Basic Mechanical Technology Engr.

Navid Ali (Lecturer GCT Mingora Swat

1. Stress, Strain and their Relation

1.1 Introduction
Selection of proper material is big problem for engineer, in order to enable machines and
structures to effectively perform its function. For this purpose, it is essential to determine
the strength and other properties of material.

1.2 Stress
When some external system of forces or loads act on a body, the internal forces (equal and
opposite) are set up at various sections of the body, which resist the external forces. This
internal force per unit area at any section of the body is known as unit stress or simply a
stress. It is denoted by a Greek letter sigma (σ).
Mathematically;
P
σ=
A
……… (1)

The stress is usually expressed in Pascal (Pa) such that 1 Pa = 1 N/m 2

1.3 Strain
When a system of forces or loads act on a body, it undergoes some deformation. This
deformation per unit length is known as unit strain or simply a strain. It is denoted by a
Strain
ε =σl ……… (2)

Where δl = Change in length of the body, and

l = Original length of the body.

1.3.1 Tensile Stress and Strain

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pulls P (also called tensile load)
the stress induced at any section of the body is known as tensile stress.
Due to the tensile load, there will be a decrease in cross-sectional area and an increase in
length of the body. The ratio of the increase in length to the original length is known as
tensile strain.
P δl
Tensile Stress σ t=
A
……… (3) Tensile Strain ϵ t=
l
……… (4)
Basic Mechanical Technology Engr. Navid Ali (Lecturer GCT Mingora Swat

1.3.2 Compressive Stress & Strain

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pushes P (also
called compressive load) then the stress induced at any section of the body is known as
compressive stress.
Due to the compressive load, there will be an increase in cross-sectional area and a
decrease in length of the body. The ratio of the decrease in length to the original
length is known as compressive strain.
P δl
Tensile Stress σ c=
A
……… (5) Tensile Strain ϵ c=
l
……… (6)

1.4 Young Modulus / Modulus of Elasticity

According to Hook’s Law stress is directly proportional to strain within elastic limit, i.e;
ε∝σ
σ =E . ε
σ P∗l
E= = …… (7)
ε A∗δl

Where E is constant of proportionality known as Young’s Modulus and its unit is GPa.
Young Modulus is the measure of the resistance to the deformation in elastic region.
Basic Mechanical Technology Engr. Navid Ali (Lecturer GCT Mingora Swat

1.5 Stress Strain Curve

In order to design a structure the strength of a material is not the only criterion to be
considered. Other mechanical properties like stiffness is of equal importance. Mechanical
properties such a hardness, toughness, ductility, etc. determine the selection of material.
These properties are determined by making test on material and compare the results with
established standard.
One of the test, tension test, the specimen is gripped between the jaws of Universal Testing
Machine (UTM). Values of load and elongation in the specified length are observed
simultaneously. These values are plotted on a graph.
Stress strain diagram varies for different material. It represent the behavior of the material.
Stress strain diagram can be different for same material under different conditions
(temperature, loading speed etc.)

Shape of specimen
after elongation

1.6 Mechanical Properties

The stress-strain diagram defines the following strength characteristics;
Proportional Limit
The Hook’s Law holds good up to point A and it is known is proportional limit. It can be
defines as that stress beyond which the stress strain curve deviates from straight line.
(Point A).
Elastic Limit
Basic Mechanical Technology Engr. Navid Ali (Lecturer GCT Mingora Swat

It can be defined as the maximum stress that can be developed during test without
permanent deformation when the load is removed. (Point B)
Yield Point
If the load is increased beyond point B the plastic region will reach mean that on removal of
load the material will not recover to its original shape and size. Also the strain will increase
faster without increase in stress. The point (C) at which there is increase in strain with no
increase in stress is known is yield point and the associated stress is known is yield stress.
Strain Hardening
After undergoing large deformation the material changes it crystalline structure and
increases its resistance to the applied load. This phenomenon is called strain hardening.
Ultimate Strength of Tensile Strength
The maximum stress that material can withstand while being pulled before failing or
breaking.
Breaking Stress
After reaching the ultimate stress the neck is formed which decrease the cross-sectional
area of the specimen. Therefore the stress required to break the specimen will be less. The
stress reduces until the specimen breaks away at point F, the stress correspond to point F
is called breaking stress.
Modulus of Resilience
The work done on unit volume of material, as a simple tensile force is gradually increased
from zero to proportional limit of material, is known as modulus of resilience. It can be
calculated from area under the stress strain curve from origin to proportional limit.
Toughness
The ability of material to absorb energy in the plastic range of material limit.

