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Christopher Harwood

Centre for English Language Communication

National University of Singapore

January 12, 20

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Chris Harwood has taught EFL and EAP for over 15 years in Japan, Thailand, Austria,
England and Egypt. His research interests are CALL and collaborative learning. He is
currently investigating if blogs are a useful platform for process writing with Music students.
Chris lectures in EAP at the National University of Singapore.



 

     


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Articles should

identify the type of course, describe the level of learners, and identify their learning need(s);

explain the steps or the procedure involved in implementing the activity;

reflect an awareness of current theory and practice in the field;

(preferably) include related screen shots, images, illustrations or links that exemplify their

relevance/pedagogical implications to the ELT classroom;

include any special requirements needed for the activity;

not exceed 2000 words.

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Modern English language teaching (ELT) methodology is both eclectic and diverse.
Educators need to consider both pedagogic and second language acquisition (SLA) theories
when thinking about what to do in the classroom. They are now expected to employ a variety
of different methodologies and tasks to both introduce new language and practice and
reinforce existing language. For this reason many classroom procedures and activities
become popular and then go out of fashion, often simply replaced by a new teaching idea or
method. This paper serves as a timely reminder to teachers of the benefits of dictogloss, a
dictation procedure that encourages inductive learning and allows learners to discover or
induce meaning from language through their use of it. The pedagogic and SLA theories that
underpin dictogloss are discussed as well as its benefits and uses with university students.

1.‘ A distinction is made between differences that are acceptable or unacceptable

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^ajnryb (1990) is credited with helping to develop a new way of dictation known as
dictogloss. In traditional dictation students recreate a dictated text word for word. However,
dictogloss has different procedures and objectives. Learners retain the gist of a short text and
then apply their own linguistic and grammatical knowledge to form a parallel text. The
reconstructed text should approximate meaning as closely as possible and employ some
forms present in the original text. The text length should be no more than seven lines and
content should be determined through considering the learners¶ level and grammatical and
lexical needs.

The student generated versions are then considered using three criteria; grammatical accuracy,
textual cohesion (if the created text holds together as a meaningful µchunk¶ of language), and
logical sense. Alternative forms to the original dictated form are encouraged as long as they
meet these requirements. ^ajnryb (1990:7) details four key stages of the dictogloss
procedure:
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The teacher introduces a topic and related vocabulary. This can be done using a variety of
techniques: an open class discussion, group brainstorming, question and answer elicitation,
predicting text content from pictures or vocabulary. The important thing is that learners are
engaged with the topic and hopefully interested in it. It is a good idea at this stage to try and
elicit low frequency vocabulary

Harmer (2007) notes, that preparation stages are essential in listening tasks. Providing a
context helps learners to prepare for the kind of information, lexis and ideas they are about to
engage with. Once learners know the context for something, they will be able to predict
possible content and are more likely to engage with the text.Finding out what learners know
already about a topic allows them to activate their current knowledge and vocabulary.

Underwood (1989) supports this idea arguing that in real life we usually have some indication
of what someone might say. That expectation can be reflected in the classroom by activating
the learners¶ schemata (background knowledge) with pre-listening tasks.

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^ajnryb recommends that learners should listen to the dictation twice and that both readings
should be, as far as possible, identical. The text is read at natural speed with short pauses
between each sentence. Students are told not to write anything the first time, µbut allow the
words to wash over them¶ (1990:8). This is to allow students to get an overall feel for the
passage. On the second listening students should take down notes. At this stage the teacher
should suggest that learners focus on noticing and recording key content or information
words. For example, in the phrase µ«and the policeman chased the man down the street¶ the
key words are policeman, chased, man, and street. The grammar words and, the and down,
are approximated, depending on their knowledge of the language, by the learners when
reconstructing the text at the production stage of the dictogloss.

The dictogloss makes dictation active and task based. It allows learners to engage with the
language in a whole context rather than trying to record words verbatim. The emphasis is on
º
text as a semantic unit of language, which makes the procedure particularly relevant and
useful for higher-level learners. Upper-intermediate and advanced students are usually able to
construct grammatically accurate sentences in isolated or discrete item exercises but have
difficulty when trying to piece these sentences together into coherent texts.

Therefore as ^ajnrb (1990:19) notes, dictogloss can help develop learner discourse
competence by focussing on, µCross-sentence connections, as well as the various means-
notably, reference, and ellipsis and substitution-by which textual cohesion is established and
maintained in English¶. This is achieved by using principles underlying collaborative learning
(Kessler, 1992), interactive learning (Shoemaker & Shoemaker, 1991), and self-directed
learning (Oxford, 1990) in ESL/EFL. In short, allowing learners to hypothesis experiment
and use language in a meaningful way in an appropriate context.

