Elements of Electrical En~ineering

ISBN 9788184317 664

All rig.ht~ reserved wtth Technl eel flu bliCl;lliom .. No Plitt ~ Ihi:5.bo.ol should be eenrcducad in on", form, Hecvc n i~ Medllo n i'tLl, PhQ~OQOpy r Q!'I'I i rLf1;lrrT.II;;l't,o Il s.1orc!;,leend o ,r'clriG"'clsystem wlfhcut prier permission in writing, from To>c:r..r'IIiml Publications, Punc.

Publi,hed by :
Tech n ical PC!bl lea t:i ons Pu nee
iI 1, AIIII.I Printer:
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Chapler-1 .Chapler·2 Chapter- 3 Chapter-4 Chaplel-5 Chaptsr-6 Chapter-7

Chapter- B Chapter- 9 Chaeter- to

D__C_ eireJ tits Elec!roswtics and Ca~acitanoe Elect~~g!lelics

Elmdameolals of A C Circllits

(1-1)10(1 -100)
(2"

1) to (2 -50)

@-ll~H-1Q"l
(4 -1)
IQ

(4 - 58)

Single Phase AC_ Circuits

Ibr:eeEbase CillJli!5

(5 -1) to (5-90) (6 -1) to (6-50) {7 -1)10 (7 - 40)

Battelies a od Cables

ElectricalWiring
lIlllw.blalic!J

(8 -1) 10 18 - 34) (9 ·1) 10(9· 32)

110 - 1) to 110 - 2B)

Protective Devices and sare\~Precau~ons

U rheberrec htl ieh gese hutztes M a\eria

D. C. Circuits :- Effect of temperature upon resistance, Solutions 01 series, parallel in brief Star-delta combinatian of rgsistances KYL and KCL (Chant" . I!
.. EI~dro.latic. and C"pacltanc~ :- Dofinitions ofoloctmstatic, Types of capacitors, Selie., Parnlie,1 comb inaljons ~~nd related drcuit"",]culations in brief charsi ng and discharging of capacitor. En ergy ,toTed in capacitoT.!Cho pier • 21 between "Ieclric and magnetic

III

Eleclroml1gn

,,11cs :- Magnetic c;<cuit, Comparison

circuits, Serte;,ll' arallel magnetic circuit calculations, Magne1; c hysteresis, Hystere,is and eddy rune"t IOSl, M<lgnetic, m.!J<rial, ,. Electromagnetic induction, St~~ cally and dynamically ;nduc~d ~.m.f.s in briol, Fleming's risht hand rule - left hand rule, Coefficients of self and mutual inductances, Coefficient of coupling. Serias/Paralle I com bin~tions of inductances.. and de"",>! of current in ind uctive circuits, Force experienced by current carrying co "ductor placed in magnetic field. (Chopl ... 31

ru""

IV

Sinsle Phase A.C. Clrcuit~ :. G"ner~tion of alt"m~ting voltages and cunents, Th~I, equation" D"flnilions, R_M.s~ and average values. Vetlor representation 01 alternating quantities, Addition and ,ubtrac:ti on of vectors, Complex algebra, Phasor r~lations between voltage and cu nent in each of resistance, inductance, and capacitance, A C. es and pamllel circuits. Power and power factor. Methods of cirwit .olution (analytically and vectorjally), Resonance in series and parallel dTcui.ts,

,en

(Ch.ptll!!l1Ii ... 4. 5)

PQlypha5e Circuits ,. Generation of polyph ase voltages, 3 phase svstem, Phase ,eguence, Inter conn ..ction of 3 phase,. Voileg". Current and power reliitionshiRS in balanced three phase clrrui ts, Power m€asurcment in single phase and 3 phase ci,cuits. lCb.Dlu .
6)

VI

Batt~d~5. Cables ,. BMery, life of batteries, Ch"'QmQ and dLScharoinQ of baHe", Cables, 2, 21/2, 3 and 4 core armored and unarm ared cables. (Cbopt..r - 71
installation, installation, WIring :. Connectors and SWitches, S~stem of wiring. Domestic wiling Sub circuits in domestic wiri ng, Simple ron [wi circuit in domesli c Ind ustrial clectrirLcatio n. 10.p'., . 81
~...

VII EleclTlcal

VIII

IlJumlnatlon

Types or lamps,

Fixtures

and

reller;_tors.

lHuminaUon

:schemes for

dome,tic, categorie,.

Indu,trial ~nd commercial (Chopl., . 91

pramises,

Lumen

requirements

lar dillemnl

rx

S~fetv and Protection :- Safely, Electric shook. First aid for electric shack other hazard. 01 electrical laboral.ories and ""Iely rules" U,e of muIltmel""s, Grounding, Importance of grcunding. Equipm"nl 0 I grcu "ding for ",lely ~ CircuJl protection devices. Fu""s, MCB, ELCB and relays. (Chop''''' 101

Urhcberrec hthch ges c h lillies !vi a erla

U rhcberrec htllch gesc hutztes M ateri"

Table of Contents
1.1 Introd_uctLQIJ 1.2 The Structure of Matter .. _."", _

(Detail)
" , __ •.. "",.:
",m", ... "

j;liilG~ii55.::QI~giit~.mRWt+rJ7iTTl?%fi)J¥:~~i11iri91{mOJOO
1- 1 __".:.. , . _" _.. ,1 - 1 .. 1-2
: .... " ......

1.2.1 StrucI!JreotanAlom_

_." .. ", _.',.

...• ,,""'''',.,.,.,.,
.. ,:., ....... " " •••

1.3 Concept of Charge " ...",... ", ...,,"'''' ......... 1.3,1 Unit of Charga '" _.• ''''.'' ,_

1- 3 _.1-4 ,,1 - 4

,_. _"'.,"

,_ "" _

,_ .• _.".,,,. "

1.4 Concept of Electromotive Force and Current. ~.~ 1.5 :Relation between Char_ge and Current , ~

r ••••

' •••••••••••••••••

, •• ~ •••••

1 ·5_

·~;._h6Concept of Electric Potential and Potential Difference 1.7 Electromotive Force and Potential Difference 1.8 Resistance ,..,..,.., , , , ,. ,. _. , _ _ ' " ,

,..1 - 6 l -7 , , 1- 8

,.,

1.8.1 Factoi'll Affecting tile .Resistance. ,. , 1.9 Resistivity and Conductivity ,

, " ,. , .. ,. , .. , . , ., . ,. ,. ,1 -10 _....... _ ,...,.,1 -10 ....

1.9.1 Conductance (Gl.,

1.9,2 Conductivity

,
, ,.,.,

_. _ _
, , ,.,.

_
, ,

,. _
, .. , . , "

_.. , .. _.1 -11

, . , 1 -11 " 1 -12
_1-13

1.10 Effect of Temperature on Resistance """

1,to.l Effect ofTemperature on Metals, . , . , _

UO.2 Effect ofTemperature on Carbon and Insulalcrll . , 1.1 0.3 Effect of Temperatu re on Alloys , ., ., . , . , 1.10,4 Effect ofTemperature on SemicCllductars 1_11 Resistance Temperature Coefficient (RT.C.)" t11.1 UnitofRT,C , , , ,

" ... 1-14 , ., . , 1-14 , . , . , .. , " .., 1 -15

,. 1 - 15 , 1-17

1,11.2 Usc oIRT,C. in Calculating Resistance at t "C.,

,., .1-11

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c hutztes M ateri"

1.11.3 EffectolTemperature
1.11.4 EffectolT emperalure

on R.T.C on Resistivity .. Conductor. .. . .

on

1-18

..,1-19
. •. 1 - 22
on onm .. m

1.11.5 RT.C. of Comp!lslle

1.12 Network Terminology

1.12.1 Network 1122 Ne!wpr!; Ele ment .... . .

1 - 27
1 "27 1-27

................ .

1.12.3 Branch 1.12.4 Junction Point .. 1.12.5 Node

.
. .... "., .....•• ,., ...... "., ....

"
, ....

,
, .....

1-27
1-27 1-27

1.12.6 Mesh lor Loop)

1 13 Classificatjon of Electrjcal Networks 1.14 Energy Sources
1.14.1 VOltaqa Source . . . 1.14.2 Current Source ... 1.14.3 Dependent Sources •... ,.
m

1-27 ,,' "." " "' ..""",, " .... " ..",,,,,,1 - 28 "
m mm .. mm

l - 29
1 •.29 1-31 .. 1-32

. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .

. ......

1.15 Ohm's Law

1.15.1 Limitations Ohm's Law of

1 - 33
1. • 34

1,16 Series Circuit

1.1 6.1 CharacterisUcs of 5e rie s Circuits

,,,

., 1 - 34
t . 35

1,17 Parallel Circuit

117.1 Characrerisfcs of Pa@lIel Circuits ...
m on .. "' .. "'

1 - 35
1- 36

1.18 Comparison of Series and Parallel Circuits .. 1.19 Short and Open Circuits
1.19.1 Short Circuit.. 1 ,19.2 Open Circuit .... . ., ,

l " 37 1 - 39

,......

.1-39

.1-39 . ..... 1-40 1 - 41 , 1. - 42

1.19.3 Redund an I Branches and Comb in allons ..

1.20 Voltage Division in Series Circuit of Resistors 1.21 Current Division in Parallel Circuit of Resistors

Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes M aleria

1.22 Source Transformation 1.23 Kir·chhoffs Laws

1.23.1 Kirdlhoffs

, " "

,. ,

,.

,.. ,

'" ,

1 - 44 1 - 47

" .. ,.,,,.,,. .."

, ,. "''''''''''''''''

CUlTlmt Law (KCL) "

•••• "

",.,1-47

123.2 KIrchhoff's Vol1agBLaw (KVL)

1-47 "",1-48
..1-49 . ,." 1-50

113.3 Sign Convenlio'lS 10 ne Followed while Applying KVL 123.4 AppUcation 01 KVL 10 a C!(lsed Path .. , .....•. , ...

1,23.5 Sleps 10 Apply Kirchhoft's Laws to Gel Nel'Mlril Equalioos

1 24 Cramer's Rule 1 25 Star and Della Connection of Resistances

1.25,1 Della:Star Transformation., ,, , . , .. , .....
,u.u., •• ,. u •• ,

1 - 51 1 • 53 .1·$5
t ·58

1.25,2.Star·Delta Transformation.

, .. , . ,. " ......

, .....

1,26 Concept of Loop Current... ..... ,.. "".,. EJ::amples with Solutions ,., ", ,

, ,.,

" .. ,", .. " ,., ,.. " "'"

",.. ",

1 - 63

1 - 64
' 1 - 71
.. m."

Examples from G. U. and G.T ,U, Papers"",., Review Questions '..,m

.. ' m ·.. , ., ".".".,

.. ·" .. '.' .. 'm .. " •.,.'

1 - 95

University Questions .."

"

,.. .,...

2.1 Introduction

,.,." .. .,..

........ , .,

" ., ,.. , , ,

, ,

."

2-1 2•1 2-2 " .. 2 - 4

. ... 2- 4

2.2 Concept of an Electric Charge

2.3 Laws of Electrostatics 2.4 Electrostatic

2.4.2 Proparties

., .. , , " .., "

Field

2.4.1 Eleolrlo Lin es of Perce .

of Ele<:tric

Lines of Force.

2-5 "." , ,,,.,,

on" ..

2.5 Electric Flux 2.6 Electric Flux Density

""."."."

.,.. ,.. ,,,

, .. "' .. m ",n

,.. ,,,.,,,, .. ., .. 2 - 5 2-6 , 2 -6

2.6,1 Surface ChalJle Densi!;(

,.,

, .. ,

Urheberrec htl ich gcsc hutztes Materia

2.7 Electric Field Strength or Field Intensity

2.71 Relali!1u between 0 and E . ....

2-6
2-7

2.8 PermitUvity
2.6.1 Absolute PermiHivity 2.8.2 Pe rmillMly and Free Space. . .......

2-8
2- B

2-8
F}

2.8.3 Rel"Uve Perrniltivi~

.; .•..• ;•...
~!.~

2-9

29 Electric Poten Iia I and Pote mraI 0 ilfe rence

2.9.1 PotenDsl Differencs
. 2.9.2 Expressions Potential andPotential Difference for

2 -10
..2-11
2 -11

2.10 potential Gradient

2 - 13 _ _
on .. on _

2.11 Capacitor
2_12 Capacitance

_ .._
_.on

_._ _ _.2- 14 .._

on •••

2 - 14 2 -14

2.13 Action of a Capacitor

2.15 Capacitance of a Parallel Plate CaPa~itor ._ 2.16 Dielectric Slrenglh
on m

_ _
on

2.14 Relation between Charge and Applied Volta.ge .,._,. _

•••••• _

2 - 15 2. -16 2 -17 2 -19

2.H;.1 Dielectric Laaklijle and Lor.s8S 2.17 Capacitors in S8[les

2.17.1 Voltage Distribution in Two Capacitors in Series

"'

2 - '19 2·20

2.18 Capacitors in Parallel

2.19 Parallel Plate Capacitor with Multiple Plates 2.20 Composite Dielectric Capacitors 2.21 Energy Storeo in a Capacitor 2.22 Current in a Capacitor 2.23 Types of Capacitors 2.24 Charging a Capacitor through Resistance
2.24.1 Mall1ematlcaIAnalysis"., _, _, _,., ••• , _. _ .•••• ",. .
m

2 - 22 2 - 23 2 - .24 2 - 26 2 - 27 2 - 28 2 - 29
. .. 2 -30 ... 2-31

2.24.2 Time Constant.

Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes Materia

2.24.3 Inilial Rala of Rise of Capacilor Vollage 2.25 Discharging a Capacitor through a Resistanet. 2.25.1 Mathematical Analysis ... 2.25.2 TIme Conslanl . . : Papers

2-32

_.2 - 34 . .2-54
.. 2· 36 . 2· 36

2.25.3 Significance Time Co nstanl. of Examples with Solutions Examples from G.U. and GTU. Review questions University Questions

2 - 37
" 2 - 39 2 - 48

2 ~50

3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................•...... 3.2 Magnet and its Properties 3.3 Molecular Theory of Magnetization 3.4 Laws of Ma.gnetism 3.5 Magnetic Field
35.1 Magnatic Lines of Force ....
U.2 Direc~o n of Magnetic Field ..

3- 1 3- 1 3•2

3 -4 3 -4
. .... 3-4 . .... 3-4 ..... 3-6

3.5.3 Properties 01 Lines 01Force

3.6 Magnetic Flux 3] Pole Strength

(11)

3 ~7
. " ,'

,3- 7 3· 7
3- 8

3.8 Magnetic Flux Density (8)

3.9 Magnetic Field Strength (H)

3.10 Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current (Electroma.qnets)

3.10.1 MagneUc Field due to StralghICOnductor
3 1Q

3-8
,
_

3·· 9 J. 1Q

l' 1 Buies to Oetetmine Dir.oc~Qn Flux Armmd C'ooductot 01

3.10.2 Magneticield due to Cirwl arConducto, i.e.Solenoid . F

"'.. , .. 3 - 11

3.11 Permeability
3.11.1 Absolute Permeability (u)

3 - 13 .
n :

3-13

Urheberrec htl ich gcsc hutztes M a\e,ia

3.11,2 Permeabilily

of Free Space or Vacuum (uo) ., ., . , • , . , . ,.

.,

, .3-14 ,.3· 14

3.11.3 Relatlve Permeabmty {!J ,}".,'

3.12 Magnelomolive 3.13 Reluctance 3.14 Permeance (S)

Force , '.,

(M.M,F. or F) '".,.'. ,

,.,

"

, ,."

, ,.3 - 15 3 - 1,5 3 - 16

..,., ..,., " "" .. ,.. ,,, , ' ,.,.".

, .•••••

3.15 Magnetic Circuits

3.15,1 Series MagneficCircui!s,.

, .. , ,.,

, 3 -16 ,.3·18 .3-2D

, .••••

,.,.'

3,15.2 Series Circuit \11th Air Gap. ,

3,15.3 Parallel Magnetic Circuits ...•.......••.....••.•• 3.15.4 Parallel Magnatic CirculI with ,Air Gap .. ,. , .. ,

'''''''.'.'''.'
, .••.•••.••

3 - 22

, . , . , . ' .. , , ,

, , . ,.3·23 ",.3- 2,6 . .3·26

3.16 Kirchhoff's Laws for Magnetic Circuit

3 16 1 Kirchhoffs FIyx law

316.2 Kirc!Jhoffs M,M.F, Law . ,

,.,.,.,

,., .. ,

, .. ,.,.,

3- 26 3 - 27

3.17 Comparison of Magnetic and Electric Circuits 3.18 Magnetic Leakage and Fringing
3.1 8.1 lea~~age Coefficient or Hopklnron's CoeffiCient

' ,

3 - 28
.. 3- 28

3,18.2 Magnetic Fringing ,. , ... ,.,.,., ...

... ,. ,., , ,

.. 3·29 3 - 30
, . 3 • 32

3.19 B-H Curve or Magnetization Curve

3.19.1 S·H Curve arld PSmleabilltv ..... ,

3:19.2 PracUcal Use 01 S·H Curves . ' ... , 3.20 Modem Theory of Magnetism 3,21 Magnetic Hysteresis , , ,
'Loop ... , , , .

.. 3·33

.,
' ,

,.,
'

,..,.,..,..,
, , ,

,..,3 - 33
,..,3 - 34

3.21, 1 Steps in Obtaining Hv.tamsis 3.21.2 Thoory Beh

3-31
...3· 36

ioo HysteresisEffed
"..".."

3.22 HysteresIs loss ,.,..,

3,22.1 Hvsteresls

..

..

3 - 36
,3·37 , 3· 39

Loss Per Unit Volume

3. 22.2 Pr.iCtical Use of Hysteresis Loop. , 3.. 3 Eddy Current Loss 2 , ,..,

,.,

, 3 - 40

Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes Materia

3.24 Magnetic Loss [Core Loss or Iron Loss] 3.25 Force on a Current Carrying Conductor
3.25.1 Fleming's Hand Rule Left 3.252 Magnitude ,

3 - 41 in a Magnetic
,

Field ..,..3- 42
, , •. '••.. , 3 - 43 , 3 - 44

,., . , bV the Conductor

, .......•.

of Force Experienced

, . , .........•.••...

3.26 Introduclion to Eleclromagnelic Induclion 3.27 Faraday's Experiment

3 - 45 3 - 45

3.26 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induclion

3.2B 1 First Law 32B.2 Second Law

,.3 - 47
,', ,." ,., ,.3-47 .3·47 3 - 46

" .. ,

,.,.,

3.29 Nature of the Induced E.M,E, .... ",. 3.30 Dynamically Induced E.M. F
3.30. t Magnitude 01 Dynamically

,
, . , .•..

,
, ••••••• ,., .••..•.. ,

3 - 46
3·46 3 - 52

Induced E,M,F .••••..•.

~,30.2 Direction 01 Dynamically

Induced E.M.F .. , ••...•.••.•.••••••..•....•.

3.31 Statically Induced E.MF 3.32 Self Induced E.M.F. ........

3,32.1 Self Inductance. 3,32.2 Magnitude , . ,

, .
.. ....... ,., ..•. ,,, •• ,.. , ,., .,

3 - 54 3 - 55
3-56 , .. 3- 56

01 Self Induced E.M.F

3.32.3 ElIpresslon5 lot Coefficient of Sellinducia 3.32.4 Factors Affecting

nee ILl.

,
, • , ••••

,
, • , •• , ••....

,
, •.•.

3 - 57 3 - 58

Self Indu<;tanco 01 a COil •.. , • ' •...

3.33 Mutually Induced E.M.F. "

3.33.1 Magnitude 3 332 Definitions 3.33.3 Expressions 3,33.4 Coefficient

,.,,,.,,

,., ,,, ,,,,.,, ..,..,,

, ,. ,

,,.3 - 60
, .. , ., . , ...•. 3 - 60 3 - 61

of Mutually Induced E,M,F of MIi~lal Ind uclance alldit. Unit of the Mutuallnductanoo (M),

• .. .. ..

