ignores magnetizing current.
The primary rated voltage designated to be applied to the input
Primary rated terminals should be equal to the secondary rated voltage times the turns
voltage ratio. Note: Primary rated voltage is not necessarily equal to nominal
system voltage.
The primary winding is the winding on the energy input side of the
Primary winding transformer. The primary winding is usually the high voltage winding on
a power transformer.
The tap to which operating and performance characteristics of a
Principal tap
transformer are referred.
A tap through which the transformer can deliver its rated kVA output
Rated KVA tap without exceeding the specified temperature rise. Sometimes called the
fully-rated tap.
Rated power (single Rated power is equal to the product of rated voltage and rated current
phase transformer) of the same winding of a transformer.
Rated power of a three-phase winding is equal to the product of rated
Rated power (three voltage, rated current, and the 3. Both windings of a two-winding
phase transformer) transformer have the same rated power, which by definition is the rated
power of the transformer.
A tap through which the transformer can deliver only an output less than
Reduced KVA tap
rated kVA without exceeding the specified temperature rise.
The full-load regulation of a transformer is the arithmetic difference
between the secondary no-load and full-load voltages of a winding,
Regulation divided by the secondary no-load voltage, with rated voltage applied to
the primary winding at rated frequency and with the winding at
specified temperature.
The reliability of a substation is defined as its ability to serve the
Reliability
intended function without failure, although the complete elimination of
(substation)
failures is impossible to achieve.
The secondary full-load voltage should be equal to the full load rms
Secondary full-load
voltage available at the output terminals of the transformer, at rated
voltage
frequency and current, and the required power factor, at principal tap.
The secondary rated current shall be equal to the full load rms current
Secondary rated
deliverable at the output terminals of the transformer, at principal tap,
current
without exceeding the specified temperature rise
Secondary rated The secondary rated voltage should be the equivalent no load voltage
voltage corresponding to the full-load condition.
The secondary winding is the winding on the energy output side of the
Secondary winding transformer. The secondary winding is usually the low voltage winding
on a power transformer.
The short circuit equivalent star-connection impedance of a two winding
transformer, expressed in ohms per phase, measured between the
Short circuit
terminals of a winding when the other winding is short circuited. The
impedance
impedance is based on rated frequency and the specified winding
temperature.
SPR Sudden Pressure Relay
Step-down A transformer in which the energy transfer is from a high voltage circuit
transformer to a low voltage circuit.
Step-up A transformer in which the energy transfer is from a low voltage circuit
transformer to a high voltage circuit.
Installations that contain power transformers (501 kVA and above) are
Substation
designated substations.
A substation is defined as an industrial substation if its main function is
to deliver power to one or more major industrial plants. Substations
serving a hospital load or any other critical load facility and substations
Substation supplying industrial facilities are considered industrial substations. An
(industrial) industrial substation facility includes the transformer switching devices,
the transformer(s), the secondary or low voltage bus, circuit breakers
and load feeder cables together with all controls, metering, relaying, and
auxiliary equipment.
Substation A substation is defined as a residential substation if its main function is
(residential) to deliver power to residential areas.
The polarity designation of a transformer that has primary and
Subtractive polarity secondary terminals of corresponding polarity diagonally opposite of
each other.
A tap is a connection brought out of a winding at some point between its
Tap extremities to permit changing the voltage or current ratio of a
transformer or impedance of a reactor.
A tap changer is a switching device that is used to change the voltage
Tap changer
ratio of a transformer by means of taps brought out from between the
extremities of the windings. Tap changer operating can be arranged for
either de-energized operation, where the transformer must be
disconnected from its supply before the tap switch or link can be moved;
or loaded operation, where the load tap changer (LTC) is designed to
operate, in conjunction with a transition impedance, while the
transformer is carrying load.
The increase in operating temperature that is above an ambient
Temperature rise
temperature of a winding or insulating fluid.
The turns ratio of a transformer is the ratio of the effective number of
turns in the high voltage winding to that in the low voltage
Turns ratio
winding. Note: In the case of a transformer having taps for changing its
voltage ratio, the turns ratio is based on the principal tap.
Underground-type A distribution-type transformer that is designed for location in an
transformer underground enclosure.
The voltage ratio of a transformer is the ratio of the rated voltage of the
Voltage ratio high voltage winding to the rated voltage of the low voltage winding,
and is equal to the turns ratio.
An instrument transformer that is intended to have its primary winding
Voltage
connected in shunt with a power supply circuit, the voltage of which is to
transformer (VT)
be measured or controlled.
Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations –
part Two
In Article “Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations – part One”, we indicate that the
contents of our articles for Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations will include the following
points:

The following points were explained before ( or will be explained) in our course “EP-3:Electrical
Procurement – Transformers Course” :

1. Glossary of Sizing Power and Distribution Transformers,

2. Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations.
And we already explained the Glossary of Sizing Power and Distribution Transformers in Article
“Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations – part One” , today we will explain the
second point; Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations.
Note:
I’d like from all of you to review our course “EP-3:Electrical Procurement – Transformers Course” to
be more familiar with the contents of our new articles about the Power and Distribution Transformers
sizing calculations.
Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations
Our study for the Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations will include the
explanations of the following points:
1. Resources used to calculate basic ratings of power and distribution transformers,

2. Selection Factors,
3. Special cases,
4. Calculations procedures.
1- Resources Used To Calculate Basic Ratings Of Power And Distribution

Transformers
• The Resources used in our study to calculate basic ratings of power and distribution
transformers will be the ANSI/IEEE Standard C57 (Distribution, Power, and Regulating Transformers).
• We will go through the important points in the ANSI/IEEE Standard C57 that will lead to the
accurate sizing of power and distribution transformers as follows:
1. C57.12.00 specifies the following service conditions for liquid-immersed distribution and power
transformers:
1. Temperature should not exceed an average ambient temperature of 300C.

2. Altitude should not exceed 3300 ft (1000 meters).
3. Voltage should be approximately sinusoidal.
4. Load current should be approximately sinusoidal and a harmonic content should not
exceed 0.05 per unit.
5. Frequency should be at least 95% of the rated value (e.g., 60 Hz).
2. C57.12.00 lists the following preferred continuous kVA ratings for liquid immersed power and
distribution transformers (Table-1).
Single-Phase Transformers Three-Phase Transformers
kVA kVA kVA kVA kVA kVA
3 167 5000 15 1000 15,000
5 250 6667 30 1500 20,000
10 333 8333 45 2000 25,000
15 500 10,000 75 2500 30,000
25 833 12,500 112.5 3750 37,500
37.5 1250 16,667 150 5000 50,000
50 1667 20,000 225 7500 60,000
75 2500 25,000 300 10,000 75,000
100 3333 33,333 500 12,000 100,000
750
Table-1: Standard Transformer kVA Ratings (Liquid-Filled)
3. C57.12.00 lists the following basic dielectric insulation levels (BIL) for liquid-immersed transformers
(Table-2).
Nominal Transformer BIL Chopped Wave Low

Frequency
System Category Full Minimum Minimum
Test Label
Voltage Wave Voltage Time to
kV Flashover kV
kV kV
crest rms
rms Crest sec
0.48 and Power and 30 36 1.0 10
below Distribution
2.4 Distribution 45 54 1.5 15
2.4 Power 60 69 1.5 15
4.16 Power 75 88 1.6 19
13.8 Distribution 95 110 1.8 34
13.8 Power 110 130 2.0 34
34.5/19.9 Distribution 150 175 3.0 50
34.5/19.9 Power 200 230 3.0 70
69 Power 350 400 3.0 140
115 Power 450 520 3.0 185

230 Power 825 950 3.0 360
Table-2: Transformer BIL Ratings
4. C57.12.00 specifies that the angular placement for three-phase transformers shall be in
accordance with Figure-1.
Figure-1: Phase Relation of Terminal Designations
5. C57.12.00 list four categories for the rating of transformers (Table -3):
Category Single-Phase Three-Phase

kVA Ratings kVA Ratings
Ia 5 to 500 15 to 500
II 501 to 1667 501 to 5000
III 1668 to 10,000 5000 to 30,000
IV above 10,000 above 30,000
Table-3: Transformer Categories (Liquid-Filled)
a :Category I shall include distribution transformers manufactured in accordance with ANSI C57.12.20
[B3] up through 500 kVA, single phase or three phase. In addition, autotransformers of 500 equivalent
two winding kVA or less, which are manufactured as distribution transformers in accordance with
ANSI C57.12.20 [B3], shall be included in Category I, even though their nameplate kVA may exceed
500.
6. C57.12.00 specifies that power transformers that are rated 200 kVA and below, and that have high
voltage ratings 8660 volts and below, shall have additive polarity. All other single-phase transformers
shall have subtractive polarity.
7. C57.12.00 specifies that the average winding temperature rise above ambient temperature shall
not exceed 650C when measured by resistance and that the winding hottest-spot temperature rise
shall not exceed 800C.
Note: Transformer ratings are based on a 24-hour average ambient of 300C.
8. C57.92 lists the following derating factors for 550C or 650C rise transformers that are being
operated at ambient temperatures above or below 300C (Table-4).
Note: Table-4 is valid for temperatures that range from 00C to 500C.
Type of Cooling % of Rating

Decrease Load for Increase Load for
each 0C each 0C
Higher Temperature Lower Temperature
Self-cooled -- OA 1.5 1.0
Water-cooled -- OW 1.5 1.0
Forced-air-cooled -- OA/FA, OA/FA/FA 1.0 0.75
Forced-oil-cooled -- FOA, FOW and 1.0 0.75
OA/FOA/FOA
Table-4: Transformer Loading on Basis of Temperature for Liquid-Filled Transformers
9. C57.12.10 lists the following OA/FA ratings for power transformers that are rated 750 - 12,500 kVA
(Table-5).
Single-Phase (kVA) Three-Phase (kVA) Three-Phase (kVA)

Without Load Tap Changing With Load Tap Changing
OA FA OA FA OA FA
833 958 750 862 - -
1 250 1 437 1 000 1 150 - -
1 667 1 917 1 500 1 725 - -
2 500 3 125 2 000 2 300 - -
3 333 4 167 2 500 3 125 - -
5 000 6 250 3 750 4 687 3 750 4 687
6 667 8 333 5 000 6 250 5 000 6 250
8 333 10 417 7 500 9 375 7 500 9 375
- - 10 000 12 500 10 000 12 500
Table-5: OA/FA Ratings (750 - 12,500 kVA)

