Dictionary of Grammatical Forms

Burmese/Myanmar
Dictionary of
Grammatical Forms
Burmese/Myanmar
Dictionary of Grammatical Forms
John Okell
and
Anna Allott
CURZON
copyright page
CONTENTS
vii INTRODUCTION
xi CONVENTIONS
xi Abbreviations
xii Symbols
xiii Structure of the entry
xiii Spelling
xiv Pronunciation
xiv Voicing
xv Position of negative prefix
xv Translations
xv Pronouns
xvi Alphabetical order
THE DICTIONARY
1 Burmese entries
273 English entries
APPENDICES
281 Outline grammatical description
291 Lists of grammatical forms arranged by category
305 Bibliography
309 Index and glossary of grammatical terms
INTRODUCTION
Burmese or Myanmar?
In the Burmese/Myanmar language, the name of the people, the
country and the language has two forms: bma (b´ma) and ®mn\ma
(mja$ma or mj´ma). The name “Burma”, which in one version or
another has been internationally current since the 15th century, is
derived from the former. In 1989 the government announced that
they wished to change the name to “Myanmar”, to reflect the latter
form instead of the former. The world has been slow to implement
this change, with the result that both versions of the name are now
current in different contexts. In this book we mostly use “Burma”
and “Burmese”, as those are still the names most likely to be
familiar to our readers.
Aim
Students and scholars of the Burmese/Myanmar language have access to a
number of language teaching and reference materials written in English,
but one of the outstanding gaps in the current provision is the lack of a
detailed reference grammar. The only work of this type written in recent
times (Okell 1969) is now out of print and is anyway restricted to the
colloquial language; and the otherwise excellent Myanmar-English
Dictionary (MLC 1993a) gives only limited space to grammatical forms. This
Dictionary has been compiled as a step towards filling that gap.
Grammatical forms
Almost all the grammatical information in a Burmese sentence — that is, the
relations between constituents of the sentence and between one sentence
and the next — is conveyed by means of “particles”: bound or semi-bound
forms, predominantly suffixes, that are attached to nouns and verbs and
carry meanings like if, for, after, because, inside, and so on. This Dictionary
Introduction viii
is a list of the common grammatical forms or particles of Burmese. Each

entry offers a set of English equivalents for the entry word, a set of examples
illustrating its use, and notes on grammatical classification, pronunciation,
style restrictions and other features. The different classes we use for
classifying grammar words, and our grounds for distinguishing them, are
summarised in the Outline grammar, and listed in the Index.
Colloquial and literary styles

Broadly speaking, Burmese makes use of two different sets of particles: one
for use in formal contexts, usually written, such as official announcements
and regulations, formal letters and public notices, newspaper reports and
editorials, manuals, textbooks, and so on. Texts written with this set of
particles are commonly referred to as being “in literary style”, or “in formal
Burmese” (Aer;' saer;hn\). The other set of particles is used when people
are talking to each other, or when they are writing letters to friends or
dialogue in novels, or some more chatty articles in magazines. This sort of
language is referred to as “colloquial Burmese” (NOt\e®pa' Ae®paska;'
ska;e®pahn\).Curiously, the news is read in formal Burmese on the radio,
but in colloquial Burmese on the television. Some particles are used
unchanged in both styles. This grammar includes suffixes and other
particles from both the colloquial and the literary styles, and notes whether
each particle is restricted to one style or the other.
Structure and scope of the Dictionary

Okell’s Reference grammar (Okell 1969) consisted of two parts: Part 1 de-
scribed the structure of words, phrases and sentences, and Part 2 was a list
of grammatical forms set out in alphabetical order. The present Dictionary
corresponds to Part 2 of the Reference grammar. It covers the same
colloquial forms, though most entries are now revised and expanded. It also
includes many additional colloquial forms, and meanings of colloquial forms,
that were not included in the Reference grammar. And, most significantly, it
includes the grammatical forms of the literary style, which had no place in
the Reference grammar.
The features described in Part 1 of the Reference grammar are here
presented in highly abridged form in the Outline grammar appendix.
No dictionary of a living language can claim to be complete, and this
Dictionary is no exception. In particular we have included few of the parti-
ix Introduction
cles that are found more in verse than in prose, specially verse from older
periods. A list of verse particles, and more generally a students’ guide to
reading verse, remains to be written. Other forms have been excluded be-
cause we judged them to belong to the field of lexis and vocabulary rather
than to grammar, our main criterion for grammatical status being versatility
or occurrence with more than a limited range of other forms. And still other
potential entries will be absent simply because we had not come across
them.
The illustrative examples are taken from a range of sources, includ-
ing contemporary colloquial speech, and written texts dating from the pre-
sent day back to the 17th century. The texts used include chronicles,
Buddhist texts, novels and short stories, magazines, newspapers, technical
manuals, and personal correspondence.
Readership
The Dictionary is intended to be useful for students, scholars, readers and
speakers of Burmese/Myanmar. The entrywords and illustrative examples
are given in Burmese script without a roman transcription, so users will
need to be able to read the script in order to use the book; but as each ex-
ample is accompanied by an English translation, students can use the
Dictionary from an early stage of their studies.
The authors
Anna Allott and John Okell are both retired Lecturers in Burmese from The
School of Oriental and African Studies in the University of London, England.
Both have visited and lived in Burma/Myanmar for a total of several years,
and have taught the language for over 35 years, to diplomatic and other
professional trainees as well as to university students. John Okell has also
taught intensive two-month courses in the USA.
During her long career in Burmese studies, Anna Allott has focussed
more on literature and the literary style, while John Okell’s interests have
lain more with the spoken language and colloquial style. They have each
published books and articles on grammar, lexis, classical and modern litera-
ture, and on government policy on language and literature. Both have writ-
ten major teaching aids for language learners, and they have collaborated in
work on a Burmese-English dictionary.
Introduction x
The two authors have again collaborated to compile the present

Dictionary of grammatical forms, each contributing material from their own
experience and expertise.
Acknowledgments
The authors are happy to acknowledge their debt and offer grateful thanks
to:
their first language teacher, Dr U Hla Pe, Lecturer and subsequently
Professor of Burmese in the University of London
all their long-suffering Burmese friends, both in Burma and abroad, who
have patiently answered questions about acceptable and unacceptable
usage
all the editors, writers, typesetters and publishers in Burma who kindly dug
out and freely gave them copies of computer disks full of Burmese texts
from which many of the examples in the Dictionary are taken
the friends and colleagues in Burma who took the trouble to send them
books and magazines and letters
the School of Oriental and African Studies of London University, and to the
British Academy, for contributing to the costs of visits to Burma
The authors take full responsibility for all errors and omissions. They would
be grateful to hear from readers who have additions or corrections to sug-
gest. Please contact the authors c/o the publishers, Curzon Press Ltd, 15
The Quadrant, Richmond, Surrey TW9 1BP, England.
Email: publish@curzonpress.co.uk. Website: www.curzonpress.co.uk.
CONVENTIONS
Abbreviations
CB Colloquial Burmese, spoken style
cls clause
comm elem cpd nn common element in compound nouns
comm elem cpd vb common element in compound verbs
comm nmtv common numerative
comm pre-vb common pre-verb
coord mkr coordinate marker
FB Formal Burmese, literary style
Int Interjection
loc nn location noun
MED Myanmar-English dictionary (MLC 1993a)
MLC Myanmar Language Commission
N Noun
neg negative
nn atrb mkr noun attribute marker
nn mkr noun marker
nn mod noun modifier
Nº Number
Nº+N Number followed by a Numerative Noun
opp opposed to, the opposite of
Phr Phrase
pron pronounced
selective noun selective noun
sfx suffix
sn someone
sp hd nn special head noun
Stc Sentence
stc fin phr ptcl sentence final phrase particle
stc med phr ptcl sentence medial phrase particle
stc mkr sentence marker
sth something
Conventions xii
sts sometimes
sub cls mkr subordinate clause marker
sub stc mkr subordinate sentence marker
V Verb
VA Verb Attribute (i.e. a verb, optionally preceded by
complements, and typically followed by an attributive
marker, as in V-qv\.' V-q' V-eqa' V-t´.' V-m´.' V-mv\.
etc)
vb atrb mkr verb attribute marker
vb mod verb modifier
verse marks examples taken from verse
vsv … see under the entry …
Initials Where an example contains a Burmese name, we have some-

times used initials in the translation, in place of the full
name; e.g. U^;emac\emac\lt\ ry\miqv\" U MML couldn’t help
smiling.
Symbols
( ) in Burmese script, used to mark optional elements: e.g.
Nui≥mhut$rc$ stands for Nui≥mhut\ or Nui≥mhut\rc\
( ) in translations, used to mark elements supplied from the con-
text: e.g. to get off (the bus).
(“ ”) used to mark a literal translation: e.g. travelling (“riding”) in
cars
/ / used to mark pronunciation; e.g. mv\ pron /m¥^/
used to mark the end of the entry word and the beginning of
the translation and explanation
• used to mark the beginning of a new example
~ used to stand for the entry word; e.g. in the entry for Aenn´≥
and its variants AenN˙c\. and Aen®Pc\. N~ stands for
“noun+Aenn´≥ or noun+AenN˙c\. or noun+Aen®Pc\. ”
stands for “is derived from, is compounded of”
Structure of the entry

The typical entry contains:
xiii Conventions
in bold type:
1. the entry word, and variant forms and spellings if any
2. a note in brackets indicating the context in which the form is used; e.g. in
the entry for ka the note (V~) shows that ka is suffixed to verbs
3. English translation equivalents
in italic type:
4. notes on form class, style restrictions, pronunciation, reference to similar
entries, possible origins, frequent combinations, comments on meaning,
etc, as appropriate
in plain type:
5. examples of the entry word in use, with English translations.
Further notes and comments in the body of the entry are printed in italic.
Some forms have several different functions or meanings. Where it
seems clearer to do so, the entry for such a form will have subsections, each
marked (a), (b) (c) etc and starting in bold type.
Where two words have the same form but obviously different func-
tions they are given separate entries. An obvious example is f" The f that
is suffixed to nouns and means “’s” and the f that is suffixed to verbs and
means “end of sentence” are clearly different, so each is allocated an entry to
itself. At the other end of the spectrum there are words that have a range of
meanings, but all seem to belong to the same word. An example is N˙c\.,
which can mean “equipped with, in concert with, by means of, together with,
in relation to, adverbial, for (price), because of, that”. We therefore give N˙c\. a
single entry, divided into subsections. But there are many entries that fall
between the two extremes. In these cases the decision to put all the
different meanings into one entry or split them up into different entries is
largely guided by considerations of clarity. Sometimes the information ap-
pears to be easier to find and comprehend in a single entry, sometimes in
multiple entries.
Spelling
There are some Burmese syllables that can be spelled in two or more dif-
ferent ways. Scholars have argued the correctness of one spelling over an-
other since the 16th century, but for a long period certain words were writ-
ten in different ways according to the preferences, or lack of learning, of the
writer. This situation was addressed in the 1970s by the Burma (later
Conventions xiv
Myanmar) Language Commission, which decided on a set of correct spellings

for the disputed words and published spelling books and dictionaries to
promulgate them. The approved spellings are enforced by the Press Scrutiny
Board, with the result that today there is considerable uniformity in printed
texts.
For our entrywords we use the approved spellings, but some of our
examples are taken from texts published before the reforms, or from letters
handwritten by people whose spelling habits were formed at an earlier stage.
In these cases we have retained the spelling used in the original, so readers
should be prepared to see some spelling variants.
Some of the most frequently encountered variants are:
approved variant meaning
ts\ t one
p´ B´ emphatic
m-B´ m-p´ without
l¥k\ rk\ -ing
lv\; l´ also
nv\; n´ be few
Pronunciation
Pronunciation is shown in Burmese script, following the unambiguous and
efficient method used in the ®mn\maABiDan\ (MLC 1991). As in that dictionary,
we show pronunciation only if it differs from the expected pronunciation; e.g.
the entry tv\;- includes a note “pron /t´ /” , because you might have ex-
pected /t^;/, but the entry eta\ has no note about pronounciation, because
it is pronounced as written: /eta\/
Voicing
For the voicing rules in Burmese see Okell 1994 Spoken Book 1 p 39 or
Script p 142, or Okell 1969 vol 1 p 12. In brief, in certain contexts and with
certain exceptions, when one word is suffixed to another, the initial
consonant of the second word changes from voiceless to voiced. E.g. wc\
xv Conventions
followed by es is pronounced /wc\ez/ not /wc\es/, and so on for all voiceable

consonants.
The convention adopted in this Dictionary is that all suffixes undergo
voicing unless otherwise noted; e.g. Kuic\; has a note “does not voice”, so you
read e®paKuic\;ty\' eqak\Kuic\;ty\ as written: /e®paKuic\;dy\' eqak\Kuic\;dy\/ (“He
told him to speak. He told him to drink.”). But K´. has no note on voicing, so
you read e®paK´.ty\' eqak\K´.ty\ with voicing where appropriate: /e®pag´.dy\'
eqak\K´.dy\/ (“He spoke. He drank.”)
Position of negative prefix

In compound verbs with modifiers the negative prefix m- may be placed
before the main verb (m- + main verb + modifier) or before the modifier (main
verb + m- + modifier). Since the first sequence is more common, the
convention in this Dictionary is that the order is mVV unless otherwise noted;
e.g. the entry for Ta; includes the note “negative form usually V-m~”, so you
expect e®pamTa;B¨;' Kc\;mTa;lui≥ etc. But the entry for K¥c\ has no note about
negative ordering, so you expect me®paK¥c\B¨;' mKc\;K¥c\lui≥ etc
Translations
Some examples are extracted from longer sentences. In some cases it is
cumbersome to try and translate them as they stand, so they have been
translated as if they were full sentences; e.g. mimilk\T´m˙a saer;q¨m¥a;r´.
qeBat¨v^K¥k\ lk\m˙t\m¥a; ‰˙iTa;®p^; ®Ps\eÂkac\; qi‰˙ir®p^;" We learned that he
already held in his hand the signed agreement made with the writers.
Pronouns
Burmese is not as explicit with pronouns as English. The sentence m’kik\B¨;
can be translated, according to context, as “He doesn’t like it”, “We don’t like
them”, “She doesn’t like me”, etc. In the translations of our examples we
have supplied pronouns that are not stated in the Burmese.
Alphabetical order
The Dictionary uses the same alphabetical order as the MED (MLC 1993a),
except for rhymes in AM" The MED treats this as an open syllable, but we
treat it as equivalent to Am\ and therefore list it among closed syllables.
Conventions xvi
There is one other major difference. This Dictionary ignores the prefix
A- for the purpose of determining alphabetical order. Prefixed entries are
ordered as if they had no prefix; so you will find the sequences eK¥-AK¥oi>-K¥k\
… na;-An^;-n^;n^;-en … lui≥-Alui≥c˙a-lk\s etc. In other words, look for AK¥oi>
as if it were K¥oi>, An^; as if it were n^;, and so on.
Notes on the alphabetical order chart

Combinations of vowel sign and final consonant not given in the list of
closed syllables in col 4 follow the order of consonants (col 1) and vowels (col
3); e.g.
Aat\ is ordered: At\' Aat\' Ait\"
Auk\ is ordered: Ak\' Auk\' eAak\"
eAa.P\ is ordered: Aup\' eAa.P\' AM
Stacked consonants are listed as if they were all on the line, so mt† is treated
as if it were written mt\t etc.
Free-standing vowel syllables are ordered in the same way as vowels with
A , so I È U Ë E Âq eÂqa\ are treated as if they were written Ai A^ Au A¨
eA eAa eAa\"
Abbreviated syllables are listed after all the other Burmese entries, so after
AM.' AuM; you will find Ò j &c\; f"
English entries, i.e. entries without a writable form in Burmese, are listed at
the end of the Burmese entries, after the abbreviated syllables. They are:
Induced creaky tone, Repetition, Rising intonation, and Zero suffix.
xvii Conventions
Initial Medial Rhymes: Rhymes:

consonants consonants open syllables closed syllables
(with initial m (with initial A (with initial A used for illustration)
k used for used for
K illustration) illustration) Ak\ Ap\
g m A eAak\ Aip\
G m¥ Aa Auik\ Aup\
c ®m Aa; Ac\ AM
s m∑ Ai Ac\. AM.
S m˙ A^ Ac\; Am\;
z A^; eAac\ Aim\
Z Au eAac\. Aim\.
v A¨ eAac\; Aim\;
√ A¨; Ac\ AuM
! eA. Auic\. AuM≥
@ eA Auic\; AuM;
£ eA; As\ Ay\
$ A´. A√\ Ay\.
% A´ A√\.
t eAa. A√\;
T eAa\ Av\
d eAa Av\.
D Aui≥ Av\;
n Aui At\
p Aui; Ait\
P Aut\
b An\
B An\≥
m An\;
y Ain\
r Ain\≥
l Ain\;
w Aun\
q Aun\≥
h Aun\;
L
A
Conventions xviii
THE DICTIONARY
BURMESE ENTRIES
k 1 (N~) (a) from, by, through N, when N is a place or starting-point; nn
mkr, CB, but also found in FB as an alternative to the more formal FB N-m˙;
• etac\Bk\k' etac\Arp\k laqv\" They came from the south, from a
southerly direction.
• rn\kun\k T∑k\laqv\" We came away from, left Yangon.
• Tuituik\p∑´k A®pn\t∑c\" On his return from that battle.
• l∑n\K´.qv\. N˙s\k sj" Starting from last year (cf FB l∑n\K.´qv\.N˙s\m˙ sj).
• A´dÂKåk s®p^;" Starting from that time.
• enak\k luik\laty\" He followed from behind, in the rear.
• d^lm\;k q∑a;på" Go by this road, take this road.
• tMKå;k wc\laty\" They entered through the gate.
• Ta;wy\eÂkac\;k Sut\K∑aq∑a;qv\" He retreated via Tavoy, by the Tavoy
route.
(b) at N, N ago, when N is a time; indicates point of time in the past; CB+FB;
• men≥k erak\laqv\. Ev\.qv\m¥a;" Guests who arrived yesterday.
• q¨≥Aemqv\ ss\m®Ps\Kc\k SuM;q∑a;qv\" His mother died before the war.
• bmaska; By\tun\;k sqc\ql´" When did you start learning Burmese?
• l∑n\K´.qv\. quM;el;rk\elak\k ®pn\q∑a;qv\" He went back three or four days
ago.
(c) as attribute to a noun: N1-kN2 N2 from N1, N2 at N1; = FB N1-m˙ N2;
• wn\Âk^;m¥a;RuM;k Ara‰˙i ts\U^;" An official from the Secretariat.
• B¨taRuMÂk^;na;k Tmc\;Suic\" The restaurant by the main station.
• etaT´k R∑ak qs\et∑" Logs from the village in the forest.
• d^k mit\eS∑" Our friend here.
• mN˙s\k saem;p∑´" Last year’s exam.
• g¥pn\eKt\k qtc\;saet∑" Newspapers from the Japanese period.
For combination N-ken' N-ken“p^;' N-ken“p^;eta.' N-kenj see under
ken “from N”; for combination N-ktv\;k' N-tv\;k' N-kT´k' N-T´k
see under ktv\;k “ever since N”.
k 2 (N~) marks N as subject of sentence; nn mkr, CB+FB; usually for
emphasis or contrast, or to distinguish the agent from the patient (the latter
2
often marked by kui or Aa;); often indicates the speaker when reporting
speech. In FB some writers use m˙ to serve the same function: Uk˚™m˙
AP∑c\.Am˙aska; e®paÂka;®p^;lYc\ or Uk˚™k AP∑c\.Am˙aska; e®paÂka;®p^;lYc\
“After the president had made an opening speech” (example from MLC
1993b p 60 qv for further examples). Using m˙ in this way is regarded by
purists as erroneous. In FB the subject may be marked by qv\, but qv\
does not have the contrastive effect of CB k;
• l¨Sui;tui≥Aa; r´tp\P∑´≥k Pm\;S^;luik\qv\" The police arrested the criminals.
• lëlakkui Ak¥oi;‘prn\ U^;l˙k tuik\t∑n\;e®paÂka;qv\" U Hla spoke, urging
people to do something of benefit to the world.
• Aqk\ ”k^;t´.l¨r´. ska;kui Aqk\ cy\t´.l¨k na;eTac\rmy\" A younger
person must obey the word of an older one.
• cåk mc\;kui sit\ mekac\;eAac\ lup\qla;" (Do you mean that) I am making
you unhappy?
• TuiAKåt∑c\ Suiluiqv\k tm¥oi;' ADipπåy\ qk\erak\qv\k t®Ka;
®Ps\q∑a;tt\påqv\" On these occasions it can happen that what one means
(to say) is one thing, and the message conveyed is another.
• As\kui ts\eyak\k ss\buil\' ts\eyak\k(eta.) ek¥ac\;Srapå" One brother is
an officer, the other is a school teacher.
• q¨≥nMmv\k kuiwc\;ePt´." His name is Ko Win Pe.
• kÁn\eta\k eqK¥am˙ lup\t´.l¨på" I am one who never does anything
foolhardy, I like to be sure before I act.
k 3 (Phr~) as for Phr, emphasises Phr as topic of discourse, whether sub-
ject or not; stc med phr ptcl, CB+FB. When this k is used with the subject
of a sentence it is difficult to distinguish it from k 2 above. Often followed
by phrase particle lv\; “also” or eta. “but”; see also Phr-eta. ; = FB Phr-
ka; and Phr-m¨ ;
• AT´T´m˙ak K¥m\;ty\" A®pc\m˙aketa. Aeneta\p´" It is cold inside, but outside
it’s just right.
• ek¥ak\satuic\ N˙s\tuic\ ‰˙i®p^;eta. pTmtuic\m˙ak 29-eÂkac\; dutiytuic\m˙ak 11-
eÂkac\; påpåty\" There are 29 lines of writing on the first pillar, and 11
lines on the second.
• pt\wn\;k¥c\ ®møet∑ Suic\;enty\" K¥m\;klv\; K¥m\;ty\" It was misty, and cold
as well.
• A´d^lui lup\rc\keta. ASc\e®pmy\ mTc\B¨;" If you do it that way I don’t think
it will work out very well.
• Aip\lui≥k mrB¨;" I just couldn’t sleep.
• ‰˙s\N˙s\ek¥a\ek¥a\elak\tun\;kk" As for about eight or more years ago.
3
• luilam˙ Dnik quM;taepå≥" It’s dani we use when we have to (when normal
thatching is scarce).
• k¥m m˙at´. psßv\;et∑k ASc\e®pm˙ l¨’kM ‰˙im˙ pui≥på" As for the things I asked
for, send them when you can manage it and there’s someone to bring
them.
• Ë;el; luiK¥c\t´. lk\m˙t\k kÁn\eta\ Tui;Ta;tapå" I have just bet on the
ticket you want.
• eAak\på AK¥k\m¥a;k qti‘prn\ luiAp\påqv\" You should pay attention to
the following points.
k 4 (V~) if V, also in combinations V-påk' V-eK¥k; = CB V-rc\' FB V-lYc\;
sub cls mkr, FB;
• Alui ‰˙ik m˙apå" If you need anything, please say so (“please ask”).
• Da;kui meq∑;p´ Ta;k tuM;qv\" If you keep a knife without sharpening it, it
becomes blunt.
• rp\tn\k rp\qc\.®p^" We should probably stop now (“if it is right to stop, we
should”).
• meta\tS SuM;q∑a;eK¥k" If one should die by some accident.
• saK¥op\qeBamv\qv\ ts\Ë;Ak¥oi;‰˙ij ts\Ë; Ak¥oi; m‰˙ieK¥k K¥op\Sui®m´ mhut\" It
is the nature of a treaty that it is not usually agreed if it benefits one side
but not the other.
• Nuic\cMqa;‘p®Kc\; KMrpåk Nuic\cM®Ka;qa;A®Ps\kui s∑n\≥lWt\påmv\" If a person becomes
naturalised he renounces his foreign citizenship.
k 5 see under mk not so little as
ktSc\.' kts\Sc\. see under ts\Sc\. through, via
ktv\;k sts kt´k or kT´k (N~, V~) since N, since V-ing, ever since,
right from, all the way from (a place, a time, an event); nn mkr and sub
cls mkr, CB+FB; pron /kd´g/;
• l¨t∑c\ em∑;ktv\;k Arv\AK¥c\; ‰˙if" Right from birth, man has capabilities
(which he should develop).
• esaesaktv\;k erak\enty\" I’ve been here since early on.
• huiktv\;k bmaska; qc\latala;" Did you learn Burmese while you
were there — before coming here?
• mN †el;m˙a k¥ena\tui≥ Aqits\eyak\ Aim\ ‰˙ity\" A´dÂim\kui k¥ena\ rn\kun\
ktv\;k Pun\; ’kiSk\Ta;ty\" We have a friend’s house in Mandalay. We
had phoned ahead to that house all the way from Yangon.
• saem;p∑´ meAac\ktv\;k met∑>eq;B¨;" I haven’t seen him since he didn’t
pass the exam.
4
• kÁn\m sit\p¨tak q¨≥k¥n\;maer;At∑k\påp´" ngi ukT´k q¨k k¥n\;maer;