3 - 62 3 . 63

01 Coupwng or Magnetic Coupling Cosfticient

, ....•....•...

3 34 Effective Inductance of Series Connection

3,34.1 Series Aiding or Cumulatively 3.34.2 Eguwalenllnductance J,34.3 Series Opposition Coupled Connection ..•• ,., .•. , , , ...•... ,

3 - 64
, . , .3 - tl4 3 - 64 , 3 - 55

of series .Aiding CIlnneclion or Differentially

Coupleli Connection

Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes Materia

3.34.4 Equivalent Inductance 01Series Opposition Connection 3.35 Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field 3.35.1 Expression for Ena rgy Stored in the Magnetic Field 3.35.2 Energy Stored Per Unit Volurns 3.36 Lifting Power 01 Electromagnets 337 Effective Inductance of Parallel Connection 3.37.1 Parallel Aiding or Cu mulatiVely Coupled .... 3.37.2 Parallel Opposing or Differentially Coupled... . ........ ,

3- 65 3 - 67 , • 3 • 68 3· 69 3 - 70 3 - 71 3-71 3 -72

3 38 Current Rise in InducUve Circuit " ... , ... " """ ",,"" "" ......'" .... "" ",,,.. ,,,,3 - 73 "" " 3.38.1 Mathematical AnalyslJ;.......•.......• 3.38.2.Time Constant. 3.39 Current Decay in Inductive Circuit 3.39 .. Mathematical Analysis 1 3.39 2 Time Clmstant Examples with Solutions Examples from G.U. and G.T.U. Papers Review Questions ... . ". University Questions
m m .. " m

, •••••.•.•••..••.••••.•.•.•••.•••••

3 • 74 3 -75

" '. .. . . . . . . . .

3 - 75 . .3- 76 3 - 77 3 -77 3 - 87 3 - 100 3· 103

4 1 Introduction 4.2 A.dvantages of A.C 4.3 Types of AC. Waveforms " " "" """'''''
m

4-1 , ..4 • 2 4-2 4- 3 ..4 - 3 4- 3 .. , •.. , 4- 6 4-7

4.3.1 Advantages of Purely Sinusoidal Waveform .....................•..........•.. 4.4 Generation of AC. Voltage "

4.4.1 Single Tum Alternator ••.••••.••••.....•.•...•............•........•....... 4 ..4.2Graphical Representatlon oltha Induced E.M.F. .... . .. • •. •. . .• ,.", 4.5 Standard Terminology Related to Alternating Quantity

Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes Materia

4.5.1 Instantaneous Value ... 4.5.2 Waveform

.4·7 .4· 7

4.5.3 Cycle

.
_.

.4·7 ....... 4· 7 . ..... 4·7 . . , ,,. . , ,.,.,. _•.. , " ,.,.

m,. ..

4.5.4 Time Period (T) ...•

4.5.5 Frequency m
4.5.6 AmpliltJde

.
.

4·8 4·8 4-9

4.5.7 Angular Frequency (m) ..

4.6 Equation of an Alternating QUantity 4.6.1 Different Forms of E.M.F. Equation. 4.7 Effective Value or RM.S. Value 4.7.1 Graphical Method . . .. .. .. . 4.7.2 Analytical Method. . . . .. .. . 4.7.. Importance of RM.S. Value 3

., _.•. , .•.. 4·10

.4 - 13
. _. . .. .. . .. . . . .4·13

. .4· 15 . . . . .. .. .. . , _,. _,.

m

. .. _.. 4·1.6

4.8 Average Value

4.8.1 Graphical Method

__

_ .._

.4 -17
4·17

4.8.2 Analytical Method . , 4.8.3 lmportanca of AveraH~ Value

. .

. .

4·17 4·18

4.9 Form Fador (K!)

_,.
m

_,...

..4 - 18
m m

4.10 Crest or Peak Factor (K.,) 4.11 RM.S

A ··19 " 4 - 20

Value of Combined Waveform .."

" ..",

4.12 Phasor Representation of an Alternating Quantity

4.13 Concept of Phase of an Alternating Quantity 4.13.1 Phase Difference ..... 4.13.2 Phaser Diagram.. .. . . 4.14 Addition and Subtraction of Alternating Quantities 4.14.1 Graphical MeIIlod
4. T4.2 Analytical Method

4· 22 .4· 23
.. ...... 4·25 . 4·28 .4 - 30 :
.... _.....

_4·30
A·30

Urheberrec htl ich gcsc hutztes Materia

4.14.3

Mathematical

Representation

of Phasor

.. .....

4· 3f

4.15 MulUplicalion and Division of Phasors

4.15 ..1 Another Way of Comple~. Number Representation. . . . . • •. • .

4-35
. •.• 4·36

Examples with Solutions Examples from G.U. and Review QUestions University Questions , , "'

4·37

G.T.U.

Papers....................................

...4 - 46 4 - 56 ",.4 ~57

5.1 Introduction

5.1 ' , , , " , "

m

5.2 AC. through Pure Resistance

5.2.1 Power

5 -1
,. "' 5··2

5.3 AC. through Pure Inductance

5.3.1 Concept 011nductJva Reactan ce 5.32 Power 5.4 AC. through Pure Capacitance 5.4.1 Conceet of Capacilivo
5.4.2 Power Reactanc;e

5 - .J
,.5- 5 5· 6 5-7

, . . . .. .. .

5• B
. 5- 9

,...........................

5.5 A.C. through Series R-L CircuIL

5 .51 Impedance 5.5.2 Power and Power Triangle .. ..

5 - lJ
.. .. 5·14 .5-14

5.5.3 Apparent Power (S)

5.5.4 Real or True Power (P)

.
. . . . ......

5-15
5-15

5.5.5 Reactive Power(Ql 5.5.6 Power Facror (cos ¢I) 5.6 AC. through Series R-C Circuit 5.6.1 Impedance
, .

. . .

5 -16 5 ·16

.......5 -18
5·19

U rheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes M a\eria

5.6.2 Power and Power Tfia~gle .. , . , . , . , . , . , . , . , 5.7 A.C. through Series R-L-C Circuit
5.7.1 XI ~

, . , .....••.

, .•. ,

, . , . , . 5 • 20 5 - 24

Xc

.,

5- 25

5},2 5,7.3

x.. <Xc.·
X. '" Xc "
, .... , .. ,.,., , , ", ,.,.,., ......•. , , ...•... Triangle"

,5-26
... 5· 26 ,5- 27 , .. 5 - 27

5.7.4 Impedance ..•.. 5.7.5 Impedance

S.7.6 Power and PowefTria~gTe

S.B Complex Power

5 -27
5 - 30

_ ..,..,",

,.._ .._

, ,.., _ ,.".,
,

5.9 Resonance in Series R-L-C Circuit 5.9.1 Characterislics

5,9,2 Expression

5 - 33 5-l3
, .5-:l4

alSerie. Resonance.,

fOr Resonant Frequency.

5,9.3 Bandwidth ·ofSeries R·L-C Circuil. . ,

5,9.4 Expressions fOr Lower and Upper CUt-off Frequencies.. ,., , ., ._ , .. .. . .. .. .. . .. ,.,

,5 -:l4
, 5·35 .5-38

5.9.5 Quality Faclor .. ,

5.10 A.C. Parallel CircuiL.................................. 5.10.1 Imp!!dances Two

In Parallel ... , ... ,., , •. , •. , • ' ... ,

........ _ ,... ,..... 5·40 ..... .. , . 5·40 .. 5-41 ..5·42 . .... ,'" .5·42

5.10.2 ConGepl of Admittance

5,10.3 COm[!On~nls 01 Admitla nc~ •• , • , . 5.10.4 Ccnductance (G), . , ..... ,. , ...

5,.10.5 Susceptance IS) .. , ,., 5,10.6 Admitlance Triangles,

,

,
,.,.,.,."

..
".,

".... "".,5-42
,

,5 -43 5 - 43

5.11 Multiplication and Division of Impedances 5.12 Resonance in Parallel ClrcuIL 5,12.1 Characteristics
01 Parallel Resonance., , , , ....•.

_. ,
,. , , , ....•.•. , , ,

5 - 47 5 - 47
5 - 4B , . 5 • 49

5.12.2 ExpreSSion for Resonant Frequency,., 5.12.3 dynamic I mp!!danca 21 Resonance .•.•.....•...•.•..

Urheberrec htl lch gcsc hutztes Materia

5.12.4 Quality Factor of Parallel Circuil

.. 5·50

5.13 Comparison of Resonant Circuits , Examples with Solutions Examples from G.U. and G.T.U. Papers Review Questions University Questions
m

,.,

".,

5 - 51 5- 52

5 - 60 5 - 87
5 - 90

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Advantages of Three Phase System "' . "'

6 -1
" ,,6 - 2

6.3 Generation of Three Phase Voltage System ... 6.4 Important Definitions Related to Three Phase System
6.5 Three Phase Supply Conrlections 6.5.1 Star ConneC~Qn
6 5 2 Della Conneclion " .. " " " "
m

6 -4 6 -4
" .. ,,6" ,5

6-5
m m

6.6 Concept of Line Voltages and Line Currents

6.1.1 Balancedo81l L 6.8 Relations for Star Connected load ..... 69 Relations for Delta Connected load 6.10 Power Triangle for Three Phase Load .'

6 -5 6" 6

6.7 Concept of Phase Voltages and Phase Currents .. "

"

"

s· a
..................................... 6- B 6 -12 ,,, " ,.., ,..,6 - 14 6 - 15 6-17 .

6.11 Steps to Solve Problems on Three Phase Systems 6 12 Three Phase Power Measurement 6.,13 AboutWattmeter

............................. -18 6
, ,.., "
u

6.14 Examples of Wattmeter Connections and

Corresponding Readings 6.15 Two Wattmeter Method
-----

"

6 - 19 6 - 2'1
-

6 15 1 Proof of Tw Wattmeter r/.ethod for Stir Con nected load

6·21

Urhcberrec htl lch gcsc h utztes M ateri"

6.15.2 Proof of Two Wattmeter

Method for Della Connected

Load ..........•..........

6·23 6·24

6.15.3 Effect of Leadine Power Factor

6.16 Power Factor Calculation by Two Wattmeter Method 6.18 Reactive Volt-Amperes by Two Wattmeter Method 6.19 Advantages ofTwo Wattmeter Melhod 6.20 Disadvantages of Two Wattmeter Method
Examples with Solutions Examples from G.U ..and G.T.U. Papers

6 - 26 6 - 29 6 - 29 6 - 30 6 - 30 6 - 39 6 - 50

6.17 Effect of P.F.on Wattmeter Readings •.....•........................................ 6 - 27

Review Questions .•..•.................................•...........................•..............•..... 6 - 47

:~ii' ,+,.{~Billteries ~nd'ci~t.hg;·~J'IfIt'4*';~;I,~

7.1 Inlreductlon
7.2 Types 01 Cells 7.3 Cell Tenmlnology
mm

University Questions

!1!~Fji17Ptj:~)1
7•1
7-2 7-2

7.4 Primary Cells

7.4.1 Dry Zinc-Cilrbon Cell ..... 7.4.1.1 Coil Reaction . 7.4.1.2 Feature, oj Cell . 7.4.1.3 App~calian. 7.4.2 Mercury Cell . .

7-3
_.7·3

7·5

7·5

7A 2 '2 featIJ,., oil .. Cell 7.4.2:3 App~OB~on. . . .

7·6 _ 7· 7

7.5 Secondary Cells

_ _
....

7- 7

7.6 Lead Acid 6allel)'

7-7
.. 7·6 . ... 7·6

7,6.1 FlJlIcljons of Separators

7.S.2 Chemical. Action in Lead Acid BaHeI)' ...

Urheberrec htl lch gcsc hutztes M aleria

7.0.3 FeabJres of Lead Acid Battery ..............•..•.•.•.•.•.....••......•.....

7.6.4 Conditions a Fully Charg~ of Batte!)' •..•••••..............

7 -11 .. 7 -11
.. 7-12 . 7 -12 7 - 13

7.6.5 Maintenances and Precautions

to be taken for

lead Acid B atlar}' ... ' . • . • . • • .. • .

7.6.6 Testing Procedure for lead Acid Battery

7.6.7 Applications ..•.......•...........•.•..................................

7.7 Battery Capacity or Battery life 7.8 Battery Effil;iency 7.8.1 Ampere-h our Efficiem;y •.•......•...........................
7.8.2 Watt-h\l\lr Efficiency
u m

7 - 14 7 - 15
, .......•••.•.

7 • 15
7 -15

7.9 Charge and Discharge Curves 7.10 Baltery Charging

h

7 ~ 16
m

7 -17
7 -18

7.10.1 Indications of Ful~ Charged Batlery

7.11 Charging Methods

7.11,1 Constant Current Method 7.112 Constanl Voltage Method l.1 LJ Rectifier Method

7 ·18
7 - 18 7 • 19 7 - 20

7.12 Grouping of Cells

on

7 - 21 . , 7 ·21
7 - 21 , . 7 - 22

7.12.1Series Grouping.......................
7.12.2 Parallel Grouping 7.12.3 Series-Parallel Grouping

7.13 Alkaline Cells

7.14

-.

7 • 23 7 - 23

Nickel-

Iron CeIl
. .

7.14.1 Chemical Reaction.

7-23

7.14.2 Electrical Characteristics

7.14.3 Capacity .........................••.. 7.14.4 Effir:ienc¥ 7.14.5 Advantages 7.14.6 Disadvantages ••. .

....................

7·24
7 - 25 7·25

_...••.....•..•..•.•......•....•••

......................

1-25 .. .. ,_.7"25

Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes Materia

7.14.7 Appications

7" 26

7.15 Nickel- Cadmium Cell 7.15.1 Chemical Reaction 7.15.2 Features . 7.15.3 ApplicationL
......

7 - 26 .7-27 .7-27
.7-27

7.16 Comparison of Various Batteries 7,17 Comparison of Primary and Secondary Cells 7.18 Requirements of the Cables , ", .., "

7 - 28 7 - 28 7 - 29 7· 30 7 - 31
... 7-31

7.19' General Construction of a Cable 7.20 Types of Cables

7 .20.1 Belled Cables •• , . , . 7.20.2 Screened Type Cables .. 7.20.2.1 H·T)1l9 Cables . 7.20.2.2 S.L Cabl"s 7.20.3 ..

7 ·32 7 ·33 . .

Super Tension (S.T.) Cabies

.................. . ,

7- 34 7·34
. 7 -35

7.20.4 Oil Filled cables 7.20.4.1 Adv8l1toges 7.2Q.4.2 Olsa""ontalles .

7 ·36

7.20.5 Go. P ressure Cables ..

7.20.5.1 Ad'snlllgas

.7- 36
. 1 - 36

7.21 Insulating Materials for Cables 7.2.1.1 Paly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) . 7.21.2 Paper
7.21.3 Cross Llnked Polythelene . .

"

7 - 37
.7·36

.7

-aa

7.21.4 VUlconired India Rubber (VIR) .......

.7-39

Review Questions University Questions .., .., ..,

7 - 40 H7 - 40

Urheberrec htl ich gcsc hutztes Materia

8,1 Introduction __

_ ,

'..""" _, "'. "." ..-

._ ..__

,__ -',_, -' -'_.,"'-. 8 - 1 .__ , , , .. , , ,..8 - 1 8· ,

.. 8-2

8.2 Types of Wires,

8,2,1 V,I,R. Wlm (Vulcanised India Rubber) 8,2,2 C.T.S. 'Iflre ( Cab Tyre Sheathed). , 6,2,3 P.V.C, Wire ( PolYVinyl Chloride) . , a.2.4FlexiblaWires.,. ,.,. , .. "., ... ,
H.m ,..

.. 8-2 .. 8-2
_ __

8.3 Specification of Wires 8.3_' standard Wire Gauge .. _, •••.. , 8.3.2 Am erican Siandard Specification 8.3.3 Indian StandardSpecificalion.,., 8.4 Factors Affecting Wiring System 8.5 Types of Wiring Systems 6,5,1 Cleat Wiring. ,., ", ...
8.5.1.1 Adllaf1tage,. 8,5,.1,2 Disaavamages .

8-3 , 8"4 8·4

,., ,

,. ,

, .. ,. ,

, .. , .. ,., _, _"' •• ' , " ,..,

_•. , ,..,_ .._ __ ,.. ,

, ... , ... 8·4 _ ..,..,,8 - 5 .._ , 8·6 ..8-6

a·a
, .•....... ,., a·7 8-7 8·7 8·]
.. 8- 8

8_5.2 Casing Capping,

8.5.2.' AdYanlag as,

8.5.3 Surface Wi'; n9, • _

8,5,3.1,Advantagos ....

8·a
8-8

8.5.4 Conduit Wiring

8-8 - 8-9

8.5.4,.2 Corulealed Conduil W1nn9 8_5.4 J Advantages, 6,5,4,4 Disadvantage, 8.5.5 Metal Sheathed Wiring a,5,5, 1 MYant~es ....

. 8· 9

8·9

e·9
__ .8·10 ,.,
_ . 8-10

Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes Materia

B.S.S.2 Disadvantages.

..
•• • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• · •••• , •

a . 10
8 - 10
; 8-10 8 • 11 ..•..............•.............................

8.6 Methods of Wiring

8.S.1 Joint Box or Tea System

8.6.2 Looping in System ....................................•...............•.

8.7 Wiring Schemes .....•........ ,....•.. ,

8.7.1 Control of One Lamp from One SlIilch 8.72 Two Way Control 01 Lamps or Staircase Wiring ..... 8.7.3 Conlrol of Two Lamps by Individual Switches 8.7.4 Three Way Control of Lamps .. . . .•............. . . .....

8 - 13
8-13

.. ... , .8-13

8·15

8.7.5 GodOWll Wiring

. .................
Ou~el , ......•.

. 8··16
6 - 17

8.7.6 Control of a Lamp and a Fan along with a Th ree Pin Swret

8.8 Wiring Accessories

6.8.1 Swilcl1as ..........•...•....................•... 8.8.2 Fuse ..................•...... S.B.2.1 H.R.C. FUJe . 6.B.2.2 cartridge FU'e . 8.8.3 Lamp Holders 8.8,4 Ceiling Roses 8.8.5 PluljS and Swrets .. , .... .. .

8 - 18
... 6·18 . .. 8-20

.s·

21

. 8-22 8-22

...............

8-22
.. >< 8 -23

8,8.6 Lugs, .••• '" . , ... , , , ' •. B.9 Domestic Wiring installation. ,...... 8.10 Industrial EIectrifi calion 8.11 Megger , , ,
.

.." a -23
. , , 8 - 23 8 - 26 , 8 ~ 29
............. . .... >< .... 8·29 ><,829

8.11 ..1 Principia of Opamtion

8,11.2 COnsliUc1lon ...

8.11.3 Working.,

... ,.

..8-30 ... 8- 30

8.11 A Appli catlons , ... ,

Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes Materia

8.12 Testing of Wiring Installation a.12.1.lnsula~on Test with Re.specllo Earth 8.12.2 Insulation Test between Two ConductOIll 8.12.3 Continuity Test, 8.12.4 Test fur earth Resistance 8.12.5 Polarity Test fur Single Pole SWttches Review Questions
.

'" .......•.. '" . . . . . .............

8 - 31 8-31 ..8-52 ..8- 32 8- 32 8 - 32 :8 - 33

.

9.1 Introduction 9.2 Types of Lamps

9.. Fluorescent lamp or Tube light 3 9.3.1 WOiI(ing 9.32 Advantag as 9.3.3 Disadvantages, .•... 9.. Sodium Vapour lamp 4 9.4.1 Constru<;Uon 9.4.2 Working 9.4.3 Advanlages . , " .. . . ,.

'"

9- 1 ,
9- 1 9" 1 ..9 ··2 ...9-3 . .. 9·3 _ .. ......
.. ......