Thornbury (1999:85) evaluates the dictogloss and reports that it µprovides a useful means for
guiding learners towards noticing the gap between their present competence and their target
competence¶. Noticing language (learners discover or induce meaning from language through
their use of it) is a prerequisite for learning and dictogloss allows learners to notice different
things in a safe and non-threatening way.

Note that with larger authentic texts, students may be distracted by genre specific vocabulary.
Pre-teaching of this kind of vocabulary is often necessary when using dictogloss to keep
learners focussed on noticing how the language is used rather than what a particular low-
frequency word means. Alternatively teachers should avoid choosing a text that is too
overloaded with genre specific vocabulary unless it is relevant to your learners¶ context.

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After the second reading learners reconstruct the text using the notes they recorded in stage
two of the dictation. Thornbury (1999) advises that groups of 3-4 students pool their notes
and mental resources and work on reconstructing a version of text. He also suggests one
student acts a scribe and writes down the completed group version of the text.

Swain and Lapkin (1995:375) suggest the benefits of reconstructing the text in this way lie in
the experimenting and hypothesising the learners engage in whilst doing the task. By

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producing the target language learners may, µconsciously recognise some of their linguistic
problems; it may bring to their attention something they need to discover about their L2¶.
This is linked to the prerequisite for learning of noticing language defined in 2.2.

It also promotes communication, collaboration, interaction, and self-directedness on the part

of the students. Learners are responsible for and can monitor their own learning the
reconstruction stage. This encourages learner autonomy, a tenet of the cognitive learning
approach.

The negotiation of meaning involved in these kinds of tasks culturally lends itself to Asian
students. Indeed as ^ajnryb (1990) argues, the active learner involvement in the procedure
allows learners to confront their own strengths and weaknesses. However, as Jacobs (2003:7)
notes, µIndividual accountability is, in some ways, the flip side of equal participation¶.
Therefore teachers should be aware that this could result in some learners observing other
learners engaging with the dictogloss and not engaging with the procedure themselves.

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Learners analyse and correct their texts by writing their versions on the board or on OHTs
and comparing these with the work of other groups. The student versions are then compared
to the original text one sentence at a time. Feedback through peer correction and discussion is
then encouraged. The learner errors are noticed, exposed and discussed. As Thornbury
(2001:73) notes feedback and error correction becomes part of the input-output cycle:

text 6 student reconstruction 6 comparison

 
  



Learner awareness of their language choice is increased and they become conscious of how
they hypothesised about both the correct and incorrect choices they made during the
reconstruction. Feedback of this nature is thought to be more motivating as students consider
the effectiveness of their language and recognise the need to review the forms they choose
and the decisions they make.

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Many learners find the opportunity to self correct or peer correct very motivating. In my
experience Chinese learners of English particularly enjoy the process of identifying and
understanding their own errors. Also, in general Middle-Eastern and European learners seem
to respond well to this kind of error correction. However, it should be recognised that these
are generalisations and not all learners are conducive to having errors examined publicly. For
example, Japanese learners are more sensitive to this approach, possibly because they place a
high value on accuracy and think of errors as failure.




  



According to Thornbury (1997) dictogloss is a procedure useful for adult learners of pre-
intermediate level and above. He suggests, µdifferent learners, depending on their state of
their interlanguage, as well as their interest and motivation, will notice different things¶ (p:
332). It is therefore useful for general English courses where there is a significant range of
learner levels and interests in a given class. It may also be suitable for classes with students
from different educational backgrounds and learning contexts.

The collaborative nature of the reconstruction stage provides a good opportunity for
individual students to combine their skills. For example, the class used in this evaluation (see
appendix 1111) is comprised of European and Asian learners. The European learners are
relatively forthright and confident with their classroom contributions and can express
themselves with some fluency despite many grammatical inaccuracies. The Japanese,
Malaysian and Chinese learners have less communicative fluency but are more focused on
form and have a higher degree of accuracy with their productive output. Therefore, during the
reconstruction stage of the procedure each student has the opportunity to both contribute to
the collaboration with their language strengths and learn from their peers¶ language strengths.


 




To explore how dictogloss enables learners to notice the gap between their present language
competence and target competence. This will be achieved by:

(1) Learners comparing their notes with those of their peers.