10. C57.12.10 lists the following OA/FA/FA ratings for power transformers that are rated 18 MVA and
larger (Table-6).
OA First-Stage Second-Stage
18 000 24 000 30 000

21 000 28 000 35 000
24 000 32 000 40 000
27 000 36 000 45 000
40 000 53 333 66 667
45 000 60 000 75 000
Table-6: OA/FA/FA Ratings (Greater Than 12.5 MVA)
11. C57.12.01 specifies the same usual service conditions for dry-type transformers as for liquid-filled
transformers.
12. C57.12.01 lists the following continuous kVA ratings for dry-type power and distribution
transformers (Table-7):
1 167 5000 15 300 3750
3 250 6667 30 500 5000
5 333 8333 45 7500

750
10 500 10,000 75 1000 10,000
15 833 12,500 112.5 1500

12,000
25 1250 16,667 150 2000 15,000
37.5 1667 20,000 225 2500 20,000
50 2500 25,000
75
3333 33,333
100
Table-7: Standard Transformer kVA Ratings (Dry-Type)
13. C57.12.01 lists the following limits of temperature and temperature rise ratings for dry-type
transformers (Table-8).
Average Winding Temperature Insulation System
Rise by Resistance (0C) Temperature (0C)
60 130
80 150
115 185
130 200
150 220
Table-8: Limits of Temperature and Temperature Rise Ratings for Dry-Type Transformers
14. C57.12.01 lists the same categories of dry-type transformers as liquid-filled transformers, except
that Category IV does not exist for dry-type transformers.
15. C57.12.01 lists the following BIL ratings for dry-type transformers (Table-9).
Nominal BIL Low Full Crest Impulse

Levels
System Frequency Wave
Chopped
Voltage Voltage 1.2 x 50 s Wave
Insulation Minimum
Time To
Level
kV kV crest Flashover
kV rms kV crest
Sec
kV crest
0.48 and 10 4 10 10 1.0
below
2.4 20 10 20 20 1.0
4.16 30 12 30 30 1.0
13.8 60 19 60 60 1.5
34.5 150 50 150 150 2.25
Table-9: BIL Ratings for Dry-Type Transformers

16. C57.12.51 lists the AA/FA ratings for dry-type transformers (Table-10).
Self-Cooled Forced-Air-Cooled
(AA) Ratings (AA/FA) Ratings
(kVA) (kVA)
750 1000
1000 1333
1500 2000
2000 2667
2500 3333
3750 5000
5000 6667
7500 10000
Table-10: AA/FA Ratings for Dry-Type Transformers

17. C57.96 lists the following derating factors for dry-type transformers that are being operated at
temperatures above or below 300C (Table-11).
Note: Table-11 is valid for temperatures ranging from 00C to 500C.
Type of Unit Maximum Rated Hottest-Spot Percent of Rated

Hottest-Spot Temperature kVA/0C
Temperature 0C 300C Ambient Increase for Average
Ambient
Less than 300C or
Decrease for
Average Ambient
Greater Than 300C
Ventilated 150 140 (0.57)
Self-Cooled 185 175 (0.43)
220 210 (0.35)
Sealed 150 140 (0.65)
Self-Cooled 185 175 (0.49)
220 210 (0.40)
Table-11: Transformer Loading on Basis of Temperature for Dry-Type Transformers
In the next article, we will focus on the other points in Power and Distribution Transformers sizing
calculations which are:
• Selection Factors,
• Special cases,
• Calculations procedures.
So, please keep following.
Power and Distribution Transformers Sizing Calculations –
Part Three
In Article “Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations – part One”, we indicate that the contents of our
articles for Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations will include the following points:

The following points were explained before ( or will be explained) in our course “EP-3:Electrical Procurement –
Transformers Course” :


And we already explained the Glossary of Sizing Power and Distribution Transformers in Article “Power and Distribution
Transformers sizing calculations – part One” .
Also, in Article “Power and Distribution Transformers Sizing Calculations – Part Two” , we indicate that Our study for the
Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations will include the explanations of the following points:
• Resources used to calculate basic ratings of power and distribution transformers,

• Calculations procedures,
• Special cases.
And we explained in this article the Resources used to calculate basic ratings of power and distribution transformers,
today we will explain Selection Factors for Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations.
Note: I’d like from all of you to review our course “EP-3: Electrical Procurement – Transformers Course” to be more
familiar with the contents of our new articles about the Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations.
Selection Factors for Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations
Before going through the equations and calculations for sizing power and distribution transformers, we must know the
factors which must be considered before making these calculations. Noting that without fulfilling these factors, your
calculations will not be so accurate. These factors we called them the selection factors which are:
1. Voltage class,
2. Load type,
3. Ambient Temperature,
4. Standard Sizes,
5. Cooling Classes,
6. Temperature Rise,
7. Altitude.
First: Voltage class:
There are three classes of voltage: low, medium, and high voltage.
1- Low Voltage, Three-Wire:
ANSI C84.1 lists four voltages in this class
Low Voltage, Three-Wire
Volt Application
Single-phase, three-wire, nominal system is primarily

120/240
used for residential areas and light industrial loads.
Three-phase, three-wire, nominal system is primarily
240
used for residential areas and light industrial loads.
Three-phase, Three-wire, nominal system is primarily
480 used for supplying motor loads.
Three-wire, nominal system is primarily used for

600 supplying motor loads.
2- Low Voltage, Four-Wire, 3 phase:
ANSI Standard C84.1 lists three voltages in this class:
Low Voltage, Four-Wire, 3 phase
Volt Application
It is typically used in commercial or very light industrial

208Y/120
applications.
It is typically used in commercial or very light industrial
240/120
applications.
It is used in most industrial applications and very large
commercial applications (e.g., large office complexes,
480Y/277
commissaries, etc.).
3- Medium Voltage, Three-Wire, 3 phase:
ANSI Standard C84.1 lists 9 nominal voltages in this class:
Medium Voltage, Three-Wire, 3 phase
Kilo-Volt Application
2.4
4.16
4.8
Voltages in this class are used to distribute large blocks
6.9
of power and as a utilization voltage for large motors
13.8
(isolated neutral).
23
34.5
46
69
4-High Voltage, Three phase, Three-Wire:
ANSI Standard C84.1 lists four voltages in the class:
Low Voltage, Four-Wire, 3 phase
Kilo-Volt Application
115
138 Nominal system voltages within this class to transmit
161 large blocks of power over long distances.
230
Second: Load type
1- Normal Load:
It means that the minimum self-cooled kVA rating of each OA/FA transformer shall be equal to the maximum normal
operating load plus projected future load.
2- Emergency Load:
Transformers may be operated under emergency conditions at ratings above normal load ratings. However, there will be
some sacrifice of life expectancy. ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.91 and C57.92 provide methods for determining the life
expectancy of power transformers when they are operated at loads above their listed ratings.
3- Future Growth Load:
It means that for self-cooled transformers (OA or AA) only, a 10% load growth factor should be added to the calculated
load (normal maximum operating load plus projected future load).
4- Projected Future Load:
It is a known load that will be added in the future. Projected future load should not be confused with the 10% load growth
factor that was discussed in the immediate previous paragraph.
Third: Ambient Temperature
• The temperature rise ratings of transformers are all based on an ambient temperature of 300C averaged over a
24-hour period, and the temperature not to exceed 400C at any time.
• If the transformer is operated at rated load and at temperatures greater than an average ambient temperature of
300C, some decrease in life expectancy will occur.
• To avoid this decrease in life, ANSI/IEEE Standard C57 requires that the transformer be de-rated as follows:
Transformer type Actual Ambient temp. De-rating factor
liquid-filled power
transformers the average ambient temperature
1.5% for each 10C over 300C
exceeds 300C
the average ambient temperature

1500C dry-type transformers 0.57% for each 10C over 300C
exceeds 300C
the average ambient temperature

exceeds 300C
Fourth: Standard Sizes

After an initial calculation to determine the kVA load requirements, the next standard (ANSI C57) size transformer is
selected for a particular application. The complete lists of standard size liquid-filled and dry-type single-phase and three-
phase transformers are as follows:
3 167 5000 15 1000 15,000
5 250 6667 30 1500 20,000
10 333 8333 45 2000 25,000
15 500 10,000 75 2500 30,000
25 833 12,500 112.5 3750 37,500
37.5 1250 16,667 150 5000 50,000
50 1667 20,000 225 7500 60,000
75 2500 25,000 300 10,000 75,000
100 3333 33,333 500 12,000 100,000
750

1 167 5000 15 300 3750
3 250 6667 30 500 5000
5 333 8333 45 7500

750
10 500 10,000 75 1000 10,000
15 833 12,500 112.5 1500

12,000
25 1250 16,667 150 2000 15,000
37.5 1667 20,000 225 2500 20,000
50 2500 25,000
75
3333 33,333
100
Fifth: Cooling Classes
Table- lists the cooling classes for liquid-filled transformers and Figure 55 lists the cooling classes for dry-type
transformers.
Class Code Method Of Cooling
Liquid-immersed, self-cooled
OA
Liquid-immersed, self-cooled/forced-air-cooled
OA/FA
Liquid-immersed, self-cooled/forced-air-cooled/forced-
OA/FA/FA aircooled
Liquid-immersed, self-cooled/forced-air-forced-liquid-
OA/FA/FOA
cooled
Table- : Cooling Classes for Liquid-Filled Transformers
Class Code Method Of Cooling
Ventilated, self-cooled
AA
Ventilated, forced-air-cooled
AFA
AA/FA
Ventilated, self-cooled/forced-air-cooled
ANV Non-ventilated, self-cooled
GA Sealed, self-cooled
Table-: Cooling Classes for Dry-Type Transformers
Sixth: Temperature Rise
The rated kVA of a transformer is the kVA output that can be delivered for a specified time, at rated secondary voltage and
rated frequency, without exceeding the specified temperature rise under prescribed conditions.
1- For liquid-filled power transformers:
• In liquid-filled power transformers, the specified time is continuous operation. The rated secondary voltage and
frequency are as stated on the transformer nameplate.
• The specified temperature rise is the average rise of temperature in the windings, which is either 550C or 650C
and is stated on the nameplate.
• The corresponding hottest spot winding temperatures are 650C and 800C and are not stated on the nameplate.
• Sixty-five degrees average rise is the “preferred” rating specified for modern transformer designs.
• Some transformers have a dual temperature rise rating of 550/650C, with a corresponding dual kVA rating
specified on the nameplate.
• Prescribed conditions are an ambient temperature not to exceed 300C averaged over a 24 hour period and not to
exceed 400C at any time.
• The kVA ratings of outdoor transformers account for the warming effects of full sunlight during daytime hours.
2- For dry type transformers:
There are 5 classes of insulation:
• Class 1300C with a 600C average rise,