mekac\;l˙B¨;" What I worry about is his health His health was not very
good to start with (sc. and manual labour will make it worse).
• ®mn\maNuic\cMk s^;p∑a;er; 1986-T´k k¥Sc\;q∑a;ty\Suieta. Alup\ qip\ ‰˙a;ty\"
Jobs were very scarce because Burma’s economy had declined since
1986.
• d^ erak\T´k lk\N˙ip\sk\ el.k¥c\.entap´" I’ve been practising my typing ever
since I got here.
Also variant form ktv\;ken" kÁn\eta\.m˙a Nuic\cM®Ka;kui T∑k\laktv\;ken
yen≥Tiha kÁn\eta\.rc\T´m˙a rc\n´≥A®pv\. KMsa;K¥k\n´≥på" I have felt this deeply
in my heart from the time I came abroad right up to now.
ken or ken“p^; or ken“p^;eta. (N~) (a) from N, literally “from having stayed
at, after being at N”; helps to clarify which meaning of k is intended; = FB
m˙enj' kenj; nn mkr, CB; pron /gå.en' gå.enb^;' gå.enp^;edå≥/;
• sakel;m¥a;kui lc\.sc\epÅkenj e®Kak\rf" The sparrows had to be scared
off (by someone) from the look-out platform.
• mhabNÎolqv\ ®mn\ma.tp\meta\Âk^;f tp\U^;kenj K¥^tk\elqv\" Maha
Bandula advanced at the head of the Burmese army (“staying at the head,
advanced”).
• Aim\ken Kuns\nar^ T∑k\ty\" Kuns\nar^K∑´ ek¥ac\; erak\ty\" I leave home at
seven o’clock and reach school at seven thirty.
• d^ken®p^; By\ q∑a;AuM;ml´" Where will you go on to from here?
• N˙s\nar^ken el;narÂTi" From two o’clock till four.
• ek¥ac\;qëk¥ac\;qa;m¥a;ha ek¥ac\;qa;qmg©ken ts\Sc\. lOp\‰˙a;Nuic\ty\"
Students can base their activities on the students’ union.
• ‘mi>ken®p^; tk¨;tk eS;lakueqa Srawn\N˙s\eyak\etac\ ‰˙ienqv\" There
were actually two doctors who came specially from the town to give
treatment.
• ®pc\qs\®pv\ken®p^;eta. etak\e‰˙ak\ ®pn\Âkmy\" From France we shall go
straight back home.
(b) occasionally also = k 2 subject marker;
• Bun\;Âk^;et∑ken kn\≥k∑k\ty\" The monks protested. Asui;rken“p^; mhut\ta
mlup\Nuic\eAac\lui≥ Tin\;K¥op\Ta;t´. sv\;m¥U\;et∑" Regulations made so that the
government should not be able to commit injustice.
kn´ see under Kn´ sudden noise etc
kp´ and kB´ see under p´ emphatic
kera. see under eta. at last
kera see under era stc mkr, era just as
5
kla; see under påkla; exclamatory

kel; or el; (N~) small N, young N; just, a bit; sometimes, but rarely,
written Kel;' nn mod, CB+FB, though FB prefers N-cy\; pron /Kel;/ after
stop syllables;
•Aim\kel; small house; kuirc\kel; young novice; ekac\mel; little girl;
K¥atit\kel; young fellow; eta\eta\el; quite a lot; esaesael; nice and
early; nńél; just a little; ‰˙c\;‰˙c\;el; good and clear.
With relationship terms its use is affectionate: edÅedÅel; auntie; U^;el;
uncle; emac\el; brother dear.
ka 1 (V~) V-ing, while V-ing; sub cls mkr, FB; cf ®p^;' ra' l¥k\' j; some-
times written Kå in FB. This particle may have developed from the location
noun AKå qv; cf CB V-eta.ka and FB V-eqaAKå “when”.
• sU\;sa;ka Tuic\esac\.f" Thinking, he sat and waited.
• ema\eta\ka;m¥a; s^;ka l¥c\®mn\s∑a q∑a;enq¨m¥a;" People travelling (“riding”) fast
in cars.
• Tui≥enak\ bma.l∑t\lp\er; tp\meta\kui U^;s^;ka buil\K¥op\eAac\Sn\;qv\
®bitiqYAsui;rkui tuik\Tut\f" After this General Aung San, leading the
Burma Independence Army, drove out the British government.
Sts used with verb modifiers in the same way as j"
• kÁNu\p\m˙a cy\R∑y\s√\k sj el˙tk\N˙c\.pc\ erT´Ò Âk^;®pc\;ka larqv\" I have
grown up in the water with a paddle in my hands since early childhood.
Often used with compound verbs or commonly paired verbs or repeated
verbs in form V1-ka V2-ka"
• ry\ka emaka lup\qv\" He did it laughing heartily.
• sun\ka Sn\ka" Going up stream and down.
• Tp\ka Tp\ka" Again and again.
• Sk\ka Sk\ka" Joining (one to another).
ka 2 see under tka all, and eskam¨ although, however
kam¨ see under eskam¨ although, however
kamY often kamYN˙c\.' kamY®Pc\. (V~) by the mere fact of V, by simply V-ing;
sub cls mkr, FB; = CB V-RuM' V-RuMn´≥;
• Nuic\cM®Ka;qa; ts\U^;qv\ Nuic\cMqa;N˙c\. Aim\eTac\‘pkamY®Pc\. Nuic\cMqa;A®Ps\kui
AluiAel¥ak\ mr‰˙iesr" A foreigner shall not automatically acquire
citizenship by the mere fact of being married to a (Burmese) citizen.
• cå.eKåB%^tp\Âk^;kui ®mc\kamY®Pc\. By\rn\q¨m˙ eSak\tv\ra rty\lui≥
cåkuiy\eta\®mt\ Âka;eta\mm¨B¨;eq;B¨;" I have never yet heard of a case
where any enemy was able to stand firm even when he simply caught
sight of my troops.
6
• ‘gih\sc\®Ps\eAac\ q∑n\;kamYqa ®Ps\j ®goih\q∑n\;hu nqt\qc\.eÂkac\; Suiqv\" As

the gyozin is achieved by simply pouring, he argues that gyo-thun should
be spelt with na-that.
kal (VA~, V~) time when V, when V, after V-ing; loc nn, mainly FB;
common patterns are V-eqakal' V-qv\.kal' V-qkal' V-s√\kal V-
kal etc; = CB V-t´.AKå' V-t´.kal; from Pali ka–la = time, period;
• dåRuik\tam¥a;qv\ … l´We®pac\;ry¨®Kc\; Tut\®pn\K¥k\Suic\ra lup\eSac\qv\≥
kalt∑c\" When the directors are taking action in connection with a
replacement announcement.
• tuik\”k^;ts\Aim\kui wy\y¨“p^;qkal Kn\≥Kn\≥”k^; enTuic\j" Living in luxury after
having bought a large house.
• mkaduieha\ty\Suic\e‰˙>qui≥ k¥kal ep¥ak\q∑a;ÂkeÂkac\;" That they had
disappeared when they got to the Mikado Hotel.
• l∑t\lp\er; ’ki;pm\;ent´.kaltun\;k" When we were struggling to gain
independence.
• mÂkam˙êqakalt∑c\" Not long ago.
• l∑n\K´.eqa N˙s\epåc\;Aeta\Âkakalk" Quite a few years ago.
• ly\t^Sraeta\”k^;ha qk\eta\Tc\‰˙a;‰˙is√\kaltun\;k" When the Sayadaw
was alive.
• q¨N˙c\. yKului qMeyaz√\ t∑y\viens√\kalt∑c\" While she is still fond of him.
In combination VqmYkalpt\luM; the whole time V, as long as V:
• qv\AROp\kiu m‰˙c\;qmYkalpt\lMu; kÁn\eta\®Pc\. sit\meA;Niuc\B¨;" So long as this
mystery remains unsolved I shall not be at peace.
• qc\.eta\eqa AKNOn\;kui ep;qmYkalpt\luM;" As long as, for the time that they
paid a reasonable rent.
ka; 1 (Phr~) as for Phr; however, but; highlighting the subject or topic of a
sentence, or contrasting it to a different topic; stc med phr ptcl, FB; = CB
Phr-eta.' Phr-keta., cf FB m¨ka;'
• Èqv\ka; eramss\qa; Aazanv\f tawn\ek¥p∑n\pMu AtÊopπt†i
Ak¥U\;K¥op\eptv\;" This is a concise account of the way in which the heroes
of the Roman army discharged their duty.
• ÈsaAup\kui pMuN˙ip\Tut\ewrat∑c\ rv\r∑y\K¥k\ka; A®Ka; mhut\" The purpose of
pub–lishing this book is ….
• TuiAKåk gritui≥f Ay¨ka; Èqui≥tv\;" At that time the belief of the Greeks
was as follows
• q¨ka; Aa;luM;T´m˙a tm¨T¨;q¨ ®Ps\f" As for her, she was quite a different
person from all the others.
7
• ss\®p^;eKt\Òka; erq∑c\;lup\cn\;m¥a;kui tsts ®pn\lv\ ‘psup¥oi;eTac\laK´.qv\" In

the post-war period, however, the irrigation works were bit by bit built up
again, were restored.
• ®bitiqYAsui;rqv\ ®pv\t∑c\; kun\psßv\;m¥a;kui mimitui≥ kuiy\k¥oi;At∑k\ Am¥a;SuM;
quM;s∑´K´.Âkf" ®mn\ma®pv\q¨l¨Tu Ak¥oi;kuika; TiTierak\erak\ meSac\R∑k\K´." The
British Government used the domestic products of the country largely for
its own benefit; but it was not at all effective in looking after the interests
of the Burmese people.
• ARuik\kuika; KMNuic\påmla;" But what about the beating, will you be able to
bear that?
Regular equivalent of Pali pana in nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p 217):
• Ahmπn' cåqv\ka;" AzaneN †a' mqiqv\®Ps\j" p‹iet' pva‰˙itui≥kui'
pusÍiœami' em;Ë;AM." As for me, since I do not know, I shall ask wise men
(nissaya).
•tdåpn' TuiAKåÒka;" Now at that very time (nissaya).
ka; 2 see under tka; indeed
k¨- or k¨v^- (~V-) to help with V-ing, to help V; comm pre-vb, CB+FB;
from verb k¨- to help;
• qa;erAit\kui k¨P∑c\.ep;qv\" He helped her open her purse.
• eA;®cim\;klv\; k¨jeR∑;ep;elqv\" AN was helping her pick out (sea shells).
• kÁn\mr´. cå;bn\;kui k¨“p^; m,ep;på ena\" Please help me lift my tray of fish,
would you?
• men≥k ska;®Pøpn\;et∑ ®KMe‰˙>m˙a cå ekak\entun\; q¨klv\; T∑k\Alan´≥
k¨®p^;etac\ ekak\ep;q∑a;påeq;ty\" While I was picking up fallen champac
flowers yesterday in the front of the garden, he even came and helped me
collect them up on his way out.
• q¨¨k wc\;tMKå; TP∑c\.ep;enk¥" ts\Kåtellv\; eZ;®Kc\;etac\;kui
k¨¨v^S∑´tt\ty\" He regularly got up and opened the gate for her. And
sometimes he helped her carry her market basket.
k´. see under r´. stc mkr and r´. of
k´.qui≥ and qui≥ (N~, VA~) (a) like N, as, in the manner of, like sn V-ing, as
if V-ing; nn mkr and sub stc mkr, FB; = CB N-lui' V-qlu;i common VA
patterns are V-qk´.qui≥' V-mv\k´.qui≥' V-qv\qui≥' V-AM.qui≥' V-fqui≥ etc;
• Aim\eTac\mOkisß Aa;luM;t∑c\ l¨Âk^;k´.qui≥ Tin\;qim\;Nuic\qv\" He could cope with all
household matters like a grown-up (though only young).
• p¥a;rv\k´.qui≥ K¥oieqa NOt\T∑k\ska;" Words as sweet as honey.
• yKuk´.qui≥ K¥^tk\laeta\mm¨m^" Before advancing like this (“like the present”).
• q¨≥PKc\Âk^;f lk\Tk\kk´.qui≥pc\" In the same way as in his father’s day.
8
• buil\!^kam˙ak´.qui≥" As in the Bo Tiga (text).

• mv\k´.qui≥ lup\mv\nv\;" How will you do it? (= CB By\lui lup\ml´)
• Èk´.qui≥" In this way, thus.
• Rup\puMt∑c\ ePÅ®pTa;qk´.qui≥" As is shown, as illustrated, in the picture.
• TuitMta;kel;epÅt∑c\ V˙p\j AmiKMreta.mv\k´.qui≥ ®Ps\enf" It was as if he was
about to be cornered on the little bridge.
• AR∑y\kui P∑c\.he®paenqk´.qui≥ ‰˙iqv\" It was as if (his wrinkled face)
announced his age.
(b) also used attributively, and then optionally followed by eqa" N1-k´.qui≥
N2 or N1-k´.qui≥eqa N2 N2 like N1; = CB N1-lui N2;
• ®mn\maNuic\cMk´.qui≥(eqa) suik\p¥oi;er;Nuic\cM" An agricultural country like Burma.
• pdumμaÂkar∑k\k´.qui≥eqa Ar∑k\®Pc\. Tup\j" Wrapping it in a leaf like a water-lily
leaf.
• ek¥ak\eragåk´.qui≥ eragåSui;" A serious disease like small-pox.
• Èk´.qui≥eqa Burc\ts\S¨" A king like this.
(c) the form N-qui≥ is found mostly in combination with selective nouns and
in verse and poetic prose; in the latter contexts occasionally with a verb or
verb sentence:
• Èqui≥' qv\qui≥' Èqui≥N˙c\.' qv\qui≥N˙c\.' Èqui≥®Pc\.' qv\qui≥®Pc\. in this way; yc\;qui≥'
Tuiqui≥' yc\;qui≥N˙c\.' Tuiqui≥N˙c\.' yc\;qui≥®Pc\.' Tuiqui≥®Pc\. in that way, in the aforesaid
manner; mv\qui≥' By\qui≥' Aqui≥ how? in what way?; AÂkc\qui≥ in whatever
way;
also attributive: N like this, N like that, N like what, what sort of N, etc;
• p¥k\lMu;f ADipπay\m˙aka; Èqui≥tv\;" The meaning of the joke is this, is as
follows.
• Èqui≥eqa eqac\;k¥n\;mO" Insurgency like this.
• Tuiqui≥ ÂkMramr ®Ps\enÂksU\" When they were at their wits’ end in this way.
• mv\qui≥eqa l¨m¥oi; ®Ps\qnv\;" What sort of a person is he?
• Burc\k mv\qui≥pc\ Amin\≥eta\ ®pn\Ta;eqa\lv\;" Whatever orders the king
issued.
• enqui≥Tc\‰˙a;" Bura;tra;qGça" The Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha,
(which are) as conspicuous, as outstanding, as the sun (verse).
• yëqa\ rekac\;AM.qui≥ ‰˙iqv\" It is a plausible interpretation (“is as if it would
be good to take it so”).
•yun\lYc\ k¥oM>qui≥" Just as the hare shrinks (itself in fear) (verse).
eka 1 and era (Phr~) and how about Phr? and what of Phr?; used to
apply a question already spoken or implied to a new topic; probably linked
with era 4 as well as; stc med phr ptcl; CB;
9
• Aemeka laeq;qla;" And your mother — did she come too?