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(2) Learners comparing group-generated versions of the text to the original version.

Looking at how the class responds to the dictogloss procedure and determining whether,

(3) Learners are engaged and enjoying the learning process.

(4) Learners are motivated to analyse their errors.

(5) To try and establish if the procedure raises student consciousness of their ability and if so
how they react.

 







The dictogloss text and procedure used in this classroom evaluation is taken from ^ajnrb
(1990:70-71) å ips for travellers 2: getting around¶ It was felt it would be better to use an
established resource rather than experimenting with producing new material. See lesson plan
timetable fit for reasons for text choice.

A colleague observed the class to identify the use of

- he generic singular ± raveller¶s

-Lexical chains ± the traveller, the visitor, a tourist
-Present modal should ± for advice /deduction

-Infinitive/gerund alternatives- to find/finding, to master/mastering

and noted at each stage when the above appeared in student work. This was done using an
observation task sheet (appendix 4).

Stage 1) Dictation; which forms appear in individual student notes.

Stage 2) Reconstruction; which forms appear in the student¶s version of the text.
Stage 3) Analysis and correction: which forms appear in other groups versions of the text.

This was done to identify which forms are noticed at which stage and to understand how
dictogloss may facilitate learning of grammatical and lexical forms.

In addition, students completed a post lesson questionnaire (appendix 2) which asked them to
rate the four stages of the procedure for enjoyment, difficulty and usefulness. Students were

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given the opportunity to express any other thoughts in an open ended åother thoughts¶ section
at the end of the questionnaire.


   



The completed observation task shows that group 1 successfully collaborated on this task. 3
of the 4 students were made aware of forms they had not noted themselves. However, student
1(see appendix 4) recorded the word visitor from sentence 3 of the text but this was not used
in the final group version. It was replaced with he.

All groups recorded to find in their versions but none noticed to master. Although the word
master was noted by one of the members in group 2, she could not place it in the text. ^hilst
should for advice was used by group 1 and 3 group 2 replaced it with have to get. In sentence
3 group 3 noticed the use of visitor but groups 1 and 2 used the pronouns he and you in its
place.

In general the class seemed to comprehend the first two sentences more than the second two.
In sentence 4 should for deduction was noticed by group 2 but groups 1 and 3 used are able
to in its place. Also, group 3 used visitor instead of tourist in sentence 4.

Most students were involved and were given the opportunity to contribute notes and
negotiated meaning of the group texts through discussion. However, as one student wrote,
³Sometimes I can¶t understand what other students says and also I don¶t have a lot of
vocabulary so I can¶t speak what I want to tell´ (see appendix 2). Other students noted that
listening and note taking is very difficult. Indeed, as I monitored I did notice that group 2 had
two strong and confident learners and two weaker and more reserved learners. This mismatch
resulted in the two stronger students contributing a lot more to the final group version of the
text.

During the analysis and correction stage it was also good to see students who had correct
suggestions rejected by the group receive acknowledgement and apologies from their peers.
As the group versions were written on the I^B alongside the original text I heard ³ahh we
said are able to not should´, similar realisations made by all three groups in the analysis of
*
the text. The concept checking and explanation of grammar at this stage seemed very
straightforward. The students had engaged with and discovered much of what I had prepared
to check.

Overall I think the dictogloss was a success. The post lesson student questionnaire shows the
students found dictogloss both very useful and enjoyable (see appendix 2). In addition,
although many students noted it was difficult to listen and write at the same time, and that
they did not understand some vocabulary, their perception of this difficulty was reduced
during the group stages. All the groups produced coherent versions of the text, and were able
to identify and self/peer correct much of the lexis and grammar.

 

!! 


Dictogloss is a very useful teaching tool suitable for learners at all levels. The nature of the
procedure makes it a very flexible classroom tool but further adjustments within the different
stages are also advisable to enable teacher tailor the procedure for the needs of individual
classes dependent on the levels and nationalities in the class. A number of things could be
done to achieve this.

In order to use dictogloss with elementary learners a text may require µscaffolding¶ (the
building up of target language structure over several TURNS in an interaction, Richards et al.
1992:321) in order for classes to really benefit from the procedure. This might involve pre-
teaching lexis and even reviewing grammar points prior to the reading. Also with pre-
intermediate learners low-frequency vocabulary words could be pre-taught to allow learners
to focus on the whole text without being distracted by low frequency lexis.