• Class 1500C with an 800C average rise,
• Class 1850C with a 1150C rise,
• Class 2000C with a 1300C average rise,
• Class 2200C with a 1500C average rise.
The kVA ratings for dry type transformers have the same ambient temperature basis as for liquid-filled transformers.
Seventh: Altitude
To allow for reduced cooling at higher elevations de-rate the transformer nameplate kVA by 0.3% for each 330 feet over
3300 feet above sea level.
In the next article, we will focus on the other points in Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations which are:
• Calculations procedures,
• Special cases.
Power And Distribution Transformers Sizing Calculations –
Part Four
In Article “Power and Distribution Transformers Sizing Calculations – Part One”, we indicate that the contents of our
Glossary of Sizing Power and Distribution Transformers,

The following points were explained before (or will be explained) in our course “EP-3:Electrical Procurement –
Transformers Course”:


Transformers Sizing Calculations – Part One”.
Also, in Article “Power and Distribution Transformers Sizing Calculations – Part Two” , we indicate that Our study for the

• Calculations procedures For Sizing of Power and Distribution Transformers,
• Special cases.
And we explained in this article the Resources used to calculate basic ratings of power and distribution transformers while
we explained the selection factors for the Power and Distribution Transformers in article “Power and Distribution
Transformers Sizing Calculations – Part Three”
Today we will explain the calculations procedures for sizing of Power and Distribution Transformers.
Note: I’d like from all of you to review our course “EP-3: Electrical Procurement – Transformers Course” to be more
familiar with the contents of our new articles about the Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations.
Calculations Procedures For
Sizing Of Power And Distribution Transformers.
In power systems, there are many devices whose proper size is critical to the design of a power delivery system. One of
the most important is the power transformer.
There are several factors involved in the process of sizing a transformer which were explained in article “Power and
Distribution Transformers Sizing Calculations – Part Three”, these factors can be used to determine if a transformer can
handle its required operating load or not. Inadequately sized transformers may shorten the equipment's operating life or
cause overloading failures.
Now, we will explain step by step the accurate sizing calculations of Power and Distribution Transformers which will
include the following:
1. Applicable calculations procedures for sizing of power and distribution transformers,

2. Applicable procedures for calculating power and distribution transformer ratios,
3. Applicable procedures for calculating power transformer efficiency,
4. Applicable procedures for calculating power transformer voltage regulation.
1- Applicable Calculations Procedures
For Sizing Of Power And Distribution Transformers.
Summary Of Selection/Calculation Procedures
1. Select Power or Distribution Transformer,

2. Select Liquid-Filled or Dry-Type Transformer,
3. Select Primary Voltage,
4. Select Secondary Voltage,
5. Select BIL Ratings,
6. Calculate Load kW and kVAR,
7. Calculate Site kVA,
8. Calculate Adjusted Site kVA,
9. Select Transformer kVA Ratings from Standard Sizes,
10. Select Transformer Cooling Class kVA Ratings.
Step# 1
Selected data:
• Power or Distribution?
• Liquid-Filled or Dry-Type?
Select power or distribution transformer based on given information then select a liquid-filled or a
dry-type.
Selection Guide:
• Power transformer: used between the generator and the distribution circuits and these are
usually rated at 500 kVA and above. Power transformers are available for step-up operation, primarily
used at the generator and referred to as generator step-up (GSU) transformers, and for step-down
operation, mainly used to feed distribution circuits. See Fig.1
Fig.1
• Distribution transformers: Using distribution transformers, the primary feeder voltage is

reduced to actual utilization voltage for domestic/ industrial use. See Fig.2
Fig.2
How to select between Liquid-Filled or Dry-Type Transformers?
Liquid-Filled Transformers Dry-Type Transformers
Suitable For Very High Suitable For Indoor

Applications Voltages And Outdoor Applications Of 600V And
Applications Below
Location To The Load Further Closer
Fire Hazard Higher Lower

Environmental Contamination
Higher Lower
On Surroundings And People
Size For The Same Rating Smaller Bigger
First Cost For The Same Rating Lower Higher

Installation Cost For The Same
Higher Lower
Rating
Over-Load Capability For The
More Less
Same Rating
Life Expectancy For The Same
More Less
Rating
No-Load Losses For The Same
Less More
Rating
Audible Sound Level For The
Less More
Same Rating
Step# 2
Selected data:
• Primary Voltage?
• Secondary Voltage?
Select the primary and secondary voltage ratings from Table-1 and the given information.
For three-phase transformers, assume 3Ø, 3-wire, delta-connected primaries and 3Ø, 4-wire, wye-
connected secondaries.
Voltage No. of Phases No. of Wires
120/240 V 1Ø 3
480 V 3
3Ø
208Y/120 V 4
3Ø
480Y/277 V 4
3Ø
2400 V*
3Ø 3
4160 V
3Ø 3
6900 V*
3Ø 3
13,800 V
3Ø 3
34,500 V*
3Ø 3
69,000 V
3Ø 3
115,000 V
3Ø 3
230,000 V
3Ø 3
Table-1: Standard Voltage Ratings
Step# 3
Selected data:
• BIL (primary winding)?

• BIL (secondary winding)?
Select the BIL Rating for the transformer from Table-2 for liquid-filled transformers, or from Table-
3 for dry-type transformers.
Nominal Transformer BIL Chopped Wave Low

System Category Full Minimum Minimum Frequency
Voltage Wave Voltage Time to Test Label
kV Flashover
kV crest kV kV
rms Crest sec rms
0.48 and Power and 30 36 1.0 10

below Distribution
2.4 Power 60 69 1.5 15
4.16 Power 75 88 1.6 19
13.8 Distribution 95 110 1.8 34
13.8 Power 110 130 2.0 34

34.5/19.9 Distribution 150 175 3.0 50
34.5/19.9 Power 200 230 3.0 70
69 Power 350 400 3.0 140
115 Power 450 520 3.0 185
230 Power 825 950 3.0 360
Table-2: Transformer BIL Ratings for liquid-immersed transformers
Nominal BIL Low Full Crest Impulse Levels

System Frequency Wave Chopped
Voltage Voltage 1.2 x 50 s Wave
Insulation Minimum
Level Time To
Flashover
Sec
kV rms kV kV crest kV crest kV crest
0.48 and 10 4 10 10 1.0
below
2.4 20 10 20 20 1.0
4.16 30 12 30 30 1.0
13.8 60 19 60 60 1.5
34.5 150 50 150 150 2.25
Table-3 BIL Ratings for Dry-Type Transformers
Step# 4
Calculated Data:
• Calculate Load kW and kVAR,

• Calculate Site kVA,
• Calculate Adjusted Site kVA.
A- Calculate the load kW for each load or combination of loads at rated utilization voltage.
Note: Include any projected (known) future loads.
kWload = 3 x kV x I x p.f. or
kWload = kVAload x p.f.
B- Calculate the load kVAR for each load or combination of loads at rated utilization voltage.
Note: Include any projected (known) future loads.
kVARload = 3 x kV x I x sin (cos-1 p.f.) or
kVARload = kWload x tan (cos-1 p.f.)
C- Calculate site kVA.
kVA(site) = (kW2 total + kVAR2 total)1/2
D- Calculate the adjusted site kVA after derating for temperature from Table-4.
Transformer type Actual Ambient temp. De-rating factor

liquid-filled power
the average ambient
transformers 1.5% for each 10C over 300C
temperature exceeds 300C
the average ambient

the average ambient

Table-4: Ambient Temperature De-Rating
Example-1:
Use a design ambient temperature of 400C.
Then:
kVA (adjusted) = kVA (site)/0.85 for liquid-filled transformers,
kVA (adjusted) = kVA (site)/0.94 for dry-type transformers with 1500C insulation,
kVA (adjusted) = kVA (site)/0.96 for dry-type transformers with 2200C insulation.
Step# 5
Selected data:
• Standard kVA rating.

Select the next standard size kVA-rated transformer from Table-5 for liquid-filled transformers, or
from Table-6 for dry-type transformers.
Note:
For self-cooled transformers (OA or AA only) add 10% for growth.
3 167 5000 15 1000 15,000
5 250 6667 30 1500 20,000
10 333 8333 45 2000 25,000
15 500 10,000 75 2500 30,000
25 833 12,500 112.5 3750 37,500
37.5 1250 16,667 150 5000 50,000
50 1667 20,000 225 7500 60,000
75 2500 25,000 300 10,000 75,000
100 3333 33,333 500 12,000 100,000
750

1 167 5000 15 300 3750
3 250 6667 30 500 5000
5 333 8333 45 7500

750
10 500 10,000 75 1000 10,000
15 833 12,500 112.5 1500

12,000
25 1250 16,667 150 2000 15,000
37.5 1667 20,000 225 2500 20,000
50 2500 25,000
75
3333 33,333
100
Step# 6
Selected data:
• Cooling class kVA ratings.