• ln\dn\m˙aeka By\m˙a t´ml´" And what about London — where will you stay
there?
• bma®pv\ erak\®p^;rc\era qc\Nuic\mla;" And what about when you get to
Burma — will you be able to study there too?
• mnk\sa msa;Kc\era" How about before lunch (sc. would you be free then? —
having heard that you are not free at other times).
• tky\era K¥s\r´>la;" And do you really love him (“how about really”)?
• Pt\eka Pt\tt\eq;qla;" And can she also read (as well as speak
Burmese)?
eka 2 see under era both…and, rn\eka how V!
kui 1 (N~) (a) marks N as direct object; induces creaky tone (see English
entries sv) in pronouns and personal referents; nn mkr, CB+FB; regular
equivalent of Pali accusative case in nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p 199).
Note that the five different functions of this marker in CB have four separate
equivalents in FB.
• kc\mrakiu Kp\ew;ew;m˙a Ta;på" Put the camera at a fair distance.
• min\;kel;tU^;kiu K¥s\P¨;qv\" He had once fallen in love with a girl.
• wc\d^N˙c\. ASc\.Atn\; mt¨qv\kiuera' Baqa mt¨qv\kiuera q¨k luM;w Aer;
mTa;K´.ep" He paid not the least attention to the fact that he was not from
the same class nor of the same religion as Wendy.
• edåk\taeAac\V∑n\≥keta\kui q¨Tk\ cy\my\ Tc\ty\lui≥ e®paluik\milui≥på" (She
was hurt) because he had said that he thought Dr AN’s wife must be
younger than her. (keta\ takes kui as the object of Tc\ although it is the
subject of cy\ in the embedded clause)
• muKM' m¥k\N˙akui" eDawituM' eS;AM.eqac˙a" In order to wash his face (nissaya).
Note 1: N-kui is optional. Direct objects are often left unmarked, more
often in CB than FB, and then more often when the object is adjacent to the
verb: compare the presence and absence of kui in pairs of sentences like:
• q¨≥ lk\q^;et∑ e‰˙ac\rmy\" One should avoid his fists; contrast: q¨Tiu;t´.
lk\q^;et∑kiu kiuyk\ By\liu kiiuy\.mTieAac\ e‰˙ac\rmy\" How one should
duck to avoid being hit by the fists he is punching you with.
• qk\Siuc\rawn\Tm\;kiu k∑n\p¥øta Ap\®p^; lup\Kiuc\;rtaeÂkac\." Because they had to
provide computers for the employees to work with; contrast: k∑n\p¥øtakiu
qk\Siuc\rawn\Tm\;kiu Ap\®p^; lup\Kiuc\;rtaeÂkac\." (same translation).
Note 2: passives. When a direct object is placed at the beginning of a Bse
sentence, the sentence is often more aptly rendered in English by a passive
construction:
10
• kÁn\eta\tiu≥ R∑akiu Tn\;tpc\R∑ahu eKÅpåqv\" Our village is called Htan-tabin

(“people call our village TTB”).
• g¥pn\kiu eta\l˙n\eAac\®mc\j dutiy kmıass\Âk^; ®p^;eqaAKå" When the
Japanese had been defeated and the Second World War was over.
• ®mn\maNuic\cMkui ny\K¥´>®bitiqYtui≥ qim\;puik\K´.påty\" Burma was annexed by the
British imperialists.
• e‰˙;AKåk ®mn\maNuic\cMkui ®mn\maBurc\m¥a; Aup\K¥op\K´.påqv\" In the past Burma was
ruled by Burmese monarchs.
(b) marks N as indirect object with verbs of giving, telling etc; induces
creaky tone in pronouns and personal referents; CB; = FB N-kiu or N-Aa;'
• q¨≥kiu m¥a;m¥a; mep;n´≥" cå.kiu ep;på" Don’t give him a lot, give a lot to me.
• zn^;kiu mv\qui≥mY Sk\lk\ m‰˙c\;®ptt\eta." He was unable to explain it to his
wife any further.
• Aem.kiu Tmc\;K¥k\Piu≥ e®paTa;eq;la;" Did they ask you (Mother) to cook (for
them)?
(c) marks time phrases referring to the future; CB; = FB N-m˙a' N-Ò;
optional;
• mnk\Pn\kui BaAsÂs√\ ‰˙il´" What plans do you have for tomorrow?
• enac\kui mn\k¥v\;sc\ ®Ps\m´. R∑a erak\ty\" They reached the village that would
later become M Village.
• tngçeN∑en≥kiu mc\; laNiuc\mla;" Will you be able to come on Sunday?
• K∑c\.rluik\t´.AKåkui By\lui Sk\lup\rm˙al´" What should she do once she has
been granted the authorization?
(d) marks destination, with verbs of going, coming etc; CB; = FB N-kiu or
N-qui≥; optional, but more common when the destination is not adjacent to the
verb;
• d^(kiu) laK´." Come here!
• Bt\s\ka;git\kui By\AK¥in\elak\ erak\enrmy\" compare: By\AK¥in\elak\
Bt\s\ka;git\ erak\enrmy\" What time you have to be at the bus depot.
• liuK¥c\t´. pn\;tiuc\kiu ®mn\®mn\ erak\Niuc\my\" We shall be able to reach our goal in
a short time.
• bma®pv\kiu By\eta. ®pn\ml´" When will you return to Burma?
(e) (Nº+N~) per, marks unit of distribution, with numeral phrases; = FB
N-kiu or N-lYc\;
• ts\lkiu ts\ra.N˙s\Sy\.cå;k¥p\elak\p´ rty\" I get only about 125 kyats per
month.
• N˙s\N˙s\kiu ts\Kåelak\p´ q∑a;Niuc\ty\" You can go about once every two years.
11
• el;eyak\kiu ts\Ait\ Tut\ep;ty\" They issue one bagful to every four

people.
• Note that N-kui is not obligatory in these phrases: ts\l ts\eqac\; luity\"
You need 10,000 kyats a month.
kui 2 (Phr~) (a) really, actually, even; stc med phr ptcl, mainly CB; induces
creaky tone (see English entries sv) in preceding low tone syllable;
• e®pakiu me®paK¥c\påB¨;" I don’t even want to say it.
• dÂKn\;T´kkiu mT∑k\Niuc\B¨;" We can’t get out of this room at all.
• A´d^liu e®parc\ ps\liu≥kiu mrB¨;" When you talk like that I can’t even throw (sc.
much less hit the target).
• AKu cå el.k¥c\.tak Aui;lMps\ Aqc\;Âk^;namy\n´≥ Bilp\kkui m˙at´.
Ael;et∑k∑" k¥k¥nnkui Âk^;s√\cy\luik\ lup\Ta;tap´" My practice weights
(for weightlifting) were specially ordered from England, with the name of
the Olympic Association on them. There’s a whole set in meticulously
graduated sizes.
• Tuien≥kkui N˙s\rk\Kn\≥ ÂkalYc\" About two days after that very day.
• d^liu m¥k\N˙aet∑ ®mc\rt´.At∑k\ sit\kiu eA;q∑a;tap´" Seeing friendly faces like
these is a real comfort to me.
• cåtui≥ cy\cy\tun\;keta. TB^tuitui wt\ta Pk\‰˙c\Âk^;kui ®Ps\lui≥" When we were
young wearing your htamein short was really high fashion.
• AK∑c\.Aer;et∑kl´ … Ac\mtn\m˙ nv\;påty\" nv\;lui≥kui kak∑y\rty\" Their
rights were severely restricted, and it is precisely because they were
restricted that they had to protect themselves.
• Aemrikn\ ®pn\wc\®p^;t´.enak\kiu eta\eta\Âkam˙ l∑t\lp\er; rty\" We didn’t get
independence till quite a long time after the Americans came back in.
• Note that this phrase particle may sometimes precede a noun marker:
• qc\rt´.AK¥in\tun\;kiuk" Even during the time we were learning.
• A´dåkiuk m˙a;tap´" That’s where they went wrong.
(b) used to emphasise words meaning “very” and similar;
• qip\kiu eta\tap´" He’s incredibly skilled.
• Ac\mtn\≥kiu ekac\;påty\" It’s really very good.
• kÁn\mAepÅm˙a tky\.kui emt†aTa;my\ Suirc\" If you are really fond of me.
(c) as regards, in respect of, in the matter of; more common in FB, esp
in the pattern V-qv\kui;
• Èkisß tn\;ln\; ®Ps\enqv\kui ®mn\®mn\ ®p^;eAac\ ’ki;sa;enÂkqv\" As the matter
had been left unfinished, they tried to finish it off quickly.
• mØ;eta\mt\eta\tui≥kui tuic\pc\eta\m¨qv\kui razqÂkC elYak\qv\ka;" In response
to the royal request to the ministers for advice R spoke as follows.
12
• ‘mi>kui wc\j pun\sa;elqv\kui Nuic\eAac\ tuik\j …" As for his having entered
the city and rebelled, we shall attack and overcome him.
• AKu Suirm˙aketa.kui duM:K¥c\; ®Ps\påty\" What I am now about to sing is a
dongyin song.
kui; (Stc~) (a) marks utterance as exclamatory, like sentences spoken in
English with “Aha!” or “Well, well, well”or “I see!” or “So that’s why!”; stc fin
phr ptcl, CB;
• eÂqa\" hiuekac\”k^; sak d^T´ erak\entakiu;" (On looking into a recently
published magazine:) Aha! I see that fellow’s article got printed in here
then!
• eK¥ac\;Âkv\.ent´. r∑aqa;k dÂ®Ps\kiu ®mc\eta. {eS;wizΩa Siuta dåp´kiu;}" When
he saw this the villager who was spying on him said “So that’s what a
wizard is!”
• d^liu e®paq∑a;takiu;" (I see!) So that’s the way he talked!
• mc\;kl´ ty\ek¥ak\tt\takiu;" Well! You are a timid one!
• Amy\" K¥s\K¥s\k mSui;B¨:" m¥√\;e®pac\. m¥√\;ek∑;et∑etac\ na;lv\entakui;" Well
well! Chit Chit’s (painting) is not bad! So you understand straight lines
and curved lines then.
(b) marks utterance as explanatory, after all, giving reason for preced-
ing statement;
• K∑c\. rm˙aepå." q¨≥U^;el;k Ara‰˙iÂk^;kiu;" Of course he’d get permission. After
all, his uncle’s a high-ranking official.
• A´´d^liuAK¥in\ sk\B^; s^;rc\ lm\;Aly\eKåc\k s^;tap´´" Ban´´≥m˙ tiuk\sra m‰˙ip´kiu;"
If I ride my bike at that time of day I ride down the middle of the road.
After all, there’s nothing to crash into then.
• q¨¨≥mit\eS∑ ts\eyak\eyak\kiu et∑>rc\ {BwqMqrak Aky\dm^ rm˙aepå.b¥"
ekac\;takiu;}liu≥ e®patt\ty\" ts\Sk\tv\;p´´ {ekac\;m˙aepå.b¥
mN †el;Rup\‰˙c\k Riuk\takiu;}liu≥ Âk∑a;e®pael; e®patt\qt´´." When he met
one of his friends he’d say “Bawa Thanthaya will get an academy award.
It’s a good film, you see”. Then he’d go on bragging: “Of course it’s good.
It was shot by Mandalay Yokshin, you see”.
Common in the pattern m-V-p´kiu;"
• qera\K¥c\Âkeq;b¥" l¥k\Sa;r´. tn\Piu;kiu mqiÂkp´kiu;" They were inclined to
make fun of him — after all, they didn’t appreciate the value of licking-
salts.
• q¨cy\K¥c\; eta\eta\m¥a;m¥a;' Kc\mc\q¨ eta\eta\m¥a;m¥a;k m‰˙ieta.B´kiu;" (He felt
wistful) — after all most of his friends and cronies were no longer living.
13
• mc\;k etam˙aK¥v\.enliu≥ Bam˙ mqiB´kiu;k∑" You’ve lived all your life in the
countryside and you don’t know anything (so that’s why you can have
these ill-informed ideas).
• ereN∑;Klut\ P∑c\.eqa\lv\; ereN∑;mla" puik\SMm˙ mTv\.mip´kui;" I turned on the
hot water tap, but no hot water came out: I hadn’t put any money in (the
slot — so it’s no wonder no water came!).
ekak\- or ekak\y¨- (~V-) to pick up and V; comm pre-vb, CB+FB; from
verb ekak\- to pick up;
• eS;tM Kp\SaSa ®Ps\entan´≥ ekak\P∑aliuk\rty\" Feeling an urge to smoke
his pipe he picked it up and drew on it.
• Dat\pMuet∑kiu ®mn\®mn\ ekak\qim\;liuk\rty\" They had to collect up the
photographs hurriedly and put them away.
• kb¥aSraqv\ pn\;p∑c\.wåwåkel;kui ekak\y¨Âkv\.luik\qv\" The poet picked
up and studied a yellow flower.
• t¨;t¨;k Kc\l∑m\;ewS^ Pun\; ekak\Sk\qv\" Tu Tu picked up the phone and
called KL.
ekac\\ (Nº~) and Aekac\ (~Nº) creature, comm nmtv for animals, ghosts,
and (derogatorily) for persons not worthy of respect; CB+FB;
• Sc\N˙s\ekac\ two elephants; ®Kc\ts\ekac\ a mosquito; wk\Aekac\ 30-ek¥a\
more than 30 pigs; qa;el; N˙s\ekac\ two young sons.
ekac\;- 1 (V~-) (a) be good to V, enjoyable to V; in this sense the V may
be followed by lui≥ in CB or j in FB, and ekac\;- is not voiced; vb mod,
CB+FB; negated form usually Vmekac\;-; from verb ekac\;- to be good;
• d^saAup\ eta\eta\ Pt\(lui≥)ekac\;ty\" This book is quite good to read, quite
a good read.
• men≥vk ska; e®pa(j)ekac\;påqv\ FB = CB ska; e®pa(lui≥)ekac\;påty\"
Yesterday evening we had a good talk, our talking was enjoyable.
• enekac\;r´.la;" _ dên≥ qip\ en(lui≥)mekac\;B¨;" How are you? — Not very
well today.
• Windows 95 kui Tut\luik\rc\ qip\kui erac\;ekac\;m˙ap´" We’d have much better
sales if we were to bring out Windows 95.
• Am¥oi;qm^; ts\eyak\k q∑y\q∑y\l¥l¥N˙c\. ts\m¥oi; Âkv\.ekac\;qv\" One of the
girls was slim and quite good-looking.
• Kå;eq;q®Pc\. ts\m¥oi; Âkv\.jekac\;enqv\" She had a slender waist and was
good-looking.
• dka”k^; eKåc\;k SMpc\et∑k Âkv\.mekac\;eta.påB¨¨;" Your hair doesn’t look
so good now.
(b) in patterns V-ekac\;S´ and V-ekac\;tun\; while still V-ing, while V-
14
ing is still in full swing; sub cls, CB+FB; also variants: CB V-lui≥ekac\;-,
FB V-jekac\;-;
• eA;®cim\;tui≥N˙s\eyak\ pn\;Kuic\ lup\j ekac\;enS´m˙apc\" While AN and her friend
were still making posies.
• EkN †eta. dÂekac\ Aip\mk\ mk\ekac\;entun\; laKui;q∑a;taB´´ ®Ps\rmy\"
Assuredly they must have come in and stolen it while this lad was still in
the land of dreams.
• BÂk^;eAac\k q¨≥t¨m¥a;kui K¥^;m∑m\;j ekac\;S´ eA;®cim\; sit\k cuiK¥c\j laqv\"
While BGA was still extolling the virtues of his nephews AN felt she
wanted to cry.
(c) be likely to V, may well V, will probably V; CB+FB; most commonly in
the patterns V-(tn\)ekac\;pår´. and V-ekac\;-V-lim\.my\;
• es¥;m˙aeta. et∑>ekac\;pår´." There is every chance that I shall meet her in the
market.
• nrquKiAc\; hut\ekac\;pår´." It probably is N’s square.
• Aél sit\wc\sa;latn\ekac\;pår´." Perhaps they will become interested.
• dêr mkun\Nuic\påB¨¨;" erSal∑n\;epmy\. Âkv\.eqak\tn\ekac\;pår´´>hu eAak\em.ka
erkp\luik\elqv\" He offered (the monk) some water to drink thinking
that even if he was extremely thirsty he would take account of the amount
of water they had and wouldn’t drink it all up.
• d^ska;ha m˙n\ekac\;m˙n\pålim\.my\' dåepmy\. …" This statement is probably
true; however ….
• qv\elyaU\N˙c\. Ev\.qv\m¥a; påekac\;pålaNuic\qv\" There will probably be
some visitors coming on this plane.
• Âkv\.sm\;" Aerac\et∑ Am¥a;Âk^; et∑>ekac\;et∑>lim\.my\" Now look: you are sure
to see a lot of different colours.
• Bk∑n\; Suita kuisM‰˙a;l´ Âka;B¨;ekac\; Âka;B¨;m˙aB´" You have probably heard
of BK.
• vBk\”k^; kuirc\”k^;ts\på; Bura;’kiÂka; elYak\e®p;entakui ts\eyak\eyak\
eta. m®mc\et∑>tn\ekac\;påB¨;" It’s highly unlikely that no-one would have
noticed an elderly novice running around the pagoda grounds at dead of
night.
Occasionally also in other patterns:
• lk\ mKMekac\;sraAeÂkac\; m‰˙ipåB¨;" There is no reason why they should be
likely not to accept it.
(d) be a good thing to V, be wise to V, should V; in this use the V may be
followed by Pui≥ in CB or rn\ in FB, and ekac\; is voiced; negated form usually
m-V-ekac\;-; cf V-Ap\-' V-qc\.-' V-Tuik\-' V-tn\-' V-ra-;
15
• l¨që‰˙>m˙aeta. e®pa(Pui≥)ekac\;my\ mTc\B¨; CB = FB l¨që‰˙>t∑c\ka;

e®pa(rn\)ekac\;mv\ mTc\" But I don’t think it would be wise to say so in
public.
• lup\ekac\;t´. Alup\kui lup\K´.ty\" He had performed an action that was good
to do.
• e®m∑T´m˙aSuirc\ e®m∑Burc\ ®Ps\ty\" mqt\ekac\;B¨;lui≥lv\; wuic\;e®paÂkty\" They
gathered round and said this snake was a king among snakes and it was
wrong to kill it.
• AÂkm\;ptm\; mlup\ekac\;eqa\lv\;" Although it was not right to act violently.
• me®paekac\; mSuiekac\;et∑" Things that should not be said.
Occasionally with infix s-"
• mem.sekac\;t´. pug©oil\”k^;" An individual who should not be forgotten.
(e) in pattern V-rekac\;mla; and similar should sn V? CB;
• c˙k\ep¥aq^;k sim\;eneta. … m^;epÅ S∑Áup\rekac\;mla;" Since the bananas
were unripe, he wondered if he ought to hang them over the stove.
• ec∑sk˚øet∑ hiuqa;APnv\;t¨¨ errekac\;mla;lui≥ s√\;sa;mity\" He wondered
whether he ought to count the bank notes in the same way as the father
and son had done.
• A´dÂK¥in\k ss\kiuc\;m˙a siu;sMenq¨…k ss\kiu Niuc\eAac\ mtiuk\K´.rekac\;la; Siu®p^;
… Ak¥U\;K¥Ta;K´.påty\" Then the ruler of Sagaing, feeling that he (his
brother-in-law) should have won the battle, had him imprisoned.
• cpl^t∑c\ Asa;Aeqak\ ‰˙a;qv\kiu qipål¥k\ Am´qa;B¨;kiu piupiumiumiu Tv\.mla
ekac\;la;hu ts\eyak\tv\; ®mv\t∑n\etak\t^;j enelqv\" He sat alone
grumbling that they should have brought more tins of corned beef, given
that they knew how expensive food was in Ngapali.
(f) in pattern V-rekac\;m˙n\; qi- and similar know that they should V;
mainly CB;
• l¨Âk^;kiu Riueqrekac\;m˙n\; qiqa;p´" They know perfectly well that they should
respect their elders.
• vv\;tiu≥k Sp\®paetac\ qMu;rekac\;m˙n\; mqiÂkeq;B¨;" You don’t even realise
that it’s a good idea to use soap.
• sv\;km\;Upedkiu Riueqliuk\narekac\;m˙n\;m˙ qir´.la;" Do you understand that
you’re supposed to obey the rules?
ekac\; 2 see under lv\;ekac\; also
kun\- (V~-) (a) all V, each V; indicates plural; used mostly in elevated or old-
fashioned FB; regular equivalent of Pali plural in nissaya translation (Okell
1965 p 201); often occurs with Âk- (V-Âkkun\- or V-kun\Âk-) qv; vb mod;
normally not voiced; cf verb kun\- to be used up, to be exhausted;
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• e®paÂkkun\f" They (each) spoke.