However, the collaboration, reconstruction and error analysis stages would still make the
exercise worthwhile. Recycling a text or part of a text that you have previously used as a
reading is also a useful idea

It might also be useful to organise classes so that particularly weak students are not grouped
with very strong and confident students. This should help reduce incidents where individual
contributions at the reconstruction stage are limited by individual personalities.

^ith advanced learners teachers might consider only one reading making the reconstruction
more of a challenge. Learners note-taking skills would have to speed up and greater

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interaction and collaboration would take place. In addition, the reduced µcertainty¶ of what
was said would lead to more hypothesising and negotiation of meaning during reconstruction.

The use up-to-date and µlive¶ texts from the internet, newspapers and television news reports
would be more motivating for students. Learning how to identify suitable texts for specific
language points would be a necessary and useful exercise for teachers to engage in to provide
classes with texts of this kind.

(2684 words)




Brown, H.D. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching.: Prentice Hall Regents.

Jacobs, G (2003). Combining Dictogloss and Cooperative learning to Promote language

Learning: he Reading matrix Vol. 3

Kessler, C. (Ed.). (1992). Cooperative language learning: A teacher's resource book :

Prentice Hall Regents.

Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know: Heinle &
Heinle.

Richards, J. Platt, J & Platt, H.(1992) Dictionary of Language eaching & Applied linguistics.
Longman

Shoemaker, C.L. & Shoemaker, F.F. (1991). Interactive techniques for the ESL classroom:
Heinle & Heinle.

Swain, M & Lapkin, S (1995) µProblems in output and the cognitive process they generate: a
step towards second language learning¶ Applied Linguistics 16/3: p.371-91

Thornbury, S. (1997). µReformulation and reconstruction: tasks that promote noticing¶ EL

Journal Vol 51/14 p326-335

Thornbury, S. (1999). How to teach grammar: Pearson Longman

Thornbury, S.. (2001). Uncovering Grammar: Macmillan Heineman

Underwood, M (1989) eaching Listening„Longman

^ajnryb, R. (1993). Grammar dictation: Oxford University Press.

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This multi-lingual group come together twice a week for two hours. There are 12 students in
the group 2 men and 10 women. There are eight different nationalities: 3x Japanese, 2x
(Chinese) Singaporean, 2x (German)Swiss, I x Dutch, Ix Thai, 1x Ecuadorian, 1x Korean, 1x
Malaysian. The learners are all intermediate level with different strengths and weaknesses.
They all express the need to practice speaking and pronunciation, with most wanting grammar
and vocabulary practice as well. They especially seem to enjoy speaking and pronunciation
activities but are generally motivated to complete any task. Most learners work well together,
although some are more dominant than others. Most of the students are willing to contribute
to group and class discussions.

In order to keep the evaluation manageable the four learners below were focused on during the
individual note taking stage. It was thought these learners represent a good cross-section of the
class with 2 European and 2 Asian learners. They are generally representative of the different
abilities of the class.

Name, age Reason for learning Strengths & weaknesses

sex ,
Nationality
Joke 50+ Living in Singapore Quite weak at listening weak and writing, speaks
(F) Dutch with some fluency gets confused with tenses
Hisae 38 (F) Living in Singapore Very strong at listening. Focuses too much on
Japanese and future job grammatical form
Beatrice 45 Fun/hobby, Living in Quite strong reading and speaking skills, weak
(F) Swiss Singapore writing skills.
Albert 50+ Job and career Quite a strong speaker, struggles with writing,
(M) particularly tense forms and vocabulary.
Singaporean


% 

A diagnostic questionnaire (appendix 1) revealed the following information:

Half the class are learning English ³to make living in Singapore easier´. Four require it for
current or future employment and two students are studying as a hobby /interest.

33
9 of the 12 students believed they were weak at using tenses in writing. Also, 7 out of 12
thought they were weak at writing longer texts. A recent writing exercise in class revealed that
learners avoid using the present modal should (for advice and deduction) when writing. For
example, instead of saying å..you should eat more vegetables¶, one learner wrote å you must eat
more vegetables¶. Another learner wrote å
ou can have more energy. .¶ These kinds of errors
were repeated throughout the class not because students fail to understand the use and meaning
of the Modal auxiliary verb. It is that they avoid its use because they do not use a similar word
in their L1. A procedure such as dictogloss that draws attention to the use and meaning of form
will prove beneficial in helping learners to clarify why should is a more polite/natural way to
express probability or give advice.

 !

By the end of the lesson the learners will be better able to distinguish the use of should for
advice and should for deduction.