"

"

9" 3 9·4
9-4

...... .

9·4

9.4.4 Oisadvanlaqes
9.5 Mercury Vapour Lamp

.. ... ,.9·4 9-4 9- 5 ...9-6 .9-6

9.6 Important Definitions Related to Illumination 9.6.1 Ligh!. 9.6.2 Radiant Efficien<;y ..... 9.6.3 Plane Angle 9.6.4 Solid Angle ....•..... 9.6.5 luminous Aux . .. , . .

.9-6

.9-6 9· 7

Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes Materia

9.6,6lumlnous 9.6,7 Illuminance

Intensity orDluminalion,

. ., ... , ,

,9-1
,9-7

9 .S. B Lumin once or BrighlI1ess.,

9,6.9 Luminous Efficiency, .,

... 9-8

9.6.10 Glare

.
.

9.6.11 Purldng Effect ., 9.6.IZMeon

,
••••.••••••.•••••.••....••.......•• , ., , ...........• ,, , ..•.......•.... , , ,

9-8
9 -9 , ,., .,., 9-9

Spherical Candle Power (M,S.C,P.)

9.6.13 Mean Half Spherical CandlB Power (M,H.S,C.P.) 9.6,14 DifferentUnils .. ,., .. ,., , .. , ,.,.,.,. ,.,.,.,

.9·9 9 -9

9.7 Laws of Illumination

, .. ,., ..•.. , ,

9.7.11 nverse Square Lawof Illumination

9.7.2 Lambert's Cosine Law. , 9.7.3 Cosine Cube Law , ,

, ......•............

, . , ., . , . 9 • 9

,
,

,
,

, 9 - 11
9 - II

9.8 Requirements of a Good lighting Scheme 9.8.1 TIluminaffon Level 9.8.2 Glare, ... , .. ,. , . . 9.8.3 Shadows • , ... , ... 9.SA Colcur Renderi ns .
9.8.5 Lamp Fittings., ,., , , , , •...

9 - 12
, .. ,9 - 12

,9 ·12
.. 9·12 ,. , . ., ... 9·13 ,. 9 ·13

9.MMaintanance .. ,

"

9·13 9 - 13
, 9-13 , .. 9-14 9-14 9-14 9-15

9.9 Factors Affecting Design Procedure of Good Lighting Scheme

9.9.1 Space to Heighl Ratlo .. ,.,.,.,.,.,., 9,9,2 Coefficient

of Utili2atian I.e, U!J1lzatinn FaCiO! .. ,. ,

, ., .•...•....•...... , .•...... ,. , , ,.,

, ., ......•......... , .•....•..•. .,

9,9,3 Depre<:latian Factor . ., .•....•.•

U4 Waste Ugh! Factor ...•..............

9.9.5 Beam Faotor 9,9.6 Absorption Factor , . , , . , ...... .,

,., •.•

... 9. 15 , 9· 15

9.9.7 Reflection Factor

Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes Materia

9.10 Types of Lighting Schemes

9.10. t Direct Ljghtinq 9.10.2 Semi·Direcl 9.10.3Indirecl ..

9 - 15 .9-16
. 9 ·16

UgMng ......

UghUn9 ..... Lighting. .. . .9

..

9-1.6 - 17
.9-17

910.4 Semi.lndired

9.10.5 General UghUng ..

9.11 Factory Lighting 9.12 Industrial Light Fittings

,. _ .

9 - 17 9 -18
9 - 18 ..9-19

9.121 DiffusingFiltings . .. .. . . . .. .. .. .

9. , 2..2 ConcenlraUngRefteclors
9.12.3 DI.persiveRefiec1ors ..

9.12.4 Ang Ie Reftectors ... 9.13 Flood lighting

..9·19 9 • 1.9
. .

9.13.1 The

Projeclor

.......... 9·20 .. ...... 9 -20

9" 2Q

9.13.2 Types or Projeclors

9.1.3.3 LocaUon and Mounllng 01 Projeclors •.•••••••.••••••••.•••.••••••.••.•••...•

9.13.4 Flood Lighting Ca Iculations 9,14 Street Lighting 9.14.1 Diffusion Principle. . .. . .. .. .. .. .
9.14 ..2 Specular R.eflection~nciple ....• P 9.1.4.3 General Require ment. lar SlJ'eel Lighting. . .. .
U.H

9 - 21

9- 21
. . . . . • . . .. .

.9 • 22 9·22
. .. 9 - 23

9.15 Design of Simple Indoor Lighting Scheme Examples with Solutions Review Q.uestions University Questions ,., _ " .,

9 - 23 9 - 213 9 - 32 " 9 - 32

Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes Materia

10.1 Introduction 10.2lnlroduction to Relay

. .

10 - 1 10 -1
10 -1 10 - 2

10.2.1 B~sic Trip CircuttOOefation. . 10.2:2AuxiliarySwitch. .. . . . . . . . . 10.3 Tripping Sohemes :

10 - 3
, 10 . 3

10.3.1 Relayswith Malle T¥J>9Contact ................•.....•.......•.•.•.......• 10.32 Relay with Break Type Contact.. " 10.4 Electromagnetic Attraction Relays , , , .. ,. ,

,10 - 4 10 - 6
10- 6

10.4.1 AtlracIed Arma\ure Type Relay 10.4.2 Solenoid8lld

PlungerType Relay
m m.m m m

10 - 6 10 - 8 , , 10 - 9 10 - 10
, . ., .10 -12

10 .. Induction Type Relays 5 10.6 ThemnaIRelays

10.7 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MGB) 10.7.1CompoIison of a Fuse and MCB 10.8 Earth leak.age 10 9 Earthing 10.10 Necessity of Earthing
" " ,

Circuit Breaker (ELeB) ,

10 - 12 10 - 14 10 - 15 10·17

1010.1 Uses 01 Earlhing 10.11 Melhods of Earthing

_ .

_"

10 - 18
,10-18

10.11.1Plate Earthing 10.11.2Pipel:arthing.......... 10.12 Mullimeter

. .10-19 _ 10 - 21 10 - 22
.u ".' , •••••. , ••••

10.12.1 Use of Mummeter for D.C. Voltage Measurement. 10 122.Use of Multimeter as an Amme\eL .........•........•.• 10.12.3 Useof Mul~meter for Moasurement of A.C. Voltage ..
10 124 Usaof Multimeter for Resislance Measuremenl .

10-22

. ....................

10-23 10-23

U rheberrcc htl ich gesc hutztes M ateriB

10.13 Safety Precautions 10.14 Electric Shock , , ., , '" "

10 - 24 10 - 24 '" .10 - 25 10 - 26 " " , , "., , 10 - 27

10.14.1 Elementary First Aid Against Shock. '" 10.15 Safety Rules Review Questions

Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes Materia

D.C. Circuits
1.1 Introduction
In practice, the electrical circuits may consist of one or more sources of energy' and number of electrical parameters, connected in different ways. The different electrical parameters or elernenls are resistors, capacitors and inductors. The combination of such elements elongwith various Sources of energy gives rise 10 complicated electrical circuits, generally referred as networks. The terms dreuit and network are used synonymously in the electrical literature. The d.c, circuits consist of only resistances and d.c, sources of energy, And the circuit analysis means to find a current through or voltage across any branch of the circuit. This chapter includes various techniques of analysing d.c, circuits. The chapter starts with explaining the fundamentals of electricity along with the detail discussion of the eHed of temperature on resistance. The chapter also includes the discussion of the characteristics of series-parallel circuits, star-delta and delta-star transformations and Kirchhoffs laws and its applications.

1.2 The Structure

In the understanding

of Matter
of fundamentals of electricity, the knowledge of the structure of role The matter which occupies the space may be soild, liquid and atoms. of which .1\ substances are composed are not at .U

matter plays an important Or gaseous. The molecules

elemental, bu t are themsal ves made up of simpler mil ties. We know this because we, up to certain extent, are successful in breaking atoms and studying the resulting products. For instance, such surfaces, such particles are conditions. It matter, called particles are obtained by causing ultraviolet light to faU on cold metal particles are spontaneous! y ejected from the radioactive elements. So these obtained from many different substances under such widely varying is believed that such paJ'ticl~ are ono of Ihc elemental ~nstituenb;; of all el ec trons, atom is composed of the three These are the neutron, the proton

Infac], according to the modem electron thenry, fundamental particles" which arc invisible to bare eyes.

and the electron. The proton is defined as positively charged while the electron is defined as nega tivel y charged. The neutron is uncharged i.e. neutral in nature possessing no charge. The mass 01 neutron and proton is same while the electron is very light, almost 1/1840th the mass of the neutron and proton. The following table gives information about these three particles. (1 • 1)

Urhcberrec htllch gcsc hutztes M ateri"

Eleme nts of Electri cal Eng i11118.ri ng Fundamental particles of mailer Symbol
Natu.re of harge Mass in

O. C. Circuits 'kg.

II:

pos.sessed

o
Proton Elei:tnm p+

t 6751< 10""
t675x10"'" 9_107x 10-"

.-

Table

1.1

1.2.. Structure of an Atom 1

All of the protons and neutrons arc bound together into" compact nucleus. may be thought of as a central sun, about which electrons revolve in a particular This structure surrounding the n ucleus is referred as the electron do ud, Nucleus fashion.

In Ihe normal a 10m the number of protons equal to the number of electrons, An a tom as a whole is electrica lly neu tral.The electrons are ·a'ranged in different orb iIs. The nucleus exerts a 10= 01 nttrection Oil the revel vlng electrons and hold them together. All these different orbits are called shells and possess certain cncr-gy_ Hence the", or" also caned energy shells or quanta. "!"he orbit which is closest 10 the nucleus is always under the tremendous force 01 artraction under very weak force of attraction, while the orbit which is farthest from rhe nucleus is

Kay pCoi)"i1 > 1111< ileclro". or.lI11< /u,/,j.,,, Ij", "j,deu.. Such Ii :'hdl

'~"$

t.. mU.1i o"'''~t.""" slJ.n J;nd Slid, d""ti/",s

reoolri""gl"

fm&est :-orbi~~f",J,enciJ..I"O!;hly
are .

In some atoms such valence electrons are so loosely bound 10 the nude us that 01 room temperature the additional energy imparted to the valence electrons cnuses them 10 escope from the shell and exis I as free electrons, Such free electrons are basically responsible for the flow 0 f electric current thro ugh metals.

The electrons

which

are rev olving

round

the nucleus,

not revnl ve in a 5mgle orbit.

Each orbit consists of fixed number of electrons. In general, an orbit can contain " maximum of 2112 electrons where n is the number of orbit. So first orbit or shell can ocrupy maxirnnm of 2. x 12 i.e. 2. electrons while the second shell can occupy maximum of

2x 22 i.e. 8 electrons
ocrupy maximum different atoms.

and

so on, the C.>:c.plion to this rule irrespecti ve of its n umber.

is tho t the valence

shell can of two

8 electrons

Let us see the structure

U rl eborrec h U lch Jes" 11,tztes M il·~ri~ [

Elements of Electrical tnglneerlng

1-3

D. C. Circuits

1) Hydrogan: This atom consists of one proton and one electron revolving around the nucleus. This is the simplest atom. This is shown in the Fig. 1.1 (a). The dol represents an electron while nucleus is represented by a circle with the positive sign inside it. 2) Silicon: This atom consists of 14 electrons. These revolve around the nucleus in three orolts. The first orbit has maximum 2 electrons, the second has maximum 8 electrons and the third orbit has remaining 4 electrons. This is shown in the Fig, 1.1 (b).
OrM 1~ (2 electrons)

-: :-:-:-~~~;::~:~
I

"

C\

r
...

orbit2

electrons)

''''',
".

... ..~ "'-

;"

\':~:~~:::::~~~::~;~
0:;1
... .... __ ..._ "' rI (4 electrons]
0 b·t3

(a) Hydrogen The 4 electrons located

atom
Fig. 1.1

(b) SIlicon atom shell are loosely

in the farthest

held by the nucleus ~nd

generally available as free electrons. If by .ny means some of the electrons are removed, the negative charge of that atom decreases while positively charged protons remain same. The resultant charge On the atom remains more positive in nature and such clement is

called positively charged. Whi.le if by any means Ute electrons are added. then the total negative charge increases than positive and such element is called negatively charged. 1.3 Concept of Charge In all the atoms, there exists number 01 electrons which are very loosely bound to its nucleus, Such electrons are free to wonder about, through the .sp"ce under the influence of specific forces. Now when such elecrrons are removed from an atom it becomes positively charged.lhls is because of loosing negatively charged panicles i.e, electrons from it As against this, it excess electrons ale ad ded to the atom it becomes negatively charged.

The following table shows the different particles and charge possessed by them. P.rticl.
Neutron Prolon Electron Chug e possomred in Coulomb 0
t602~10-1'

Natoru
Neutral
Positive

t602 x 10<·'9

Nega.tive

Table 1.2

U rhcberrec htl lch gesc h "Illes M ateri"

Eluments of ElectrIcal

Eng Ineen ng"

1-4

D.C. Circuits

1.3.1 Unit of Charge

As seen from the Table 1.2 that the charge possessed by the electron small hence it is not convenient to take it as the unit of charge. The unit of the measurement The charge charge possessed electrons, Thus, From coulomb the above discussion On One electron by total number of the charge is Coulomb. is very
vel}'

is 1. 602 x 10 -1~, so one coulomb

of (1/ 1.1I(l2><10-19) electrons

charge

is defined

as the of

i.e, 6.24xlO!8

number

I
then ilia t element

1 c""lomb

'"' charge On

6.24 x 1O!S electrons

I
of one

it is clear tha t if an element

has a post live charge of electrons.

has a deficiency

of 6. 24 x 10 1B number

1.4 Concept

of Electromotive
earlier

Force and Current

thai the free electrons
To

It has been mentioned

arc responsible
this,

for the flow of

fir,st we'

electric current. Let us see how it happens ..

understand

win see

F,ee
electron

the enlarged view of the inside of a piece of a cond uctor, A cond uctor is one which has abundan t free alec trona The free electrons in such a conductor are always moving in random directions "S shown in the Fig. 1:2.

Fi!l. 1.2 Inside the place of a conductor

r-r-

tnstce lhe conductor

-.
Dire!)uan of co nventlonai amam (+ve lo-ve)

~.'

:.®.,

FtOiN of etecnons 1.- ve 10 +ve)

Fig. 1.3 The flow 01 currant

urncberrechthcn

gesolrjjtzles

Ma "''''

E Ierne nts of EIectri calBn gi nee ri n!l The small electrical effort, externally

1·5
applied to such conductor makes

D. C. Circuits
all such free

electrons to drift along the metal in a definite particular directiun. This direction depends on how the external electrical effort is applied 10 the conductor, Such an electrical effort may be an electrical cell, connected across the two ends of a conductor. phenomenon is rep resen ted in the Fi g 1.3. Such physical

Key Point; ;<til dcclii~L lijfQrl r<'q~i,ed;, ~t9;drift Pji~ #lfWj}lU! in onqWlil'llloi" (iirecliQi!: ~jf. ojiraolc!pti~·<CalltA.;Eleclrqr!;JIiv,;dlo"'ce (&1MIQ·
'The metal consists of particles which are charged. 'The like charges repel while unlike charges attract each other. But as external electric effort is applied, the free electrons as are neg. ti vel y charge" •. gel a ttracted by post Hve of the cell connecred. And thts is the reason why electrons get aligned in One P"' ti cular direction under the ln fluence of an electromotive force.

A toms. when they loose or gain electrons, become charged accordingly and are called ions. Now when Jree electron gets dr.gged towards positive from an atom it becomes positively charged ion. Such positive ion drags a free electron from the next atom. This process. "'peals from atom to atom along the conductor, So there is now of electrons from

nega live to posi live of the cell. externally

connected, This movement of electrons

through the conductor across which the is called an Electric Current,

cell

is of of

The movement of electrons is ~1wa ys from negative to posi live w hilc movement current is always assumed as from positive to negative. This is called direction conventional current,

We are going to follow direction of the conventional from positive to negative terminal, of the battery through

current throughout this book. i.e. the external circuit.

1.5 Relation between Charge

The current is now 01 electrons.

and Current.
Thus curren t can be measured by measuring how

many electrons are passing through material per second. "Ibis can be expressed in terms of the charge carried by those electrons in the rna terial per second. So the flow of charge per UJ\i t tim e I. used to quantify an electric current,

Urhcberrec htl ich ges c h lilltes M a erla

E le me n ts of EI ~ctri cal Eng i nee rl n9 Thecharge is indicated

1 _6

D. C. Circuits

by Q coulombs while current is indicated

by l. The unit for lhe

we can

current is Amperes which is nothing but coulombs/sec, Hence mathematically write the rele lion between U charge (Q) and the electric curren t (I) as, ..e

9
Aver" gc current Q flowing

To ta I charge transferred Time required for transfer 01 charge ..

Definition of 1 Ampere: A currenl of 1 Amp.,., is said te b. flowing a du:rrgc of one coulomb is pllS'Si,zg a.ny giveu point .orr it in om!' second.
Now 1 coulomb is 6. 24x 10 ts number pc, se:ond of electrons. section So 1 ampere flow ul 6. Z4x 1018 electrons t Ampere current across"

j"

II" CO" duc!~r W/O""

flow means

current

taken any where per second

in the circuit.

~ Flow of 6.24 x 108 electrons

1.6 Concept of Electric

Potential and Potential Difference

particles are brought near, they try to repel each other each other. This means, every charged particle has a

Wlten two similarly charged while dtsstmllar charges attract 'lendency to do we r k.

Key' P~irit, ,nlt.i' a~i1il)J 9/ ~ c/r.rgrll. pnrticlf" II' d~ fhe n""k is cilll~ 'its oI.ofr/o; pute.n.fial_ rli< uni! of deC/ric potelltiaf ;'1 vall. ., , The e lcctri c poten tial done in bringing that point. Mathematically at a poi nt due to a tho rge is one vo It if an" joule of wor k is charge
as,

a unit positive it is expressed

i.e. positive

charge of One coulomb

from inflnity

to

Electrical

..

Potentia I =

Work done W Cha rg" .'" Q

]t

Let us define now the potential difference. is well known thn t, fI ow of wa ter is always from higher level to lower level, flaw of

heat is always from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature. Such a level difference which causes flow of water, heal and So on, also exists in electric circuits.

Urroo uochtlich eschutat

"~I~'ari"

Elements of Electrical

Enllineerinll

1 ·7

D. C. Circuits

Consider two points having potential difference of V volts between them, as shown in th~ Fig. 1.4. The p oint A is nt higher po tential than B. As per the definition of vel t, the V joules of work is to be performed to move unit charge from point B 10 point A. Th us, when such two points, whim arc at dllferent potentials ore joined together with U1e help of wire, the elec trtc CUrren I flows from hi sher potential to lower potential i.e. the electrons start flowing from lower potential 10 higher potential. Hence, to main tain the flow 0 f electrons i. c. flow of

v,

Fig. 1.4 difference between the two points.

electric
;Key Poj.nf~Jilo· ,"urre"t 0111 flmv:[( zem,

current,

there

must

">d51 a

potential

tlu: pll"'lliar;dWii;"nu;.WfiJj~dl

tlu;;.ltv"

point.

is .

1.1 Electromotive

Force and Potential

Difference

Earlier we have seen the concept 01 e.m.I, The e.m.I, is that force which causes the flow of electrons Le. flow 01 current in the given circuit, Lei us understand its meanlng more clearly. Consider a simple cell shown in Fig. 1.5 (a). Due to the chemical reaction in the solution the terminal 'A· has acquired positive charge while terminai 'B' has acquired nega live charge.