• Âkv\.ROeta\m¨Âkpåkun\" Please all look at it! (addressing royalty)
• et' TuiAK¥c\;eyak¥\a;tui≥qv\" p‹itœ' quKmin\Aa;' AaeraesquM'
Âka;epkun\f" Those companions informed the wise man (nissaya).
(b) V wholly, entirely, all; FB+CB;
• saem;p∑´ k¥kun\taB´" They all failed the examination.
• ‰˙t\Ak¥Ç epkun\®p^" Your shirt has got all covered with dirt.
• qs\R∑k\et∑ mwåkun\eq;B¨;la;" Hadn’t all the leaves on the trees turned
yellow yet?
• A®mn\SMu;Suit´. PC et∑kui wy\N˙c\.®Ps\kun\Âketa.ty\" They had bought up all the
fastest computers in advance.
ky\ see under ry\ 2 and, for one
Aky\' Aky\j and variants: see under tky\' tky\lui≥ really, in truth; if
kuiy\ (a) body, the person, as in kiuy\KNÎa body, kiuy\sit\ body and mind,
kiuy\Ael;K¥in\ body weight; noun and pronoun, CB+FB;
(b) a person, one, you (in generalised sense);
• kiuy\.kel;r´. Arp\kiulv\; tiuc\;Piu≥ liueq;ty\" And one needs to measure the
height of one’s child.
• kiuy\.K¥s\që‰˙>k¥rc\" In the presence of the person one loves.
• kiuy\ m’ki;sa;K´.ta z´∑m‰˙itaet∑kiu Sut\kp\Âk^;eÂkac.\ d^liu ®Ps\rpåty\liu≥
Sut\kp\ lW´K¥liuk\Âktap´" (Looking at) one’s lack of effort and failure of
perseverance, one blames the bad times, saying “It was because of the
bad times that things got like this”.
(c) (one)self (as opposed to “others”); compare kiuy\tuic\ oneself, in
person, at first hand; = FB mimi;
• kiuy\k mtc\rc\ q¨¨m¥a;k tc\q∑a;m˙akiu;" If one doesn’t pick up the passenger
oneself, someone else will pick them up instead.
• q¨Tiu;t´. lk\q^;et∑kiu kiuy\k By\liu kiiuy\.mTieAac\ e‰˙ac\rmy\" How one
should dodge to avoid being hit by the fists of one’s opponent.
• kiuy\.Sramui≥ Am∑n\;tc\ e®pata mhut\påB¨¨;" I’m not praising him just because
he’s my own teacher.
(d) (one)self in reflexive constructions of the form “person-kiuy\ person
V”; normally with induced creaky tone on the first “person”; for a discussion
of reflexives see Bradley 1995;
• q¨≥kiuy\q¨ qt\eqtala;" Did he kill himself?
• m˙n\T´t∑c\ q¨≥kiuy\q¨ AeqAK¥a Âkv\.miqv\" He looked at himself carefully in
the mirror.
17
• k¥op\tiu≥kiuy\ k¥op\tiu≥ ewK´∑mrB¨;" We can’t decide whether we belong to one

camp or the other.
Also kiuy\.kiuy\kiu or mimikiuy\kiu (one)self, (one)’s own person:
• kuiy\.kiuy\kui kuiy\ Dåt\puM Ruik\Ta;påqv\" I personally took the photograph of
myself.
• kiuy\.kiuy\kiu mluMq®Pc\." As she felt guilty.
• mimikiuy\kiu mimi Ahut\Âk^; Tc\j FB = CB kiuy\.kiuy\ kiuy\ Ahut\Âk^; Tc\®p^;"
Having a high opinion of oneself, being self-opinionated.
• mimikiuy\kiu k¥n\;maeAac\ em∑;på" Look after yourself so as to remain healthy.
In this construction the second kiuy\ is frequently omitted:
• kiuy\.kiu kiuy\ AM.Âqmit´.At∑k\" As he was astonished at himself.
• kiuy\.kiu kiuy\ ®pn\Aa;ep;RuMkl∑´liu≥" Apart from encouraging oneself.
kiuy\ is also common in the “person” slot in the pattern “person N person V”
as in cå≥ lk\m˙t\ cå wy\rmy\" I’ll have to buy my own ticket:
• kuiy\.lk\m˙t\ kuiy\ wy\rmy\" They’ll have to buy their own tickets.
• kiuy\.kula;Tiuc\epÅ kiuy\ Tiuc\rk\" Each sitting on his own chair.
• AKueta. q¨tiu≥ha kiuy\.Am˙a; kiuy\ qilaK´.Âkpå®p^" Now however they have
recognized their mistake.
• Cf ec∑Pla;kiuy\s^n´≥" Each with her own silver bowl.
kiuy\ is also used in the construction “person ha person V” “on (one)’s own,
unaided”as in q¨≥haq¨ lup\Nuic\mla;" Will he be able to do it on his own?:
• kiuy\.ha kiuy\ lup\Niuc\mla;" Will you be able to do it by yourself?
• qiu≥eqa\ BaB´ e®pae®pa' kiuy\.hakiuy\ Awt\ elYa\' kiuy\.hakiuy\ tM®mk\ l˙v\;'
kiuy\.hakiuy\ eqak\er Tv\.' Aip\ra qim\;reqa Bwkiu eta\eta\el;eta.
®c^;ec∑≥mi®p^ ®Ps\qv\" Whatever he said, he was pretty fed up with this life of
having to wash his own clothes, do his own sweeping, fill his own water
pot and make his own bed. (This style of writing would be classed as FB,
but it contains many CB elements: it is typical of prose fiction of the 80s.)
(e) I, in the speech of educated young persons, particularly men to their
wives and sweethearts;
• kiuy\ gen≥v laK´.my\ Kc\" I’ll come round this evening, dear.
k¥ 1 also k¥rc\' k¥eta.' k¥m˙ (N~) when we get to N, where N is a time or
place; when you consider N, in the case of N; sub cls, truncated and full,
CB+ less commonly FB;
• enak\N˙s\ k¥ (rc\) bma®pv\ q∑a;K¥c\ty\" Next year, I want to go to Burma
(“when we come to next year”).
• ts\en≥ k¥ (eta.) emac\l˙eB ek¥ac\;kiu kiu;nar^ K∑´®p^;m˙ erak\laty\" One day
Maung Hla Pe didn’t reach school until after 9.30.
18
• enak\saT´ k¥m˙ t®Ka; AeÂkac\;Araet∑ er;påAuM;my\" In my next letter I’ll

write about some other matters.
• dåepm´. tK¥oi>k¥eta. … " Some, however, ….
• enT´´miu;T´´k¥ … T^;ehac\;kel;p´´ Aa;kiu;enrta" When exposed to sun or
rain, it was this little old umbrella I relied on.
• mnk\tiuc\; Alup\tiuk\q∑a;" venKc\;k¥ ela\ky\ rTa;n´≥ AK¥in\m˙n\m˙n\®pn\" Every
morning I go to my place of work. When evening comes I come home at a
regular time on the local train.
• dåepm´.' sit\Dåt\qt†i‰˙it´.q¨k¥eta. … " A courageous person, on the other
hand, ….
• hiuk¥m˙ Âkv\.lup\ÂkreAac\" Let’s do what seems best when we get there.
• miu;k N˙s\rk\' qMu;rk\Kn\≥ Sk\tiuk\ r∑aTa;qv\" qv\en≥k¥m˙ A‘ci;Âk^;s∑a
qv\;Tn\enqv\" It had been raining without a break for two or three days.
It chose this day to pour down savagely.
k¥ - 2 (V~-) to fall; conveys idea of coming down, tracing a downward
path; comm elem cpd vb, CB+FB; from verb k¥- to fall;
• V∑t\®Pak¥eneqa Akuic\;" A branch arching over and down.
• Aip\Kn\; em˙ac\k¥mq∑a;B¨;la;" Wasn’t the bedroom plunged in darkness?
• Aip\emak¥enm˙n\; qiqv\" He knew they were fast asleep.
k¥ 3 or k¥s^ (Nº+N~) to each N; nn mkr, CB+FB; from verb k¥- to fall to;
• ts\Ë;lYc\ N˙s\Tup\k¥(s^) ewluik\ty\" They gave each one two packets.
• q¨≥kiu Ark\på ‰˙aep;Ta;Âkty\" ts\en≥ N˙s\pulc\;k¥ ep;rty\liu≥ Siupåty\"
They got liquor for him as well. They had to give him two bottles a day, so
the story goes.
• ®mn\ma ek¥ac\;Sra el;Ë;kui t‘mi>At∑k\ N˙s\Ë;k¥s^ Kn\≥Ap\K´.qv\" They
appointed four Burmese teachers (as education superintendents), two to
each town.
• ts\en≥lYc\ ts\ekac\k¥ lip\Ë;eKåc\;m¥a;kui K∑´jK∑´j erW‰˙aelqv\" He split open
the turtles’ heads, one turtle each day, looking for gold.
ek¥a\ and ek¥a\ek¥a\ (Nº+N~) more than N, over, beyond N; nn mod,
CB+FB; cf N-qa; ek¥a\ is voiced but ek¥a\ek¥a\ is not; from verb ek¥a\- to
exceed;
• N˙s\epåc\; ts\raek¥a\Kn\≥ tv\eSak\qv\" It was built about 100 years ago or
more.
• ‰˙s\N˙s\ek¥a\ek¥a\elak\tun\;k" About eight or more years ago.
• ts\N˙s\ek¥a\ enmv\" I will stay longer than a year.
• el;narêk¥a\ek¥a\ erak\ty\" He arrived some time after four o’clock.
19
k¥oi; (V-r~ np\-) to receive the benefit of V-ing, be worth V-ing, to repay
the effort of V-ing; sp hd nn with verb np\-, CB+FB;
• cpl^ erak\liu≥m˙ erT´ mSc\;rc\ By\lark¥oi;np\ml´ kel;mr´." If you come all
the way to Ngapali and don’t go into the water, where’s the advantage of
coming, my dear girl?
• A´d^liu q∑a;q∑n\ps\rt´.At∑k\ l¨pc\pn\;epmy\.liu≥ pc\pn\;rk¥io;np\elak\eAac\
k¥n\;maqn\s∑m\;mO tiu;tk\lamy\ mhut\la;" It’s true that it is an effort to
have to go and throw it away like that, but the gain in your health makes
it worth the effort, doesn’t it?
Ak¥oi;c˙a see under c˙a for
k¥it\- (~V-) to V secretly, privately, to oneself; comm pre-vb, CB;
• sit\T´m˙ “Buekac\”hu k¥it\“p^; Amv\ ep;Ta;mif" In her mind she had
secretly given him the name “Bu-gaung”.
• k¥it\“p^; Suetac\;enmireta.tapåp´" They prayed silently.
• pvaeS∑;eN∑;mO m®po®Ps\eta.m˙amui≥ k¥it\j wm\;qaenf" He was secretly relieved at
the prospect of no further scholarly discussions.
• sit\T´Ò k¥it\j ÂkMenÂkf" They were secretly planning.
• k¥it\ry\ty\" To laugh up one’s sleeve, laugh covertly.
Âk- (V~-) each, all V; vb mod, CB+FB. It is tempting to say that this particle
indicates a plural verb, but speakers of Indo-European languages should
bear in mind that a plural noun subject in a Burmese sentence will not
necessarily be accompanied by a verb with this plural marker; e.g.
AePet∑k m¥k\N˙aTa;tc\;tc\;N˙c\≥ ts\U^;kiuts\U^; m¥k\esac\;K´qv\" The
fathers, with grim faces, cast angry looks at each other. It is more
accurate to say that Âk- emphasises (a) the mutuality of the action, or (b) the
fact that several actors were engaged separately, severally, or (c)
(confusingly) that all the actors acted together.
• tRut\ Tip\tn\;eKåc\;eSac\ tin\≥e‰˙ac\Pin\N˙c\. nakaSiuentiu≥ yen≥ et∑≥SuMÂkrat∑c\
yc\;kisßkiu ADikTa; eS∑;eN∑;Âkqv\" When China’s supreme leader, Deng
Shiao Ping, and (Mr) Nakasone met each other today, this matter was the
principal topic of their discussions (mutual).
• hiuBk\Aim\k kel;klv\; d^Bk\Aim\k kel;fm¥k\N˙akiu ®pn\kut\qv\"
ksa;p∑´ p¥k\ka luM;eT∑;qt\put\Âkqv\" And the child from that house
scratched back at the face of the child from this house. Their play came to
an end and (the children) came to blows (mutual).
• ts\eyak\n´≥ts\eyak\ qip\mtv\.ÂkB¨;" They don’t get on very well with each
other (mutual).
• nMmv\ em;Âksiu≥r´." Let’s ask (each other’s) names (mutual).
20
• suepåc\;lup\kiuc\mO®Pc\. eK¥ac\;qs\e®mac\;qs\m¥a;kiu ePak\K´.Âk®p^" By cooperative work

new streams and (irrigation) channels have been dug (severally).
• tp\meta\kiu ATc\ l∑´Âkty\" People have misunderstood, got the wrong
idea, about the army (severally).
• Tmc\; q∑a;sa;ÂkreAac\" Shall we go and eat? (all together).
• kel;et∑' na;eTac\Âk" Listen, children! (all together).
• &c\;lYp\KM Am¥oi;Asa;qv\ wåyapt\ lYp\KMm¥a;pc\ ®Ps\Âkqv\" Resistors of this
type are wire wound resistors (all together).
Âka; 1 and AÂka; (N~, VA~) between, among Ns; in the midst of, on top
of V-ing; loc nn, CB+FB; opp A®pc\ outside;
• d^Âka;T´m˙a Ba siuk\AuM;m˙al´" What are you going to plant in this gap?
• q¨tiu≥AÂka;m˙a mpåK¥c\B¨;" I don’t want to be involved with them.
• Alup\ ‰˙aent´.Âka;m˙a qc\tn\; tk\enty\" He was studying in the middle of
looking for a job.
• ASc\ me®pt´.Âka;T´m˙a tp\meta\kiu ATc\ l∑´Âkty\" In the midst of these
difficulties people misunderstood, got the wrong idea about, the army.
• q¨ka; Aa;luM;T´m˙a tm¨ T¨;q¨ ®Ps\f" l¨p¥oi' Ap¥oi Sra' Sramm¥a;Âka;m˙a
kel;cå;eyak\ miKc\SramÂk^; ®Ps\qv\" tk\Âk∑eneqa Sra' Sramm¥a;f
Âka;t∑c\ sit\Dat\ k¥enqv\. SramÂk^; ®Ps\qv\" She was different from all
the others. Amongst all the unmarried men and women teachers she was
the one with five children. In the midst of all the active, energetic teachers
she was listless.
Âka;- 2 (V~-) to inform; comm elem cpd vb, CB+FB;
• min\≥Âka;- to speak (of respected persons); e®paÂka;- to speak, say; ehaÂka;-
to preach; VWn\Âka;- to give direction; qc\Âka;- to teach; ek¥a\Âka;- to be
renowned; and per–haps Niu;Âka;- to become active.
Âk^^; (N~) large, great N; main, senior N; much, very V; nn mod, CB+FB;
frequently added to rank or position to show respect when speaking to, or
referring to, a person; also used jocularly; from verb ”k^;- to be large;
• mc\;tra;Âk^; His Majesty (translating Pali maha–-dhamma-ra–ja–); B¨taRuM”k^;
main station; Aim\”k^; big house; Sram”k^; senior, respected teacher, head-
mistress; qMAmt\”k^; ambassador, Your Excellency; wn\”k^; minister;
emem”k^; (great) grandmother (senior mother in house with several
generations); Am¥a;Âk^; very much, a great deal; AÂkaÂk^; a very long time;
Aesa”k^; very early; emac\sin\”k^; old Maung Sein, that fellow Maung Sein.
’ki- and ’kitc\- sts tc\’ki- (~V-) to V in advance, in anticipation,
beforehand; comm pre-vb, CB+FB; from verb ’ki- to go out to meet;
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• ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a;qv\ ek¥ac\;qiu≥ nMnk\ 7-narÂK¥in\Kn\≥kpc\ ’kitc\ erak\‰˙i

enpåqv\" The pupils arrived at the school in advance at about 7 a.m.
• kiuwc\;ePkiu ”koitc\®p^; qti ep;Ta;ena\" You will warn Ko Win Pe beforehand,
won’t you?
• lk\m˙t\ ”koiwy\Ta;m˙" We’d better buy the tickets in advance.
• q¨tiu≥ e®pamv\m¥a;kiu ”koitc\j VWn\K¥op\kiu tc\®prpåqv\" What they are going to
say has to be submitted to the DG in advance.
• ss\er;Suiqv\m˙a tc\’kij qti‘p®Kc\;qa ekac\;epqv\" In matters of war it is
important to foresee what may happen.
AÂkc\ (~N or ~sfx) that N, that which, such a N as; selective noun, FB;
mainly nissaya and nissaya style writing (Okell 1965 p 208); used mainly
in parallel sentences: Pali yo…so, Burmese AÂkc\…Tui, “He who V1, that
person V2”;
• AÂkc\kMfAk¥oi;kui N˙s\qk\wm\;e®mak\s∑a KMsa;rlYc\' TuikMm¥oi;kui ®polup\®Kc\;qv\
ekac\;f" Such actions as produce an outcome that can be enjoyed, those
actions are good to perform.
• eyap‹ieta' AÂkc\pva‰˙iqv\" ekaDena' Am¥k\Âk^;f" eqap‹ieta'
Tuipva‰˙iqv\" nqaDu' mekac\;" Such a sage as is given to anger, that sage
is not a good sage (nissaya).
• yM' AÂkc\qeBaqv\" ntÊi' m‰˙i" tM' TuiqeBaqv\lYc\' namika' Amv\‰˙if"
Such a quality as does not exist, that quality is my name (a riddle: the
speaker’s name is Amara– “immortal”) (nissaya).
• AÂkc\q¨ha zn^;ekac\; ts\eyak\rty\ Siurc\ qip\ep¥a\t´.l¨ ®Ps\my\t´." A
person who has acquired a good wife will be a happy person, they say.
• AÂkc\qiu≥eqa p!ivaU\KMAra‰˙im¥a; … RO®mc\et∑>‰˙irpåq®Pc\." Seeing all those
sworn officials.
eÂkac\. 1 or eÂkac\.mui≥ or eÂkac\.mui≥lui≥ (N~, VA~) because of N, on account of N,
thanks to N; because of V-ing, because it V-ed; nn mkr and sub stc mkr;
the form eÂkac\. is mainly FB, forms with mui≥ mainly CB; = CB N-miu≥;
• dåeÂkac\.' dåeÂkac\.mui≥' dåeÂkac\.mui≥lui≥' A´dåeÂkac\. for that reason, therefore;
• BaeÂkac\. for what reason, why;
• TiueÂkac\. for that reason.
• ss\eB;ss\d%\eÂkac\." As a result of the ravages of war.
• q¨≥eÂkac\. duk erak\ty\" It was through him she got into trouble.
• t®Ka;haeÂkac\. mhut\påB¨;" The reason is this: … (“It is not for another
reason (but for this one, viz …)”).
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• piu≥qt´.emt†aeÂkac\. Aa;luM; enekac\;Âkpåty\" We are all well thanks to the

affection you bear us, the goodwill you send us (a phrase commonly used
in letters).
• sc\ss\ l∑t\lp\t´. pvaer;sns\eÂkac\.mui≥lui≥ Nuic\cMq¨Nuic\cMqa;m¥a;ha tky\.kui
l∑t\lp\ty\" It is because there is a truly free education system that the
citizens enjoy real freedom.
• dåepm´. AeÂkac\;eÂkac\;eqa AeÂkac\;eÂkac\;et∑eÂkac\. Siupåeta. mlup\
®Ps\K´.rpåB¨;" However for a variety of various reasons, let us say, we didn’t
actually manage to do it (a humorous CB use of a stiff FB pattern).
• lÄm¥a;k tra;esac\.eqaeÂkac\. miu;elwq m˙n\kn\qv\" Because most people
were virtuous the weather was good.
• Tiuqiu≥ ep¥a\RWc\enÂk®Kc\;m˙a Am¥oi;qa;®ptiuk\qiu≥ q∑a;erak\Âkv\.ROrn\
s^sU\Ta;eqaeÂkac\. ®Ps\påqv\" The reason for our being so happy was
because it had been arranged for us to go to see the National Museum.
• d^ts\lluM; saAup\etn´≥ t®Ka;kisßetn´≥ Alup\ROp\taeÂkac\. samer;®Ps\K´.påB¨;"
Because I have been busy the whole month with books and other matters
I didn’t manage to write.
• ec∑liutaeÂkac\. Aem.S^m˙a q∑a;etac\;rta" Because he needed money he had
to go and ask his mother for it.
eÂkac\. 2 see under At∑k\eÂkac\. on account of
eÂkac\; 1 (N~) line; route followed; tradition; way, means; comm elem
cpd nn, CB+FB;
• saeÂkac\;" A line of writing.
• dutiytuic\m˙ak 11-eÂkac\; påpåty\" The second pillar has 11 lines (of
writing).
• Ta;wy\eÂkac\; via Tavoy, by the route through Tavoy, by the Tavoy road;
kun\;eÂkac\;' Âkv\;eÂkac\; by land, by the land route; ereÂkac\; by water.
• qtc\;saSraet∑' saer;Sraet∑klv\; l∑t\lp\s∑a er;qa;K∑c\. rliuk\rc\ qmiuc\;
eÂkac\;kiu ®pn\l˙n\eta.m˙aepå." If the journalists and writers get the chance to
write freely they will uncover the course of history.
• q¨tiu≥ lup\K´.t´. enak\eÂkac\;et∑ ®pn\®p^; ePÅTut\mOet∑" Revelations of their past
deeds.
• ebdc\eÂkac\;Ar" According to the astrological tradition.
• Dmμqt\eÂkac\;t∑c\" From the point of view of the law books.
• nib∫an\ erak\eÂkac\; tra;ehaqv\" He preached a sermon on the way to
achieve Nirvana.
• Usßasv\;sim\ p¥k\s^;eÂkac\; e®Kak\på;" The Six Means of Losing Wealth.
• K¥m\;qara K¥m\;qaeÂkac\;" The way to happiness.
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eÂkac\; 2 (V~) and AeÂkac\; (VA~) (a) that V, the circumstance that V,
common with verbs of knowing, telling, asking etc; sub cls mkr and sub stc
mkr, CB+FB; compare CB V-ty\Siuta;
• ln\dn\k mit\eS∑etAa;luM;kiu qtireÂkac\; e®pa®pep;på" Please tell all friends
in London that I remember them.
• Âka;rliu≥ wm\;nv\;eÂkac\; lae®paÂkty\" They come and say they are sorry to
hear it.
• 1948KuN˙s\' zn\nwår^l 4-rk\en≥t∑c\ ®mn\maniuc\cMqv\ luM;w l∑t\lp\\eqa Niuc\cM
®Ps\eÂkac\;kiu kmıaqiu≥ eÂk®caliuk\f" On 4th January 1948 it was
announced to the world that Burma was a fully independent nation.
• 1300®pv\.N˙s\t∑c\ etac\q¨ly\qma;Âk^;m¥a;qv\ l∑t\lp\er; liuK¥c\eÂkac\; SN∂
®pK´.Âkqv\" In 1300 BE (AD 1938) peasants and farmers demonstrated (to
show) that they wanted independence.
• Alup\®m´´mv\ mhut\eÂkac\; … qiN˙c\.enepqv\" She knew that she wouldn’t be
able to keep the job. NB. In speeches reported in newspapers the speaker’s
name will appear at the beginning of the report, usually marked by k; each
point or paragraph of the speech will end in V-eÂkac\;' and the final point
will be followed by ®Pc\. (or N˙c\. or tiu≥k)iu e®paqv\ or some similar verb.
• rn\kun\tiuc\; edqpåtêka\mt^ Uk˚™ U^;r´wc\;k V1-eÂkac\;' V2-eÂkac\;tiu≥kiu
e®pa®pliuk\elqv\" U Ye Win, Chairman of Yangon Division regional party
committee, explained that V1 and that V2. Similarly in historical chronicles
reported speech is shown by V-eÂkac\;N˙c\.;
• hut\m˙n\eÂkac\;N˙c\. ckn\ elYak\qv\" Ngakan said (to the king) that it was
true. In older-style news reports on radio or in newspapers V-eÂkac\; alone
would be used at the end of the sentence without any further verb of saying
or hearing:
• Èt∑c\ ASuM;qt\rpåeÂkac\;" I have to end my report here (radio news).
• l¨ts\eyak\ ep¥ak\q∑a;eÂkac\;" A person has disappeared (it is reported).
(b) in pattern V-mv\.AeÂkac\; that V, with verbs of requesting, inviting,
intending; FB; pron /m¥iAek¥ac\;/;
• l¨ Tp\®Pv\.påmv\.AeÂkac\;N˙c\. elYak\Ta;ra" Having requested that
reinforcements should be supplied.
• K¥m\;qas∑a enpårmv\.AeÂkac\;N˙c\. påqv\kiu Âka;eta\m¨lYc\" When (the king)
heard that (the letter) asked that they might live peacefully.
• kÁn\eta\k tk˚qiul\ek¥ac\;qa; ts\eyak\ ®Ps\eÂkac\;' etac\t∑c\;”k^; ®ptiuk\
AmOeSac\AP∑´>wc\ ts\Ë; ®Ps\eÂkac\; sqv\.tiu≥kiu p%am KMj ®ptiuk\At∑k\
pn\;K¥^ka; ts\K¥p\ lØpåmv\.AeÂkac\;kiu RiuRiueqeq e®pa®ppåqv\" I prefaced my
request by explaining that I was a university student, that I was a
24
member of the Taungdwingyi Museum executive committee and so on,