They will have noticed/reviewed their understanding of infinitive/gerund alternatives to

find/finding and to master/mastering.

They will have noticed/reviewed their understanding of the generic singular åtravellers¶ and a
lexical chain related to this word - tourist, visitor.

  !

By the end of the lesson the learners will have practiced their speaking comprehension, note-
taking and writing skills.

 
!

1) Should for advice: he visitor should get hold of a transport map of the city and become
familiar with the local routes and timetables.

2) Should for deduction: Armed with this knowledge and an innate sense of direction, a
tourist should be able to find the way to any part of the city.

3) Infinitive and gerund alternatives; to find/finding and to master/mastering.

4) Generic singular; travellers and lexical chain visitor, tourist

Stage Procedure Aim Int T

Preparation 1) Introduce topic: getting around the Activate Ss T-S 10

city. Ask students how they get around schemata about
Singapore. ^hat public transport they the topic of the
use and why? Did they find it difficult class to generate
when they first arrived in Singapore? an interest in the
3J
 Has anyone ever been lost in an text begin to
unfamiliar city? Give students a map of predict
public transport network in Singapore. vocabulary.
Ask students to ask and answer
questions getting from A to B. Give
example: How do I get from the airport S-S
to Sixth Avenue? Do as a class on I^B.

2) Ask students to work in pairs and

give each other tips for getting around
their hometown.

Dictation 1 Tell Ss they are going to listen to a Ss hear the text T-S 2
normal piece of spoken English at and notice the
normal speed. They will hear the text main thematic
twice. The first time they hear it they and semantic
should not write anything but pay points of the text.
attention to the overall meaning of the
text.

Read the text (appendix 3) at normal

speed. Pause slightly longer than usual
between sentences.

Dictation 2 Tell Ss they are going to hear the text Ss hear the text T-S 2
again. That they must jot down familiar again and record
words and phrases as they hear them. information
Encourage the recording of content or which will act as
information words to aid memory scaffolding for
recall. the
reconstruction
stage.

Reconstruction Tell Ss to form groups of 3-4 to pool Ss reconstruct the SS-SS 15-
their notes and work on their versions text using their 20
of the text. Each group appoints a scribe productive
to write down the reconstructed text as grammar.
it emerges from the discussion.
Ss discuss and
Monitor groups and be available for hypothesis
questions unrelated to target forms.

Analysis & Invite group members from each group Ss analyse and S-T-S 20-
correction to write their sentences on the board. correct their own 25
Examine differences as a class. Manage
3º
peer correction/feedback as an open texts.
class.

Focus on target language and aspects of

discourse as they arise. Elicit correct Ss compare
forms and concept check meaning. versions, discuss
the language
1) Should for advice: he visitor should choices made.
get hold of a transport map of the city
and become familiar with the local Ss
routes and timetables.Does the visitor refine/discover
have to get a transport map of the city? new language
No options. And
Is it a good idea to get a transport map clarify
of the city? Yes concept/meaning.
2) Should for deduction: Armed with
this knowledge and an innate sense of
direction, a tourist should be able to
find the way to any part of the city.
Is should used here to give advice? No
Does this sentence mean that something
is expected/predicted?
es

3) Infinitive and gerund alternatives; to

find/finding and to master/mastering.

Are to find and finding used in a similar

way? yes
Does the meaning change if you use an
infinitive instead of a gerund? No
Is this true for all gerunds/infinitives?
No

4) Generic singular; traveller's and

lexical chain visitor, tourist
Is there one particular traveller? No

Is the text referring to all travellers in

general?
es

5) Check meaning of words:

(n) innate (natural inborn),

(adj) local (having to do with a

particular place you are)
(v) to get hold of (to acquire, to obtain)

3Œ
 

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(1) I am « (a) 20-30 (b) 31-41 (c) 42 -52 (d) 53+

(2) How long have you been learning English?

(a) 1 to 4 years (b) 5-8 years (c) 9 to 12 years (d) 13+ years

(3) ^hy are you learning English?

(a) Hobby/interest (b) for my job (c) for University (IELTS) (e) Other (please explain)

__________________ _________________________________

(4) ^hat do you think you are strongest at in English?

___________________________________________________

(5) ^hat do you think you are weakest at in English?

___________________________________________________

(6) ^hat would you like to improve at the most in English?

___________________________________________________

(7) ^hat do most use English for in your daily lives? (
ou can circle more than one)

(a) Talking with foreign friends and family (b) writing emails/letters

(c) Reading foreign media (newspapers etc) (d) watching TV & films

(e) writing/reading work reports (f) talking with clients face to face.