If now a piece of conductor is connected between the terminals A and B lhen flow of electrons st .. rts through H. This is no thing but the flow a f curren t thro ugh the cond uctor, This is shown in the Fig. 1.5 (b). The electrons will flow from terminal B 10 A and hence direction of curren t is from A to B i.e, pas; tive to nega live as shown.
One may think that once the positive charge on terminal A gel" neutralised due to the electrons, lhen lIow of electrons will stop. Both U,C terrnlnals may get neutralised aile." some time. Bu t this does not happen practically. This is beca usc chemical 'co cnon in the solution malntains terminal A posinvely charged and terminal B as negatively charged. This maintains the !low of current The chemical reaction converts chemical energy into electric energy which maintains flow of electrons.

Elements of Electrical

Engineering

1 -8

D. C. Circuits

current rtowsand; e!eclrk.a'i energy is "",weMed to

heal e_~ergy

Due 10 polen,.1

dITI."",c.,

P~--~.~~~~~Q~--=-----~
Current

Chcmcal

so'lution.

(a) Cell

Fig. 1.5

(b) Current

due to a cell

Consider

Iwo points

P and Q a s shown

in the Fig. L5 (b), then the current

is flowing

from poinl P to paint Q. This means there exists a potential difference between the points P and Q. This potential difference is called voltage denoted as V and measured in volts, In other words We can explain the difference between e.m. f. and p .d. as below.

In the

"oil two ""orgy transformations are taking place simultaneously. The one is chemical energy because of solution in cell is getting converted 10 electrical energy which is basic cause for flow of electrons and hence current. The second is w hen current flows, lhe pie.:e 01 metal gets hen led up l.e, electrical energy is getting converted to heat energy, due to flow of current, In the first tra nsforma ti on e let:tri coI energy i.3 gener. ted fro mother form of energy. The force involved in such transformation is electromotive force. When current flows, due 10 which metal gets heated up t.e. due to existence 01 potential difference between two polnts, voltage is existing. And in such case electrical energy gets converted to other form 01 en orgy. The force involved in such transfo rmation is nothing but the potential difference or voltage, Both e.m.f, and potential difference arc in generally referred as voltage,

1.8 ResIstance
The current in the electrical circuit parameter s. For example circuit not only depends on c.m.f, or p.d, but also on the if lamp is connected in a circui], current sels affected and

Urheberrechilich

gesolrutzles

Ma "''''

Elements of Electrical

Eng Ineerlng

D. C. Circuits
t

lamp fi lamen t becomes hot rad i a ting Iight. aut if ron rae t a t one end is loose, C"UIICCn decreases but sparking occurs at loose contact making it hot. II two lamps are connected one after the other, brightness obtained is less than that obtained by a single lamp. These examples show thai current, flow of electrons depends On the circuit parameters and not only the e.m, I. alone.

:!\ey -PO I nt , ·n.'!!!i'-,:!J1"ri;y,

ani!

tf.iB'ii,ta~u."ii.
The concept motion

<it

yDf ~"..eltcfril:: fll. ,,,,ng 11m",!<i!Qu,e;cr.ctri",,'.

of resistance is analogous

dicuJ7 ladling: IQ ~4 :Vuta:<i1-11t

tlwgy

'

to

'lie """wrtM ~

~:,it i1J I"at. is <-aJIM

in the mechanical

to !he friction

involved

Every meta] has a tendency

to oppose

the flow of current.

Higher

the availability

of the fmc electrons, lesser will be !he opposition to the lIow of current. The conductor due to the high number of free el ectrons offer less resistance to the lIow of current, The opposition to the flow of current and conversion of electrical energy into heat energy CO.n be explained with the help of atomic structure as below. When the flow of el"c!rOns is estsbl ished in the metal, the ions get formed which are charged particles as discussed earlier. Now free electrons are moving in specific direction when connected to external source of e.m.1. So such ions always become obstruction for the flowing electrons. So there is collision between ions and free flowing electrons. This not only red uces the' "peed of electrons but also prod aces the heat. The effect of this is nothing but the reduction of flow of current, Thus the material opposes !he flow of current, The resis tance is dena ted by the symbol 'R' and represented as Q . We can define unit ohm as below. is measured in ohm symbolically

Now' hence Thus unit 1 ohm can be defined one ampere as that resistance flows through of the circuit

if it develops

0_24

co lor; es of heal, when

current

the circuit for One second.

Eil.rlicr we ~ve seen tho t 5O:m~ ron tcn.Q.le: pOS~5S: lal"gc n.u:mb.cJ'of free electrons and hence offer less opposition to the flow oj curren t_ Such clements are classified as the 'Cond ucrors' of electricity. While in some matertals the number of free electrons are very

less and hence offering a large resis tance classified as the 'Insulators' of electricity.

to the

flow

of current.

Such

elements examples

are of

Examples of good conductors are silver, copper, aluminium while insulators a", generally non metals like glass, rubber, wood, paper etc,

Let us see the factors affecting the resis lance,

Urhcberrec htl ich ges c h lilltes !vi a erla

Elements

of Electrical

Engineering

1 -10

D. C. Circuits

1.8.1 Factors Affecting

the Resistance
to the

1. Length of the material: The resistance of a material, is directly proportional length, The resistance of longer wire is more, Length is denoted by 'J' .

2. era ss-secti onal a rea: The resistance of a material is inversely propprtional to the cross-sectional area of the material. More cross-sectional area allowed the passage of more number of free electrons, offering less resistance, The crOSS sectional area is denoted by 'a'. 3. The type and nature of the material: As discussed earlier whether it consists more number 01 frec electrons or not. affects the v •.1ue of the resistance. So material which is conductor has less resistance while an insulator has "e,ry high resistance. 4. Temperature: Generally small. So for • certain expression as. material at a certain tempera lure we can write a mathematical The temperature of the material increases affects the value of the resistance. increases. Generally is not consi dered as it is negligibly the resistance of the material as its temperature

effect of small changes

in tempera lure on the resistance

and effe.;t of nature of material is considered through the constant of proportionalily denoted by p (rho) caned I'1!sisti,,;1y or specific resistance of the material, So finally.

R Where
a Length in metres area in square metres

Cross-sectional Resistivity Resistance

P R 1_9 Resistivity

in ohms-metres in

ohms

and Conductivity
resistance of a material depends on nature of material of resistance it can be ""pressed as, and

The resisti vity or specific

denoted by p(rho). From the expression

II is measured

in n om. /wv,ng ,,"il lenglh and unil Cl'1J5S-1;,,'iDnai area ;5

Defl,lIt/on; The resistance of II """.rial mOw," .... its specific res ;slance Dr resistivity.

Urheberrec htl lch

gC5C

hutztes M ateri"

Elements of Electrical Engineering

1 -11

D. C. Cin:uits

The Table 1.3 gives the value of resisti vity of few common materials. Name of matarlal
InternaUonal Standard Copper Alum;nium Cast

p In!l-m
1.72c~10"a 2.6xro..a

Bronze,
Iron· Wrought Carbon Gmphite GOld SiJvsr Annaa5ed Lead

3.6~.lo-'!
10.7xl0'"a 4.6xl0·· 2.:J(ixlo..a 1.58xl0-"

nxlo-'!

Table 1.3

1.9.1 Conductance

(G)

The conductance of any material is reciprocal of its resistance and is denoted as G. It is the indication of case with which current can flow through the material. II is measured

So

1.9.2 Conductivity
The quantity i. the raci pmcal (lip) is called conductivity, of resistivity. It is measured denoted as q (sigma). in siem"".1 IlL Thus the conductivity

Im+

Exam pie 1.1 ; 11U' resislmlct

d;"m.ler is lmm, ,glculQle the resislimfy Solution: 25m,

of copper wire 25 m oj copper.

d~ 1 mm,

/orrg

is found

to be 50

n.

If iIs

Urheberrec htllch gesc h(jutes Iv! ate,i"

Eloments

of Electrical

Engineering ~ (d'i ~

1·12

D. C. Circuits mm2

(12) ,,0.7B53

Now

T-

Ra _ SOx 0 7lI53xl0-6

25

.. 1 mme 10 -3 m •m

1$7 x 10-6 1.....

a . IJl ~ 1.57 ~

Example 1.2; Oilcu/are tile resistance of Q 100 m lenglll of wire having II rmifonn CI"OSHeclional area oj 0.02 mnl and "apillg resistipity oj 40 j.!l) - em, Ij the unre is drawn out 10four time its oTigi"allenglh" Ctl/,ul.le it5 >lew,,,,,i,tar,, e. I" 100 m, a '" 0.Q2 mm2 and p R = p.l
express

Solution; Now

= 40 Ilfl
a in m

- em
2

and p in

n . rn

40x 10-6 x 10-2 x 100 = 2000 O.02xlO-6 The wire is drawn But the volume wluch is the product out such that

= 41
same before and after drawing the wire,

of the wire must remain of length and area.

ax

Volume a'

I ;:::;. a"

R'

new resistance

" ...,."

nr

p(41l

(i)

= 16

(PI)..
"

I'"

16 R = 32000

1.10, Effect of Temperature

on Resistance
Let us sec

The resistance of the rna terial increases as tempera lure of a metal increases. the physical phenomenon involved in this process,

Atomic structure theory say. that under normal temperature when the metal is subjected to potential difference, ions i.c. unmovable charged particles gel formed inside the metal. The electrons which arc moving randomly, gel aligned in a particular direction as shown in the Fig, 1.6

Urheberrec htl lch

gC5C

hutztes Iv! ateri a

Eloments of Electrlca' Engineering

1-13
At low temperalur

D. C. Circuits
es, the ion.

i
~

TFig. 1.6 Vibrating ions in a conductor of ions, the resistance of oscillations this is not increases. true for all materials. In some

oro almost stationary. But M t:cm.perature increases, the ions gain energy and start oscilla ling about their mean position. Higher the temperature, grea ter is the amplitude. Such vibrating ions CauSC obstruction to the flowing electrons. Similarly due 10 high amplitude of oscillating ions, chances of collision of electrons are more. Due to collision and obstruction due to higher of material increases as I""'perature cases,

amplitude increases, But temperature

U,.

resistance

decreases

as

Let

US

"'-'I! the effcct of temperature

on resistance

of various

category

of materials.

1.10.1 Effect of Temperature

The < es istance of all the pure with temperature. For a copper, upto 100 "C. A I a tempera ture of all the pure metals in. the range of

on Metals
metals like copper, iron •. tUngsten etc increases linearly its resistance is 100 n at 0" then it increases linearily 234.5 "C it is almost zero. Such variation is a pplicable 10 0." C to 100 "C This is shown in the Fig. 1.7.

Resistance in
11

Fig. 1.7 Effect of temperature

on metals

Urheberrcc htllch gesc h(jutes M aleri"

Eloments of Electrical Enginoering

1 ·14

D. C. Circuits

1 ..10.2 Effect of Temperature

on Carbon and Insulators

10

The effect of temperature on carbon and insulators is exactly opposite metals, Resistance of carbon and insulators decreases as the temperature can be explained with the help 01 atomic theory as below,

that of pUf" tncreases, This

Insulators do not have enough numb", 01 free electrons and hence they are bad conductor of electricity. Now what happens in conductor is due to increase in temperature vibrations of ions increase but it docs not increase number 0.1 free electrons. While in carbon and insulators duc to increase in temperature, no doubt vibrations of ions increases but due to high temperature few electrons from atoms gain extra energy and made available as free electrons, So as number 01 free electrons increase though vibrations of ions increases overall difficulty to the flow of electrons reduces. This causes decrease in resistance.

1.10.3 Effect of Temperature

The resistance of alloys

on Alloys
as the u.rnpcrature increases but rate of increase is

increases

"at significant, In fact the alloys like M."garun (alloy of copper, man.,ganese and nickel], Eureka (aUoy of copper and nickel) etc. show almost no change in resistance for considerable change in the temperature. Due to this property alloys arc used !o manufacture the resistance boxes,

Resisla.nca

(It

• Pure motals

Carbon and fnsulatore.

_,O,....~~~~~~~~~~-l..LOO.,...~~-

;~mpera!ur~

Fig. 1.8 (a) Effect

Dr temperature

on resistance

Urheberrcc htllch gcsc h(jutes M ateri"

Elements of Electrical

Englneoring

1 -15
on metals, insulating

D. C. Circuits materials and alloys.

The Fig. 1.8 (a) shows the effect of temperature

The study of this, is very useful in finding out the temperature rise of cables. different windings in machines etc. Such study is possible by introducing the factor called resistance temperature coefficient of the material.

1.10.4 Effect of Temperature

The materials semiconductors. having The' examples

on Semiconductors
between that of metals etc. and insulators arc called

conductivity

arc silicon, gennanium

R'esi5tance

At normal

temperature,

the resistance high. their But "S resistance in the

r.

of semiconductors is temperature increases, Res.islar:u:e:decreases

as temperature lnae:ases_

decreases

wl th fast ra te as shown

fig J.8(b) , At" bsol IIte zero tempera ture, the semiconductors behave as perfect insulators. At higher temperature, mere valence electrons acquire the energy and become free electrons. Due to increased numbcr of free electrons, resistance of semiconductors decreases as temperature tncreases.

Fig. 1.8 (b) Effect of temperatLlre on somlconductors

1.11 Resistance

Temperature

Coefficient

(R.T.C.)
thai the change in resistance is,

From the discussion

"pHil now we can conclude to the initial resistance. to the change

I) Directly proportional 2) Directly proportional 3) Depends Let us linearily Lei Rl on the nature

in temperature. whether it is a conductor, increases alloy or insulator. with !emperature

of the material the

consider

a conductor.

resistance a I 0 "C
0

of which

In;tial resistance Resistance Resistance at tl

Rz
As shown

at t2 "C

in the fig. 1.9,

R:z

> Rl >

Rv.

U rheberrec

htl lch gcsc h utztes

ate,i"

Elements of Electrical Engineering Resi.Slance in 0

1 -16

D. C. Circuits

-_,_---_,_-------_,_----'----~

DOG

Temperature

OC

Fig. 1.9 Graph of resistance against temperature

change

in resistance

The resistance tempera lure c>leffici ent per degr"" celci us to the resis tance at t <c.

. R.T.C.al Ie"

"

..

--R-,--

IIRpcr"C

" "I

From the Fig. 1.9, change in resistance" change change in temperature per • .. m resistance

R2 - RI '" 12 - t] t;.R R2-R[ C" -. t ,,u

t2 -I[

Hence accwding to the dofinition of RT.C. we can wrile !Xl i.e. R.T.C at t) 'C a5,
!X
1

_ Change in res;s lance pe, • C Resistance at t l ItoC as,

(R, -RI /12 -II)

Hj

Similarly

RT.C. at 0 o C i.e. Ilo Can be written

(R[ -Ro /11-0)

Ro
Bul R -R
_:__l_____:_OO 1['" t

slope of the graph

'C can be ""pressed as,

Hence RTC "I any temperature

a, '"

Slope of the gmph R,

Urheberrechilich

gesolrutzles

Ma "''''

Elements

of Electrical

Engineering

1 -17

D. C. Circuits

1.11.1 Unit of R.T.C.

We know.

a" '"'

Cbang~ in resistance per"C Resi'tance .t I 0C

=>

--0:-- => /'C

!l / ·C

I Thus unit ofR:T.~.

Let ....

is per degree <~I~ius ~.e. / "C

I
at t "C

1.11.2 Use of R.T.C. in Calculating

R.T.C. at 0 "C Resistance Resistance "to at I]

Resistance

Rv
R] Then

C C

....
R]

(R1 -Ro 111 -0) _ R1-Ro Ro .... 1]

-----r;-R"O
tl)

..

-Rv
R!

Rv
as,

Rv'" .... t! Rv '"'Rv(1+1lo

... ,,,"1)

Thus resistance

a.t any tem peratuIe can be expressed

~=R"(1
So knowing Alternatively Let,

Rv and
R]

Ilo at 0

"c, the

resistance

at any t'C can be obtained.

this result can be expressed Resistance Resistance Rl

as below.

alii' C at tOe _.. from dcfini tion

R.
(1.)

(R, -R] !I-I])

..

OJ R)

(t - t1)

R. -

R]

..
Where In general

R.
t -I]

Rl [1 + "'I (t - tl)1 Cha.nge ln temperature as, '"' .11

above result can be expressed

R" ... 1 '"' l\niot.! II + (l;",iru.l (.11) I

So if initial temperature

is

I)

and final is

'2.,

we can write,

Urhcberrec htllch gesc h(jutes M ate,i"

Elements of Electrical

Engingerlng

1 ·18

D. C. Circuits

1.11.3 Effect of Temperature on R.T.C.

From the above discussion, it is dear that the value of R.T.C. also changes with the temperature. A< the temperature increases, its value decreases, For .ny metal Its value is maximum at 0 "C ' From the result of section 1.11.2 we can write. .., (1) where R, and at are resistance and R.T.C, at tj "C and

R:z

is resistance at 12 C
0

If the same resistance

is cooled

from 12 10 11 "C and II ~ is R.T.C. at Il "C then, + ~ (11 - 12) J ... (2)

R1 '" Dividing equation (1) by

R:z {I R:z.
R2
Rl

[1 + ~ (t2 - tIl J

R,

Rj

.. ' (3)

Dividing

equation

(2) by Rt•

R2
'R t

... (4) Equating (3) and (4) we can write,

1 + al

<1:>-(1)
(12 - tl)

,.

a,t

.-:-~.,-;----;-, -1 ~ '1-1-a2(11 -t2) 1 +a2 (11 -12) 1 + u2 (tl -t2)

-1:12 (I, -12) _ a1(12 -11) 1 +a2 (I t -12) - 1 +(1.:1 (tl-12)

..
..

Ct.j

(t2 - 11)

III

or

a2

Using any of the above expression if a at anyone any other temperature 12 can be obtained.

tempera ture t { C is known then a at

Urhcberrec htllch gesc h(jutes M ateri"

Elements of Electrical Engineering If starling temperature

U
'f

1 -19

D. C. Circuits

is tl = 0 'C and U at t ., C i.e.

_
-

«t is required

then We Can write,

uD
=
1+(10 t

1 +(10 (1-0)

This is vcry useful expression 1.11.4 Effect of Temperature

to obtain R.T.C. at ""'Y' temperature on Resistivity resistance or resistivity

I 'C from et",

Similar temperature.

to the resistance, to resistance

the specific

also is ~ function coefficient

of of

For pure metals it mcreases as temperature

lemperature tempera lure. resistivity at II "C at ~ 'C coefficient

increases.
temperature

So similar resistivity

we can define

as fractional change in resistivity

per degree centigrade change in temperature

from the given reference i.e. if

P2
then temperature

resistivity

coefficient

of resistivity

at tl 'C can be defined

as,

an
Similarly

(P2 -p 1)j(t2 - II)

=:: '

PI-

we can write the expression PI P 12 Po (1 +""0 I)

lor resistivity

at time t "C as"

P till +'''"11 (12 -(1)1

I-+-

Example 1.3; A, certain wind;1Ig mfJde lip Of Mf1P'" luis Q resi~tm'ce of 100 U at room temperature. If resisiance lemplmlture coefficient of Mf1P'" ", 0 "C is 000428/ "C. caleu/Me Ii", w;"d;"g resistance ,if temperatvre is jncreased to 50°C. Assume room temperatllre as 25'C.
I. 0:0

Solution: Now

= 50 "C,

ao = 0.00428

I"C

1+""0 I

"0
1+0: 0

_
II -

O,OM28 1 + O.0Cl428x 25 = R003S66

tl))

rc
(SO - 25)

Use

R)

11 ... ""I (I:> -

= 100 ll ... 0.003866

I
at SO OC

109.6657

'". Resistance

Urhcberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M ateri a

Elements of Electrical

Engineering

1-20

D. C. Circuits

I....

Example

1.4 : The res;s/a"ce of aw;;,; increases from 40 - ohm al 20 'C to 50 - ohm .t 70 'C Find the temperature crrefficient of mist,,,,, •• , 0 'C

Solution:

RI ~ 40

n.
R2
50

11 - 20 "C.

Rz ~ 50 fl,

\:!-70"C

Now,

RI [1 + al

II

.. ..

40 [1 + al (70 -20) 0.25 5 x 1O-3/"C _a_o_

<. 1).0 I 1).0
,. C(

I' i.e.