and then respectfully asked him to donate a picture to the museum.
AeÂkac\; 1 cause, reason (opp. Ak¥oi; effect, result); factor, circumstance;
noun, CB+FB;
• ts\suMts\ra ®Ps\eseqa AeÂkac\;kiu ®pqv\. wiBt\kiu AeÂkac\;®pwiBt\hu
eKÅqv\" A particle which shows the cause that makes something happen
is called a causal particle.
• T∑k\q∑a;r®Kc\; AeÂkac\;rc\;ts\rp\" One of the main reasons for his
departure.
• A´dÂeÂkac\;eÂkac\. q¨ y¨Ta;rc\ ekac\;my\t´." For that reason, he says, it
would be better if he kept it.
• … seqa AeÂkac\;tiu≥eÂkac\. eAac\®mc\mO mrK´.ep" Because of certain factors
such as …, they did not succeed.
• l¨ts\eyak\N˙c\. ts\eyak\ Ae®KAenK¥c\; mt¨' q¨≥AeÂkac\;N˙c\.q¨'
kiuy\.AeÂkac\;N˙c\. kiuy\ ®Ps\qv\" One person’s situation is not the same as
another’s, each has his own circumstances.
AeÂkac\; 2 (N~, VA~) particulars of N, facts about N, concerning N;
about, concerning V-ing; nn mkr and sub stc mkr, CB+FB;
• kÁn\eta\fAeÂkac\;" Particulars of myself, about me.
• kÁn\eta\.AeÂkac\; pår´.la;" Is there anything about me in it?
• Siuk\ka;elakAeÂkac\;kiu q¨ na;lv\qv\" He understood about the world
of the trishaw (rider).
• Tiug¥amn\qeBçafAeÂkac\; m¥a;s∑a qiliuÂkra" Since readers very much wanted
to know about that German boat.
• ®mwt^t^bÂeÂkac\; Kp\q´.q´. Âka;larpåty\" I had heard something about
Myawadi TV.
• U^;l˙ eq®Kc\;AeÂkac\;" Concerning the death of U Hla (chapter heading).
• rhn\; ‘pqv\.AeÂkac\;" Concerning his becoming a monk (chapter heading).
• Rup\‰˙c\Riuk\t´.AeÂkac\;et∑ Baet∑eta. me®pan´≥ hut\®p^la;" But don’t tell them
about your film-making and all that. Is that clear?
• Ë;®pv\.sMu eqt´.AeÂkac\; kÁn\eta\ AlMu;sMu qi“p^p´" I know all about U PZ’s
death.
Âkv\.- 1 (~V-) to look and V, V at discretion, V as seems best at the
time; comm pre-vb, CB+FB; from verb Âkv\.- to look; pron /k¥i/;
• m^ta p¥k\enty\" Âkv\.ep;på" The taxi meter is broken. Pay what you think
you should (for this trip).
• hiuk¥m˙ Âkv\.lup\ÂkreAac\" Let’s do what seems best when we get there.
25
Âkv\.- 2 (V~-) try out V-ing, test V; have a go at V-ing; vb mod, CB+FB;
negative form usually V-m~; not voiced; from verb Âkv\.- to look; pron /k¥i/;
• b^ya eqak\Âkv\.P¨;qla;" Have you ever tasted (“tried drinking”) beer?
• A´då kÁn\eta\ em;mÂkv\.miB¨;" I forgot to ask about that.
• wtÊokel; Bakel; er;Âkv\.påla;" Why not try writing a little story or
something?
•Ak\enqla;liu≥ eKåk\Âkv\.ty\" He tapped it to see if it was cracked.
k∑ and Ak∑ see under tk∑ along with
k∑a and k∑ (mostly Stc~) term of address, used in addressing people or
compelling their attention; used between intimates, or by senior to junior; the
short, creaky-tone form is more emphatic and peremptory; cf English “boy!
girl! man! fellow! old chap! young man! my dear! luv!”; appended
appellative, CB;
• puMe®pasm\;k∑a" Tell us a story, man!
• cåk dåTk\ By\liu hn\lup\“p^; q∑a;rm˙al´k∑" How do you want me to go
then?
•hut\ty\p´ Ta;påeta.k∑a" OK, let’s admit that it’s true then.
•By\m˙al´k∑ _ mc\;tiu≥ ‰˙c\elac\;k" Where is he, my boy — this shin-laung?
•qeBçaqa;et∑n´≥ mSiuc\påB¨;k∑a" It’s nothing to do with sailors, you oaf.
k∑y\ and k∑´≥ (mostly Stc~) term of address, similar to k∑a above, but a
little more sympathetic, less peremptory; pehaps more often used by women;
appended appellative, CB;
• qc\;tiu≥ lk\T´ ®pn\erak\q∑a;m˙a siu;liu≥t´.k∑y\" He says it’s because he’s afraid
it’ll get back into their hands, my dear.
• cå.liu ®Ps\K¥c\rc\ cå.liu lup\K´.Âkepå.k∑´>" If you want to be like me, do as I do, me
lads.
•m∑n\m∑n\ ciuenqla;k∑y\" Mun Mun, are you crying, my dear?
Kn´ or-kn´´ (V~, Int~) with a V-ing, V-ly, used in words describing sudden
noises or actions, vivid sensations, usually of short duration; sub cls mkr,
CB+FB.; pron /Kn´/ following a stop consonant, otherwise /gn´/;
(a) for sound:
• hc\;Kn´´ (sts Ac\;Kn´´) qk\®pc\; K¥elqv\ heaved a great sigh, going “hmm”;
ew˙;Kn´´ elts\K¥k\ mOt\Tut\luik\qv\ heaved a loud sigh, going “phway”;
dun\;Kn´´ e®mak\tk\q∑a;qv\ (the car) mounted (the roadside bank) with a
thud; RWt\Kn´´ rW^Kn´´ eneAac\ ek¥a\tk\qv\ They overtook (other cars at
speed), going “shoot” and “shwi”; tMKå; k¥^^Kn´´ p∑c\.laka the door creaked
open; K∑m\;Kn´ Tity\ (clay pots) clinked together; wå;Kn´´ ts\K¥k\ qm\;luik\®p^^;
let out a loud yawn, going “wah”; wå;kn´ ry\qv\ to laugh out loud; T∑^Kn´
26
(sound of) spitting in disgust; qMeK¥ac\;qM edåc\Kn´´ epÅT∑k\laf" The sound

of the iron bar rang out with a clang (to mark the hour); w˙s\Kn´´ l˙s\Kn´´
k¥n\K´.qv\ (The villages) flashed past (the fast car), going “hwit” and “hlit”;
ewå≥Kn´´ An\K¥luik\elqv\ vomited convulsively, going “waw”; Aec∑>
teTac\;eTac\;N˙c\. lk\Pk\rv\Âkm\;kui RW^;Kn´´ mv\eAac\ sup\y¨luik\elqv\
sucked up the steaming tea with a loud slurp; eqnt\ diuc\;Kn´ ®mv\qv\ the
gun gave out a loud bang.
(b) for visual experience:
• ®ms\er r´´Kn´´ n^^laj the river water turned bright crimson; Ts\Kn´´ Sui m´´Kn´´
qtc\;sa m¥k\N˙aPuM;k pålatt\ta straightaway it would appear in great
black letters on the front page of the newspaper; rip\Kn´´ rip\Kn´´ k¥n\K´.qv\
(the houses on the roadside) flashed past them; rip\kn´ ®mc\liuk\miq®Pc\. as
they saw them fleetingly, caught momentary sight of them; m¥k\N˙akui
k∑k\Kn´´ ®mc\miqv\ at a quick glance saw his face clearly;
®mn\maska;luM;m˙alv\; kÁn\eta\tui≥kui k∑c\;Kn´´ k∑k\Kn´´ ®mc\q∑a;esqv\ (the
teacher) made us see the meaning of the words with a dazzling clarity;
®boM;Kn´ epÅlaty\ appeared all of a sudden, out of the blue.
(c) for sensation:
• Aqv\;qv\ duM;Kn´ń´≥ rc\V∑n\≥Rui;kui e®p;eSac\.enqv\ his heart (“liver”) (felt as if it)
charged into his rib-cage with a crash; rc\T´wy\ din\;Kn´´ ®Ps\q∑a;qv\ he felt
a great thump in his breast; q∑a; ss\Kn´ kiuk\qv\ to feel sudden sharp
pain in the tooth; NOt\Km\;P¥a;k ss\Kn´´ ‰˙iqv\ his lips smarted (after a blow
on the mouth); edåq eTac\;Kn´´ T∑k\laqv\ anger flared up “like a cloud
of steam”; em.Kn´ ep¥a\qv\ to sleep drowsily, doze; Aip\raepÅm˙ ‘mic\ St\Kn´
TTuic\luik\eta. eKåc\;T´m˙a muik\Kn´ ®Ps\q∑a;elf" When Myaing sat up
suddenly on her bed, she felt a sharp pain in the head; dc\;Kn´´ qiqv\
realized with a flash; Rut\trk\ eremW;nM≥et∑ qc\;Kn´ ®Ps\q∑a;q®Pc\. m¥k\luM;k
P¥t\Kn´ p∑c\.®pn\f" Woken by the scent of the perfume wafting across the
room, she suddenly opened her eyes.
(d) for movement:
• eK∑Kn´´ tk\Tuic\mv\ ‘pqv\ made as if to get on and sit curled up; ®Pt\Kn´´
tk\luik\qv\ jumped up sharply; Tuic\ram˙ Sp\Kn´´ Tqv\ got up like a shot;
el¥aKn´´ T∑k\laqv\ (paper) slipped out (of his pocket); ebac\;b^^kui ®Pt\Kn´´
ekak\y¨luik\qv\ snatched up the trousers; s∑t\Kn´´ wc\la®p^^; barged in
abruptly; ka; ®cim\.Kn´´ rp\laf the car drew smoothly to a stop; ts\K¥k\p´
qim\.Kn´´ ROik\luik\elqv\ let out a single suppressed sob; ty\l^Pun\; ®Pt\Kn´´
®pn\K¥luik\qv\ slammed down the telephone; Aip\Kn\;T´´ K¥aKn´´ l˙v\.j
wc\q∑a;elqv\ wheeled round and went into the bedroom; ekak\Kn´´Sui
27
sit\Sui;tap´´ gets into a bate at the drop of a hat; lWa;Kn´ at a leap; ka;Kn´
spreadeagled.
Kmn\; (V~) (a) to be V-ed, that must be V-ed; sp hd nn, mainly FB;
infrequent except in two compounds:
• AM.Kmn\; to be wondered at, amazing; eÂkak\Kmn\; or eÂkak\Kmn\;lili to be
feared, frightening.
(b) in pattern V-luKmn\;‰˙i- to be almost V-ed;
• dån´≥ sueSac\;Ta;t´. ec∑kel;m¥a;l´ kun\luKmn\; ‰˙ipåeraKc\b¥a" And so it was
that my small savings were almost exhausted.
•sv\”k^;et∑ ®pv\.luKmn\; ‰˙ilapåqv\" The great barrels were almost full.
Kå (N~, V~) and AKå (N~, V~, VA~) time, occasion; loc nn, CB+FB; used in
various patterns as shown below; in some texts V-Kå appears to be a mis-
spelling for V-ka qv; (a) preceded by a noun indicating a time no
effect on translation meaning; mnk\AKå morning (time); miu;AKå the rainy
season; eN∑U^;AKåm˙a at the beginning of the summer.
(b) preceded by a verb attribute time when V, while V-ing; in pat-
terns FB V-eqaAKå' V-qv\.AKå' V-Kå, CB V-t´.AKå;
• miu;R∑aqv\.AKå' miu;R∑aeqaAKå FB = CB mui;R∑at´.AKå" When it rains.
• Bt\s\ka; l¨®pv\.eqaAKå e‰˙>tMKå;epåk\kiu pit\liuk\qv\" When the bus is full
up the front entrance is closed.
• tMKå;wt∑c\ cå;mins\Kn\≥ rp\esac\.®p^;eqaAKåm˙ RuM;lulc\el; erak\laelqv\"
Only after she had stood and waited at the entrance for about five
minutes did the office boy arrive.
• Nuic\cMts\Nuic\cMha l∑t\lp\er; r“p^;t´.AKåm˙a ®cim\;K¥m\;qayaPui≥ luipåty\" After a
country has achieved independence it needs peace.
• wn\Tm\;m¥a; lKn´≥ melak\t´.AKå A®pc\ec∑ ‰˙artaepå." When the officials’
salaries are not enough they have to earn some addi–tional income.
• dÛsßa sU\;sa;Âkv\.Kå e®pac\;®pn\ Ta;rc\ mekac\;B¨;la;liu≥" Thinking over this
thing, I wondered whether it wouldn’t be better if we put it the other way
round.
In CB often expanded to V-t´.AKå k¥rc\ or k¥eta.'
• AiNÎiyl¨m¥oi;m¥a;ha teyak\n´≥teyak\ et∑≥t´.AKåk¥rc\' lk\Aup\K¥^“p^;
nmt\set; Sui“p^; NOt\Sk\Âkpåty\" When Indians meet they greet each
other by placing their palms together and saying Namaste.
• ec∑mtt\Nuic\t´.AKåk¥eta. tK¥oi>enraet∑m˙a miqa;suAa;luM;ha T∑k\“p^;eta.
Alup\lup\rty\" When people are short of money, in some places the entire
family has to go out and work.
28
(c) in pattern V-t´.AKå V- to V when it Vs, to V occasionally, some-

times;
• m˙a;t´.AKåm˙a m˙a;påty\" Sometimes they make mistakes.
• Rup\‰˙c\ Âkv\.t´.AKå Âkv\.påty\" I go to the pictures from time to time.
(d) in pattern V-Kås the beginning of V-ing, only just V-ing;
• estêta\ tv\Kåsk Ua%\eta\A®mc\.qv\ 66-epqa ‰˙iqv\" When the pagoda
was first built its height was only 66 feet.
• kÁn\eta\ rn\kun\ erak\Kåstun\;k mit\eS∑ts\eyak\m˙ m‰˙iB¨;" I hadn’t a single
friend when I first arived in Yangon.
• N˙c\;S^ p∑c\.Kåsp´ ‰˙ieq;ty\" The roses are only just beginning to bloom.
(e) in pattern V-Kå n^;- to be near the time of V-ing, almost time to
V:
• bma®pv\ ®pn\Kå n^;m˙ ®pn\ep;my\" I’ll give it back when I’m just about to leave
for Burma.
• mt¨;malv\; em∑;Kå n^;®p^" And Ma Tu Ma’s baby is nearly due.
• sam¨kiu puMN˙ip\tiuk\S^ piu≥Kå n^;®p^" He will soon be sending the manuscript to the
printers.
Ku (Nº~) item, comm nmtv for anything not otherwise classified (e.g. as
human, animal, round, flat etc); CB+FB;
• Alup\Âk^;ts\Ku a major task; ®Kc\eTac\N˙s\Ku two mosquito nets.
K´- (V~-) (a) rarely, seldom V, not be in the habit of V-ing; not used with
negated verb; vb mod, CB+FB;
• q¨qv\ mhut\mm˙n\eqa ska;kiu e®paK´qv\" It is rare for him to utter a
falsehood.
• Asv\;Aew;m˙a q¨ ska;e®paK´ty\" He seldom speaks at meetings.
• Srak Âqwåd ep;K´ty\" ts\Kueta. e®paliupåty\" I rarely give advice, tell
(people) what to do, but I do want to say one thing.
(b) V slowly, take an unbearably long time to V;
• AK¥in\qv\ kun\®mc\.kun\K´l˙fhu eAak\em.laf" He thought how slowly time
was passing.
• laK´´luik\ta" How long he is taking to come!
• kun\K´qv\ Tc\epmc\. vk As√\Atuic\; kun\q∑a;qv\" The night passed as
usual, though it seemed to pass slowly.
K´.- (V~-) V back there, back here; vb mod, CB+FB. No satisfactory trans-
lation equivalent in English, though, according to context, phrases like “back
there”, “back here” serve a handy mnemonic purpose. V-K´´. has four main
uses: (a) in relation to space and the relative position of speaker and hearer
at the time of the action:
29
1. with the majority of action verbs V-K´´. means V in one place before
moving to another, irrespective of whether the movement is towards the
speaker or away from the speaker, e.g.
• psßv\; Ta;K´´.på" Leave your bags there (before coming here) or here (before
going out).
• lip\sa er;K´´.på" Leave a note of your address there (before coming here) or
here (before going out).
• Tmc\; sa;K´´.på" Have a meal at home (before coming here) or here (before
going out).
• Tmc\; sa;K´´.my\" I will have a meal at home (before coming here) or here
(before going out).
2. by contrast, with verbs that express movement from one place to another,
V-K´´. is more restricted: it only has the meaning V from there to here (like
V-la “come”), not the reverse. Compare the following pairs:
movement towards speaker movement away from speaker
wc\K´.- come in wc\q∑a;- go in
T∑k\K´.- come out T∑k\q∑a;- go out
®pn\K´.- come back ®pn\q∑a;- go back
y¨K´.- bring here y¨q∑a;- take away
eKÅK´´.- bring here eKÅq∑a;- take away
luik\K´.- come with me luik\q∑a;- go with him
laK´´.- come here
laq∑a;- “come and go away again” is probably not strictly comparable.
This restriction is confirmed by the observation that K´´.- rarely combines with
q∑a;- “go”: q∑a;- is by definition “away from the speaker”. There are instan-
ces of q∑a;K´´.- to be found, but only where q∑a;- is referring to an action
performed somewhere else: e.g. a visit, a trip, an errand, typically executed
in another country before coming to this one, as in this example:
• Agçln\ erak\ens√\ ln\dn\‘mi> ts\eKåk\p´ q∑a;K´´.rpåty\" I only went to
London once while I was in England.
• Awt\Asa; erac\;qv\. enraqui≥ q∑a;K´´.Âkpåqv\" We went to a place where they
sell clothes (while on a visit to Yangon from Maubin).
Note that for both 1 and 2 the actor may be either the speaker or the hearer:
• psßv\; Ta;K´.påla;" _ ekac\;på®p^" Ta;K´.påmy\" Why not leave your bags here
(before you go out)? — OK. I will.
• kel;et∑ eKÅK´.mla;" _ hut\k´." eKÅK´.my\" Will you bring your children
(when you come here)? — Yes. I will.
The verb en- “to remain, to stay put” may be regarded as a special case of
30
movement verb: it expressly denies movement. So sentences like enK´.på