(g) Talking with clients on the phone

(8) ^hen you learn/study English which do you like to«

(a) to study alone (b) in pairs (c) in groups of 3 or 4 (d) all of (a) (b) and (c)

3Ô
(9) In class when you are studying English what do you find most useful? For example, using
the book, listening to the teacher, writing, group work etc

___________________________________ ________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________ _

 J&

  '
 

Read the types of task and rate them from 1-4 & 

  

 

1= most enjoyable, difficult, useful 4= least enjoyable, difficult, useful

Type of task enjoyable difficulty usefulness

Listening to the teacher and writing notes  J J  


^orking in a group and writing the speech again  J J   

with classmates

Looking at other groups work and comparing our  J J   

ideas as a class

Making sentences using prompts   J  


Other thoughts (Examples of feedback in italic)

If you can, please give the main reasons you thought tasks were most/least,

 
 

³It makes it fun to listen the text and try to understand´

³All tasks are enjoyable´

³Working together is fun´

³ his way of learning is more fun and lively. o be able to train oneself to listening and
writing ability´

³Working with group is a very efficient. I personally like it very much it gives me a different
way to see and learn things´




3Ë
³Could not understand some new words from the sentences´

³It¶s hard for me to listen and write at the same time´

³My listening skill is poor so making notes is difficult for me´

³Sometimes I can¶t understand what other students says and also I don¶t have a lot of
vocabulary so I can¶t speak what I want to tell´

³I think it¶s quite difficult to listen carefully and understand everything. But it helps that we
can using notes´

×

³I think it is useful for understanding and also for improving our listening´

³Most useful task is working in a group. It¶s very helpful to increase to my vocabulary´

³Making sentences and collecting together is helpful to check my grammar mistakes

sometimes. But I think that it take a little long time in class´

³It helps s to learn how to form a short composition from listening. And what to look for
when writing a note´

  




(Tips for travellers 2: getting around)

1. One of the traveller¶s greatest problems in a new city is to find his or her way to those
things that mean survival: food, a place to stay and medical help. 2 Most cities have an
intricate network of transport and the visitor¶s first task is to master this transport system. 3
The visitor should get hold of a transport map of the city and become familiar with the local
routes and timetables. 4 Armed with this knowledge and an innate sense of direction, a tourist
should be able to find the way to any part of the city.

^ajnryb (1990:71)

3ü


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!  

!

(1) Dictation: forms noted by individual students.

Tick (ë ) if forms were produced. Replacement/other forms are in 
 and
 

Group Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence

1 1 1a 2 2a 3 4 4a
students

Generic Infinitive/gerund Lexical Should ± Lexicl Should ± Lexical

singular ± alternatives µto chain ± for chain ± for chain ±
µTravellers¶ find/finding 
 advice µvisitor¶ deduction µtourist¶
& µthis
transport
system¶

S1 ë ë ë

S2 ë ë

S3 ë

S4 ë ë

(2) Reconstruction: forms produced by group 1. Tick (ë) if forms are produced.

Group Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence

1 1 1a 2 2a 3 4 4a

Generic Infinitive/gerund Lexical Should ± Lexicl Should ± Lexical

singular ± alternatives µto chain ± for chain ± for chain ±
µTravellers¶ find/finding 
 advice µvisitor¶ deduction µtourist¶
& µthis
transport
system¶

3*
Group ë ë ëë ë M



M

1 


version

(3) Analysis & Correction: forms by other group versions. Tick (ë) if forms are produced.

Other Sentence Sentence 1a Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence

1 2 2a 3 4 4a
Groups

Generic Infinitive/gerund Lexical Should ± Lexicl Should ± Lexical

singular ± alternatives µto chain ± for chain ± for chain ±
µTravellers¶ find/finding 
& advice µvisitor¶ deduction µtourist¶
µthis
transport
system¶

Group ë ë ë m
m
ë ë

2 





version

Group ë ë ëë ë ë 


 

3 

version

 


!! 

Student 1

utgoing and confident the learner took on the role of a group leader during reconstruction.

Student 2

Made very few notes, seemed to struggle with the listening and was possibly relying on
stronger group members during reconstruction.

Student 3

Participated well throughout and took on the role of scribe. Good individual notes.
3·
Student 4

Very quiet, made few notes but contributed during the reconstruction stage and had to be
prompted by other group members to participate.

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