~ - 1 + ttl (50)

..
Now,

50 al al

i.e.

at II

20 "C
U

"t
5
X

i.e.
i.e .

a. _.
I-~

..

10->

Ox20

1+ 20 a~ = 200a~

180

au au
... Temperatu re roefficient at 0 "C.

1-..

Example 1.5: A sreo;",,,, of copper Iws " resistivity (p) and n temperarur« coejfici."t af 1.6 x 10' oh", -em at 0 <Cand 1/254.5 .t 20 'C Tt>pectivt'ly. Filld both of Ih"", .1 60 'C. 1 254.5

Solution:

!.l] -

/«:

at 20 'C

Now

I-l-I)."t
al)

"n

1+IlDx2(1 254.5 1<·20

C<oJ (:I(,

«0
1+20an 254.5

yJ

"n
at 0 "C

.5 I'C

«0

1/234.5
6{) . 234.5

1 +0:'-0 x60 ., I... p, P6() Po (J + C<oJ t)

1 294.5

J"C

... al 60 "C

U rhcberrec htl lch gesc h (jules M ateri"

Elemonts

of Electrical

Englnoerlng

1 -21

D. C. Circuits

I....

Example 1.6: /I r.. istanc« .to",,,,,1 '",vi.,S crOSS 50c/iollill dreJ,'lIf '10' ",,,,2 a I"'gtl, of 10 mlrs liIkt:; a current of 4 II from Q 220. V SlIfJPly at 'umbienl temperatllre of 20 ,(, Find oul, i) the resistivity of the mal.,i.1 and ii) CI"'''''/ if will fake witen th. temp.m/ute rises to 60 'C, Assume "'20 '" 0,0.003 Fe. . a '" 10. mm2 '" 10. ,,10-(' fill, V '" 220. V, I ~ 10. m, V I '" 4 A, tl ~ 20 'C 220

.,,1/

Solution: and Now,

o..ooo.3/<C.

R, '" T - 4 - 55 n
55 _ Pl"l0 10><10-0

P,
i) p. al t. = 60 <C,

0,000055

n-m

= 55 110 - rn

_,. at 20 "C

P,

[1+"'1 (t,

-I,JI

0.0.00.0$5 [1 + 0.0003 (60 ,55.66 ~{l- m

2o.ll

ill

Rl

hi
S5.66xlO-" x 10 '" 55.66 0 10.>< 10 6

.. ..
I.... Example

R:!

.::!_
RZ

",220 ~ 39525 A 55_66' .

... at 60 °C

1..7: II coil h4S a resistance oj 18 o/.m at 20 'C and 22 ohm .1 50 <C. Find tht rise jn I'" t""'p"ratu," when resistance beco",e, 24 ohm. Tho owm temperature is 18 'e.

Solution: Now, Solving, Now 24 ~ R,[l + "'I (12 -til] 0.007407 i.e, 22 '" 18 [1 + "'I ($0-20.)]

rc:

24 Q and R3 = Rl [I + al (t3 - II)] 18 11 + 0..00740.7 (13 - 20.)) 0.00740.7 45 (t3 - 20.)

0.3333
t; ~ 20.

So room temperature .: Temperature

is 18 "C given 65 - 18 ,: 47 ·C

rise "

Urheberrec htl lch gesc h(jutes Iv! ate,i a

Elements of Electrical

Engineering

1 ·22

D. C. Circuits

1.11.5 R.T.C. of Composite

MatElrial1

Conductor
In many practical cases, it is necessary using two to achieve In manufacture different types conductors of materials,

..
•

Maleri<l12

special requirements. Such a composite conductor is shown in the Fig. 1.10.

v
conductors

The material 1 has contribution in composite The material 2 has contribution

R.T.C. 1Xj and its

conductor
i.~ RI.

Fig. 1.10 Composite resistance

R.T.C. "-l_ and its in composite conductor is Il.:!.

;5 Ull.,

The combined RI + R2 while its RTC is neither

al nor ul. but it

composite "Onduelor has different than ur and

Analysis
"1 and "-l_.

01 Composite

conductor:
Resistance

The analysis

includes

the calculation

of 1Xjl from

Let
R2

of material of material

1 at \'1 "C 2 at I) "C by composite conductor

Resistance

I, Rll R2•
Rl2

New temperature Resistance Resistance Resistance Resistance

attained

of material

1 al 12"C

of rna lerial 2 a I t2 "C of composite composite material at II "C

R12,
It is known thai, Rll

material

at t2 "C

RI [1 + "'I (t2 - ttl] ~ [1 + "-l. (t~ - tl)]

... (5) ... (6) ... (7) at tl "C

~,
RI21 Where uI:!

RI2 [1 + uI2 (I:! - 11)] RT.C. of composite conductor

... ani "C And ... att.!"C

... (8) ... (9)

U rheberrec htl lch

gC5C

hutztes M ateri a

Elements

of Electrical

Engineering

1-23
(9) in equation
al2

O. C. Circuits (7),
..

Using equation Using equation

(8) and equation (5) and equation

[RII + R21J = [R! + Rzl [1 +

RI [I + a I (12 :. R, .. RI

(~ - tl)

,(10)

(6) in equation

(10), [RI +

till

Rz [1
R2

+ 0:2

(t2 - till"
=
RI

Rzl [I

12 (~ -

t,)]

'4

(t2 RI

tl) .. R2+ and ~

a1
tl)

(12 - 11)

+ R, (:112 (~ - tl) + ~

+ R2 (:112 (~ - 11)

Cancelling
Rj (:11 (~-Il)

from both sides,

(11-

R2 ~

RI

a 1.2 (~-

il)

+ ~ (i12 (t2 -II)

Cancelling

(12 - til from both sides,

Ria) (1.12

+R1O:2 = ;"12(RI

+R1)

... (11)

RIO:"I +R2a2 R) +R.l

... (12) at I, "C Once this is

known,

Thus all which is RT.C. of composite conductor can be obtained a 11 a,t any other temperalure can be obtained as,
where 61 is tempera lure rise

Prove th~t ; Divide the equa lion (11) by R l'

I"

... Proved

Example 1.8: At a particular kmperature ,he Iw<> rcsi</QnCl's Q't 60 nand 90 n IIJIving temperature coefficient. of 0.0037 fC alld 0.005 f'C 'lSpedivdy. Calculate tire t.",per.lure coeffici",,1 of "~"'p<!Site ",,,,duclor a/1m same lemperalure, obt.in,d by CIlmb;"j"g above two
,resisIQna$

in uries.

Solution:

RI

= 60 n,
(1;12

Rz = 90

n, (II =

0.0037

I"C,

u2

= 0.005

I"C
= 0.00448 I·e

Using the ",sult derived,

Rial

+R2n2 R.I+R2·=·

(60)<O.0037)+(90xO.005) (60+90)

Urheberrec htllch gesc h(jutes M ateri"

Elements of Electric~1 Engineering

I.

1 ·24

D. C. Circuits
.1 20 'C.

Example
0

1.9:

Two coils A and B /1IIl!e resistanus 60 Q and 30 il "."""Iively

Th. resistance t""'pemlure corfficients fo.r Ihe two coils al 20°C arc 0,001 0.004 / C. Find the rc.listnnce of IMiT 6"'es co,;,bination at so • C The given values are, 60 Q, 30 Q,
RA1 11" t1"

fC

."d

Solution:

For coil A, For coil S, Now'

20 0(" 20°C,

U"1 UBI"

,,0,001 0.004

rc r c.

(J +

U,,'] (12 -

tlll
Q

60 [1 + 0.001 (SO - 20)] " 61,8

This is resistance of coil A alSO • C .
RBI [1+ UBI (I. - t1)]

And

30 [1 + 0004 x (50 - 20)] " 33,6 (I This is resistance Resistance of coil B at 50 "C.' of their series combination " ""'" at 50 "C " Ri\2 + RB2 ; 61.8 .,_33.6 95.4

Example 1.10: Two coils A and 8 Iuruc resistances 100 n .nd 150 Q respectively at O"C are connected in series. Coil A has resistance temperature coeffidmt of 0.0038 fC while

o 'C.
Solution:
Now

8~

0,0018 fC· Find the resislallCf temperature cotfficil!l,t of the series cOnJbil1l1tio" at
At 0 'C, the series combination is " RA + Ra ,,100.,_ 150 " 250

where RAB is

III

resistance

of series combination. coefficient ofseries combination. (R"l," [1 .,_aAO (RB}O [1 + ~. II

o",a is resistance Now

temperature

(RA),

(R",}o 11 ... OM I] and (RA), + (R"l, "(R",)o

(RAil},
Substi tu ting in above, (RAm

tl +

(RB)o [1 .,_{too t]

II

+ {tAO I] + (RB}G [1 + ~ (R",)o (Rilla

tl

(RA~O [1 + 0ABO II

100 11, OM ~ 0,0038 150 (I,

00 "

0,0018

fRAB)~ 250 n .'. 100 [I .,_ 0.0038 tJ+ 150 I. 1 + 0.0018 II

100 + O,38t + 150 .,_O.27t 250+ 250 0A 80 I Urheberrec htl lch h(jutes M ateri"

Qe5C

Elements

of Electrical

Engineering 065 t

1 ·25 250 O:AIlO t O.OO261'C.

o. C. Circuits

This is the resistance

tempera ture coefficien t 0/ the series comblna tion at

'C.

I.

1.11: AI a"y give" temperan ... , t"'o material A and B IUl~' r<sis/a)"," temperolu'e coefficimls of 0.004 and 0_0004 respectively. /11 wi", I proportion resistallces made up of A • nd B jo;".d in ,erios .10 g ;~. Q r:ombinaliuI! havi'lg resistance kmpera lure coeffici.,,/ of 0,001 per 'C ? Example

- $olution:

Let R be resistance

of materia]

A then (x R) be resistance

of material

B.

The resistance

.of the series comb ina linn is.

RAB RAB RA .. RB R + xR '" (1 + x) R resistance

n
of the series combina lion.

Let Let there be t 'C change RAB '"

lempera ture coefficient so.

in temperature

(RAB) (uAS) (t) '" (1 + x] R (0.001) (t)

... (1)

The resistance -R~EJ is also R~ + R;" is value of RA due to change

RU' where
in temperature.

R's is value of RB due to chang!' in temperature. RA 1U\d RAB RA ' (U,,) (I) '" R - (0.001) (I) R5 . (O~) (I) '" xR (O_OOM) (I) R (O,OM) (t)
of.

R (0_0004) (I) ... (2)

R !(o.OM .. O.OOM x) Eq uating equation :. R I (1 + x) (0.001) 0.001 + 0.001 I and equa lion 2, '" R I (0.004 .. O,OOQ4X)

x ~ O_OM .. 0.0004 x

i.e, 6 x 10- ~ x '" 0.003

Urhcberrec lithe h ges c h lilltes !vi a erla

Elements 01 Electrical Engineering x=5 i.e. resistance

1 -26

D. C. Circuits

R A and RB must be joined in the proportion

1 : 5.

II,.. Example 1.12: A resistor of 80 n r~taH,e having • tempenuure r:otfficie.!l of 0_ 0021 Fe .t 0 "C is 10 be cm~<frllc/ed_ W,:res of two mart'r;a/s of sUilable cross·sealio",,/ area ar" available. For material A I"" resistance is 80 n per 100 III ,,"d temperature coifficimt is 0,003 K al 0 cc. For materie! B the corrl5)JO"dillg figures are 60 !l per lOG nI and 00015 fC .t 0 'c. Cn/cul.1< ~"i"'ble lenglllS of 110 wires of ",alorinl. A and B to 0.. amnecied ill .erlf$ 10 get req"irM r(S'iSIQr.
Solution: RAO ~ Resistance of A at 0 'C,

Roo

= Resistance

of B at O'C

CIAO = R.TC. of A at 0 "C = 0_003 RAllO

C'tAE,m

rc , "eo

= R.T,C. of B at 0 -'C = 0.0015 /"C of A and B at 0 'C = 80!l

Resistan,ce of series combination R_T_e. of series combination

at 0 "C = 0.0021 I"C

RAO(1 + CIAO t) = RAOO (1 + "Aun I) ... series combination at I 'C
oR t

We

know.

R,
ReI

R;.

(1 + 0.0 t)

i.e. RA

,=

Roo (1 + ClUO I) and RA, + RB,

RAO
..

RAHI

But
Similarly

RAH, RAOO

RDO

= 80 n Roo (1 .. "aO t) t)

scrlee

combine tion

0 "C

., RABO (1 ,. O'.ABU t) = RAO (1 + :. 80 (I + 0,0021 t) 80 + 0.168 t

0'." 0 t)+
t

RAO (1 + 0,003 I) + Roo (1 + 0.0015

RAO + 0.003 R"o

+ Roo + 0,0015 RHO t

80 + 0.168
Now

(RI\O + R8O)+ 0.003 R,.,o t + 0,0015 RBO t

80

RI\O

Roo

ond

80 + 0.168 t 0.168 t

80 + 0,003 RAO 1 + 0.0015 (80 - RA,;> t

!0.003
3Hl

R AO .. 0.0015 (80 - RAO)] t

0_168 RAO
RIlO Now material 32 8OxI00

0_003 RAO + 0.12 - 0.0015 RAO

80-32,,480
is 80 11 pcr 100 .m MI for 32

A resistance =40m

n the

length

required

is,

The .material B has resistance ~xl00 60 " 80m

of 60

n pcr

100 .m so for 48

n the

length

required

is ,

Urhcberrec htllch gcsc hutztes M ateri"

Elements of Electrical Engineering

1·27

D. C. Circuits

1.12 Network Terminology

In this section, we shall define some of the basic terms which are commonly with a network. 1.12.1 Network
Any arrangement of the various electrical energy sources along with the dilferent circuit clements is called an electrical network. Such a network is shown in the Fig. 1.11. associated

1.12.2 Network Element Any Indi vid ual circuit element with two terminals circuit element, is called a network element.
Network clements can be either active elements are the elements which supply current source a re the examples

which

can be connected
clements. Active

to other elements

or passive

power or energy 10 the network. Voltage Source and of active elements. Passive elements are !he elements

which either store ene.rgy or dissipate energy in the form of heat. Resistor, inductor and capacitor are the Ihree bask passive elements. Inductors and capacitors can sto re en~gy and resistors dissipate energy in the form 01 heat.

1.12.3 Branch
A part of the network which connects the various points of the network with. One another is caned a branch. In the Fig. 1.11, AB, BC, CD, DA, DE, CF and EF are the various branches. A branch may consist more than one clement.

1.12.4 Junction

Point
meet IS called a junction shown in the Fig. 1.11. point, Point D and C

A point where three Or more branches a re the junction points in the network 1.12.5 Node

A point at which two or more elements are joined together is called node. The jW"lction points arc also the nodes of !he network. In the network shown in the Pig. 1.11, A, B, C, D, E and F arc the nodes of the network

1.12.6 Mesh (or Loop)

Mesh (or Loop) is a set of branches forming a dosed path in a network in such • WI> Y tho I if one branch is removed then remaining branches do not fonn a dosed path. A loop also can be defined as a closed path which originates from a particular node, terminating at the same node, travelling through various other nodes, without Ira velling Ihrough any FIg. 1.11 An electrical network

Urheberrec htllch gesc hutztes IvI ateri"

Elements

of Electrical

EngIneering

1-28

D. C. Circuits

node twice. In the Fig. 1.11 paths of the network. In this chapter, is included. the analyse.

A-B-C-D-A. A-6-C-F-E-D-A. O-C-F-E-O etc. are the loops

of d.c. circuits consisting of pu,e resistors and d.c. sources

1.13 Classification

of Electrical

Networks
depends electrical on the behaviour and characteristics of network can be dassified as below :

The behaviour of the C!Otire network its element •. Based on such characteristics

i) linear Network; A circuit Or network whose parameters i.e. dements like resistances, inductances and capacitances are always constant irrespective of the change in time. voltage, temperature etc. is known as linea. network. The Ohm's Jaw can be applied to such network. The mathematical equations of such network can be obtained by using the law of superposition. The response respect to the excitation applied to them, il) Non linear Network: A circuit whose of the various network clements is linear with

parameters change their values with change in

linear network. The Ohm's law may not not follow the law of superposition, The with. respect to their cxcil~tion. Tht: basi diode current doe" not vary linearly with

time, tempera lure, voltage etc. is known as non be applied to such network. Such network does response of the various elements is 'not linear example i.5 a circuit consisting of a diode where the voltage applied to it.

iii) Bilateral Network: A circuit whose characteristics, behaviour is same irrespective of the direction of current through various elements of it, is called bilateral network. Network conslsting only resistances is good example of bilateral network. Iv) Unilateral Network' A circuit whose operation, behaviour ls dependent on the

direction of the current consisting diodes, which unil a teral circu it. v) Active Network:

through various clements is called unilateral network. Circuit allows flow of current only 'in one direction is good example of

A circuit

which

contains

at least one source source.

of energy

is called

active, An energy

Source m,l' be a voltage

or current

Urheberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M a\e<i"

Elements vi) Passive

of Electrical Network:

Engineering A circuit which

1-29
contains no energy
SOurce

D. C.Clrcuits
is called passive

circuit. This is shown in the Fig. 1.11.

raj Active na!work

[bl Passive nelwon.

Fig. 1.12
vii) Lumped Network: A network in which all the network dements separable is known as lumped network. Most of the electric networks nature, which consists clements like R. L. C. voltage SOUKe etc, viii) Distributed inductance Network: A network in which the circuit arc physically arc Iumped in like

elements

reaistancc,
distributed

etc. cannot

be physically

separable

for analysis

purposes,

is called

network. The best example of such a network is a transmission line where resistance, inductance and capacitance of a transmission line are distributed all along its length and cannot be shown as a separate clements, any where in the circuit,

'!he classification

of networks can be shown as,

Eleclrical drcuits

or networks.

Active

Passive

Linear

Nonli near

Ullila1eral

Bilaleral

lumped

Dlstnbured

Fig. 1.13 Classification

of networks
and current source.

1.14 Energy Sources

These

There are basically two types a f energy sources ; vol tage source arc c!assiftcd !) Ideal so= and ti) Practical source.

as

Let US ser the difference

between

ideal and practical

sources,

1.14.1 Voltage Source

Ideal voltage Source is defined. as the energy source which gives constant voltage across its tenninaIs irrespective of the current drawn through its terminals. The symbol for ideal voltage source is shown in the Fig. 1.14 [a). This is connected to the load as shown in Fig. 1.14 (b). At any time the value of voltage al load terminals remains same. This is indicated

by V-I cha_n'lcteristics shown in. the Fig. 1.14 (oj.

U rheberrec

htl lch gesc h utztes

Iv! ateri"

Elements of Electrical

Engineering

1 - 30

D.

c. Circu

its

(al Symbol

Ib)Cirouit

Fig. 1.14 Ideal voltage Practical voltage source c-vcry voltage But practicnliy,
Internal resistance

source resistance shown in series with

SOurce has small internal

voltage source and is represented

by R", OS shown in the Fig. 1.15.

Roe

(Q)Ci.-cuit

Fl g. 1.15 Practl cal voltage Beca usc 0 f the R:ie' vel til gc across MId it is given by rcx_:p:_r_cs_si_on_,

sou rce sll gh UY with -, increase in ell rren t

terrnina Is decreases

..