“Please stay behind” and enK´.my\ “I will stay behind” are used when the
actor remains while the other party moves away.
(b) in relation to time: V-K´´. indicates that the action took place in the
past. This is the meaning that most native speakers associate with V-K´´."
Note that not all past actions require V-K´´. — it is an option.
(c) V-K´´. is also common, but not obligatory, in conditional clauses, mostly
in the protasis but sometimes also in the apodosis.
(d) Allott 1965 p 296 treats luik\- and K´´.- as opposed terms of the “cate-
gory of location”. The fact that one occasionally finds examples of both
terms together suggests that some refinement of the interpretation is needed:
AedÅÂk^^;k min\;Kel;luMK¥v\sts wy\ep;luik\K´.påqv\" She bought me a lon-
gyi (while I was visiting her in Yangon).
• AMS∑´m¥a;kui eqa.pit\®p^^; sui;l∑c\V∑n\≥N˙c\.At¨¨ T∑k\luik\K´.qv\" He locked up the
drawers and went out with SLN.
• wåSiul®pv\.en> erak\eqaAKå q¨¨tui≥zn^;emac\N˙Mqv\lv\; rp\r∑aTMu;sMDel.Atiuc\;
r∑aË;‰˙i Bun\;eta\”k^;ek¥ac\;qui≥ rp\q¨r∑aqa;m¥a;N˙c\.At¨ q^ly¨¨liuk\K´.Âk“p^; ts\en≥
lMu; Bun\;eta\”k^;ek¥ac\;m˙apc\ √puq\qt ^ c\;eSak\tv\enÂkelqv\" On the Full
Moon Day of the month of Wazo, as was the custom in the village, the pair
of them went to the monastery at the head of the village and recited the
precepts along with the other villagers. Then they spent the whole day at
the monastery observing the Buddhist Sabbath.
• AuimuiSp\®pamOn\≥Tup\ … kui wy\K´.luik\ty\" She bought a packet of Omo soap
powder.
The MED gloss is “to emphasize definitiveness of an action or condition”.
The definitive account of the way V-la, V-q∑a;, V-K´., and V-luik\ are
related remains to be written. For more extensive treatment see Allott 1965,
Soe 1994. Sentence examples:
(a1) action verbs:
• ka;kiu Aim\e‰˙≥m˙a Ta;K´.Niuc\påty\" You can leave your car in front of the
house.
• bmaska; hiuktv\;k qc\K´.tala;" Did you learn Burmese back there
(before coming here)?
• q¨tiu≥ha saer;ta Al∑n\ eta\Âkty\" dåepm´. tK¥oi>enraet∑m˙a K¥n\Ta;K´.rm˙a
N˙e®maentt\Âkty\" They wrote very well; but in some places they tended
to be reluctant to leave things out.
• Aemrikn\kiu By\tun\;k erak\K´.ql´" When did you visit America? (a
question asked outside America; contrast the question asked inside America
31
Aemrikn\kiu By\tun\;k erak\laql´" When did you reach A, when did

you get here?)
(a2) verbs of movement:
• enak\ts\Kå Am¥oi;qm^;på eKÅlaK´.på" Next time please bring your wife as well.
• ec∑sarc\; y¨K´." Bring the bill! contrast er ts\K∑k\ q∑a;y¨liuk\my\" I’ll just go
and fetch a glass of water.
• Aem es¥;k mun\≥ wy\laK´.ty\" Mother bought some cake from market.
• K% enrc\ laK´.my\" I will be back here in a moment.
• mliuk\eta.B¨;' d^m˙ap´ enrs\K´.my\" I won’t come with you now: I will just stay
(behind) here.
• kiueRWemac\qv\ Awt\ehac\;®Kc\;T´m˙ Ak¥Çm¥a;kiu eR∑;Tut\qv\" Tiu≥enak\
Sp\®pats\K´ kiuc\yc\; Aim\eB;k ersv\S^qiu≥ Sc\;K´.qv\" Ko Shwe Maung
picked out his vests from the dirty clothes basket. Then, bar of soap in
hand, he came down to the water butt at the side of the house.
(b) past time:
• ®Ka;na;puMkiu ATk\t∑c\ ePa\®pK´.®p^;®p^" The way they differ has been described
above.
• ss\tn\;m¥a; ep¥ak\SuM;K´.el®p^" The sit-tans have been lost.
• A´dÂK¥in\AKåm˙a bmaNiuc\cMha Aeta\ k¥y\wn\;K´.ty\" At that time the Burmese
kingdom was pretty extensive.
• sk\tc\BalAt∑k\ epP¨;lWamg©zc\; mT∑k\Niuc\K´.B¨;" The September number of
Pe-bu-hlwa Magazine wasn’t able to be published.
• cy\eq;eqa\lv\; qt†ik eta\eta\ ekac\;K´.qv\" Though young he had been
quite self-confident.
• eP¥a\rv\ts\K∑k\tv\;t∑c\ sut\tMN˙s\eK¥ac\; tp\ka eKåc\;K¥c\;Siuc\ eqak\rc\;
Aep¥a\Âk^; ep¥a\K´.Âkqv\" They used to get great pleasure from putting two
straws into the same glass of fruit juice and drinking together, face to face
(as lovers).
(c) conditional:
• ASc\ e®pK´.rc\ lup\ep;sm\;på" Please do it for me if at all possible.
• sit\ vs\eta. … tra;qa mTiuc\K´.rc\ RO;Niuc\ty\" Being so miserable, I could
go mad if I didn’t meditate.
• kÁn\eta\lv\; wizΩa y¨¨K´.y¨K´. qipπM y¨¨K´.y¨K´. Srawn\ ®Ps\K´.®Ps\K´. Ac\g¥c\n^ya
®Ps\K´.®Ps\K´. … saer;SraA®Ps\qui≥ muK¥ erak\K´.rmv\" Whether I had taken arts
or science, whether I had become a doctor or an engineer, I would still
have become a writer.
32
• q¨qa q´qŃ˙c\. mSMu®Ps\K´.lYc\ qv\®pœnaet∑ epÅepåk\lasraAeÂkac\; m‰˙iep" If

only he had never met Theh Theh these problems would never have
arisen.
eKÅ (N1~ N2) N2 which is called N1; N2 that is N1; N2 i.e. N1; = FB N2 wå
N1; truncated verb attribute , a compressed form of FB N1-hu eKÅqv\. N2, =
CB N1-lui≥ eKÅt´. N2 or N1 Suit´. N2; mainly FB; not voiced; from verb eKÅ- to
call or to be called;
• B^pÂiuc\ eKÅ ®mn\maNiuc\cM eS;wå;lup\cn\;@an" The Burma Pharmaceutical
Industry called, known as, the BPI.
• r^ssßta eKÅ lYp\KMAeÂkac\;" About hlyat-khan, or resistors.
• eba\l∑n\; k∑n\TRiu; eKÅ AqM Atiu;Ak¥y\Tin\; Klut\" The knob that controls
the loudness of the sound, known as “the volume control”.
• {Èss\Âk^;N˙c\. qKc\kiuy\eta\mOic\;} eKÅ k¥m\;ts\esac\" A volume called Thakin
Kodaw Hmaing and the present war.
• wiuc\'Am\'B^'eA eKÅ budÎBaqakl¥a%yuwAqc\;" The Young Men’s Buddhist
Association or the YMBA.
• ksÍpnd^ eKÅ kula;tn\®ms\" The Kaladan River also known as the Kissapa
Nadi.
• murc\; eKÅ spå;ts\m¥oi;" The type of rice known as mayin.
• kuiT∑n\;eA; eKÅ Abd¨" Abdul also known as Ko Tun Aye.
Kui;- (~V-) to V furtively, secretively, so as not to be caught; comm pre-
vb, mainly CB; from verb Kui;- to steal;
• Kui;Âkv\.- to steal a glance; Kui;eqak\- to drink in secret; Kui;k¨;- to make illegal
copies; Kui;Pt\- to read in secret, e.g. some forbidden book.
Kuik\ (V~) or AKuik\ (VA~) when, while V-ing; loc nn, FB; cf AKå' AsU\ = CB
V-entun\;' V-t´.AKå;
• ska; e®paKiuk\ or ska; e®paqv.\AKiuk\" While speaking.
• d^pvarp\et∑ ’ki;sa;el.laenKiuk\ hiuhiud^d^ q∑a;lv\liu≥ m®Ps\B¨;epå." I suppose it
is impossible to go visiting here and there when you are working hard on
these subjects.
• Tiuqiu≥ Âkv\.enKiuk\ teR∑>eR∑> tk\laeqa KRucy\ts\ekac\kiu q¨®mc\rf" As she
watched she saw a small snail climbing up slowly, inch by inch.
• eAac\eAac\ ‰˙iqv\.AKiuk\ qërak\laq®Pc\." As he arrived while Aung Aung
was there.
Kc\- 1 (V~-) V in time, forestall by V-ing; vb mod, CB+FB; not common;
• (teyak\)m¨¨ka; zc\;my\qui≥ wc\Kc\eleqaeÂkac\. mmiel" (One of the fugitives
was caught,) but the other managed to get to Chiengmai in time to evade
capture.
33
• ®mc\Kc\eplui≥ S∑´luik\Nuic\ty\" I was able to catch hold of him because I saw

him in time (i.e. before he fell).
• q¨tui≥ erak\Kc\lui≥ m^;melac\ta" Their timely arrival saved (the house) from
burning.
Kc\ 2 CB = FB m^ (m-V~) before V-ing, prior to V-ing; sub cls mkr; FB pron
and sts written m˙^;
• mÂkaKc\ CB = FB mÂkam^" Before long, soon.
• mÂkaKc\k CB = FB mÂkam^k" Not long ago, recently.
• miu;mK¥op\Kc\ (FB miu;mK¥op\m)^ ®pn\påres" I would like to, please let me, please may
I, go home before dark.
• rn\kun\ me®pac\;Kc\k(FB me®pac\;m^k) By\m˙a enql´" Where did you live
before you moved to Yangon?
• ss\m®Ps\Kc\ktv\;k T∑k\lata" He has been out (of Burma) since before
the war.
• Ta;k mta;S^;liuk\Niuc\m^m˙apc\ ®mwt\rv\ Aim\e‰˙>qiu≥ e®p;T∑k\q∑a;qv\" Before
Hta was able to stop her, MWY had rushed out in front of the house.
Kc\b¥a or Kc\b¥a; and Kc\b¥a. or Kc\b¥ (mostly Stc~) Sir, Madam, term of ad-
dress, used in addressing people or compelling their attention; appended
appellative, CB; used by male speakers, to other males or to women; more
courteous than b¥a; the short, creaky-tone form is more emphatic and per-
emptory; properly spelled Kc\b¥a;, as in the word used for “you”, but pro-
nounced /Kc\b¥a/ when used as an appended appellative and so often spell-
ed to match;
• Am¥a;Âk^; ek¥;z¨;tc\påty\Kc\b¥a" I am very grateful to you, Sir/Madam. Also
used alone with a rising intonation as a polite response meaning “I beg your
pardon, What did you say?”, or as an answer to hearing oneself called:
• em∑;V˙p\ By\m˙a Ta;K´.tuM;" _ Kc\b¥a? Bae®paty\?" Where did you leave the
tweezers? — Sorry? What did you say?
• Akuier" _ Kc\b¥a" Brother! — Yes?
Kuic\;- (V~-) to order, command sn to V; tell, ask sn to V; vb mod, CB+FB;
not voiced; negative form usually m-V~, sts V-m~;
• ss\tp\kiu K¥^tk\Kiuc\;ty\" He ordered the troops to advance.
• pc\ly\km\;e®Kedqm˙a lup\Aa;ep;Kuic\;t´.kisß" The matter of ordering people in
the coastal area to contribute voluntary labour.
• Aem.S^ Pun\;Sk\Kiuc\;liuk\my\" I’ll just ask him to give you (mother) a ring.
• Sraet∑kiu AmOik\ m‰˙c\;Kiuc\;B¨;" They don’t tell teachers to clear away
rubbish.
34
• BÂk^;emac\qv\ eA;®cim\;kiu A®pc\T∑k\j eZ;erac\;mKiuc\;" BGM didn’t make AN

go out and sell.
• mimif miBm¥a;kui eKÅj … lip\Rup\”k^;kui K∑´Âkv\.Kuic\;qv\" He fetched his parents
and asked them to split open the turtle statue.
Variant patterns: Kiuc\;- is also combined with verbs in the patterns A-V
Kiuc\;-' V-Pui≥ Kiuc\;-' Stc-lui≥ Kiuc\;-:
• k¥op\kui Alup\Kuic\;Pui≥ laeKÅtakla;" She came to fetch me to ask me to do
it.
• kuiT¨;Aa; prN~~wår∑k\ A‰˙aKuic\;elqv\" He told Ko Htoo to find parannawa
leaves.
• Pun\; Sk\Piu≥ Kiuc\;liuk\my\" I’ll tell him to phone.
• AT´T´ wc\sm\;lui≥ Kuic\;luik\ty\" She told them to go inside.
• qs\pc\epÅ tk\rmy\lui≥ Kuic\;K´.ty\" I told him he had to climb the tree.
Compare V-es- to cause, command, oblige sn to V; more common in older
texts than V-Kuic\;-:
• Tc\;eK¥ac\;m¥a;kui K¥oi;esf" = Tc\;eK¥ac\;m¥a;kui K¥oi;Kuic\;f" He told them to break
the sticks of firewood.
Kn\≥ (Nº+N~) about N, approximately N; nn mod, FB; = CB N-elak\; from
verb Kn\≥- to estimate;
• nar^wk\Kn\≥ ÂkaeqaAKå" After about half an hour.
• quM;N˙s\Kn\≥" Approximately three years.
• ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a;qv\ ek¥ac\;qiu≥ nMnk\ 7-narÂK¥in\Kn\≥kpc\ ’kitc\
erak\‰˙ienpåqv\" The pupils had arrived at the school earlier at about 7
a.m.
Kp\- (~VV) rather V, fairly, to some extent V, prefix to adverbs and
attributes formed from adjectival verbs, CB+FB;
• Kp\ekac\;ekac\; quite good; Kp\‘pM;‘pM; smiling a little; Kp\k¥y\k¥y\ fairly wide.
KM- 1 (A-V KM- and other patterns) (a) to undergo V-ing (deliberately), to
seek, request V-ing, etc; (b) commonly in pattern A-V KMr- to undergo
V-ing (involuntarily), to be V-ed, to suffer V-ing; CB+FB. The verb KM-
has a wide range of meanings. Its chief interest for Burmese grammar lies
in the pattern A-V KMr- which often corresponds to an English passive, and
contrasts with the same pattern without r-. For the difference between the
two compare:
(a) APm\; KM- to submit to arrest, turn oneself in, vs (b) APm\; KMr- to be
arrested, to suffer arrest;
(a) AeR∑; KM- to seek election, stand for election, vs (b) AeR∑; KMr- be elect-
ed.
35
(a) m¥k\luM; Awt\sv\; KM- to agree to be blindfolded, to submit to blind-

folding, vs (b) m¥k\luM; Awt\sv\; KMr- to be blindfolded (against one’s will).
The prefix A- may be omitted when the V has two syllables, or when it is
closely linked to a preceding N:
• q¨≥Al˙kiu (A)K¥^;m∑m\; KMluik\rty\ to be praised for her beauty; q¨mf
l∑t\lp\®Kc\;kiu Tipå; KMrqv\ to have her freedom infringed; k´.r´. KMrqv\ to
be mocked; l¨mun\; KMqv\ to incur odium (“hatred from people”); l¨®mc\
KMqv\ to allow oneself to be seen; AqiAm˙t\‘p KMrqv\ to be recognized;
SuK¥^;®mHc\. KMrqv\ to be awarded a prize.
KM- and KMr- may also be linked to a preceding V in other ways, including:
V-®Kc\; KM- as in:
• Sramf SiuSuM;m®Kc\;kiu mÂkaK% KMrqv\" She was frequently scolded by the
teacher.
• emac\rs\qv\ mc\;”k^;mhabNÎolB∑´>kiu K¥^;®mHc\.®Kc\; KMrqv\" Maung Yit was
awarded the title of Min-gyi Maha Bandula.
V-mO KM- as in: mmeA;f ®cøsësac\;e®mac\;mOkiu mKMliuj" Being anxious to avoid
MMA’s hurtful remarks.
V-d%\ KM- as in: pc\ly\®pc\qv\ enp¨‰˙in\fd%\kiu sc\;sc\;Âk^; KMenr‰˙aqv\"
The sea was spread out and exposed to the heat of the sun.
V-qv\ KM- as in: q¨≥Aemk tM®mk\sv\;Riu;®Pc\. N˙s\K¥k\mY Riuk\qv\kiu KMliuk\rel
f" She was whacked a couple of times by her mother with the broom
handle.
V-ta KM- as in: kiuy\.kiu AK¥oiqt\®p^; erac\;liuk\ta KMliuk\rtap´" I myself got
sold one after being talked into it.
Examples of meanings (a) and (b) are given below, followed under (c) by
examples of other meanings.
(a) A-V KM- to undergo V-ing (deliberately), to agree to, accept,
submit to, being V-ed, to incur V-ing; to seek V-ing, to request V-ing,
to ask to be V-ed;
• Ans\na KM- to undergo hardship voluntarily, make sacrifices; Amun\; KM- to
get oneself hated, incur odium; Asact\ KM- to fast, go on hunger strike;
Atiuc\pc\ KM- to be consulted, hence Atiuc\pc\KM adviser, consultant; Aes KM-
to accept orders, take orders, hence AesKM servant; Aeq KM- to submit to
death, hence AeqKMtp\ suicide troops, suicide squad; Ay¨ KM- to appeal
(against a verdict), seek the opinion of a higher court; hence Ay¨KM tra;RuM;
appeal court; Aqna; KM- to beg for favour (from person of high rank), ask
for mercy; hence Aqna;KMlWa petition; Ass\ KM- to testify (“undergo
examination”): Ass\AeS; KMrn\ RuM;eta\qiu≥ piu≥liuk\qv\ sent them to the court
36
to be interrogated, to give their statements, hence Ass\KMK¥k\ statement by

accused; AquM;(eta\) KM- to serve, supply services, esp. royal service; to
entertain, play a part on stage: AquM;eta\ KMTiuk\eqa Arv\AK¥c\;
qualifications for serving the king; AvM. KM- to submit, surrender:cå AvM.
mKMK¥c\qv\' cå qaK¥c\qv\" I will not be outdone, I wish to excel; ASa KM-
go hungry deliberately: q¨tiu≥ Tmc\;sa;®p^;eAac\ ASaKMesac\.enrj m¥k\
esac\;tK´K´ ®Ps\en®pn\elqv\" Having to wait without eating until they had
finished their meal made her scowl; contrast ASa KM- to be filling, under
(c) 4; Am¥oi;qm^;ts\U^;qv\ Dat\pMuARiuk\KMj enelqv\" A girl was getting her-
self photographed. AlØ KM- to accept or seek a donation, ask sn to make a
donation: AlØ KMÂkj ec∑ts\ra rqv\" They received 100 kyat in dona-
tions; also used of monks when asking lay persons to do something e.g.
lët∑ Aqk\qt\ msa;Piu≥' Ark\ meqak\Piu≥ Bun\;eta\”k^;k AlØ KMty\" The
reverend monk asked people not to eat meat and not to drink spirits;
hence AlØKM mendicant, beggar, recipient of offerings; AlØKMec∑ money
donated; As^rc\ KM- to report (“seek instructions”): eragå
k¥erak\®Ps\p∑a;qv\. AeÂkac\;Aram¥a;kiu Aer;piuc\TM As^rc\ KMrmv\" I must
report to the Deputy Commissioner the circumstances of the outbreak of
the disease; hence As^rc\KMsa a report; SraÂk^;f AmÄraqv\ q¨≥Aep;kiu
esac\.j lk\wå;®Pn\≥KMeqa AmÄraqa ®Ps\qv\" Sayagyi’s posture was the
posture of someone holding out his hand to receive a gift.
Cf similar meaning with other types of noun in place of A-V:
• duk KM- to take trouble, to put oneself out; rhn\; KM- to become a monk,
enter religious life; AK∑n\ KM- or etac\;KM- to collect taxes; emt†a rp\ or rp\KM-
to request politely, petition (sn to do sth.); S∑m\; KM- to ask for almsfood:
Bun\;”k^;et∑ S∑m\;KM T∑k\Âk®p^" The monks have set out on their alms round,
i.e. to receive offerings of food.kÁn\ KM- to be a slave, accept servitude:
bma®pv\ l∑t\lp\®p^' q¨≥kÁn\ mKMeta.B¨;" Burma is free, no longer enslaved to
others; Amin\≥ KM- to ask an official’s wishes, seek permission: dên≥ p∑Ámin\≥
q∑a;KMrmy\" Today you must go and seek/ obtain/ get permission to hold
the pwe (Note difference from (b): this example means “have to ask”, not
“involuntarily have to be asked”).
Compounds of the form A-V-KM are used as nouns or attributes:
• Apy\KM reject, outcast; ANOic\;KM the object that is compared to sth else;
AquM;(kMekÁ;)KM item for use, source of income.
(b) A-V KMr- to undergo V-ing (involuntarily), to be V-ed, to suffer V-
ing, often best translated by an English passive;
37
• Apy\ KMr- to be rejected; Alim\ KMr- to be cheated; Ak¥U\; KMr- to be