Select the cooling class kVA ratings as follows:
• From Table-7 for liquid-filled transformers that are rated 750 - 12,500 kVA or
• From Table-8 for liquid-filled transformers that are Greater Than 12.5 MVA and
• From Table-9 for dry-type transformers.
Single-Phase (kVA) Three-Phase (kVA) Three-Phase (kVA)

Without Load Tap Changing With Load Tap Changing
OA FA OA FA OA FA
833 958 750 862 - -
1 250 1 437 1 000 1 150 - -
1 667 1 917 1 500 1 725 - -
2 500 3 125 2 000 2 300 - -
3 333 4 167 2 500 3 125 - -
5 000 6 250 3 750 4 687 3 750 4 687
6 667 8 333 5 000 6 250 5 000 6 250
8 333 10 417 7 500 9 375 7 500 9 375
- - 10 000 12 500 10 000 12 500
Table-7: The Cooling Class kVA Ratings For Liquid-Filled Transformers (750 - 12,500 KVA)
OA First-Stage Second-Stage
18 000 24 000 30 000
21 000 28 000 35 000
24 000 32 000 40 000
27 000 36 000 45 000
40 000 53 333 66 667
45 000 60 000 75 000
Table-8: The Cooling Class kVA Ratings For Liquid-Filled Transformers Greater Than 12.5 MVA
Self-Cooled Forced-Air-Cooled
(AA) Ratings (AA/FA) Ratings
(kVA) (kVA)
750 1000
1000 1333
1500 2000
2000 2667
2500 3333
3750 5000
5000 6667
7500 10000
Table-9: The Cooling Class kVA Ratings for Dry-Type Transformers
Notes:
• The forced-cooled kVA ratings of each transformer serving a double-ended substation shall
be capable of feeding the entire load of both buses with the bus tie breaker closed.
• Forced-air cooling shall be provided on all transformers that are rated 2500 kVA and larger.
Part Five
In Article “Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations – part One”, we indicate that the contents of our

The following points were explained before (or will be explained) in our course “EP-3:Electrical Procurement –
Transformers Course”:


Transformers sizing calculations – part One”.
Also, in Article “Power and Distribution Transformers Sizing Calculations – Part Two” ,we indicate that Our study for the

• Calculations procedures For Sizing of Power and Distribution Transformers,
• Special cases.
And we explained in this article the Resources used to calculate basic ratings of power and distribution transformers while
we explained the selection factors for the Power and Distribution Transformers in article “Power and Distribution
Transformers Sizing Calculations – Part Three”
In article “Power And Distribution Transformers Sizing Calculations – Part Four”, we indicted that the accurate sizing
calculations of Power and Distribution Transformers will include the following:
• Applicable calculations procedures for sizing of power and distribution transformers,

• Applicable procedures for calculating power and distribution transformer ratios,
• Applicable procedures for calculating power transformer efficiency,
• Applicable procedures for calculating power transformer voltage regulation.
And we explained the Applicable calculations procedures for sizing of Power and Distribution Transformers in
this article.
Today we will explain the following:
• Applicable procedures for calculating power and distribution transformer ratios,

• Applicable procedures for calculating power transformer efficiency,
• Applicable procedures for calculating power transformer voltage regulation,
• Special Cases.
Note: I’d like from all of you to review our course “EP-3: Electrical Procurement – Transformers Course” to be
more familiar with the contents of our new articles about the Power and Distribution Transformers sizing
calculations.
2- Applicable Procedures For Calculating Power And Distribution

Transformer Ratios.
Step# 1:
Determine the turns ratio.
Np/Ns = Ep/Es = a (a: transformer turns ratio)
Step# 2:
Determine the volts-per-turn ratios.
volts-per-turn (primary) = volts-per-turn (secondary)
Ep/Np = Es/Ns
Then:
Ep = (Np/Ns) x Es
Es = (Ns/Np) x Ep
And:
Np = (Ep/Es) x Ns
Ns = (Es/Ep) x Np
Step# 3:
Determine the ampere-turns relationships.
ampere-turns (primary) = ampere-turns (secondary)

Ip x Np = Is X Ns
Then:
Ip = (Ns/Np) x Is
Is = (Np/Ns) x Ip
And:
Np = (Is/Ip) x Np
Ns = (Ip/Is) x Np
Step# 4:
Determine the volt-ampere relationships.
VAin = VAout
Ep x Ip = Es x Is (for single-phase transformers)
3 x Ep x Ip = 3 x Es x Is (for three-phase transformers)
Or
kVAin = kVAout
kVp x Ip = kVs x Is (for single-phase transformers)
3 x kVp x Ip = 3 x kVs x Is (for three-phase transformers)
Where:
Ep or KVp : Primary Voltage,
Es or KVs: Secondary Voltage,
Ip: Primary Current,
Is: Secondary Current,
Np: Primary Turns Number,
Ns: Secondary Turns Number.
3- Applicable Procedures for Calculating

Power Transformer Efficiency.
Note:
Efficiency is calculated by dividing the output real power by the input real power. The efficiency will
vary depending on the amount of load because the copper losses of a transformer vary with load.
Step# 1:
Determine the transformer kVA, total copper losses, and total iron losses.
Step# 2:
Calculate the output power of the transformer at the given power factor.
Pout = kVA x 1000 x power factor (p.f.) in watts
Step# 3:
Calculate the required input power.
Pin = Pout + copper losses + iron losses
Step# 4:
Calculate the percent efficiency.
% efficiency = (Pout/Pin) x 100

4- Applicable Procedures for Calculating
Power Transformer Voltage Regulation
Note:
As a transformer becomes loaded, the voltage at the secondary terminals of the transformer
decreases. This decrease in voltage is caused by the voltage drop across the internal impedance of the
transformer. The higher the transformer impedance, the higher the voltage drop.
Step# 1:
Determine the voltage (E full-load) of the transformer at the secondary terminals under full-load
conditions.
Step# 2:
Calculate the percent voltage regulation.
% Voltage Regulation = [(E no-load – E full-load)/(E no-load)] x 100
where E no-load = the transformer’s rated secondary voltage
4- Special Cases In Transformers Sizing Calculations
Some factors must be taken in consideration in some cases when sizing the power and distribution transformers
these are the special cases which will be as follows:
1. Secondary Unit Substations,
2. Paralleled Transformers,
3. K-Factor Transformers,
4. Transformers with Large Motor Loads.
1- Secondary Unit Substations
What is the Secondary Unit Substations?
A secondary unit substation, sometimes called a power center, is a close-coupled assembly consisting
of three-phase power transformers, enclosed high voltage incoming line sections, and enclosed
secondary low voltage outgoing sections encompassing the following electrical ratings:
• Transformer kVA: 112.5 thru 2500 kVA (self-cooled rating), liquid-filled, dry-type, or cast coil
• Primary Voltages: 2.4 kV thru 34.5 kV
• Secondary Voltages: 208, 240, 480, or 600 Volt (maximum)
As a result of locating power transformers and their close-coupled secondary switchboards as close as
possible to the areas of load concentration, the secondary distribution cables or busways are kept to
minimum lengths. This concept has obvious advantages such as:
• Reduced power losses.

• Improved voltage regulation.
• Improved service continuity.
• Reduced exposure to low voltage faults.
• Increased flexibility.
• Minimum installed cost.
• Efficient space utilization.
Components of Secondary Unit Substations:
The major components of a unit substation are:
• primary switchgear, for example, power fuses, medium voltage circuit breakers, or
interrupters,
• the transformer (liquid-filled or dry type),
• The secondary distribution section (main and feeder low voltage power circuit breakers).
Types of Secondary Unit Substations
There are two main types of Secondary Unit Substation as follows:
1. Single-Ended Substations
2. Double-Ended Substations
1- Single-Ended Substations:
Figure-1 shows the one-line diagram and physical layout of a secondary unit substation that uses a radial system
arrangement. This type of radial substation arrangement is called a single-ended substation because there is only one
incoming line section at the one end (west) of the unit (prepackaged) assembly.
Fig-1: Single-Ended Substations

2- Double-Ended Substations:
Figure-2 shows the one-line diagram and physical layout of a secondary unit substation that uses a secondary
selective system arrangement. This type of arrangement, the secondary selective system, overcomes the major
disadvantage of the radial system in that it provides duplicate paths of supply to the secondary bus of each load
center. This selective system has two step-down transformers, each with its own incoming primary feeder. The
secondary bus associated with each transformer is connected through a tie breaker. Normally, the system is operated
with the tie connection open, that is, as two separate radial systems operating independently of each other.
Fig-2: Double-Ended Substations
With the loss of one of the primary feeders and/or transformers, the main secondary breaker for that circuit can be
opened and the tie breaker closed, allowing the one remaining primary feeder and transformer to energize all of the
secondary bus. The service to one-half of the load is momentarily interrupted during this transition period.
Factors Must Be Taken into Consideration when Sizing Unit Substations
The selection of kVA and impedance ratings of unit substation transformers is very critical to the
levels of available fault current on the secondary main bus side of the substation. This available fault
current on the secondary side of the transformer, assuming that there are no other fault current
sources on the secondary side, is called The Transformer Let-Through Current.
Procedures For Calculating Transformer Let-Through Current
Transformer impedance dictates how much fault current a transformer can supply to a fault for a
given kVA size. The higher the impedance, the lower the available fault current. Sometimes
transformer impedances are used to limit the let-through current (sometimes called the infinite bus
fault current calculations).
By calculating the transformer let-through current, you can estimate the available fault current at the
secondary terminals of a transformer. Transformer let-through current can be calculated using the
following steps:
Step#1:
Calculate rated secondary current for the transformer.
Isec = kVA/(1.732 x kV)
Step#2:
Determine % Z from Table-1 for single-phase transformers and Table-2 for three-phase transformers.
%Z=
Note: Convert %Z into decimal form

Example: 5% = 0.05
Step#3:
Calculate the available short circuit current (Transformer Let-Through Current).
ISCA (ILT ) = Isec/Z
Impedance (%Z)
• The impedance (%Z) of the transformer, which is based on the self-cooled (OA) rating of the
transformer, is the main factor in limiting the magnitude of the fault current available on the low
voltage section of the system, especially at points close to the substation secondary bus.
• Because of the importance of the transformer impedance in limiting the available fault
current, unit substation transformers are designed on purpose to have impedances values of at least
5.0%, with a typical value being 5.75%. This higher impedance value is obtained by increasing the
leakage reactance of the transformer windings, rather than increasing the winding resistance. Higher-
resistance windings would increase the heat losses in the transformer, which is not desirable.
Tables of Standard Impedances for Single-Phase and Three-Phase Transformers
• When selecting a transformer, standard impedance values should be used.