VL

'"

(R",) IL + \~<; = Vs -IL

R,;.

~~~~~~~~~~
Voltage sources are further classified as follows,

i) TI m e Inva.ri a nl Sou rces :

:£ v=-

-1'-----0

The SOUI'Cl$ in w hid! volt. ge is no t varying with time me known a. time invariant voltage sources or D.C. sources. These are denoted by cap ital letters. Such a source is represented in the Fig. 1.16 (a).

Fig. 1.16 (a) D.C. source

U rheberrec hi) lch ge5c h "Illes M aleri"

'Elemenb of Electrical II) Time Variant

Engineering :

1 - 3f

D..C. Circuits

Soureos

The

sources

in

which

voltage

is

varying with time OI<! known as lime variant voltage sources or A.C. sources, Fig. 1.16 (b) A.C. sourea These are denoted by small letters. is shown in the Fig. 1.16 (b).

Thts

1.14.2 Current Source

Ideal current source is the source whJch gives

constant

current

at

its

terminals

irrcspccn ve of the voltage appearing across its terminals. source is shown in the Fig. 1.17' (a), This is connected

The symbol for j deal current to the road as shown in the load I L is same l.e, is is explained by V-I

Fig. 1.17 (b). At lII\ Y time, the value of the current flowing through irrespective of voltage appearing across its terminals. This characteristics shown in the Fig. 1.17 (e),

(0) Symbol

(b) Circuit

(c:) Charac.tOriitic3

Fig. 1.17 Idea I current

so uree

Bu t prac ticall y. eve.ry curren t SOIlfCC has high internal resistance, shown in parallel with current source and it is represented by R~" This is shown in the Fig. US.

inremat
resistance

Load Oc......----(a)CtrCUlt ....... L V Ib) C~aracterl.~c

Fig. 1..10Practical current aource

Because 01 R.b,
voltage at its terminals.

current

through

its terminals

dec"eases

slightly

with

increase

in

Elements of Electri e al Enginaering Similar to voltage sources, current i) Time Inyariant Sources:

1 ·32 sources are classified as follows ,

D. C. Circuits

The sources in which current is not varying with time arc known as lime invarient current sources or D.C. sources. These are denoted by capital letters. source

Fig. 1.19 (a) D.C. source ii) Time Variant Sources:

Such a current Fig. 1.19 (aj.

is represented

in the

The sources in which CU.TTen! is varying with time are known sources or A.Co sourees.These are denoted by small letters. Such a Source is represented
in the Fig. 1.19 (b).

as time variant

current

The sources .which are discussed above are independent Sources because these Sources does not depend on other voltages or currents in the network for their value. These are represented by

Fig. 1.19 (b) A.C. source 1.14.3 Dependent Sources

a circle with a polarity of voltage current indicated inside.

or direction

of

Depend ent sources arc those whose value of source depends on voltage or current in the circuit. Such SOUKCS are indicated by diamond as shown in the Fig. 1.20 and further cl..... ified as, s I) Voltage Dependent Voltage Source :11 produces a volt'age as a function of voltages elsewhere in the given circuit. Thls is ca!Jed VDV5. It is shown in the Fig. 1.20 ('-1.

II) Current Dependant Current Source:

elsewhere

It produces a current as a function of currents in the given circui t. Th is is called CDCS. It is shown in the Fig. 1,20 (b I,

elsewhere

111)Current Dapendant Voltaga Source: 'It produces a voltage as a function of current in the given circuit. This is called CDV5. !I is shown. in the .Fig. 1.20 (c).

Iv) Volta.ge Dopondent Current Source: It produces a current as a function of voltage elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called VDCS. II is shown. in the Fig. 1.2(1(d).

VO~v'L IOK"e YOK['L 'OKy'e

(a) (bl

Fig. 1.20

(e)

(d) Urhcberrec htllch gesc h(jutes M ateri"

Elements 01 Electrical

Engineering

1·33 It produces

D. C. Circuits a current as a function of voltage

IV) Voltage Depondent Current Source: elsewhere

in the given circuit, This is called VDCS.

It is shown

in the Fig 1.20 (d).

K ;5 constant and VI and II are the voltage and current respectively. present elsewhere in the given circuit. The dependent SOurces arc also known as controlled sources, In this chapter, ore analysed. d.c, circuits consisting of independent d.e, voltage and current sources

1.15 Ohm's Law

this law gives relationship be tween the po tential difference (V). the current (I) and the resistance (R) of a d.c. circuit, Of. Ohm in 1827 discovered a law called Oh",'s law. lt slates, Ohm is Law :The Cilrre/i t flrH4ing lh roug" the eleciric CiTCU it is dir""lIy proportiona! 10 111& pO'Cllli"i diff.rem:c ~cro," 1/," circuit .:nd imJerstly propllrtio""/ to Ihe re;lstance of tire circuil. provided Jke temperature remains CM<I."I. Mathem.ti<:allY,~

::!!!!_I
v
Fig. 1.21 Ohm's applied

7
taw

L..:..!._j

Where 1 is the current flowing in amperes, the V Is the voltage resistance of the conductor, a shown in the Fig. 1.21.

and R is the

Now
The

I"

urn I

f potential

difference

is defined

in such

a way

tha I th,econstanl

of

proportionali Ohm's

ty is

urn ty.

law is, V

11:
lR
constant" as, volts V

T
The Ohm's law can be defined

R ohms

The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points of a conductor to the current (1) flowing between them is constant, provided thai the temperature 01 the conductor' remains cons tan t.

Elements of Electrical Engineering

1-34

0, C. Circuits

1.15,1 Limitations
The limitations

of Ohm's Law
law are .• devices such as diodes. zener diodes, carbide. voltage The law
10

of the Ohm's

1) It is not applicable regulators etc,

the nonlinear

2) It does not hold good lor non-metallic lor such conductors is given by, V = k I'"

conductors

such as silicon

where k, mare

constants.

1.16 Series Circuit

A series circui I is one in which several resistances are connected one after the other. Such connection is also called end to end connection or cascade connection, There is only one po th for the flow 01 current. Consider theresislan<:es the Fig, 1.22. shown in

The resistance RI• Rl and R3 are said to be in series. The combination is connected across a SOUICe01 voltage V vol IS. Na lura Uy the current flowing through all of them is same indica led as I amperes. e.g, the chain of small lights, used for the decoration purposes is good example of series combination.

Fig. 1.22 A series cIrcuit

Now lei us stody

the vol ....ge distribution, across the terminals of resistances R1, R2 and .~

lei V1, V2 and V3 be the voltages respecti vel y Then, Now according Current through to Ohm's law,

V1+V2+V3 lR1, VI =IR2., V3=1 R3

all (If them is same i.e, I

v
.Applying Ohm's law to overall circuit, V '" I R,'I where R ec ", Equivalent 1 resistance of the circuit. By comparison of two equations,

R"'l = Rl+R2+R3
i.e, total or equivalent resistance resistances connected in series. of the series circuit is arithmetic sum 01 the

Urheberrec htllch gesc h(jutes Iv! ateri"

Elements

of Electrical

Engineering

1·35

D. C. Circuits

1.16.1 Characteristics
J) The same current 2) The supply resistances" voltage

of Series Circuil:$
flows through V it; the each resistance, sum of the individual voltage drops across

the

v
3) The equivalent

= VI +V2 +... ,. + \If' is equal 10 the sum of the individual is the larges I of all the individual resistances.

resistance

4) The cqui valent resistance i.e

resis lances,

1.17 Parallel Circuit

The pa rail el circul! is one in which several resistances are connected across one ana ther in such 11 way that one terminal of each is connected 10 form a junction
10

R,

point

while

the remaining

ends

arc also joined a parallel circuit

form another

junction

point. Consider

shown in the Fig. 1.n. In the parallel connection shown, the three resistances & 1 '&2 and R3 arc connected in parallel and
combination is connected across a source of voltage 'V'. In parallel circuit current passing through each resistance is different. Let total current drawn is say , I ' as' shown.There are 3 paths lor this current, one through

v
Fig. 1.23 A parallel circuit

R i- second through R2 and third through R). Depe.nding upon the values of RI ,R2 and R) the appropriate fraction of total current passes through them. These individual. currents arc shown as I) ,,12 and J)" While the voltage across the two ends of each resistances R I ,R2 and R 3 is the same and equals the supply voltage V. Now let us study current distribution. 'IR" V. V~I,R" V Apply Ohm's Vm V
[J=r :l \I 3

law to each resistance.

lJR,

It)· ,.

I"

=r' l

I +1,+[3 = R+r+R
I .,

V [i1+i, +Rl,]

... (1)

Urheberrec htl lch gcsc hutztes Iv! ateri a

Elements of Electrical Engineering For. overall circuit if Ohm's

1·36

D. C. Circuit!!

law L~applied,

v
and where Comparing 1 _._

IR"'I
V

R,"'1
Total or equivalent resistance of the circuit

... (2)

the two equations,

:;;;;; 1 ~+~+~'I 1

Ro~
where R is the equivalent In general

Rl

R2

R)
of the parane] combination,

resistance

if 'n' resistances

are connected

In parallel, 1

R
Conductance It is known (G) :

1 1 1 R7+Rc +R,+····+~

that

1 R ,.

(condu(taru:ej

hence, ... For parallel circuit

Impo rtant resu It : Now if n - 2•. two resistances are in parallel then.

This formula

is directly

used hereafter,

for two resistances in parallel.

1.17.1 Characteristics
1) The same potential

of Parallel Circuits
difference gels across all the resistances in para llel,

2) The total current gels divided into the number of paths equal to the number of resistances in parallel, The total current is al way" Sum of all the individual

currents.
, ,. 'I +12 +lJ+ ..... +1" 3) The reciprocal resistance of a parallel circuit is equal to the sum. of the reciprocal of the individual resistances. of the equivalent

4) The equivalcnr resistance is the smallest of all the resistances.

Urheberrec htlich ge5c hutztes M ateri"

Elements of Electrical

Engineering

1-37

D. C. Circuits

5) The equivalent conductances.

conductance

is the arithmetic

addition

of the individual

1.1.8Comparison of Serl.es and Parallel Circuits

Sr. No. ,_ The eoenecncn :is as shown, The ecnneecuen J3 u shown. Series Circuit

Parallel

Circuit

R,
(VOII,go ",main ... _.". i!la'CIS!; 1!II11.re.siSl.1nc:es) (Cu rrenl rem~in$ sarre th,ough '.'isla"c,,)

L_----~+:II~_------~
V
The same turreflt flaws Ihroug'h each

.,1

I'

"

.111-----'
V

The same vo~.ge exists actO ••• 11the

resistances in parallel.

resistance.
3. The vonage across each different.

resistance is

The a.rrrent througn eacn re.$isLam:ei!li

djfferent. The surn 01 the currents through resi.siance.s is the :supply current, all 1M

4_

The sum .ct' the voltage. ac:ro9s a~ lhe .,..i,lances is lIle suPply vollage. V•

Vt + V2 + V3 + ..•-. + Vn
resistance Is,

] 11:]1 .... 12 + ,... ,. In

The equivalent resistance Is.

5.

The equivalent

Req
5.

R,

R:>

+_ ..... +

1\,'

R., = R;+R;"+ ......-l-R;;"

The equivalent resisLance Is the :smaller than the ,mallast 01 all tho resl.tam'"s In parallel.

The equivalent resistanco is the largest than each of the res[ltances. in sene!!, Roq > R1, Req > R2 -_ ...

Req

>

An

Urheberrcc htl lch gesc h(jutes M ateri"

Elemonts

of Eillctrical

Englnollring

1·38

D. C. Circuits

]m+

EJrample

1.13:

Find t/," "qui""/t1I! ,,,,i~lanct between II.. two points A and B s!J""", in
3(1

the Fig. 1.24.

1U

A
7U

FIg. 1.24 Solution: Identify combinations of series and parallel resistances,

The resistances So equrvalent

5 Q and 6 Q are in series. as going resistance is 5 + 6 = 1.1 Q

to ca.rry same current.

While the resistances but current divides.

3 Q , 4 Q, and 4 Q are in parallel, 1

as voltage

across

them same

., Equi valent resistance is,

III

(a) Replacing 11 these combinations redraw

Fig. 1.24
the figure as shown resistance 77

(b)
in the Fig. 124 (aJ. is 2 + 1.2 = 3.2 -' 277" = -s • "

n and

Now again 1.2 Q and 2 Q are in series so equivalent 7 n are in parallel. . al . eqwv ent resistance combinations redraw

n while

f ) R] R2 U-· smg rormu a R1 + R2 Replacing' the respective

15

llx7 Il + 7

18

the circuit as shown

in the Fig. L24 (b),

Now 3.2 and 4.277 arc in parallel, R op Ia _

=s

th

em

3_2x4.277 32+4,277

= l.c~n'"

<=N"

Urheberrcc htl lch gcsc hutztes M aicrla

Elements ol,Electriea,1 Engi'neering

1·39

0, C, Circuits

1.19 Short and Open Circuits

In the network
Mi.

simplification,

short circuit or open circuit existing

in the nework

plays

impcrtan

role.

1,19,1 Short Circuit

When any two points in a network are joined directly met.1]jc conducting wir~, the two points are said to be short such short circuit is zero,
A~ Thio!< .. IA:::a-'_---i: ~ - --,--

to each other with a thick circuited, The resistance of

conductingwire

I B~--------~--",
Fig, 1,25 Ohm's law, V AU "
'."".,

VAS - 0

The part of the network, which is short circuited is shown in the Fig, 1.25, TIm p Dints A and B are short the branch cirrui ted, AD is The resistance of

R,;,,,OQ,
--

I... _~

The curent lAB is flowing the short circuited pa th.

through

According

\0

R,., x Jiln '" 0 x

'!;horl

lAB"

0V
<V!;

'Kay

Pol iIt: Thus, vo{tag,' '."mi. tilro"gh tl,"·shprt an:1Illed p" lit.

eirel! it 15'i.·/wa!!s zero IIwug1,' <iu rren! flo

1,19,2 Open Circuil

Wh<>n there ls no connection be tween the two points 01 a network, having voltage 300SS the two. points then the two points are said to be open circuited, so me

As there is no direct connect; on in an open circuit, the reslstance of Ih. op en circui I i...,

,
R:;!

r'

rNt:l~o~
(
,l.. _

B!?'_--------...J..---i,

The part of the network which is open circui ted is shown in the' Fig. 1.26, The points A and Bare sa.id to be open circuited. The resistance of the branch A B is Ro< "' .. II , There exists a vo ItaS" across law, the p oin ts AB called open circuit voltage, V An but Roc ~ - {j.

Fig, 1,26

VAS '" VI\U

Roo;

..

'"

According A

to Ohm's

1.19.3 Redundant

Branches
excessive

and Combinations
and unwanted.

The rcdund a nt means

The redundant branches and comblnaticns affect the performance of the circul t. The two important situations 01 redundancy

can be removed

and these branches

do not

which may exist in practical

circuits are,

Situation 1 : Any b ranch or combination across which there exists a shari circuit, becomes redundant as it d Des no. t cany a ny curran t_
11 in a network, there exists a direct short circuit across a resistance Or the combination 01 resistances then that resistance or the entire combination 01 resistances becomes inactive from the circuit point of view, Such a combination To understand this, consider the combination shown in the Fig. 1.27 (a) and (b). is redundant from circuit point 01 view. and a short circuit as of resistances

Short

,~
No current
thmugh RJ

Short

B
(b)

No current

through R, and R.

(0)

Fig. t.27 Redundant

branches

In Fig_ 1.27 (0). there is short 'circuit aero ss R3. The current always prefers low resistance path hence entire current I passes through short circuit and hence resistance Rg becomes red undan I from the circuit point of view. In Fig. 1.27 (b), th ere is shari cireul I "0-05s combine tion 01 R3 and R4. The en lire curren t flow, through short circuit across R3 and ~ and no current can flow through eomblna lion 01 RJ and ~. Thus that comb in. ticn becomes meaningless from tho circuit point 01 view. Such comblnauons can-be eltimlnated while analyslng the circuit.

Urheberrechlllcn

gesolrutzles

Ma "''''

Elements Si1uation current

of Electrical

Engineering

1 ·41 or combination,

O. C: Circuits it can not carry any

2 : If there is open and becomes redundant.

circuit in a branch

In Fig. 1.28 as there exists open circuit carry any current and arc become redundant R,

in branch Be, the branch Be and CD cannot from circuit point of view.
~ Redundant

~ 1=0

R2

I
1=0

) branches

R,

Fig. 1.28 Redundant bra.nches due to open circuit

1.20 Voltage Division in Series Circuit of Resistors

Consider a series circuit of two resistors and R 2 connected to source of V volts. R1

As two resistors are connected in series, the current flowing through both the resistors is same, i.e. L Then applying KVL, we get, V = 1 R1 ... 1 Rl Fig. 1.29 Total voltage Rl respectively. applied V .'. 1= RI +R, is equal to the sum of voltage drops VR1 and

vR1

across RI and

Similarly,

So lh.is cireui t is a voltage

iiivide. clrcul t.

!<ey Point: So in 8"1ii:,al, ""'I,ago .Imp. ecrose any r.;si.,·tor, or CfJ!ltbillylion r!I ,e;isJQrs, iii " series cirellit is aqunl 10 tire m,tib of lhal re.''''/allce val"l: /0 tile lorrll resiS/ilIlGe, lIHllliplied !x.tJW.5<lUtCf!w1tat<:.

Urh:bcrrn:hlll h eschutz: s M~'cria

Elements

of Eloctrical

Enginoering

1 ·42

D. C. Circuits

,.,..

E)[ample

1.14:

n"d lire voilag' ."'""'" 1/" II""" r",,,la,,,,"

R,
IOU

show" i" I/u: Fig. 1_30.

R2

R3
30U

(I

20U

60V

Fig. 1.30 Solution:

v
60 1O+Z0+30'"
[R,ft -__ I R2 '"

___ series circuit

1A
~lxl0~10V

Vx'RI R,+R2+R3 Vx:R, -' R) +R2 +RJ

ft tx 20 ft 20 V -1><30 =30V

and

IR

,]

ft - VxR3 R) +R2 +RJ

1.21 Current Division

in Parallel Circuit of Resistors

Consider a parallel circuit of two resistors and R2 connected scross a SOUrce of V volts. Curren! total current R)

through Rl is II and R2 is 12, while drawn from source is IT-

..
But

IT '" I, +12
11
V

Fig. 1.31 i.e.. V," [,RI '" 12 R" II = I~ (~: }

R2

Urhcberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M ate,i a