detained; AK¥op\KMrq¨ prisoner, detainee; Aqt\KMr- to be killed; AS¨p¨ KMr-
to be scolded, nagged; Aesa\ka; KMr- to be abused, sworn at; kc\mraAKui;
KMr- to have one’s camera stolen; rÁPm\; KMr- to be arrested by the police.
• AROik\kiu lk\q^;N˙c\. ATiu;KMrqliu eAac\.q∑a;qv\" He held his breath as if he
had been punched in the stomach.
• muik\K∑k\ S∑ý¨ KMluik\rty\" She had the microphone snatched away from her
hand.
• q^K¥c\;er;ep;Pui≥ km\;l˙m\;KMrt´.AKå" When he was invited to write a song.
• ln\dn\priqt\r´. Aa;ep;mOkui KMK´.rpåty\" She won the approval of the London
audiences.
• @anmØ;A®Ps\ raT¨; tui;®mHc\. KMrpåty\" She was promoted to Head of
Department.
Cf similar meaning in the pattern A-V-KMK¥c\- :
• Al˙v\.P¥a; mKMK¥c\lui≥" Because they didn’t want to be deceived.
• sael;m¥a; Aep;KMK¥c\ty\" She wanted to be sent love letters.
• mtra; lup\taqa mKMK¥c\ta" It was just that they didn’t want to be treated
unjustly.
(c) other meanings of KM-:
(1) to catch, intercept:
• er KM- to catch water (as it falls);
(2) to accept, receive, take:
• lk\eSac\ KM- to accept a present; lk\ KM- to accept, permit; Ev\. KM- to
entertain guests; Aem∑ KM- to receive an inheritance; hence Aem∑KM heir,
inheritor; (B∑´>)Amv\ KM- to assume title, call oneself: Sc\®Pø‰˙c\ KMeta\m¨qv\"
(The king) assumed (the title of) Lord of the White Elephant; KMes- to
bestow (“cause to receive”): ®mnn\;‰˙c\ KMeseta\m¨qv\" (The king) bestowed
(the title of) Lady of the Emerald Palace (on the queen); B∑´>qna;eta\®mt\
KMesra mpåqv\. q¨tiu≥" Those persons not included in the royal bestowal of
titles; hence Amv\KM so-called, in name only; saSiueyac\ Amv\KM'
melak\qv\. Ua%\m¥a;®Pc\." Setting himself up as a court poet without
enough wit (for the job);
(3) to endure, withstand, put up with:
• Ap¨d%\ KM- to be capable of withstanding heat; AÂkm\; KM- to be capable of
withstanding rough treatment; qv\; KM- to forgive, tolerate, put up with;
(4) to last, endure:
38
• Âka‰˙v\ KM- to be hard wearing, long lasting; ASa KM- to be filling,

substantial (of food);
(5) to leave sth, set it out, to undergo V-ing:
• Tmc\; AeA; KM- to put rice to cool; Apup\ KM_ to put (food) to ferment;
(6) to enjoy, relish (also KMsa;-):
• Arqa KM- to taste sth, take pleasure in, enjoy; zim\ KM- or sv\;sim\ KM- to take
pleasure, enjoy sth pleasurable; AnM≥ KM- to sniff at, take in the smell,
follow scent;
(7) to resist, oppose:
• kn\≥ln\≥ KM- to block the way; Aa KM- to talk back, be impertinent, resist;
Atuik\AKMpåt^ opposition party; rn\q¨f Ac\Aa;ka; Âk^;l∑n\;eqaeÂkac\. KMK¥Piu≥
enenqaqa e‰˙>m˙ T∑k\e®p;eqa ernn\;Burc\f tp\qa;m¥a;qv\ Aqk\RØm¥a;pc\
m˙a;l¥k\ ‰˙iÂkf" The enemy was so powerful that there was no question of
trying to resist: the fleeing troops of the Yenan King were barely able to
draw breath.
(8) to support, hold up, prop:
• eAak\k Aut\K´ KMTa;ty\" They propped it up, made a base for it, with
bricks; Aam KM- to undertake (to do sth), promise, stand security; hence
AamKM security, bail, AamKM eqt†a safe (deposit), AamKMsns\ insurance
system; wn\ KM- to admit as true; take responsibility for; Ae®K KM- to be
based upon, take as basis; hence Ae®KKM basis, foundation; Ae®KKM
qeBatra; basic ideology; Ae®KKM Uped constitution; Arc\; KM- to base
upon sth; Aerac\ KM- to have as background colour; cf At∑c\;KM inner or
under garment; eAak\KM support, under(coat); As^KM filter-tip cigarette;
edqKM ts\eyak\ a native, a local, locally based person;
(9) to hold, celebrate:
• p∑´ KM- to hold a festival; v^la KM- to give an audience, hold a levée (of king);
hence v^laKM royal levée, conference; biul\RO KM- to hold a parade; hence
biul\ROKM audience when military officers were admitted to see the king;
review, parade.
KM- 2 (V~) to receive; comm elem cpd vb, CB+FB; not voiced;
• ekak\KM- to collect, levy; etac\;KM- to request, ask for; eTak\KM- to support,
recommend; KuKM- to resist.
K¥- (V~-) V fiercely, violently, let rip V-ing; vb mod, mainly CB; not
voiced; negative form usually V-m~; from verb K¥- to throw down, drop;
• ts\en≥k¥eta. e®paK¥m˙ap´" One day I’ll really let them have it (tell them what I
think).
• edåp∑®p^; då;n´≥ Kut\K¥liuk\ty\" He lost his temper and struck out with a knife.
39
• Tuic\K¥luik\qv\" She sat down with a bump.

• ®bon\;Siu rn\kun\ Sc\;K¥q∑a;Âkty\" Suddenly they rushed down to Yangon.
• ewå≥Kn´´ An\K¥luik\elqv\" He vomited convulsively, going “waw”.
-K¥- is particularly common in the following combinations: m¥oiK¥- to swallow
down, t∑n\;K¥- to push down, Kun\K¥- to jump down, py\K¥- to reject.
eK¥- (V~-) a suffix with meaning and function that remain ill defined. It is
used (a) in CB with requests and in this context appears to soften the force
of the order, making it sound less peremptory; (b) in FB with negated verbs,
again suggesting a softening of the force of a blunt denial; and (c) mainly in
FB, occasionally in CB, where its effect seems to be euphonic, perhaps used
to convey intonation of speaker or attitude of writer. Vb mod; cf V-el' V-
ep; (a) in requests (CB):
• Tmc\; sa;eK¥ Akiu" Have your meal now, my brother.
• Aip\eK¥eta." Go to bed now.
• em;eneK¥luik\" Question him then.
• erK¥oi;eK¥eta≥på ‰˙c\" Have a wash now.
• S∑m\;tra;naAt∑k\ Sraeta\Aa; pc\.eK¥ Siuliu≥" Because he’d been told to
invite the Sayadaw for almsfood and a sermon.
• By\liulup\rmy\ Siutakiu … req.pva‰˙i”k^;S^ q∑a;“p^; em;elYak\eK¥hu Siu“p^;
lWt\liuk\elqv\" Sent him to the wise man with instructions to ask what
they should do.
• psßv\;et∑ k¨qy\eK¥på mel;r´." Come and help carrying the luggage, will
you?
(b) with negated verbs (FB):
• q¨≥zn^;keta. ÈAt∑k\ wm\;mnv\;eK¥" However, his wife was not saddened by
this.
• Sc\;r´l∑n\;j eS;Piu;wå;Kpc\ mtt\Niuc\ÂkeK¥" Being extremely poor, they were
unable to afford even the cost of medicine.
• ÈetaAup\At∑c\;qiu≥ By\l¨qa;mY mlawM.eK¥" No-one dared enter the grove.
• Èmin\;mm¥a; An^;Apå;m˙a cåenliu≥ meta\eK¥tka;" It would be improper for me
to remain near these women.
• tky\eta. rk˚n\; myk\tt\påeK¥" In fact she didn’t know how to weave.
• mmqn\;Aiqv\lv\; … sitr\ c\; ®Pøsc\l˙qv\ mSuiqapåeK¥" You couldn’t say
that Ma Ma TI was entirely guileless.
• rrsa;sa;N˙c\.pc\ l¨luM;l˙eAac\mY Sc\®mn\;Nuic\eAac\ ec∑pui m‰˙iK´.P¨;eK¥" I had never
had any spare cash even to make myself look presentable.
(c) euphonic (FB, sts CB):
40
• lup\nv\;et∑k suMtka.suM suMl∑n\;ÂkeK¥qv\" The range of different methods (of

assuring success in Tenth Standard exam) is vast.
• l¨≥eBac\qui≥ e®pac\;wc\rekac\;lim\.Nui;N˙c\.lv\; tit\tit\Kui; ”kMmieK¥eq;qv\" He
wondered secretly whether he should return to the lay life.
• cplÂl˙qv\ q¨tiu≥At∑k\ Riu;enhn\ ‰˙iqv\" N˙s\sU\ wt†ra;mp¥k\ laenk¥ enra
ts\Kukiu erak\larqv\qiu≥qa ‰˙ieK¥f" They seemed to be tired of the beau-
ties of Ngapali. It was as if they had been coming dutifully to the same
place every year.
• qv\tdgçqv\ kÁn\eta\. Bwts\elYak\ rc\Siuc\tiuk\p´∑ wc\rmv\. pTmSMu;
AK¥in\kel; ®Ps\eK¥qv\tka;" This moment was the first in my whole life
when I had to join battle.
• emac\emak\Km¥a AKk\ÂkoMreK¥“p^" Maung Mauk was in sorry straits.
• my\eT∑; erak\q∑a;K¥in\m˙a ABui;AuiN˙c\. AB∑a;Auitui≥ yaT´qui≥ q∑a;ÂkeK¥“p^" At the
time that Meh Htway arrived, the old man and the old woman had gone
out to the fields.
• saem;p´∑ ®p^;q∑a;eK¥®p^" The exams were over.
• luMK¥v\ léK¥AuM;my\" I’ll just change my longyi.
• tn\eSac\mun\;l®pv\.m˙a ss\kiuc\;etac\Riu;q∑a;“p^; miu;k¥kTin\ Kc\;eK¥reAac\" Let’s
celebrate a kathina offering.
• meta\tS SuM;q∑a;eK¥k" If one should die by accident.
(d) in form K¥im,\. from eK¥+AM., only used in verse and very formal prose:
• kb¥aqs\AK¥oi>qv\ Am¥a;AqiAm˙t\m®poeqa AT^;k¥n\kb¥aqs\ ®Ps\K¥im\." Some
“new verse” (if not properly composed) will be isolated and remain unac-
cepted.
• ‰˙v\Âkaeqa\ KMNuic\K¥im\.mv\ mhut\" We would not be able to withstand (his
forces) for long.
eK¥k see under k if
AK¥oi> FB = CB tK¥oi> sts written ts\K¥oi> (~ or N~ or ~N or variants) some,
some Ns, certain Ns; selective noun, CB+FB; for variant patterns see (d)
below; (a) used singly:
• tK¥oi> lup\Aa; mep;Nuic\rc\ ec∑ep;rty\" Some, if they couldn’t contribute
labour, had to pay money.
• saAup\et∑T´k ts\K¥oi>kiu ®pn\Riuk\ÂkpåË;lui≥ tiuk\t∑n\;rc\;" Some of these books
they urged me to reprint.
• tK¥oi> Siuc\tMKå;P∑c\.RuMp´ P∑c\.®p^; Siuc\mKc\;B´ Tiuc\enÂkpåty\" Some merely open
their stall shutters and sit there but don’t lay out their wares.
(b) used with a noun:
41
• tK¥oi>ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a;At∑k\eta.' ASc\e®pK¥c\ e®ppålim\.my\" It may be all right

for some students.
• wn\Tm\;tK¥oi>kui Alup\m˙ Tut\K´.påty\t´." People say they dismissed some of
the employees.
• Ba;AM“moi>epÅk Ara‰˙iAK¥oi>n´≥ wåqnapåt´. l¨ts\suk" Some of the officials from
Pa-an and a group of interested persons.
(c) used in pairs some … others …:
• ts\K¥oi>Asiu;ret∑k piu“p^;eta. eta\ty\" ts\K¥oi>Asiu;ret∑k qip\®p^;eta. meta\B¨;"
Some governments were more able. Others were not so able.
• tK¥oi>kÁ´k qn^wiuk\r∑am˙a m¨;enty\" tK¥oi>kÁ´kiueta. … liuk\‰˙a“p^; eKÅK´.rtan´≥
AKum˙ ®pn\erak\påty\" Some of the buffaloes were drunk in Thani-waik
village, and others I had to search for, and that’s why I didn’t get back till
now.
• AK¥oi>k vaBk\ m¥k\sikn\;' AK¥oi>k By\Bk\kn\;" AK¥oi>k eÂkac\etac\ kn\;"
Some were blind in the right eye, some in the left eye, some were blind
without showing it, ….
(d) variant forms (FB): AK¥oi>eqa-N, AK¥oi>AK¥oi>eqa-N, AK¥oi>Awk\eqa-N:
• AK¥oi>eqa AÂk^;Ak´tiu≥qv\" Certain rulers, chiefs.
• AK¥oi>AK¥oi>eqa Agçlip\satt\ ®mn\maAK¥oi>k … {U^;' emac\' kiu}Asa;
Agçlip\Sn\Sn\ {msßta}kiu e‰˙>k tp\j quM;ÂkeqaAKå" When some
Burmans who knew English adopted the English prefix Mr in place of (the
Burmese prefixes) U, Ko and Maung.
• AK¥oi≥Awk\eqa Ak¥oi;KMsa;K∑c\." Partial benefit.
K¥k\ (V~) (a) forms a noun from a verb with complements; less common
than (b); cf V-mO' V-®Kc\;' V-er;' V-qv\' V-ta; sp hd nn, CB+FB; from noun
AK¥k\ “stroke, blow, shot, point”;
• ny¨;s\wiK\mg©zc\;m˙ nit^N˙c\.pt\qk\j er;qa;Ta;K¥k\kui Aeq;sit\ ®pn\SuiTa;®Kc\;pc\
®Ps\påqv\" It is a faithful translation of what was written in Newsweek
Magazine about Nitee.
• kÁn\;cy\m¥a;epÅt∑c\ qeBçaSip\ tv\eSak\rn\ rv\r∑y\K¥k\®Pc\." With the
intention of constructing a port on the small islands.
• k¥mtiu≥ duk erak\K¥k\keta. ®pn\etac\ me®paK¥c\elak\eAac\påp´" As for the
disaster that happened to us, I almost don’t want to even mention it
again.
• KuTk\Ti q¨tiu≥ e®paenK¥k\kiu eTak\eta." Going by the way they speak (to
each other) even now.
(b) forms abstract nouns from verbs, usually disyllabic verbs, especially
nouns referring to intellectual activity; the more common use;
42
• Aa;nv\;K¥k\ weakness; AÂkMep;K¥k\ advice; ewPn\K¥k\ criticism, review (of

book, film); KMsa;K¥k\ feeling, emotional response; pui≥K¥K¥k\ teaching course,
course book; qeBat¨v^K¥k\ agreement, accord; rv\R∑y\K¥k\ aim, intention;
‰˙c\;lc\;K¥k\ explanation, clarification; sm\;qp\K¥k\ experiment; SuM;®Pt\K¥k\
decision; s∑p\s∑´K¥k\ accusation, charge; Tc\®mc\K¥k\ opinion; T¨;®Ka;K¥k\
unusual feature, difference; U^;tv\K¥k\ objective; ®K∑c\;K¥n\K¥k\ exception,
omission, reservation; eta\l˙n\er;Asiu;r ®p™an\;K¥k\Ar according to the
resolution of the Revolutionary Government; sk\RuMm˙ tawn\KMl¨Âk^;m¥a;f
s^sU\ep;K¥k\Atiuc\; in accordance with arrangements made for us by the
senior factory officials.
(c) in pattern V-K¥k\(qa;) ekac\;- to V surprisingly, unexpectedly:
• tit\K¥k\ ekac\;l˙K¥v\la;" You have been silent for a long time, haven’t
you? (why haven’t you written for so long?)
• dêkac\ ep¥ak\K¥k\ ekac\;l˙K¥v\la;" This fellow’s been missing for ages —
where’s he been hiding?
• sc\epÅk dMu;qma;et∑k “cim\K¥k\qa; ekac\;tun\;' mlOp\B¨;" The don-men on the
stage remained still: they didn’t move.
• qs\r∑k\kel; ts\r∑k\mY mlOp\‰˙a;qaeAac\ elklv\; “cim\K¥k\qa;
ekac\;l∑n\;l˙qv\" The wind was so still that not a leaf moved.
Also used as an element in compound nouns (N~):
• l˙MK¥k\ spear wound; lk\K¥k\ handiwork, action; d%\K¥k\ injury.
K¥c\- (V~-) (a) want to V, feel like V-ing; vb mod, more common in CB than
FB which prefers V-liu-;
• lët∑ m¥a;laliu≥ mk¨;K¥c\påB¨;" I don’t want to swim: it’s too crowded now.
• t^b∑^ Âkv\.K¥c\rc\ Âkv.\' mÂkv\.K¥c\rc\ en" Watch TV if you want to. If you
don’t (want to), don’t.
• ts\en≥luM; pc\pn\;Ta;eta. Aim\®pn\erak\tan´≥ mlOp\K¥c\eta.B¨;" After working
hard all day I don’t feel like lifting a finger when I get back home.
• ®pn\e®paK¥c\sit\ epåk\laeqa\lv\; på;sp\k AK¥in\m˙^ pit\Ta;liuk\qv\" Although
he felt like answering back he kept his mouth shut just in time.
• sk\B^;epåk\PaK cå;k¥p\m˙ 10 k¥p\ y¨K¥c\qlui y¨" For repairing a puncture
they charge whatever they feel like charging, anything from K5 to K10.
(b) be inclined to V, likely to V;
• miu; R∑aK¥c\®p^ Tc\ty\" I think it’s likely to rain.
• P¥a;K¥c\qliuliu ®Ps\enty\" I feel feverish, as if I’m going to be ill.
• qn\;qn\;emk Kp\tiu;tiu; e®paqv\" ®meA;Âkv\ mqkçaK¥c\" TTM spoke rather
quietly. MAK felt suspicious (of her motives for leaving the office).
43
• eS∑ry\m¥oi;ry\ m‰˙im˙®Pc\. l¨¨tuic\;k ATc\eq;K¥c\ty\" Everyone is apt to look