• Table-1 lists the standard impedance values for single-phase transformers.
• Table-2 lists standard impedance values for three-phase transformers.
TYPICAL SINGLE-PHASE POWER TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCES
PRIMARY NOMINAL
RATING IMPEDANCE
VOLTAGE
kVA %
kV
2.4 2.2
3
13.8 2.8
2.4 2.2
10 13.8 2.4
34.5 5.5
2.4 2.5
25 13.8 2.3
34.5 5.5
2.4 2.4
13.8 2.5
50
34.5 5.5
69.0 6.5
2.4 5.5
100
69.0 6.5
2.4 3.7
13.8 3.8
167
34.5 5.5
69.0 6.5
Table-1: Standard Impedances for Single-Phase Power Transformers
TYPICAL THREE-PHASE POWER TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCES
SELF COOLED NOMINAL HIGH VOLTAGE WINDING RATING

RATING
UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO
MVA
13.8 KV 34.5 KV 69 KV 115 KV 230 KV
UP TO
1 5.0 5.5 6.0
5 6.5 6.5 7.5 9.0
10 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
15 13.0 13.0 10.5 10.0
30 12.5 10.5 10.0
60 11.0 12.5 15.0
90 11.0 15.0 15.0
120 17.0
Table-2: Standard Impedances for Three-Phase Power Transformers
Example:
Referring to Figure 56, what is the transformer let-through current (ILT) at the secondary bus? What is
ILT if the impedance of the transformer is specified at 5% versus 5.75%? What is ILT if the impedance of
the transformer is specified at 7% versus 5.75%?
Answer:
1. ILT = IFLA-sec/Z = kVA/[( 3 x kVsec) x Z]
• Where Z is expressed as a decimal
2. ILT @ 5.75% = 2500/[( 3 x .48) x .0575] = 3007/0.0575 = 52.3 kA
3. ILT @ 5% = 3007/0.05 = 60.1 kA
4. ILT @ 7% = 3007/0.07 = 43.0 kA
In the next article, we will continue discussing other special cases for Power and Distribution Transformers sizing
calculations which are:
Part Six
Subject Of Previous Articles Article
Glossary of Sizing Power and Distribution Transformers, Power and Distribution Transformers sizing
calculations – part One
Resources used to calculate basic ratings of power and Power and Distribution Transformers Sizing
distribution transformers Calculations – Part Two
the selection factors for the Power and Distribution Power and Distribution Transformers Sizing
Transformers Calculations – Part Three
Applicable calculations procedures for sizing of power Power And Distribution Transformers Sizing
and distribution transformers Calculations – Part Four
1-Applicable procedures for calculating power and Power And Distribution Transformers Sizing
distribution transformer ratios, Calculations – Part Five
2-Applicable procedures for calculating power
transformer efficiency,
transformer voltage regulation,
4-Special Cases In Transformers Sizing Calculations:
Secondary Unit Substations
calculations.
Today, we will explain other special cases for Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations; Paralleled
Transformers.
Special Cases In Transformers Sizing Calculations
2- Paralleled Transformers
Here we will explain the limiting conditions of connecting transformers in parallel and loading/sizing
considerations that must be followed. Firstly, let’s see what is meant by Paralleled Transformers?
If two or more transformers are connected to a same supply on the primary side and to a same load
on the secondary side, then it is called as Paralleled transformers.
Fig-1: Paralleled Transformers
Figure-1 shows two transformers connected in parallel. The transformers are connected in parallel by
connecting the similarly marked terminals together. For example, terminal X1 of T1 to terminal X1 of
T2, terminal X2 of T1 to X2 of T2, etc.
Importance for using Paralleled Transformers
1- Increased Load:
When load is increased and it exceeds the capacity of existing transformer, another transformer may
be connected in parallel with the existing transformer to supply the increased load.
2- Non-availability of large transformer:
If a large transformer is not available which can meet the total requirement of load, two or more
small transformers can be connected in parallel to increase the capacity.
3- Increased reliability:
If multiple transformers are running in parallel, and a fault occurs in one transformer, then the other
parallel transformers still continue to serve the load and the faulty transformer can be taken out for
the maintenance.
4- Transportation is easier for small transformers:
If installation site is located far away, then transportation of smaller units is easier and may be
economical.
Conditions for Parallel Operation of Transformer
1- Mandatory conditions for Parallel Operation:

• Same Phase angle shift (vector group are same),
• Same Frequency rating,
• Same Polarity,
• Same Phase sequence.
2- Mandatory Conditions for Optimal Parallel Operation:

• Same primary and secondary voltage ratings,
• Same Turns Ratio,
• Same Percentage Impedance and X/R ratio,
• Identical Position of Tap changer,
• Same KVA ratings.
The factors that should be considered when paralleling transformers
1. Increased Fault Levels,

2. Circulating Currents,
3. Limiting kVA.
1- Increased Fault Levels
The paralleling of the secondaries of transformers increases the short circuit current available, and, therefore
necessitates higher interrupting capacity and more expensive secondary switchgear (bus, breakers, etc.).
Example#1:
Fig-2
Referring to Figure-2, what is the total transformer let-through current at the secondary bus?
Answer:
1. IT = ILT(T1) + ILT(T2) = 2ILT(T1) = 2 [1500/( 3 x .48 x 0.055) = 2 (32803) = 65.6 kA

2- Circulating Currents
If the Mandatory Conditions for Optimal Parallel Operation do not exist, circulating currents will flow
between and through the secondary windings of both transformers.
Definitions:
The circulating current is the current flowing at no load in the high and low voltage windings,
excluding exciting currents.
Full load current is the current flowing in the transformer with a load connected, absent of exciting
and circulating currents.
Disadvantages of Circulating Currents:
• Lower the transformer efficiency
• Reduce the maximum amount of load that the combined transformers can carry.
The magnitude of the circulating current
The magnitude of the circulating current that flows depends on which of the above optimal
conditions do not exist. Let’s consider each of these optimal conditions to determine what occurs if
they do not exist as follows:
a- If the turns ratios are not equal
A circulating current flows even if there is no load on the transformers. This circulating current flows
because the voltage is different on the secondary side of the transformer. In figure-1, if transformer
T1 has a higher turns ratio than transformer T2, then T1 will have a lower secondary voltage than T2.
b- If the transformers do not have equal impedances
Transformers will not equally share the load. Current will divide between the two transformers, but
not necessarily equally. . In figure-1, if transformer T1 has a higher impedance than transformer T2,
then more current will flow through T2 than T1. This is the same principle as the principle of current
dividing between two paralleled impedances. If unequal impedances exist, one transformer can easily
overload.
c- Different Phase shift and polarity
Paralleling two transformers with different phase shifts (e.g., Δ-Δ to Δ-Y) or different polarities (e.g.,
subtractive to additive) will cause large secondary circulating currents to flow.
3- Limiting kVA
Two dissimilar transformers (where one of the Mandatory Conditions for Optimal Parallel Operation
doesn’t exist) may be operated in parallel, but the following two conditions must be met:
1. The circulating current should not exceed 10% percent of the full load rated current
of either transformer.
2. The total load (combination of the circulating currents and full load current) should
be limited to a value below the full rated current in either transformer. This total load limit is
called the limiting kVA or the maximum kVA load of two transformers that are being
operated in parallel.
Example#2:
Referring to Figure-1, what is the circulating current magnitude that flows between the paralleled
transformers, and what is the limiting kVA of the two transformers that are being operated in
parallel?
Answer:
Icirc = (kV1 - kV2)/[(Z1kV1)/(100*I1) + (Z2kV2)/(100*I2)]
Where:
• kV1 and kV2 are the kV secondary voltages for transformers T1 and T2 at no-load.
• Z1 and Z2 are the percent impedances for transformers T1 and T2.
• I1 and I2 are the full load current for transformers T1 and T2.
I1 = kVA1/( 3 x kV1) = 12000/( 3 x 14.0) = 494.9 A

I2 = kVA2/( 3 x kV2) = 10000/( 3 x 13.9) = 415.4 A
Icirc = (14.0 - 13.9)/[(9 x 14.0)/(100 x 494.9) + (8 x 13.9)/(100 x 415.4)] = 19.15 A
The circulating current must be less than 10% of the smaller of I1 or I2.
Icirc <(0.10 x I1)<(0.10 x 494.9) = 49.5 A

Icirc <(0.10 x I2)<(0.10 x 415.4) = 41.5 A
The circulating current is less than 41.5 A and therefore it is acceptable.
kVAlimit = Zmin x [(kVA1/Z1) + (kVA2/Z2)] x 0.9 = 8 x [(12000/9) + (1000/8)] x 0.9 = 18600 kVA = 18.6
MVA
So, Total power supplied to the secondary bus cannot exceed 18.6 MVA. If more than 18.6 MVA of
load is connected, transformer T2 will overload resulting in possible damage.
Additional precautions must be considered before paralleling transformers
• If paralleling two transformers with load tap changers, the automatic sensing relay which
controls the tap position of the transformers must be set up in a master/slave configuration. Both
load tap changers must “stay in step” (stay on the same taps). The master/slave configuration system
should allow one transformer’s sensing relay to control the tap changer on both transformers.
• If paralleling transformers that have a high secondary current, consider the impedance of the
cables or bus that is used to parallel the secondary windings. Small changes in impedance may have a
large effect on load sharing.
Summary for Parallel Transformers Connections
Transformer
Equal Unequal Overloading Circulating
Parallel Recommended
Loading Loading Concerns Currents
Connection Types paralleling Connection
Equal
impedances—
Yes No No No Yes
Equal ratios—
Same kVA
Equal
impedances—
No Yes No No Yes but Not Optimal
Equal ratios—
Different kVA
Unequal
impedances—
No Yes Yes No Not Optimal
Equal ratios—
Same kVA
Unequal
impedances—
No Yes Yes No Not Optimal
Equal ratios—
Different kVA
Unequal
impedances—
Yes No Yes Yes Not Optimal
Unequal ratios—
Same kVA
Unequal
impedances—
No Yes Yes Yes Not Optimal
Unequal ratios—
Different kVA
Different Phase
shift— Not allowed
Different polarity
Part Seven
1- Applicable procedures for calculating power and Power And Distribution Transformers Sizing
2- Applicable procedures for calculating power
3- Applicable procedures for calculating power
4- Special Cases In Transformers Sizing Calculations:
Special Cases In Transformers Sizing Calculations: Power And Distribution Transformers Sizing
Paralleled Transformers Calculations – Part Six
calculations.
Today, we will explain other special cases for Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations; K-Factor
Transformers.
3- K-Factor Transformers
Linear Vs. Nonlinear Loads
Linear Loads:
A load that does not affect the input waveform, which is a pure sinewave, composed of a
fundamental frequency (e.g. 60 hz) component with no multiple frequencies. Typical linear loads are
resistive heating and induction motors.
Nonlinear Loads:
A load that distorts the input sinewave such that the resultant waveform is composed of a
fundamental frequency (e.g. 60 hz) component and multiple frequency components (e.g. 120 hz, 180
hz,..etc) called harmonics. Examples of these loads used in offices are: computers, fax machines,
copiers, printers, cash registers, UPS systems, and solid-state ballasts. In industrial plants, nonlinear
loads are such as variable speed drives, HID lighting, solid-state starters and solid-state
instruments. See Fig.1
Fig.1: voltage and current waveforms for nonlinear loads.