Proportional Limit Yield Point

Basic Mechanical Technology Engr. Navid Ali (Lecturer GCT Mingora Swat

Strain Hardening Necking

1.6.1 Offset Method

For some materials there is no clear yield stress, offset method can be used to determine
the yield stress for these types of materials.
In this method 0.2% offset is chosen, a line is drawn with slope E through the point
(0.002,0) the yield point is the point of intersection of this line with stress-strain curve.
Basic Mechanical Technology Engr. Navid Ali (Lecturer GCT Mingora Swat

1.7 Theory of Simple Bending

When a beam is subjected to a transvers loads the beam will bend. In addition to bending
other effects such as twist may also occur. To investigate the bending effect we have to put
some constraints on the geometry which would form the following assumptions.
1. The beam is initially straight, no initial curvature in beam.

2. The material of the beam is homogeneous, that is, it possesses same physical
properties throughout the volume.
3. The material of the beam is isotropic, that is, its elastic constants do not vary
throughout its volume.
4. Young’s modulus of the material in tension Et is the same as Young’s modulus in
compression EC.
5. The elastic limit of the material σe is not exceeded, that is, stresses in the material
at any section at any layer do not exceed σe, in other words when bending
moment is removed from the beam, it comes back to its original shape and
original dimensions.
6. Each layer of the beam is independent to contract or to extend irrespective of the
layers above or below it, that is, whole beam acts as a pack of cards or sheets.

Consider that a small length dx of the beam is subjected to bending moment M as shown in
the figure. After the beam bends, the element dx also bends and the shape is changed to a′b
′c′d′ such that a′b′ < ab and c′d′ > cd, that is, the upper length of the element is decreased
and the lower length of the element is increased. So in the upper layer ab, there is a
compressive strain and in the lower layer cd, there is a tensile strain. Strain changes from
negative to positive from top layer to bottom layer as shown in the figure. Therefore, when
there is a continuous change in strain from negative to positive, there must be a layer in
which the strain becomes zero.

Layer ef = e′f′, the final length, No change in length, so no strain, and also no stress. This
layer as ef is known as neutral layer.

Original condition

ab = ef = cd

Finally,               a′b′ < ab, e′f′ = ef, c′d′ > cd

Basic Mechanical Technology Engr. Navid Ali (Lecturer GCT Mingora Swat

Now consider a layer gh at a distance y from the neutral layer ef, the length of the
layer gh is changed to g′h′.

The beam has bent and the layer forms a portion of circular segment, subtending at an
angle θ at the center of curvature.

From the center of curvature, up to neutral layer, R is known as radius of curvature

Initial layer,         gh = ef = Rθ

Finally,             g′h′ = (R + y)θ

Element of beam under bending moment

Strain in the layer,

………… (8)
Basic Mechanical Technology Engr. Navid Ali (Lecturer GCT Mingora Swat

Using Hooke’s law, strain,  

So,

……………. (9)

E and R are constants stress,

σ α y (stress is proportional to distance, y). Stress is proportional to the distance of layer

under consideration from the neutral layer.

We have considered a small element of area dA at a distance of y from neutral layer neutral
axis.

Force on the area,              dP = σ dA

E
dP= y dA
R

Moment of force dP, about neutral layer

Basic Mechanical Technology Engr. Navid Ali (Lecturer GCT Mingora Swat

Total moment of resistance,

M E
= …………. (10)
I R

From Eqs (9) and (10)

M E σ
= =
I R R

1.7.1 Section Modulus

Distance from the natural axis to the outer most fiber is denoted by C. The stress will be
maximum at C,

MC M
σ= =
I I
C
The I/C is known as section modulus and denoted by S.

M
σ=
S
Basic Mechanical Technology Engr. Navid Ali (Lecturer GCT Mingora Swat

Diameter of the bar at a distance x, from the origin,

 
d = d1 – (d1 – d2) / L.x …………………………………………. (i)
Let       k = (d1 – d2) / L
⇒ d = d1 – kx
 
Thus, cross-sectional area of the bar at this section.
 
A = π/4 (d1 – kx)2 ………………………………………………. (ii)
𝜎 = P/π/4 (d1 – kx)2 = 4P/π(d1 – kx)2 ………………… (iii)
ε = 𝜎/E = 4P/πE(d1 – kx)2 ………………………………..…. (iv)
 
Elongation of the elementary length = ε = dx = 4P.dx / πE(d1 - kx) 2
Therefore, total extension of the bar may be found out by integrating between the limits x =
0; x = L
Basic Mechanical Technology Engr. Navid Ali (Lecturer GCT Mingora Swat
Basic Mechanical Technology Engr. Navid Ali (Lecturer GCT Mingora Swat)

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