Elements of Electrical Substituting ..

Engineering

1 -43

D. C. Circuits

value of II in IT' IT= [2

(!t,-)+

12

= Ie [~:

+1]

= 12

[R':IR2 ]

J! ~

[R,R;RJ I,.

IH+

ElWImple 1.15: Find til. magnitude» of lola! ,11"0,,1, Rl", n, R2~ 20 and (I" 50 V.

ro

n.

",""0'./1/

Ihrough R I "lid R2 if,

Fill. 1.32 Sol u t10 n : The e<:Ju ivalent resistance

RCw.l V 50

of two is,

IT " 'if""" '" 661 " 7.5 A "'I _._

As per the cum", t d istrib u tion in par.
1.1 el

circu] t,

11

='

Tr( Rj:lR,
5A

}'" 75'{ IO~020 )

Urhcberrec htl ich ges c h l,llles !vi a erla

Elements

of Electrical

Engineering

1 ·44 7.5>« 10)

D. C. Circuits

and
[I can be verified

IT( _[~ _)_

~ Rj +R2 2.5 A

. 10+20

th~t IT '" II +1'2

1.22 Source Transfonnation

Consider a practical voltage RL. voltage source Source R", shown in the to Fig, 1.33 (a) having internal the load having resistance New Fig. 1.33 (a) Voltage source we can replace resistance connected

by equivalera

current source.

The current

delivered

in above case by voltage source is,

v
II it is to. 1>;, replaced current mus! be V (R," +Rl) current
50U=

Rij~ and R l.. in series source then load

... (1)

by a current

C enstder Fig. 1.23 (b),

an equivalent is 'l'. will

shown

in the Fig. 1.33 (b) Current source

The total current Both the their values,

resistances

take

current

proportional

to

From the current

division in. parallel

t 1. '"

circuit we can write, . .. (2)

Ix
.

(R," +RIJ
must be same,
,50.

R,)j ..

Now this I L. and R ~ R

- -S1,:"

-"L

equa ting (1) and eq ua !ion (2),

say.

Urheberrec htl lch

gC5C

hutztes Iv! ate,i"

Eleme n ts 01Electiical Eng in een n 9

Thon, or

1 - 45 [xlt

D. C. Circuits

IxR,b V R~,

The direction 01 cUIT"n! of equivalent" current SOurce is always Irom -ve to + ve, internal to the $0"'<<'. While converting curren I source to voltage source, polarities of vel ta ge is al ways as +ve terminal a I top 0 f a rrow and -ve terminal at bo ttom of arrow, as direction of current is from -ve to +ve, internal 1.0 the source. This ensures that current flows from positive to negative terminal in the external circuit. Note the directions 01 transformed sources, shown in the Fig. 1.23 (3), (b), tc) and (d).

(b)

.,.':'_

R,.

(e) V

= I"Roh

Fig. 1.34

Elemonts

of Eloctrical

Enginoerlng

1 -46

D. C. Circuits

I.

Examplo
Ie
Ii CUTTen'

1.16:
SOU

Tran"fon" a oollage rce.

SOUT""

of 20 ",,/Iswill. a" ;nlmud,,,,,islan,,,, of 5 Q

Solutlon:

Refer to the Fig. 1.35 (a),

'"C ..T I
so
(a) Fig. 1.35
sc (bJ

Then current Same as Rsl,,'::. II. Equivalent Example 10 n 10

01 current

source is, 1 " ttV' "~,,

4 A with internal

parallel

resistance

current 1.17:

source is as shown in the Fig, '1.34 (bJ.

COIIVert tire gh-e>1 currenl soUrce oj 50 A with ;,,)emal r.sf"tmiCi: of the "'I"i~ale,,' voltage source, '~----~------~A

'0 (l

~------~-------4B fig. 1.36 Solution: The given values are, I " 50 A and R,]\ " 10

n
source,

For the equi v alent voltage

'""~
500V~

V"

I x R,h ,,50 x 10 500 V

R"" The equivalent Fig. \.36 {a], Note ihe polarities and - ve at boltom.

R,h = 10 'Voltage

n in
source

series. is shown in the

fig. 1.36 [a] that + ve at top of arrow

of 'Voltage source,

which are such

Urhcberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M ate,i a

Elements

of Electrical

Engineering

1 -41

D. C. Circuits

1.23 Kirchhoffs
In 1847, a electricity. view.

Laws
German Physicist, Kirchhoff, formulated two fundamental simplification raws 01 importance from network pow! of

These laws arc of tremendous

1.23.1 Kirchhoffs

Current. Law (KCL)

Consider a junction in the Fig. 1.37. point in a eompl ex ne twork as shown

,~

J,

At tlus junction point iJ 'I " 2 A, 12" 4 A and 1.1 " 1 A then to determine l.:,l. W~ write, total current entering is :2 ... 4 " 6 A while 101'1 current leaving is 1... I, A And hence, 1.1" 5 A. is nothing po;,,' but the to tl'e application total of

Fig. 1.31 Junctlon point

This analysis of currents entering and leaving Kirchhoff's Current Law, 'The law can be :5 ta led us,

f1 QW i,Jlg

TI," total ""!TImt flOW;"! towards Q'way from tha t j Ull cti Oil paiu r. way to stale the la w i5
1

a i,,"ctio"

;, equal

",,"""f

Another

TIle algebraic sum of all tlu: The word algebraic

C""",,t ",•• ti"s at

a i,mctio/r

poin;

is al,vays

=ero.

means consideFing

!he signs of various currents,

I
e.g. Reier 10 Fig. 1,,37, currents Applying

I
'] and Il are positive while '3 and '( are negative, junction

KCt,

IIat

11+12 -13 -1'1 The law is very helpful in network simplification.

1.23.2 Kirchhoff's
"''l.~1auy

Voltage Law (KVL)

t./le

nettoork,

nlgebraic

SlUt! of

the 'ZJ(}llt1g~ ropoS acroSS tJ:'.e circuit: elements of d

$U," of tile e.,m,f' ;11 tile pMIIpath

'"'Y c!o se d path (or loop or mesh) is ~'1u"l fa tile alge~r"'c

In other words, "the aIgebrak sum of all the branch voltages, around any dosed Or dosed loop is a I ways zero."

Around

a do,ed path

I v"

Urhcberrec hthch ges c h [,lltes !vi a erla

Eloments of Electrical

Engineering

1 ·48

D. C. Circuits

The law states that if one starts at a certain point of a dosed path and goes on tracing and noting all the potential changes (either drops Or rises), in anyone particular direction, till the starting point is reached again, he m us! be at the same potential with which he started tracing a closed path. Sum 01 all the potential rises must be equal to sum of all the potential drops while tracing any dosed path of the circuit The total change in potential along a dosed path is always zero.
This law is very useful in loop an.lysis of the network.

1.23.3 Sign Conventions

to be Followed while Applying

KVL

Wilen current flows through a. resistance, the voltage drop occurs across the resistance. The polarity of this voltage dTOpalways depends on directio n of the current, The current always flows from higher potential to lower potentia].
R A~B --I A~B 1'----100·R

(a)

Fig. 1.38

(bl

In the Fig. 1.38 (0). current I is flowing from right to left, hence point B is at higher potential than point A.. as shown.
potential

In the Fig. 1.38 (b). current I is flowing from left to right, hence point A is at higher than point B, as shown.

Once "'1 such polarities are marked in the given circuil, wc can apply KVL 10 any closed path in the circuit,

Now while tracing a dosed path. if we go from - vc marked terminal to .. ve marked terminal.• that voltage must be taken as positive. This is called potential rise.
Par example, if the branch AB is traced from A to B then the drop across it must be considered as rise and must be taken as + IR while writing thc equations. While tracing a dosed paih, if we go from +ve marked terminal to - ve marked terminal.• that voltage must be taken as negativeThis i5 c•.lIed potentlal drop.

For example, In the Fig. 1.38 (a) only, if the branch is tracedfrom should be taken as negative, as - IR while writing the equations.

B to A then it

Simj!arly in the Fig. 1.38 (b), if branch L, traced from A to B then there is a voltage drop and term must be wri tten negalive as - [R while wri ling the "'Iua lion. If the branch is traced Irom B 10 A, (t becomes a rise in voltage and term must be written positive as .. IR while wei ting the "'Iua non,

Urheberrec htl lch

gC5C

hutztes M ateri"

1.23.4 Application of KVL to a Closed Path

Consider a dosed path of a complex network shown in the Fig. 1.39 (a). As the loop is assumed to be a p a rt assumed to be different from each other,
0t

with various

branch

currents

assumed currents

oS

comp lex network, drops

the branch

are

Due to these CUIT"nts the various voltage are marked as shown in the Fig. 1.39 (b).

taken place across various

resistances

Orop

Drop

('1 Pig. 1.39 Closed loop of a complex

The polnrity of

Ib)

network
.L1:S;

v 01 thge- drop

.[]]ong

the

currcru

d ii"l."C'liot'l i$l to he- inE:i,:rked

positicv(!

(+)

to negative

(-), path in clockwise direction l.e. A-B-C-D-A. traced from +ve to -ve, it is drop i.e. it is a rise heme must be

Lei us trace this dosed

Across R t there is voltage and must be taken as negative Battery 101 is getting considered as posi ti ve,

drop 11 R1 and as getting while applying KVL. from negative

traced

to positive

Urhcberrec htl ich ges c h llilles !vi a erla

Elements of Electrical

Englnoering

1·50
traced

D. C. Circuits from +vu \0 -vc, it is

Across Rl there is a voltage drop lz R, and "5 geUing drop and must be taken negative.

Across R 3 there is a drop 13 R 3 and as getting traced from -ve to -vc, it is drop and must be taken as negative. Across R4 ther<! is drop I ~ R~ and as gettirtg traced be taken as nega ti ve, Battery El is getting from e-ve to -ve, it is drop must

traced from -vc to -ve, it is rise and must be taken a S positive.

., We can write an equation

-ll

by using KVl around

R~+E2"O +1 3R.l +14R4

this dosed

p' th as, ... Required KVl. equanon

R1+EI-12 i.e,

R2-13R3-'14

1":) + 1":2 ,. 11 Rl+12R1

If we trace the dosed loop in opposite direction t.e, along A-D-C-B-A and follow the same sign convention, the resulting equation will be same as what we have obtained above.

The same sign convention 1.23.5 Steps to Apply The steps are stated Step 1:

is followed

in this book to solve the problems. Laws to Got Notwork current method. and insert all the values Equations

Kirchhoff's

based on the branch

Draw the circult diagram

01 sources with a ppropria te polarities

from the given information and all the resistances.

Step 2. ; Mark all the branch curretns with "orne assumed directions using KC L at various nodes and junction points. Kept the number 01 unknown current" minimum as far as possible to limit the mathematical calculations required to solve them later on. Assumed directions may be wrong,. in such case answer of such current will be mathematically negative which indicates tho correct direction of the current. A particular current leaving a particular source has some rna gni tude, then same magnitud e of rurren t should enter !h.t source alter travelling through various branches of the network. Step 3 ; Mark all the polarities of voltage drops and rises as P'" directions of the assumed branch currents flowing through various branch resistances of the network. This is necess a ry for application of KVL to various closed loops. Step 4:

Apply

KVL

to

different

closed must

paths

in the

network

and

obtain

the

corresponding equations. considered in any previous

Each eqllil tion equation.

contain

some clement

which is not

Urheberrec htllch ge5c h(jutes M ateri"

Elements of Eledrical Step 5 : currents calculated. What to do if current Solve unknown

Engineering

1 ·51 equa lions for the unknown in different currents.

o. C. Circuits
From these resistances

the .simultaneous
voltages and

power

consumption

can be

source exists

For example, consider the circui t shoWn in the Fig. 1.40. The current distribution is
10 V

completed interms of current source value. Then KVL must be applied to the loop

bcdeb,
5.A e Fig. 1,40 (5-1,)

which does not include current source .. The loop abefa should not be used

for KVL application, as it includes current source. Its effect is already considered at
the time of curtcn t distribution.

1.24 Cramer's
If the network case .• the solution
determinants. Le t
US

Rule
is complex, the number of cqua lions i.e, unknowns increases. In such of simultaneous equations can be obtained by Cramer's Rule for equa lions obtained is, as follows :

assume tha t set of simultaneous

all;t;;1 a2i
i'l

+ 8Il2x2+ + an::\2 +

+ 31nX,fI _. + a2n xn

C1
C::!

where C1 ~C2 Then Cramer's

j •••

"

.•••••

,,,,.

Cr.l,are constants.

rule say" that form a system determinant tJ.

[ 01 il II

Or D as,

".Jl
"22

"'n
"2" •••

all2

aM jt!, column of tJ. by the column

Then obtain constants existing

the subdeterminants

DjbY replacing

0/

on right hand side 01 equations

i.e, CI'C:J, .. Cn;

Elements of Electrical Engineering

C,
2112

1-52 a,"
1 3

D. C. Cireuits
all

D,

C2

I
O~ =

C,
C1

31,1'1
a~nl

a.2:! an:::: a '~1

'"

Cn

ann.: ~
C,
C;l

"1

tl:n a I'll

C"

...

ann.

and

D"

("

11

.0.

:!~,

nl

an2

...

Cn

The unknowns of the equations are given. by Cramer's rule as, I' XI = ~, X, =

!&'

Xn =

I'"

where 0 I' O2,,,,, D" and D are values of the respective determinants. EXample 1.18 : Ihe Fjg. 1.41, Apply Kirchhoff's "",.,..",1 law, Qnd ""llag' law to Ihe circuit $/wwn in
lS{I 30<1

Ind;"",. Ihe tunious Immell currellls. Wrile dl1Wn Ille equatimlS cllrrenls. .elating llie variOII$ brancll

Sol"" Ihese equQlim'~ 10Jilld Ih. oalue« of these ""mmls. Is Ihe sign of Qny of Ih. ca/",,/.trn currents If yes, explain Ihe .~jg1lificanceof Solulion: Application of Kirchhoff's law, Draw the circuit with
all the branch currents

II,. negall"" sign.

slarting

IlegdU",

? Fig. 1.41

Stop 1 and 2:
network. Mark

all the values which arc same as the given

from -sve of any of the sour",", say He voltages 01

,I'

, / ; I

50 V SOurce. Stop 3 : Mark all the polarities for diJlerenl

with step 2 shown in the network

across the resistances.

This is

,combined

below in Fig. 1.4'1 (a),

50V

l00V

I, F D

J.
Ii

Fig. 1.41 la)

Urhcberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M ate'; a

Elements of Elecbical Engineering Slep 4:

1 - 53

D. C. Circuits

Apply KVL to different loops.

m

Lcnp 1 : A-B·E·F-A., - 15 (1 - 20 "2 .. 50 Loop 2 : B-C-D-E·p, Rewriting

... (1) ... (2)

- 30 (II - 12) - 100 .. 20 "1 " 0

taking constants on one side. and - 30 11 .. 50

all the equations,

... (1) Apply Cramer's rule,

i:l '" 100

.. ,(3)

1-30
50

15

50

20,'

·1"

1350

,100 50 '" 500 1

01

201

dO< 1351) '" 0.37 A

50 I· '" 000 100 3,

500

Calcula ling

D:!,

· I

15 -30

for II and

i:l, as

answer

is positive,

assumed

direction

is correct.

.'. For 11 answer

is 0.37 A, For 12 answer

is 2.22 A 0.37 - 2.22 = - 1.85 A

II - 12 '" Negative sign Indicates assumed direction

Is wrong. direction to that of the assumed direction,

i.e, 11 -

h '" 1.85

Howing in opposite

1.25 Star and Delta Connection of Resistances

In the complicated networks involving large number of resistances, IGrchhoffs laws give us complex set of simultaneous equations. II is time consuming to solve such set of simultaneous equations involving large number of unknowns. In such a case application of Star-Delta or Delta-star transformation. conside.rably reduces the complexity of the network and brings the network into a very simp le form ,. This reduces the number of unknowns and hence network can be analysed very quickly for the required result. These transformations allow us 10 replace three star connected resistances of the network, by equivalent delta connected resistances, without affecting currents in other branches and vice-versa.

Urheberrec htllch gesc hutztes M ate,i"

Elements of Electric:al Enginaaring Let us IIee what ill Star connac:tion ?

1·54

D. C. Circuits

If the three resistances

connected connected together .i n Star.

are

connected

in such

a manner

that

one

end

of each

is

to {orm a junction

point caDed St.atpoinl,

the resistances

are said 10 be

The Fig. 1.42 (a) and (1)) show star connected resistances. The star point is indicated as S. Both the connections Fig. J .42 (a) and (b) are exactly identical. The Fig. 1.42 (b) can be redrawn as Fig. 1.42 (a) or vice-versa, in the circuit from simplification point of view.

R,

R,

,,[If
S (b)

R,
R,

R,

S
(c)

(a)

Fig. 1.42 Star connection Let us sea what Is della connection?

of three resistances

If the three resistances are connected .in su.ch a manner that one end of the first is connected to first end of second, the second end of second to first end of third and so on to complete a loop then the resistances are said to be connected in Della.

~!.t j:.)' ",:F/·:~hl~u:D!fiEZ.mam1;![~~ ~=======.~ .~~'f:~_~_r:~'i:.ffz=w.1

The Fig. 1.43 (a) anl (b) show delta connection of three resistances. The Fig. 1.43 (a) and (b) axe exactly identical.

(oj

(b)

(c)

Fig. 1.43 Delta. connection

of three resistances Urheberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M ateri a

Elements

of Electrical

Engineering

1·55

D. C. Circuits

1.25.1 Delta-Star Transformation

Consider the three resistances R 12 ' R"", • R J 1 connected in De Ita as shown in the Fig. 1044. The tcrmina Is between which these are connected as 1. 2 and 3.
l

in Delta arc named

Now it Ls always possible to rep 11lCC these Del ta connected

resistances by three equivalent Sta r connected resistances RJ• R,. R J between the same terminals 1. 2, and 3_ Such. Star is shown inside the Dell .. in the Fig. 1.40 which is called equivalent Star of Delta connected resistances, Given Delta

Fig. 1.44

Equivalent

Star

1'r~~9:'t-X;'Q,t.rnL .~~~st<ftP,t"':f!,~/i;JlfggYPi~li_~
Let us analyse Delta connection

r411t .tIt

0.

u!#1Eiff;fj)h~qffJ~.)lI,Jtf",ir#

first, shown in the Fig. 1.45 (a).

"]]_-~
R" R1~ -

Serif.l:s

{}

,
(a) Giv"n Delta Fig. 1.45 (b) Equ ivalent

R,~J.

between

1 and 2

Now consider the terminals (1) and (2). Let us find equivalent resistance between (1) and (2). We can redraw the network as viewed from the terminals (l) and (2),. without considering terminal (3). This is shown in the Fig. 1.45 (b). Now terminal combination as,