Harmonics
As defined by ANSI / IEEE Std. 519, Harmonics are voltages or currents at frequencies that are integer
multiples of the fundamental (60 Hz) frequency: 120 Hz, 180 Hz, 240 Hz, 300 Hz, etc. which called odd
harmonics (3rd, 5th, 7th ,..., 25th,...). See Table-1.
Harmonic Frequency in Hz
fundamental 60
3rd 120
5th 300
7th 420
9th 540
11th 660
etc. etc.
Table-1: Harmonics
The Effect of Nonlinear Loads on the Electrical Power Systems
Nonlinear loads produce harmonic currents which flow from the load towards the power source
following the path of least impedances result in harmonic voltage drops which are observed as
harmonic voltage distortion. The voltage distortions could become very severe when the power
systems inductive and capacitive impedances become equal, a condition of parallel resonance.
The Problems Caused By Harmonic Currents Include:
1. Overheating of cables, especially the neutral conductor, but if normal wiring sizing
methods are employed, then the derating for wiring for harmonics is minimal and can be
ignored,
2. Overheating and vibration in induction motors,
3. Increased losses in transformers due to stray magnetic losses in the core, and eddy
current and resistive losses in the windings. eddy current losses are of most concern when
harmonics are present, because they increase approximately with the square of the
frequency,
4. Where power factor capacitors are fitted, harmonic currents can damage them and
care must be taken to avoid resonance with the supply inductance.
K-Factor
• When transformer supply a non-sinusoidal load current with the same rms value than rated
current, DC losses remain constant but winding eddy losses increase due to the higher frequency of
the harmonics, as a result, winding temperature rise increases and temperature limits can be exceed.
• So, K Factor rating is used to define the transformer’s ability to withstand the additional
heating generated by the harmonic current.
• K-Factor is a ratio between the additional losses due to harmonics and the eddy losses at 60
Hz. Note that K-Factor transformers do not eliminate harmonic distortion; they withstand the non-
linear load condition without overheating.
• K-Factor transformers are designed to be operated fully loaded with any harmonic
load having K-Factor equal to or less than its K-rating. For example, a K-13 transformer can
be fully loaded with any harmonic load having a K-Factor up to K-13. If the load has a K-Factor greater
than 13, then the transformer cannot be safely operated at full load and would require derating.
• The great advantage of a ‘K-rated’ transformer is that it will have been designed with
harmonic loads in mind and care will have been taken to keep losses low. For example:
1. Eddy current losses will have been reduced by the use of stranded conductors,
2. Magnetic losses will have been reduced by the use of low loss steels,
3. The neutral point connections are usually brought out individually, so that the star
point has a 300% current rating
• Standard Industry K-Factor Transformer Ratings:
K-4, K-9, K-13, K-20, K-30, K-40, K-50
• The larger the K Factor, the more harmonics are present. Linear loads, for example, have a K
Factor of 1.
• No UL listing for K Factor means transformer is rated only for linear loads.
• UL listing requires label stating: “Suitable for non-sinusoidal current loads with K Factor not
to exceed x ”. (x= 4, 9, 13, 20, 30, 40 or 50). See Fig.2.
Fig.2: UL Label for K-factor Transformers

Diversity of Harmonics
Each non-linear load generates harmonics independently with the magnitude and phase angle of each
harmonic depending on the design of the circuit and the instantaneous loading. When several loads
are connected in parallel, for example, a number of personal computers on an office floor, the overall
sum of each harmonic will be less than the sum of the individual magnitudes. See Fig.3.
Fig.3: Diversity of Harmonics
In other words, the K-factor of the overall load is less than that which would be expected from
measurement of all the individual items. Similarly, when there are linear loads present, the overall K-
factor is reduced because the harmonic load is a smaller proportion of the total load.
K-Factor or Factor K?
There are two approaches in selecting a transformer feeding non-linear loads as follows:
1. In the United States, Underwriters Laboratories used to calculate the factor increase
in eddy current loss and specify a transformer designed to cope; this is known as ‘K-Factor’.
2. in Europe, transformer manufacturers used to estimate by how much a standard
transformer should be de-rated so that the total loss on harmonic load does not exceed the
fundamental design loss; this is known as ‘factor K’.
The figures produced by each method are numerically different; ‘factor K’ is a total rating factor while
‘K-factor’ is a multiplier (although a de-rating factor can be derived from it). The fact that both
methods use K as a designation can lead to confusion when talking to suppliers.
Disadvantage of using De-rated Transformers (factor K) instead of K-Factor Transformer
The use of de-rated standard transformers instead of K-Factor Transformers carries some
disadvantage as under:
1. The de-rated transformer nameplate indicates greater capacity. Initially, the
transformer may be operated at reduced loading. But in the future, additional loads may be
increased without reference back to the initial de-rating. This may lead to overloading and
consequent failure.
2. Because the transformer is oversized, the primary over-current protection level may
be too high to protect the secondary, but if the protection level is reduced, the inrush
current may cause tripping. Larger overcurrent protection may be required for the oversized
(de-rated) standard transformer resulting in larger conductor requirements with the
associated higher feeder costs.
3. The transformers designed specifically for nonlinear loads minimize losses due to
harmonic currents. They operate with the nonlinear loads more efficiently and generate less
heat that need to be dissipated.
4. There is also a potential maintenance problem for oversized (de-rated)
transformers.
Sizing Methods of Transformers for Non-Linear Loads
We have three methods for Sizing Transformers for Non-Linear Loads as follows:
Method#1: ANSI / IEEE C57.110 has a procedure for de-rating standard distribution transformers for
non-linear loading but We will explain this method later since it is more complicated.
Method#2: Underwriters’ Laboratories method where the appropriate K-Factor for a transformer
with non-linear loads can be calculated as follows:
K = Σ (Ih)2 (h)2
Where:
Ih = RMS Current at Harmonic h
h = Harmonic Order, i.e. 3rd, 5th, 7th, etc.
Fig.4: K-factor calculations by UL
Method#3: Estimating K-Factor from Tables
1- List the kVA value for each load category to be supplied. Next, assign a K-factor designation that
corresponds to the relative level of harmonics drawn by each type of load. Refer to Table-2.
2- Multiply the kVA of each load or load category times the Index of Load K-rating (ILK) that
corresponds to the assigned K-factor rating. This result is an indexed kVA-ILK value.
KVA x ILK = kVA-ILK
2- Tabulate the total connected load kVA for all load categories to be supplied.
4- Next, add-up the kVA-ILK values for all loads or load categories to be supplied by the transformer.
5- Divide the grand total kVA-ILK value by the total kVA load to be supplied. This will give an average
ILK for that combination of loads.
Total kVA-ILK/ Total kVA = average ILK
6- From Table-2 find the K-factor rating whose ILK is equal to or greater than the calculated ILK.
Description
K-Factor ILK
Incandescent Lighting
Electric Resistance Heating
Motors (without solid state drives)
K1 0.00
Control Transformers / Electromagnetic Control Devices
Motor-Generators (without solid state drives)
Standard Distribution Transformers

Electric Discharge Lighting (HID)
UPS with Optional Input Filter
K4
Welders 25.82
Induction Heating Equipment
PLCs and Solid State Controls
Telecommunications Equipment (PBX)
UPS without Input Filtering
Multiwire Receptacle Circuits in General Care Areas of Health Care
Facilities, K13 57.74
Schools, etc.
Multiwire Receptacle Circuits Supplying Testing
Equipment on an Assembly Line
Main-Frame Computer Loads

Solid State Motor Drives (variable speed drives) K20 80.94
Multiwire Receptacle Circuits in Critical Care Areas in Hospitals
Multiwire Receptacle Circuits in Industrial, Medical and Educational

Laboratories 123.54
K30
Multiwire Receptacle Circuits in Commercial Office Spaces
Small Main-Frames (mini and micro)
Table-2: Estimating K-Factor

Notes:
• The problem associated with calculating K- Factor is selecting the range of harmonic
frequencies that should be included. Some use up to 15th harmonic, others up to 25 th harmonic, and
still others include up to 50th harmonic.
• For the same load, each of these calculations can yield significantly different K-
Factors, because even very small current levels associated with higher harmonics, when multiplied by
the harmonic number squared, can yield significantly to the K-Factor.
• Based on the underlying assumptions of ANSI / IEEE C57.II0, it seems reasonable to limit
the K-Factor calculation to harmonic currents less than 25 th harmonic.
• In establishing standard transformer K-Factor rating; UL chose ratings of 1, 4, 9, 13, 20, 30, 40
and 50. From a practical viewpoint individual loads with K-Factors greater than 20 are infrequent.
• For example, At best office areas with some nonlinear loads and large
computer rooms normally have observed K-Factors of 4 to 9. Areas with
high concentrations of single phase computers and terminals have observed K- Factors of 13 to 17.
Part Eight
4-Special Cases In Transformers Sizing
Calculations: Secondary Unit Substations
Special Cases In Transformers Sizing Power And Distribution Transformers Sizing

Calculations: Paralleled Transformers Calculations – Part Six
Special Cases In Transformers Sizing Calculations: K- Power And Distribution Transformers Sizing
Factor Transformers Calculations – Part Seven
calculations.
Today, we will explain other special cases for Power and Distribution Transformers sizing calculations; K-
Factor/Factor K Calculator and Spreadsheet.
K-Factor/Factor K Calculators
Here we will study the programs and excel spreadsheets used for calculation of K-Factor/Factor K
used in sizing transformers with non-linear loads, these programs and excel spreadsheets are:
1. K-Factor/Factor K Calculator,
2. Transformer Calculations Spreadsheet.
1- K-Factor / Factor K Calculator
Note:
This program is designed to assist in the calculation of K Factors. It should be used for reference
purposes only and users should verify that the results are valid for their particular circumstances.
Introduction
This software calculates the K-Factor of a load from the harmonic content according to US and
European practice. The results can be used to select transformers or to determine suitable de-rating
factors for transformers.
How to use?
We will explain the following points to show how this program can be used in the calculation of K-
Factor / Factor K:
• First: Installation,
• Second: Running The Program,
• Third: The Main Window,
• Forth: Making New Calculation File,
• Fifth: Examples for K-Factor,
• Sixth: Examples for Factor K.
First: Installation
1. Double click the K-Factor-Calculation.exe file to install it.
2. The program will be installed to the following directory:
C:\Program Files (x86)\Copper Development Association\K-Factor Calculator\
Second: Running The Program
• From the start menu, click on the file KFC.exe to open it,
• Once the program opens, you will find the option to select the user’s language from English and Francais,
• Also, you will find option to select between:

• Open existing file: thus will take you to a new window of the K-Factor directory where you can change an
existing calculation file or save a new calculation file.
• New file: this will open a new calculation file. In the new calculation file you can select between calculating
K-Factor according to the US standards or Factor K according to the European standards.
• Exit: this will end the program.
Third: The Main Window

The main window of the program have two drop down menus as follows:
A- File drop down menu:
Where you can select again between the following options:
1. Open
2. New
3. Exit
4. Save: A new option is “Save” where you can save your new calculation file or your modification to an
existing calculation file.
B- Method drop down menu:
Again you can select, from this drop menu, between calculating K-Factor according to the US standards or Factor K
according to the European standards.
Forth: Making New Calculation File

A- Input data:
When selecting calculating K-Factor according to the US standards, the Magnitude of each harmonic order, shall be
entered and this can be done by two different methods:
• Method#1: Holding down shift, click and drag in a harmonic order to set the magnitude.
• Method#2: Alternatively, right click in a harmonic order and type the magnitude in the edit box. Click enter
to accept.
• To delete a line/ harmonic order magnitude: Hold down control and click.
As a summary to entry data steps:

• Add/adjust: shift-click
• Set value: Right click
• Delete: Ctrl- click
B- Output Data:
In case of K-Factor calculations: the output data will be as follows:
1. RMS Current,
2. K-Rating.
In case of Factor K calculations: the output data will be as follows:
1. Fundamental Eddy Current Loss,
2. Eddy current loss exponent,
3. RMS Current,
4. Factor K de-rate to.
Fifth: Examples for K-Factor
here are some examples for using this calculator to find K-Factor:
Sixth: Examples for Factor K
here are some examples for using this calculator to find Factor K:
2- Transformer Calculations Spreadsheet
The Transformer Calculations Spreadsheet consists of two parts:
• First part: Transformer Rating Calculator,

• Second part: Transformer Harmonic Calculator.
First part: Transformer Rating Calculator

Enter values in yellow cells only. Other cells will be calculated.
Input data:
• Full-load rating in KVA
• Line-To-Line primary voltage in volt
• Line-To-Line secondary voltage in volt
• And SNL Standard Impedance in % will be selected from Impedance Lookup Table.
Output data:
• Primary current, FLA in amps
• Secondary current, FLA in amps
• Primary fuse, max of 300% in amps
• Primary fuse, min of 125% in amps
• Secondary breaker, 125% in amps
• Fault duty, primary in amps
• Fault duty, secondary in amps
Second part: Transformer Harmonic Calculator

Enter values in yellow cells only. Other cells will be calculated.
Input data:
• Fundamental current in amps

• Third Harmonic current in amps
• Fifth Harmonic current in amps
• Seventh Harmonic current in amps
• Ninth Harmonic current in amps
• Eleventh Harmonic current in amps
• Thirteenth Harmonic current in amps
• Fifteenth Harmonic current in amps
Output data:
• Calculated RMS current, FLA in amps
• Calculated Harmonic Factors - K-Factor
• Calculated Harmonic Factors - FHL-Factor
Notes:
• K-Factor is calculated on RLA, FHL-Factor on rated FLA

• Use 100 amps for per-unit, otherwise use measured loads
• For Fifth Harmonic current, Use 1/7th of RLA for VSD drives
• For Seventh Harmonic current, Use 1/7th of RLA for VSD drives
To download your copy of K-Factor/Factor K Calculator, click on the link.
To download your copy of Transformer Calculations Spreadsheet, click on the link.
Note:
Non-registered members in Electrical-Knowhow website will not be able to open and use the program
and excel spreadsheet.
To register as a member of Electrical-Knowhow website, do the following:

1. Click on “Follow" in bottom of the home page, below the images of our members.
2. After finishing your registration send email to ali1973hassan@yahoo.com, asking for
your password and I will send it with email reply.
Part Nine
4-Special Cases In Transformers Sizing Calculations:
Special Cases In Transformers Sizing Calculations: Power And Distribution Transformers Sizing
Paralleled Transformers Calculations – Part Six
Special Cases In Transformers Sizing Calculations: K- Power And Distribution Transformers Sizing
Factor Transformers Calculations – Part Seven
Special Cases In Transformers Sizing Calculations, K- Power And Distribution Transformers Sizing
Factor/Factor K Calculators Calculations – Part Eight
calculations.
Today, we will explain other special cases for Power and Distribution Transformers sizing
calculations; Transformers with Large Motor Loads .
4- Transformers with Large Motor Loads
introduction
Many engineers when sizing a transformer for some loads they care only about selecting a transformer larger than
the maximum demands they serve, or sometimes larger than the connected loads, so they do one of the following:
1. Add up the kVA loads and match the size of the Transformer to this summation (∑KVA
Loads).
2. Add up the kVA loads, add a percentage like 20% of the total, then match the size of the
Transformer to this summation (in this example, 1.20 X ∑KVA Loads).
Both above methods are non-professional, they can be used by non-specialist for the following reasons:
1. The first method ignores the characteristics of the loads, for example it does not take account of
inrush on Motor Loads, Lighting Loads, Harmonics and the like which can lead to premature failure of the
actual Transformer or large voltage dips, on motor startup.
2. The second method could unnecessarily increase the cost of the asset by over-compensating the
required Transformer size.
Note: for best selecting and sizing of a transformer, please review all the articles listed in above.
Importance of Short Circuit and Motor Starting Calculations in Transformer Sizing
Many engineers didn’t know that Short Circuit Calculations together with Motor Starting Calculations
are also used in Sizing Transformers and this what we will explain herein.
1- Short Circuit Calculations Contribution to Transformer sizing

• Short Circuit condition brings down the voltage very dramatically. If a Short Circuit Test done
for a transformer where full three phase fault happens at the secondary terminals of the transformer,
the amount of voltage at the secondary terminals will be approaching zero, while the transformer is
still requested to deliver short circuit power to the point of fault. If the upstream protection not
operated to interrupt the fault quickly, the transformer will fail and damage.
• Transformer damage (known as the transformer short-time withstand) is dependent on the
amount of fault current and the impedance of the transformer. Usually this transformer short-time
withstand could only last for a few seconds.
Motor Contribution to Short Circuit Capacity
When sizing the transformer for motor loads, the fault current contribution from the
motors will not be a consideration for sizing. However, the motor contribution must be considered
when sizing all branch circuit fuses and circuit breakers. The interrupting capacity ratings of those
devices must equal or exceed the total short circuit capacity available at the point of application.
Motor Starting Calculations Contribution to Transformer sizing

• During start-up the motor absorbs a high current which causing a big voltage drop at the
secondary of the transformer and a significant voltage drop supply network. This has an adverse
influence on the operation of other loads and can result in the stalling and contactor drop leading to
blackout of loads.
• The magnitude of transient current involved in motor starting is however very much lower
than the short circuit condition. But in effect, switching “on” to energize a large motor can be likened
to a “soft short circuit”.
• Reduction of voltage during start-up can be limited to an admissible range by application of a
bigger transformer and larger cabling, but it increases the cost of installation. It is therefore better to
reduce motor starting current to avoid an unnecessary oversizing of network elements, including
transformer.
Reviewing Some Motor basics

But now how we can size the transformers supplying large motor loads? Before answering the above
question, we need to review the following information about motors:
1. Inrush Current,
2. Motor starting KVA and Locked-Rotor Current,
3. Voltage and Frequency Variation.
1- Inrush Current
It is the initial input current drawn by an electrical device when first turned on. It usually applies to:
• Inductive loads such as transformers, Inductors and electric motors.