RI~' puraflel

'3' we are not considering,

with

so between

terminals

(1) and (Z) we get the

(Rjl

<

t-

R:Z:l) a.....,. RjJ

o1.nd R~-,.

L\~

11"1. ~~ri(!s.

.. Belween (1) and (2) the resistance

is, ... (a)

R'2 (1<31" 1(23)

RI2 +(R31 +R';)

R1 R2 (using -R--~R,,, 2

for parallel

combination] connection shown in the

Nnw conS; der the same lwO Fig. 1.46.

terminals

01 equi valen t Star

Urheberrec htl lch

gC5C

hutztes Iv! ateri a

Elements

of Eloctrical

Englnll9ring

1 - 56

D. C. Circuits

R, 1~ S

3 (a) Star connection Fig. 1.46

Z ' ~~

_ ~ _ .~.. between

R,

(b) Equivalent

1 and 2

Now as view e from terminals (1) and (2) W~ can see that terminal (3) is not getting >d connected anywhere and hence is not playing any Tole in deciding the resistance as viewed from terminals (1) and (2). And hence shown
W~

can redraw

the network

as viewed

through

the terminals

(1) and (2) as

in the Fig. 1.46. (1) and (2) the reslsta nee is = R 1 + Rl two of them found to be in se ries across the terminal. ." (b) 1 and 2 while C3

.'. Between

This is because, found to be open.

Now to this Star as equivalent of given Delta it ls necessary that the resistances calculated between terminals (1) and (2) in both the cases should be equal and hence equa ri ng cqu a tions (a) and (b),
Rl2 (I'll

can

+ R23)

1<12 +( R13 + RJl ) Similarly' if we find the equivalent

"

Rl +Rl as viewed through terminals

... (cl (2) and (3)

resistance

in both the cases and "qua ting. we get.

illJ (R.)J + Rl~) RI2 +(RD +RC1t)

= R24-RJ
through terminals

.,.(d)

Similarly if we find the cquiva lent resis lance as viewed in both the case:; and equa nng, we g~ I. ~:I_I (RI~.R2-')

(3) and (I)

.. . Rr2 .. (R" ,<, RJ1)

in calculating'

= R3+RI
what (c). a", the values

... (c) of R I' R2, R J lnterms of

Now

we are interested equation

known values :R 12. I~ and R 11· ziSubtracting (d) from equation

R12(

,,--~-(RJ~:R-;-l-:"R~) -"'"_._

RJI ...R23) -

R23 (RJI • R11)

Urheberrec htllch gesc h(jutes Iv! ateri"

Elements of Electrical Engineering

1 - 57

D. C. Circuits

-,-(I) Adding equation Rl> RJl -R", (I) and equation RJl .. RJI (Rp"
-I'R31 R 11 + R31 Rn

(e), R,J)

R\1_ +RZ) , R-12 1<31 -1<1.1 Rll +R31

R12 -I'R21

-I'RJI

2R,

Similar! y by using subtraction and addition (e) we can get,

another cornbi na lions 0 f with equations (c), (d) and

Eq'LI1r.I(:1lent star of given

oene
and Fig. 1.47 Delta and equivalent

Star

if We want equivalent resistance between rerminal (2) and star point t.e, R2 then it is the prod uct 0 f two resis tances in delta which are connected to same terminal i.e, terminal (Z) which rue R12 and R2J divided by sum of all della connected 'rcsist_anccs
l.e, Rl)' R~land R)l"

so

R2

Urhcberrec

hthch ges c h lilltes

!vi a erla

Elements

of Electrical

Englneer.lng

1 - 58

D. C. Clrcu its

1.25.2. Star-Delta

Transformation

R,

~i:s
1

Consider

the

three

resistances in Sbr as

R r- R, and R 3 connected shown in Fig. 1.48.

Now by Star-Delta conversion. it is always possible to replace these by three resistances

R."

Star connected resistances cqui valen t Delta connected

Given Star FIg. 1.48

Equivalent in finding

Delta

R11.R2.land R31' between the same terminals. This is called equivalenl Delta of the given $tar. and RJI article. interms From of R I ' R 2 0

Now we are interested and R .

3

ou IvaI ues of R 12 ,R21 derived in previous

For this we can use set of equations Della-Star transformation we know that. Rl2 RJj

the result

... (g) ... (h) ... (i)

Now multiply equattons following three equations.

(g) and (h). equations

(h) and (i), equations

(il and (g) to get

._ij)

... (k)

... (1)

Rl_/RJ1Rn.,. R",'R!2

RJI + RJ12RI_2 R23

(Rl:! +R2l +R3d' R12Rli RlJ(R12

+RZ3

+Rn +R_lI)2

+ R31)

(Rll

Urheberrec htl lch

gC5C

hutztes Iv! ateri"

Elemc!'llS of E leetrica I .En9 inaerin 9

1 -59 R12R3J R'3 R]2 4-RD +R31 Fromequation (g)

D. C, Circuits

R1R. 4-R.Rj But

4-R~R1

R12R31 Su bsf tu ting in above in R. rtS. we get,

R1R2 4-R2RJ +RJR1

~ Rl Rn

.. I
Simil.rly substituting two resistances.
~:!.l ~

R2 R3

R:.!"R3+~

in R.H5" remaining

values. we can write relations

for remaining

Equi:val:etlt delta OfgNeo

star

Fig. 1.49 Sta rand and

equ Iv aIent Delta

So if we want equivalent delta resistance between terminals (3) and (It then !a,k• s Um 0 f the two resistances connected between same two term inals (3) and (1) and star pcml respectively i.e. terminal (3) to star point R 3 and terminal (1) to star point i.e, R ,. Then to this SUII'I of R 1 and R 3' add the term w hid, is the product of the same two resistances l.e. RI and RJ divided by the third star resistance which is R1. We can write, R 3'

"

R1 .. RJ .... ~l J

RR

which is same as derived

above.

Elements of Electrical Engineering Result for equal resistances II all resistances Star will con lain,

1·60

D. C. Circuits

in star and dolta ; have same magnitude

in a Delta connection

sar R, then its equivalent

i.e, equivalent Star contains three equal resistances, magnitude of the resletanees connected in Delta.

each of magnitude

one third the

If aU three resis tances in a Star connection are of same magnitude equivalent Della contains all resistances of same magnitude of,
Rn " RJ"j" R:1.J " RxR R+R+R" " 3R each of

sa:y R.. then ils

Le, equivalent delta contains magnitude of resistance. connected Delta-star

three resistances in Star,

magnitude

thrice

the

Star·Delta

Table 1.4 Star-Delta and Delta-star transformations II.... Example 1.19: qmve,i Ih. given Do/ra i'MUte ~F;g. 1.50 illlo .qll;II«'",,1 51",.

l:i
I
15<1

Fig. 1.50

Urhcberrec htllch gesc hutztes M ate,i"

Elements of Electrical Engineering Solution: lis equivalent Fig. l.50(a). where

R.] 10><5 5+10+15 15><10 5+10+15 5><15 '" 5+10+15 star

1·61 in the

D. C. Circuits

is as shown

R, 1.67 rl

R2
R) 1»*

5(1

"2.S

~1

Fig. 1.50 (a J

Example 1.20:

COlllm·t Ih, gi''''' star ill Ih' Fig. 1.51 into aM"'Iuiva/ml dolta.

1.611">

2.5 r
J

50

Solution:

i:s
1

Fig. 1.51 lis equivalent delta is as shown in the Fig. 151 (a).
1.67><5 RJ:! '" 1.67 +5+-2.:55><2.5 1.67'" 1.67 + 5 + 3.33 ,,10 f)

R2J " 5+2.5+ 2

'" 5 + 2.5 + 7.S '" 15

Rn

2.5><1.67 Rj] ,,2.S+1.67+-s-.'.~~.

2.5 .. 1.67 .. O.S33 ,,5 Q

Fig. 1.S1 (a)

60

4[)'

Fig. 1.52
Urhcberrec htllch gesc h(jutes M ale,i"

Eleme nts of EIectri cal Eng in ee ri n II Solution: Redrawing the circuit,

1 -62

D. C. Circuits

Series comt:iiI~:aLIM A __

-----,rl-/-'"
c;, , HI
10ft D

H'

Bo--....::J;:_.....::J Fig. 1.52 (a)

Fig. 1.52 (b)

)I..,.

Example

1.•22

Find eq",unl"nt resistnnce b,tlllee>! points A-B.

Fig. 1.53 Solutio" Redraw the circuit.

A_-----,..--..........,

is n

10n
D

c t------+
4U

8o----~--~ Fig. 1.53 (a) U rl eborrec htllch Jes" h[,tztes M il'~ri~

Elements

of Electrical

Engineering

1 ·63
A

D. C. Circuits

A 0-------,

<>-------,

15 U

RA.a'

6+2.4 ~ 8.4!l

Fig. 1.53 (b)

1..26Concept of Loop Current

A loop current defining a particular is that loop. current

which simultaneously

links

with

all

the

branches,

v,

The Fig. 1.54 shows a network. In this, l[ is the loop <'1J1Tent for the loop ABFEA and simultaneously links with the branches AB, BF, FE and

EA. Similarly 12 is the second

1",,1' current for the BCGFB and 1 J is lite loop third loop

Fig. 1.54 Concept

of loop

current

loop current CDFGC.

for

the

Observe: 1. For the

asso<;iatl'<i

common branches 01 the various loops, muHiple loop currents get with them. For example to the branch SF, both II and 12 are associated. is always unique loop currents, hence a branch current Can be expressed

2. The branch current interms of associated

IBF ~ I[ ~12 from B to F [CG ~ 12~13 from C to G current them. sources, directly decide the values of the loop

3. The branches consisting currents flowing through

Urheberrec htl lch gesc hutztes Iv! ate,i"

Elements of Electrical Engineering The branch associated DH consists current

1" 64 source of I" .,mperes direction,

D. C. Circuits and only the loop current I J is

with the branch

DH in opposite

Hence .1J = -1".

4. Assuming

such loop currents and assigning the polarities for the various branches due to the assumed loop currents, the Kirchhoff's be applied 1(1 the loops. Solving these equations, the various loop obtained. Once the loop currents arc obtained, any branch calcula too.

drops across the

voltage law can currents can be current can be

Note: From the syllabus point of view. in thls book, the branch current method is used to solve the problems. If loop currents are given in the problem, mark the branch currents interms of given loop currents and then usc KVL, to solve the problem,

Examples with Solutions

jj....

E~ample 1.23

Prone Ihol tile '''''gllt T o"d diameter 'd' of a cyli"der of r<>ppn are

1= (·"xJ1 a"d. d =. (16XP "p' ~lr

Solution:

J~

where x·",,/ume, p',esisli1'ily arid r-rcsislan"" beIWf.'" oppDsile circular faces.

TIn, resistance

is given by,

e!
Now x

volume = a ~ I

Multiplying numerator and denominator by I,

;;xr=,.
... proved Now

p-IXI

prl

PX
il2

... multiplying

and dividing

by •

Urheberrec htllch gcsc h(jutes /vi ateri"

Elements

0'

Electrical

Engineering

1 ·65

O. C. Circuits

... proved

II'"

Example 1.24; ,AI 11'0 insumi of >wildt£ng a 40 W'lamp on a 230 V 'I<pply, II", ell"",,1 is observed 10 be 2.5 A. The R T.C. of fi1am.,,1 is 0.0048 fC al O"c. TIle n",hiolll 1,,,,,,,,,,,1,,," is 27 'c. Filla tilt ,",,,ki"g I.mpo",'"," of tI", fila",."t du,.iflg rwrm.al operation.
Alia """"/

/nk",

Solution:

P = 40 W, V = 230 V, I .. 2.5 A, OJ{, = 0.0048 J"C is ambient i.e, I

At the time of switching, temperature

= 27 "C,

[~

"" ~ .. 230 .. 9Hl

1 2.5

Under working condition, power consumption of lamp is 40 W.

R'2

P = ----w- =

V'-

(230)1

1322.5

Now

R27 [ 1 + "-27 (t,_ - 27)1

~
1322.5 14.375 12 - 27

1 +aul

0.0048 1 +0.0048><27 ~ 10-'

= 4.2492
(12- 27)1

~ 10- 3 f"C

92 [1 +4.2492 1 + 4.2492 ~ 3147.6513 3174.6513 ·C

~ 10- J (12 - 27)

wor ki.ng temperature

.. 0.1739 A . .. working current

I(working)

230 1322.5

1!JIIt

1.25: W'hm a resistance of 2 n is placed across !I," IcnninaJ,· of ballery. 1/", currenl i. 2 A Wh." Ih. resislanet is j1l,reased 10 5 Q tI" cnrrellt falls lolA Filld e.mfof batlery "tid its inl"''''/ resislance. Example The two cases are shown in the Fig. 1.65.

Solution:

·2A

I,O"-' ',.'AO-"'_
~=5r1
(bl

Fig. 1.55
Urhcberrec htl lch gesc h(jutes M ateri a

Elements of Electrical Now

Engineering

1-66
i.c, E~2[2
+

O. C. Circuits rJ ~4+2r ,..(1)

R;'+r
I 2

and

E R, +r

i.e.E"'1[5+rj=5+r (I), r=ln

... (2)

Subtracting C'IU"tiOR (2) from equation

o
and
1_ E

-l~r 6V

l.e,

example 1.26 : D.fenni". shown ,n Fig. 1,56.

the resisl,.nce between

th. terminals X

.,,<1 Y for

II.. circuit

y
IAII , .. "t.n"", In oh m)

Fig. 1.56

Solullon:
Converting inner delta 10 sta r. ~
3 3'>:3

Each resistance

+ 3+3

ee']

x
Fig. 1.56 (a)

Urheberrec htl lch gesc h(jutes Iv! ate,i a

Elements of Electrical Converting

Engineering

1 ·67

D. C. Circuits

inner star to delta. 2+2+- 2

Ea-ch resistance

2x2

~6n

All threeparallel 5116 5><6 5+6

combinations .•

2:7272Q

j
x
Fig. 1.56 (b) RXY
1_

I"_ur·"·'
5.4545n

fr ------

Rx.v

5.4545112.7272 = 1.8181 Q

Example

1.27:

Fi"d 1/",

"",,,,,,Is

it .. i2_iJ and

pew.,..

ddiwrcd /Jy II..

OOur<:e5

of 1/'"

"~Iwork in Fig. 1.57.

'(I'

Fig. 1.57 Solution: The various branch currents are shown in tho Fig. 1.57 (a), by applying KCL

at various nodes interms of it,

i~:shown. i~

Loop AllCA.. Loop CDEC,

- 6 it - 12 (il + i2 - ,,) -4i:J+4+12

o o

i.e, i.c.

- 18 il - 12 i~ + 12 ;4 = 0 i.1 =4 A

(11 (2)

Urhcberrec htllch gesc hutztes M ateri"

Elements of Electrical Engineering

1 ·68

D. C. Circuits

'---j,
... 4 -

FIg. 1.57 (a) Loop DEFD. Loop BCDB, Substituting -4+4i·3 - 12 (i1 + '2 - ~) - 12 ~ ~ 4 A in (1) and (4)

o o
8 5

i.e. i.e.

;3" 1 A
- i1 - i2 + i. " 1

... (3) (4)

-3'1+2;.

... (5)
... (6)

- L5

'I

+ i,

.. (7)

0,5 i, (, Power by 12 V source 2A and !4" 7 A

~ >< 12" 84 W 4 x (12 ... i3l " 20 W

lI"

and E.xample 1.28: lire Fig. 1.58.

Power by 4 V Find the ".iu,

""UK"
<if

'R' so iha! 1 A uxntld j1mv in ii, fo, the "e/Wo,k in

R---1A

,n

lon

l2V

Fig. 1.58

Urheberrec htllch ge5c h(jutes Iv! ateri"

Elements Solution:

of Electrical

Engineoring branch currents

1 - 69 are shown in the Fig. 1.58 (a).

D. C.Cin;:uits

The various

Ar- __" ~B~_[~,-_-~Il~__ ~C~14ARNV__ ~D

--..-",IVV.....

E
+

[,-12-1

1,_1,

10

2(1

Fig. 1.58 (a) Loop ABGH, loop - I, - 12 - 10 11 '" 0 Le. 10 I + I, '" - 12

BCEFGB, - 6 (II - 12 - 1) - 2 (II - 12) + 12 + ':!_ '" 0 i.e, - 8

Multiplying equation (1) by 9 we S"l.. 9Q -'I + 9 12 '" - 108 Subtracting - 98'! equa lion (3) from (2) we gel, " + 90

'1 9 '2
+

... (I) = - 18 .. _ (2)

... (3)

11 :Current

0.9183 A
through

and 6

= - 2.8163 A II -I, - 1 '" - 0.9183 + 2.8163 - I

0.898 A
Drop across 6

6"

current

through

n = 6"

0.898

5.388 V
Same

is drop across R

Rxl-5.388 5.388

R ," example 1.29: Using Kirchlwffs flu cirell;1 show" in Fig. 1.59,

n
;" 2 o/Im resistonce for

laws, find UIe current flowing

20V

16 (I

16 (I

32n

-20V

:In

Fig. 1.59 Urhcberrec htllch gesc hutztes M ateri"

Elements Solution:

of Eleo;trlo;:al Engineering

1·70

D. C. Circuits

The various branch currents are as shown.

16 -

1~

~ (j)
I, +

3.2

20V

-::

(1,-1,) 2

-20V
@
(1,-1,)

Fig. 1.59 (a) Loop

-1612

-21.) +20=0 32(12 -I~)+1612 =0

i.e.. +1612 .. 21) =20 l.e. -161) +641~ - 3213 =0 i.e. -3212 + 34.1 ~ 20 3 Il ~ 1.5789 A

... (1) ... (2) ... (3)

Loop II Loop ill: Solving

-16(11-12)+ -20+2IJ for I» 1.311:

-32(12 -IJ)~O

J.

...

Use Cramer's

rule

Ira+

Example

Find I"" Va and VAG jar the circuit shown in Fig. 1.60.
8 E

511

io v

c
Fig. 1.60

SolL.!!ion : Assume

the two currents

as shown

in the Fig. 1.60 (a)

,flV

+ 'OV

Fig. 1.60 (a) Urheberrec htl lch ge5c h(jutes Iv! ateri a

Elements

of Electrical

Engineering

1·71

D. C. Circuits

Applying

KVL to the two loops,

'I

1 A and

12 " 2 A

iJ Trace the path C-E,

Fig. 1.60 (b)

-5V
5 V with C negative ii) Trace the path kG,

Fig. 1.60 (e) VAG 30 V with A positive

Examp)es from G.U. and G.T.U. ~apers

1_

Exampla 1.31; A 'wire I!ns a r.sisla,,,,,, of 2 Q.. It h4s ow. strelched 10 1/", length 3 l;m£5 tl"'l of orig;".I. WIIIIt will be Ih' ntw ,"",,;"lanceo/wire? IGU : Aug.-20011 R1 - 2

Solution:

n.. '2 -

3 11'

R_ Key Point:

e!.
a

When wi'r. is slrotdwt Ihe lolal !J()lum~remains same.

its' '''''8th ci",.nges and cross-sectional ~.r"" d"'nges ••

area x: length ~_31, -3 I. /1 ~. al x 11 a2 X 12

Volume

. 1 t.c, "2-"ja1

Urheberrec htllch gesc h(jutes Iv! ateri"

Elements of Electrical

Engineering

O. C. Circuits

Now,

•.. New resistance I.,.. EXClmple 1.32: C4lcillale Ille mi<IQIIC!' of 100 m IMgth of wire htwing Q uniform cross-sectional ar", of 0.1 mm2 if the wire is mad. of ManganiM hav/ng a resistivity of 50 x 10-8 nom, If Ihe wiTe 10 drawn three times il. originJli length, find oul new resistance, IGU. , Nov,-20(5) a, = 0.1 mml, I = 100 m, p = 50 x lcrB nom.

Solution:

R ~ E! = 50><W xlOO = 500 n 0.1><10";; Now, Volume

a'

r-

31 but its volume

remains

same.

r. = I
a

a x] =a'><f where a' = new c/s

3 i e. a'

'

=!3

R'

£!; '" p><31 '" 9(E!J"

3~
1

Il'"

"'

9R = 4500 n

Example '1.33 : TW<l wires' of dUferel1t amdlldi>lg malerials are connected in parollel, Thty .hare cllm", t in Ihe ratio 5:6. if the wi" of ",a lenal A I,as 1.7 times length and do"ble cmos·section ar", that of rtUlltriai B, fi,nd Ihe ratio of th.ir .".cific resistances.

SOlution:

-a-In B

[CU, July-Z0041

""R:
JA

1
RB 5

,..Ohm's law

Fig, 1.61

IB

RA

"6

i.e. ~><~><Z" 5 1.7 1.411 ... Rano 01 specific resistances

Urheberrec htl lch

gC5C

hutztes Iv! ateri"

Elements of Electrical

Engineering

1·73

D. C. Circuits

II....

EJlample 1.34: A" declric radialor is required 10 dissipale 1 ,kW when connected 10 a 230 V supply. If the coils of II,. radin/or are of wire 0.5 mm j,,, dUlmeler /uro1"8 .reslstlvlty of 60 ~n-cm, ",,/culal' II", "ecessary /"'glh of III, W;ft. (GU : .june200S]

Solution:

p;: 1 kW, V",

p

230 V, d ,", O.S mm,

n=

60

~n-cm

R
52.9

V'

i.e.

1 x 10' = (2-30)' R but R "' a

..

e_I

..

52.9

60xlO""x

10-' x I

~X(05}2)( 10"'" I "' 17.311 m

... Length required

10+

Example

1.35: The resist.ncr vf tne field wi,1 of a dc, machl"e is 120 n 01 15 'C OUTing ils full load nm, the resi~ta"ce increases to 1.35 11 Find the aver:oge temperatllTe of th' field coil. Take resistance temperature roifficimt to be 0.00401 (·C at 15 'C [GU : 0"",,2001. Jun e- 20041

Solutlon:

RI = 120 n , II = 15 'C, R, = 135 n, ~

135

(Xl

= 0.00401 f "C

Rl [1+'"-'1./1.-(1)]
120 [1+0.00401 (t, - 15)] 46.172 'C i.e. 12- 15 "' 31.172 ... Temperatu.re of field roil

'.

Example 1.36 : The resistance of a giVCI conduclor is 60 n .t 20 'C. FI"d its temperature roeffident .nd the resisl.""" al 30 'C if ns temperature coefficient .t 0 'C is OOM / 'C_ [GU : Jun ...20041
R1

Solution:

= 60 U , 11 "' 20 "C, ~=
I

?, t.z = 30 "C,

0Ju "'

0.004 f"C .,.al20 "C

+:°

1 + OO~~~)(20 = 0.003703 /"C

R1

Rl [1+"I(t.z-L,)] = 60 [1+0.003703 (30 - .ZOll 62.22(1 0,004 ~ 0.003571 1 +0,004x 30 .,. Resistance at 30 'C ,..al 30"C

I.C

Urhcberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M ateri a