• AC/DC power supplies that use a simple rectifier/capacitor input stage.
Inrush current is higher than the normal operating current or what is called “steady state” current.
An example of an electric motor inrush current is shown in Figure-1. It shows the peak current for the
first half cycle as being close to 30 amps and then decaying over subsequent half cycles as the motor
spools up.
Fig.1: Electric Motor Inrush Current

Another example of the inrush current of a transformer is shown in Figure-2. It shows the current
decay to excitation current (steady state current) that keep the transformer energized after the peak
inrush current dissipated.
Fig.2: Transformer Inrush Current
2- Motor starting KVA and Locked-Rotor Current
Locked-rotor current is the steady-state current of a motor with the rotor locked and with rated
voltage applied at rated frequency. NEMA has designated a set of code letters to define locked-rotor
KVA/HP. This code letter appears on the nameplate of all AC squirrel-cage induction motors. KVA per
horsepower is calculated as follows:
For three-phase motors:

KVA/HP = √3 x current (in amperes) x volts / (1000 x Hp)
For single-phase motors:

KVA/Hp = current (in amperes) x volts / (1000 x Hp)
CODE LETTER KVA per HP
A 0 - 3.15
B 3.15 – 3.55
C 3.55 – 4.0
D 4.0 – 4.5
E 4.5 – 5.0
F 5.0 – 5.6
G 5.6 – 6.3
H 6.3 – 7.1
J 7.1 – 8.0
K 8.0 – 9.0
L 9.0 - 10.0
M 10.0 - 11.2
N 11.2 - 12.5
P 12.5 - 14.0
R 14.0 - 16.0
S 16.0 - 18.0
T 18.0 - 20.0
U 20.0 - 22.4
V 22.4 - and up
Table-1: NEMA code letter designations (starting KVA’s)
The locked-rotor kilovolt-ampere-per-horsepower range includes the lower figure up to, but not
including, the higher figure. For example, 3.14 is letter “A” and 3.15 is letter “B”.
By manipulating the preceding equation for KVA/Hp for three-phase motors the following equation
can be derived for calculating locked-rotor current:
LRA = (1000 x Hp x Locked-Rotor KVA/Hp) / (√3 x Volts)

This equation can then be used to determine approximate starting current of any particular motor.
Starting KVA = (1000 x Hp x Locked-Rotor KVA/Hp)
Starting KVA is also known as “Locked Rotor kVA” or sometimes “Locked Rotor Amperes”.
for example, the approximate starting current for a 7 1/2 Hp, 230 volt motor with a locked-rotor KVA
code letter G would be:
LRA = (1000 x 7.5 x 6.0) / (√3 x230) = 113 Amps

Starting KVA = (1000 x 7.5 x 6.0) = 45 KVA
For more information about Motor starting KVA and Locked-Rotor Current, please review our article
“Motor Selection Procedures – Part One”.
3- Voltage and Frequency Variation
• all motors are designed to operate successfully with limited voltage and frequency
variations. However, voltage variation with rated frequency must be limited to ±10% and frequency
variations with rated voltage must be limited to ±5%. The combined variation of voltage and
frequency must be limited to the arithmetic sum of 10%.
• Variations are expressed as deviation from motor nameplate values, not necessarily system
nominal values. The allowable ±10% voltage variation is based upon the assumption that horsepower
will not exceed nameplate rating and that motor temperature may increase.
• Therefore, the voltage drop on inrush should not be allowed to drop more than -10% of the
rated voltage. This means 208v for 230v or 414v for 460 volt or 2.07 kV for 2.3 kV and 3.6 kV for 4.0
kV motors. It means that a 4 kV motor can still operate satisfactorily at 3,600 V.
So, Effect of variations in voltage:
An increase or decrease in voltage may result in increased heating at rated horsepower load. Under
extended operation this may accelerate insulation deterioration and shorten motor insulation
life. The affected motors may trip off as provided for by its protection – or if not, the motor burns.
General Rule For Sizing Transformers With Large Motor Loads
We must determine the voltage dip caused by the motor inrush on start-up.
1. If the voltage dip within the allowable percentage of the system voltage. Then no
oversizing of the transformer is required.
2. If the voltage dip exceeds the operating requirement of the system, then the
transformer must provide extra kVA.
Note:
The NEMA specification for a standard motor requires the motor to

be capable of operating at plus or minus 10% of nameplate voltage. Therefore, the
voltage dip must not exceed 10% of nameplate voltage of the motor.
Voltage Dip Calculation

As explained before, during start-up the motor absorbs a high current which causing a big voltage
drop at the secondary of the transformer and a significant voltage drop supply network. This has an
adverse influence on the operation of other loads and can result in the stalling and contactor drop
leading to blackout of loads.
The voltage dip at the transformer terminals is proportional to the motor load required in start-up. As
discussed earlier, the voltage drop can be expressed as a percentage of the inrush motor load (Motor
Starting kVA) compared to the maximum capability of the transformer (Motor Starting kVA + Short
Circuit kVA).
% Voltage Drop = (Motor Starting kVA) x 100 /(Motor Starting kVA + Short Circuit kVA)
Note: A voltage sag (U.S. English) equal to voltage dip (British English).
Case#1: A Single Three Phase Motor On Single Transformer
The following calculations will determine the extra kVA capacity required for a three
phase transformer that is used to feed a single three phase motor that is started with full voltage
applied to its terminals, or, "across-the-line."
The following precautions should be followed:
1. When one transformer is used to operate one motor, the running amperes of the
motor should not exceed 65% of the transformer’s full load ampere rating.
2. If any motor is started more than once per hour, add 20% to that motor's
minimum kVA rating to compensate for heat losses within the transformer.
Example:
A 7,500 kVA, 8.0% IZ, 69-4.16 kV transformer loaded with a single 2,000 hp, 4.16 kV, Code Letter J
motor. Check if this transformer size is adequate or not?
Answer:
a) If the motor controller is across-the-line (full-voltage controller):
1- from table-1 in above, Starting kVA of 2,000 hp Motor code letter J= 2,000 kVA x 7.6 = 15,200 kVA
2- Three-Phase Short Circuit Capacity of the 7,500 kVA transformer = transformer KVA X 100 /
transformer impedance= 7,500 KVA x 100 /8 = 93,750 kVA
Note: In this case, the 7.5 MVA transformer has a maximum of 93.75 MVA short circuit capability.
3- The voltage drop on motor inrush will be:
% Voltage dip = (Motor Starting kVA) x 100 /(Motor Starting kVA + Short Circuit kVA)
%VD at transformer Terminals = 15,200 x 100/(15,200 + 93,750) = 13.95% from the secondary voltage
4.16 KV
So, VD at transformer Terminals = 13.95% x 4.16 KV = 580 V
transformer Terminal Volts During Motor Start-Up = 4160 – 580 = 3,580 V
Result:
The transformer output voltage will drop more than 10%, so this 7.5 MVA transformer is small for a
2,000 hp motor!
The next higher standard size transformer at 10,000 kVA 8.0% impedance would have a short circuit
output capability of 125,000 kVA which will give %VD at transformer Terminals 10.84% . so, 12.5 MVA
transformer could be the choice which will have a short circuit output capability of 156,250 kVA which
will give %VD at transformer Terminals 8.865%.
Case#2: Multiple Motors On A Single Transformer
The minimum transformer kVA is given by transformer manufacturers so that a transformer may be
sized properly for multiple motors.
If there are five motors on one transformer, add the minimum kVA ratings and then add transformer
capacity as necessary to accommodate the inrush current of the largest motor.
KVA transformer min = kVA ratings for all motors except largest + transformer KVA as necessary to
accommodate the inrush current of the largest motor (as in above Example)
The following precautions should be followed:

1. If several motors are being operated from one transformer, avoid having all motors
start at the same time. If this is impractical, then size the transformer so that the total
running current does not exceed 65% of the transformer’s full load ampere rating.
2. Also, if any motor is started more than once per hour, add 20% to that motor's
minimum kVA rating to compensate for heat losses within the transformer.

ELECTRICAL KNOWHOW-Power and Distribution Transformers Sizing Calculations

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Power and Distribution Transformers Sizing Calculations –

• Glossary of Sizing Power and Distribution Transformers,

• Power and distribution transformer components,

• Glossary of Sizing Power and Distribution Transformers,

AA Ventilated, self-cooled rating of a dry-type transformer.

• Glossary of Sizing Power and Distribution Transformers,

• Power and distribution transformer components,

1. Glossary of Sizing Power and Distribution Transformers,

1. Resources used to calculate basic ratings of power and distribution transformers,

1- Resources Used To Calculate Basic Ratings Of Power And Distribution

1. Temperature should not exceed an average ambient temperature of 300C.

Single-Phase Transformers Three-Phase Transformers

kVA kVA kVA kVA kVA kVA

3 167 5000 15 1000 15,000

5 250 6667 30 1500 20,000

10 333 8333 45 2000 25,000

15 500 10,000 75 2500 30,000

25 833 12,500 112.5 3750 37,500

37.5 1250 16,667 150 5000 50,000

50 1667 20,000 225 7500 60,000

75 2500 25,000 300 10,000 75,000

100 3333 33,333 500 12,000 100,000

Nominal Transformer BIL Chopped Wave Low

0.48 and Power and 30 36 1.0 10

2.4 Distribution 45 54 1.5 15

2.4 Power 60 69 1.5 15

4.16 Distribution 60 69 1.5 19

4.16 Power 75 88 1.6 19

13.8 Distribution 95 110 1.8 34

13.8 Power 110 130 2.0 34

34.5/19.9 Distribution 150 175 3.0 50

34.5/19.9 Power 200 230 3.0 70

69 Power 350 400 3.0 140

115 Power 450 520 3.0 185

Table-2: Transformer BIL Ratings

Figure-1: Phase Relation of Terminal Designations

Category Single-Phase Three-Phase

Table-3: Transformer Categories (Liquid-Filled)

Note: Transformer ratings are based on a 24-hour average ambient of 300C.

Type of Cooling % of Rating

Table-4: Transformer Loading on Basis of Temperature for Liquid-Filled Transformers

Single-Phase (kVA) Three-Phase (kVA) Three-Phase (kVA)

Table-5: OA/FA Ratings (750 - 12,500 kVA)

18 000 24 000 30 000

Table-6: OA/FA/FA Ratings (Greater Than 12.5 MVA)

Single-Phase Transformers Three-Phase Transformers

kVA kVA kVA kVA kVA kVA

1 167 5000 15 300 3750

3 250 6667 30 500 5000

5 333 8333 45 7500

10 500 10,000 75 1000 10,000

15 833 12,500 112.5 1500

25 1250 16,667 150 2000 15,000

37.5 1667 20,000 225 2500 20,000

Table-7: Standard Transformer kVA Ratings (Dry-Type)

Average Winding Temperature Insulation System

Rise by Resistance (0C) Temperature (0C)

Nominal BIL Low Full Crest Impulse

0.48 and 10 4 10 10 1.0

34.5 150 50 150 150 2.25

Table-9: BIL Ratings for Dry-Type Transformers

(AA) Ratings (AA/FA) Ratings

Table-10: AA/FA Ratings for Dry-Type Transformers

Note: Table-11 is valid for temperatures ranging from 00C to 500C.