down on you if you have no relatives.
(c) in pattern V-K¥c\rc\ V- may V, may well V, probably will V; also
variants V-K¥c\rc\lv\; V-, V-K¥c\lv\; V-, V-K¥c\ V-;
• q¨tiu≥ Arc\ erak\K¥c\rc\ erak\my\" They may arrive before me.
• d^liusaAup\m¥oi; ss\m®Ps\Kc\k T∑k\K¥c\lv\; T∑k\ty\" It could be that this kind
of book came out before the war.
• TiuAK¥in\m˙a kÁn\eta\qv\ Arp\edq ts\KuKut∑c\ tawn\k¥K¥c\ k¥enlim\.mv\" By
that time I might well have a job in some other place.
(d) in pattern V-K¥c\m˙ V- and variant V-m˙ V- is unlikely to, may not V,
probably won’t V;
• d^N˙s\l´ e®P®Ps\K¥c\m˙ e®P®Ps\påeta.my\el' enak\N˙s\m˙p´ e®Prlim\.my\ Tc\pår´>" I
doubt if I’ll manage to take the exam this year. I’ll probably have to put it
off till next year.
• dåepmy\. q¨m¥a;wy\ty\ Siutal´ hut\K¥c\m˙ hut\m˙apå" But this story that
someone else bought them may not be true.
• qeBaekac\;tiuc\;l´ Ak¥c\.sarit†k ekac\;K¥c\m˙ ekac\;tael" Not everyone
who is kind is likely to be virtuous.
• q¨¨‰˙im˙ ‰˙imy\" dåepm´´. q∑a;Âkv\.ÂkreAac\" I doubt if he’s there; but let’s go and
have a look.
(e) in pattern V-K¥c\ ‘p- pretend, make pretence of V-ing;
• sit\Sui;K¥c\ ‘pj pretending to be angry; pn\;qs\kui l´K¥c\ ‘p®p^^;lYc\ pretending
to change the flowers (in the vase); erK¥oi;K¥c\ ‘pj pretending to be taking a
shower.
(f) in pattern V-K¥c\qp Suirc\ if sn really wants to V;
• qip\®p^; SiuK¥c\t^;K¥c\qp Siurc\l´ ®mn\ma.AqMwiuc\;et∑m˙a Sk\Siuepå." If you really
want to sing and make music, carry on singing with the Myanma Athan
(radio station) groups.
• Ap¥c\;e®p lup\K¥c\qp Siulv\; lup\Âkv\.epå.k∑a" If you are really keen to do it to
keep yourself amused, then have a go by all means.
(g) in pattern V-K¥c\K¥c\ inclined to V, having some desire to V;
• tK¥oi>klv\; qeBak¥K¥c\K¥c\miu≥ sit\pålk\på wc\lup\liuk\f" And some, being
inclined to like it, take to the job with enthusiasm.
• eA;®cim\;k Kp\‘pM;‘pM; lup\enqv\kiuqa Âkv\.®p^; Anv\;cy\ ry\K¥c\K¥c\
®Ps\q∑a;qv\" Watching AN putting on a slight smile she felt a bit like
laughing.
• sit\k lët∑Aa;lMu;kiu mun\;K¥c\K¥c\ ®Ps\j laelf" She began to feel the
stirrings of hatred for all mankind.
44
• rc\T´m˙ak memaepmy\. emaK¥c\K¥c\" She was not really upset, but on the brink.
(h) in pattern m-V-K¥c\ASuM; more than one wants: see under ASuM;"
(i) in pattern V-K¥c\eyac\ eSac\- to pretend to V: see under eyac\
appearance
K¥c\; 1 (N~ sts NN~) (a) N to N, one N with another; as complement to
verbs of reciprocal relationship such as associate, marry, confront, ex-
change, adjoin, etc; nn mkr, CB+FB; cf AK¥c\;K¥c\; mutually, reciprocally;
• lk\nk\K¥c\; y˙U\liuk\®pn\lYc\lv\;" When they came to compare their
weapons.
• tp\K¥c\; Siuc\Ta;®p^; mtiuk\B´ enrta" With their forces ranged against each
other but not fighting.
• ss\Ak¥U\;qma;K¥c\; l´Piu≥" To exchange prisoners of war.
• Aim\K¥c\; kp\enK´.Âkqv\" Their houses were adjacent.
• piuk\SM A‘pic\ASiuc\ ‰˙arq¨K¥c\; mqc\.®mt\qv\m˙a ASn\;mhut\" It is no surprise
that people in economic competition with each other should disagree.
• min\;mK¥c\; Tuic\ty\" To sit woman to woman, beside another woman.
• bmaK¥c\; (or bmabmaK¥c\;) e®paqv\" Burmans speak to Burmans, one
Burman speaking to another.
• kuiy\K¥c\; saqv\" To sympathise, compare oneself with another, imagine
oneself in their position.
• emac\N˙mArc\;K¥c\;etac\m˙ lk\Sk\el. ‰˙iÂkpåty\" They even used to marry
off brother with sister.
• l¨l¨K¥c\; ‰˙iKui;NOt\Sk\enta" People greeting one another with a wai.
(b) in respect of N, as regards N; with verbs meaning to resemble, to dif-
fer, etc;
• qim\qim\cy\cy\n´≥ Bw sK´.rtaK¥c\; tëpm´." Although they were similar in
respect of having started from humble origins.
• Aqk\K¥c\; mk∑a" Not differing in age.
• Aa;K¥c\; mmYliu≥ Sut\ep;rty\" They had to retreat because they were
overpowered, not similar in respect of power.
• qeBaK¥c\; mtiuk\Siuc\liu≥" Because they had differing ideas.
• eqrm˙aK¥c\; At¨t¨ Aazanv\liu eqrtaTk\ ekac\;t.´ Aeqm¥oi;ha elakm˙a
m‰˙ipåB¨;" Death is death in any form, but there is no better death in the
world than the death of a hero.
• k∑n\®møns\Niuc\cMK¥c\; t¨t¨p´" Kuenak\piuc\; d^miukers^Niuc\cMK¥c\; t¨t¨p´" They used to be
alike in being communist countries, and now they are alike in being
democratic countries.
(c) (Nº-N~) by the N, one by one, N by N;
45
• ts\eyak\K¥c\; tiuk\p´∑" Single combat.

• q^K¥c\; ts\pud\K¥c\; q∑c\;qv\" They record one song at a time.
• ts\sv\;lMu; y¨rc\ qMu;k¥p\K´∑p´ ep;' ts\p∑c\.K¥c\; er∑;y¨rc\eta. ®pa;el;Sy\
melYa.B¨;" If you take the whole bunch you can have it for three and a half
kyats; but if you pick out the blooms one by one I can’t go below 40 pyas
each.
• m¥k\rv\ tsk\K¥c\; (or tsk\tsk\K¥c\;) k¥qv\" Her tears fell drop by drop.
• tSc\.K¥c\; tSc\.K¥c\;' kuiy\liuK¥c\t´. pn\;tuic\Aerak\ q∑a;t´. enram˙a" Proceeding
step by step towards one’s goal.
• Sy\K¥c\;raK¥c\;elak\qa q∑a;Niuc\eqa eta’kietac\Âka; eK¥ak\kmıa;m¥a;" Steep
jungle routes where they could only go by ten (men) at a time or a
hundred at a time.
• AKn\; ts\Kn\;K¥c\;kui miqa;su ts\sus^k puic\Suic\qv\" Each apartment is owned
by one family.
(d) also found as a component in certain compound nouns, e.g.
• K¥k\K¥c\; instantly, on the spot; en≥K¥c\; within the day, before night;
en≥K¥c\;vK¥c\; in 24 hours, overnight; eq∑;K¥c\;qa;K¥c\; kith and kin;
m¥k\N˙aK¥c\;Suic\ opposite; Aim\na;n^;K¥c\; neighbour; em∑;K¥c\; siblings; q¨cy\K¥c\;
friend, esp friend from childhood; ®pv\eTac\Bk\K¥c\; mc\;Am¥a;kiu Pit\Âka;f
(the king) invited many kings of neighbouring states, fellow kings.
K¥c\; 2 (CB VV~, FB V-lYc\-V~) as soon as, immediately upon V-ing; sub
cls mkr; second verb in CB is not voiced, reflecting the fact that in FB the
verbs are separated;
• Tmc\; sa;®p^;®p^;K¥c\; q¨tiu≥ Aim\T´k T∑k\q∑a;ty\" As soon as they had
finished eating they left the house.
• AeÂka\qv\ eAa\qM Âka;Âka;K¥c\; q¨ e®p;T∑k\ty\" He runs out as soon as he
hears the cry of the fried-food seller.
• Siu‰˙y\ls\eKt\ erak\lYc\erak\K¥c\;" As soon as we reach the era of socialism.
• ÈAlup\ lup\®p^;lYc\®p^;K¥c\; @anmØ;kiu AeÂkac\;Âka;på" Immediately you finish
this work inform the head of department.
• Am˙t\ ekac\;q®Pc\. IA t∑c\ N˙s\N˙s\ menrp´ ts\N˙s\qa enrpåqv\" s,en,enK¥c\;
IA ATk\tn\; tk\K∑c\. rf" As my marks were good, I only had to spend
one year instead of two in the Intermediate Arts year. As soon as I began
to attend the course I was allowed to join the upper I.Arts year. Note the
use of commas to differentiate this pattern from an ordinary verb modifier as
in rn\kun\m˙a enenta quM;N˙s\ ‰˙i®p^" I have been living in Yangon for three
years.
K¥c\; 3 see under mK¥c\; for as long as not
46
eK¥ac\; (Nº~) and AeK¥ac\; (~Nº) item, comm nmtv for long, pointed items,
such as sticks, pencils, legs, toes, fingers, teeth, needles, knives, etc;
CB+FB;
• AMq∑a;ts\eK¥ac\; a molar tooth; tuic\AeK¥ac\; 20 20 posts.
K¥v\ 1 also K¥^ (V1~ V2~) doing now V1, now V2, alternating between V1
and V2; sub cls mkr, CB+FB; pron /K¥^/; used with pairs of verbs of opposed
meaning, sometimes with short complements; frequently before the verb
lup\- but also with other verbs; cf tuM…tuM' luik\…luik\' la;…la;' hy\…
hy\;
• wc\K¥v\ T∑k\K¥v\ lup\enty\" They were coming in and out.
• m^^;enKn\;N˙c\. Ev\.Kn\; k¨¨;K¥^^qn\;K¥^^ lup\enqv\" He was pacing to and fro between
the sitting room and the childbirth room.
• vHiK¥v\P∑aK¥v\ lup\liuk\rta enak\SMu;eta. m^;k ts\Kåtv\; eqeqK¥aK¥a
Siuk\Siuk\“moik\“moik\”k^; s∑´påera" After he had lit and blown, lit and blown,
finally the fire caught and burned strongly.
• på;sp\kui Âkk\Pc\k´qui≥ ROM>K¥^p∑K¥^ lup\ka" Pursing her lips and drawing them in
again, like a chicken’s backside.
• lk\kiu e®mHak\K¥v\ K¥K¥v\ kl¥k\" Dancing with his arms now raised now
dropped.
• eK¥ac\;km\;på;ts\elYak\t∑c\ eSak\tv\ramrB´ sun\K¥v\ Sn\K¥v\ enrqv\" Had
to wander without rest up and down the river bank.
• ciuK¥v\ts\Kå RiOk\K¥v\ts\l˙v\.N˙c\. Ap¨¨m^;p∑a;ka" Weeping and sobbing in grief.
K¥v\- see under -l˙K¥v\r´. etc exclamatory
K¥v\. see under K¥v\; entirely, nothing but
K¥v\; and K¥v\. (Phr~) entirely Phr, nothing but, only, all Phr; stc med and
stc fin phr ptcl, CB+FB; pron /K¥^;' K¥i/; cf qa;
• Biuc\AiukiuK¥v\; Pik¥k\ta" He studies nothing but biology.
• enp¨¨T´K¥v\; elYak\rt´´.At∑k\" As they’d been the sun all the time they were
walking.
• ka;epÅt∑c\ eyak¥\a;el;m¥a;K¥v\;qa på®p^;" The people in the car were all
boys.
• kiuc\t∑y\qMu;s´∑qv\. psßv\;m¥a;klv\; Aekac\;sa;et∑K¥v\;" The things they used
were all high quality.
• Rup\‰˙c\mc\;qm^;Siu Ap¥ioK¥v\;p´la;liu≥" I wondered if film stars were all unmar-
ried.
• nc\.As\kiu lup\liuk\rc\ d^liuK¥v\;p´" Whenever your brother does anything it
always turns out like this (i.e. disastrously).
47
• nc\tiu≥Aa;lMu; At¨t¨K¥v\;p´" You lot are all the same.

With exposed verbs:
• cuiK¥v\; entap´" Crying all the time, doing nothing but cry.
• et∑;K¥v\; et∑;enta" Spends all his time brooding.
• By\ lup\reta.ml´" q¨tui≥Alup\kuiK¥v\; lup\enÂkrtakui;" They have to devote
all their effort to doing their own work.
Variant form in creaky tone K¥v\."
• By\liulk\ew˙≥p∑´mSiu pTmAlMkiu “poic\Bk\m‰˙it´. q¨kK¥v\. wc\y¨q∑a;tap´"
Whatever the competition he remains unvanquished and always gets the
first award.
• By\liupc\ ”koi;sa;“p^; tk\epmy\. ert∑c\;k eK¥aAa;”k^;eta. k∑aliu≥K¥v\. k¥ty\"
However hard he tried to climb up, the well was so slippery that he kept
losing his grip and falling back.
• SramOic\;Âk^;kiu liuK¥c\ty\K¥v\. tenÂkty\ Srar´." They long for you, saying
all the time “We want Saya Hmaing”.
• lup\liuk\qmY sMy¨sraK¥v\.påp´" Everything he did was admirable.
• qMu;eyak\slMu; tesÍ Ac\mtn\ eÂkak\t´. l¨K¥v\.p´t´." All three of them are
scared to death of ghosts, he said.
• mc\;tiu≥eS;k ekac\;taK¥v\.p´påkla;" Hey! Your medicine is all excellent!
K¥in\ (N~, V~), AK¥in\ (N~, VA~) time of N, time of V-ing, the time when,
when V-ing; loc nn, CB+FB;
• By\AK¥in\ T∑k\ml´ CB = FB mv\qv\.AK¥in\ T∑k\mv\nv\;" When will it leave?
• By\AK¥in\k AqiAkÁm\; ®Ps\q∑a;ql´ mqiB¨;" I don’t know when they first got
to know each other.
• dÂK¥in\m˙a ml∑y\påB¨;" It’s not easy at this time.
• q”kçn\AK¥in\m˙a qip\ ep¥a\sra ekac\;påty\" At Thin-gyan time it is great fun.
• RuM;K¥in\m˙a mlup\Niuc\B¨;" I can’t do it in office hours.
• Tmc\; sa;K¥in\ k¥®p^" It is time to eat, meal-time.
• Sraeta\ namv\ eR∑;ep;t´. AK¥in\m˙a" When the Sayadaw chose the name.
• ek¥ac\;qa;et∑ saem;p´∑ e®Pent´.AK¥in\miu≥ lët∑ qip\ msv\påB¨;" It wasn’t very
crowded as it was school exam time.
K¥im\. fusion of suffix eK¥ “euphonic” with AM. “future statement” see under eK¥
euphonic
®Ka; (Nº+N~) every N, at intervals of N; CB+FB; truncated sub cls, from
®Ka;j' ®Ka;®p^; setting an interval between;
• N˙s\rk\®Ka; latt\ty\" He usually comes every third day.
• el;N˙s\®Ka; k¥c\;pty\" They hold (the festival) every fifth year.
48
• ts\rk\®Ka; ts\Kås^ lup\rqv\\" I have to do each (different activity) every

other day.
• ®KMpiuc\‰˙c\m¥a;qv\ ts\pt\®Ka; Siuqliu erak\latt\f" The owners of the land
came along at about weekly intervals.
• q¨riyaqtc\;sam˙a TuiAKåk rk\®Ka;qtc\;samYqa ®Ps\elqv\" At that time
Thuriya newspaper was only published every other day.
Also in the set phrase ts\en≥t®Ka; more and more every day, increas-
ing by the day;
• rtnapMu“moi>eta\”k^;m˙a ts\en≥t®Ka; rhn\;eta\' qMGaeta\ nv\;på;®Kc\;
®Ps\relqv\" The numbers of monks in Yadanabon diminished day by
day.
• q¨¨≥lk\et∑k ts\en≥ts\®Ka; qn\qn\la“p^t´." His hands were stronger and
stronger every day, he said.
• From the use of ®Ka;- as a verb, as in ®mt\®mt\eA;N˙c\. ®mt\®mt\eT∑;kiu
cå;mins\qa ®Ka;®p^; em∑;K´.qv\" MME and MMT were born within five minutes
of each other.
A®Ka; FB = CB t®Ka; sts ts\®Ka; (~ or ~N), also A®Ka;eqa-N FB = CB t®Ka;
eqa-N different N, other N; cf d^®pc\-N CB = FB qv\.®pc\-N; selective
noun; from verb ®Ka;- to be separate from, to be removed from;
(a) ~N other N;
• bmaska;A®pc\ t®Ka;ska; tt\eq;qla;" Do you speak another language
beside Burmese?
• ekac\;kc\mpåeqa vN˙c\. A®Ka;wtÊotuim¥a;" Night without sky, and other short
stories.
• kÁn\mklv\; q¨≥kiu t®Ka;haet∑m˙a liuk\el¥aNiuc\epmy\. d^purs\sa;ta k¥eta.
mel¥a.Niuc\B¨;" Though I was able to accommodate him in many other
matters, in the matter of eating crickets I just couldn’t.
• dåtc\mk t®Ka;qaDket∑ eta\eta\m¥a;m¥a; ‰˙ipåeq;ty\" And that’s not all:
there are quite a few other instances as well.
• A®Ka;ts\eyak\k em;qv\t´." Someone else asked her, she said.
(b) without a following noun other place, item, person, etc according
to context;
• A´dêta. Alup\l´ Tut\luik\ty\" t®Ka;ken Alup\l´ mep;rB¨;Suit´.
vWn\Âka;K¥k\l´ Tut\luik\ty\" So they drove people out of work; and they
issued a orders that they should not be given work elsewhere.
• q¨f eS;RMum˙ts\på; A®Ka;kiu mq∑a;" Apart from his hospital, he went no-
where else.
49
• ePePklv\; q¨≥Alup\m˙l´∑lYc\ A®Ka; BakiumY p¨p¨pc\pc\ Ta;tt\q¨ mhut\ep"

Father was a man who entertained no other worries apart from those from
his work.
• Sy\tn\;Âk^;etac\ erak\enm˙ t®Ka;m˙a Alup\ m‰˙aB¨;la;hy\" Now you’ve got
Tenth Standard aren’t you going to look for work elsewhere?
• t®Ka; BakiumY sit\mwc\sa;Niuc\" She was unable to take interest in anything
else.
(c) in pattern A®Ka;mhut\ and similar none other than, the following;
• Tiulk\RMu;rv\N˙lMu;rv\tiu≥T´t∑c\ ts\KuApåAwc\m˙a A®Ka;mhut\" tawn\ek¥p∑n\®Kc\;pc\
®Ps\elqv\" One of these qualities of mind and body is this: a sense of
responsibility.
• TiuA®Kc\;Araka; A®Ka;mhut\ Agçlip\lk\qiu≥ A‰˙c\n˙s\på; liuk\påq∑a;r®Kc\;
®Ps\qv\" That event is none other than the capture of the two royal
persons by the English.
• t®Ka;eta. mhut\påB¨;k∑a' cå.kiu ts\r∑alMu;k eqak\®mc\kp\Âkliu≥ A´d^
Uk˚™enraet∑m˙a tc\liuk\Âktap´" All it is is this: that the whole village can’t
bear the sight of me so they’ve appointed me as chairman.
• kÁn\eta\qv\ … ts\q^ts\tn\; elYak\sU\;sa;miqv\m˙a t®Ka;eÂkac\.mhut\"
sU\;sa;et∑;etami®Kc\;kiu wåqnaeÂkac\.lv\; påqv\" The reason for my long
drawn out deliberation is this: that I enjoy thinking.
(d) in pattern N1-t®Ka; N2-t®Ka; N1 is in one place and N2 is some-
where else, N1 and N2 are not in harmony;
• sit\k t®Ka; l¨k t®Ka;" He was in one place and his mind in another: he
did not have his mind on the problem.
• l˙m\;y¨¨®pn\eta.lv\; lk\k t®Ka; erK´´®Ks\k t®Ka;" And when he made to
pick it up, his hand was not where the ice grater was.
(e) in the compound t®Ka;s^ different, not matching, unrelated;
• liuc\sc\Dat\pMuT´k Rup\n´≥ AKuRup\n´≥ ts\®Ka;s^" The photograph in the licence and
they way he looks now are completely different.
• lk\kiuc\Ait\' T^;' Pinp\kAs sim\;N˙c\. t®Ka;s^ ®Ps\jenelqv\" Her handbag,
umbrella, sandals, everything were quite different from Sein’s.
• lMu;w mm˙t\miB¨;el' mm˙t\miSiu Arc\Rup\n´≥ t®Ka;s^kiu;" I don’t remember her at
all. She doesn’t look any–thing like the way she used to.
A®Ka;tpå; see under ts\på; other
®Kc\; 1 (V~) act of V-ing, V-ing; used primarily in FB to form nouns from
verbs; frequent in Pali-influenced style; in CB used mostly in fixed forms
and expressions derived from more formal contexts; the usual form for
50
listing topics or chapter headings in books; sp hd nn; cf V-mO' V-K¥k\' V-er;'

V-qv\' V-ta;
• Kr^;q∑a;®Kc\; travelling; K¥s\Kc\®Kc\; being affectionate, affection; yU\ek¥;®Kc\;
behaving politely, civilised behaviour (cf yU\ek¥;mO culture, civilisation);
razqM erak\®Kc\; the arrival of a royal envoy.
• emac\rs\qv\ Ae®p;‘pic\®Kc\;' ®mc\;s^;‘pic\®Kc\;' lk\ew˙≥Tiu;®Kc\;tiu≥kiu wåqna påqv\"
Maung Yit was keen on running races, horse racing and boxing.
• emac\;eTac\;®Kc\;Aa;®Pc\.&c\;' Âkit\Tiu;®Kc\;Aa;®Pc\.&c\;" Both by means of
pounding with a lever and by grinding.
• ty\l^Pun\; Sk\liu≥ mrtalv\; Sc\;r´®Kc\;tpå;" Not being able to get through
on the phone is also one of the Forms of Suffering (jocular).
• Ark\ eqak\®Kc\;' P´ksa;®Kc\;' min\;mliuk\sa;®Kc\; st´.Ak¥c\.Siu;et∑" Such bad
habits as drinking, gambling and chasing women.
• d^lui l∑t\lp\er;eAac\p∑én≥ k¥c\;p®Kc\;Aa;®Pc\. kÁn\eta\tui≥ha ek¥;z¨; qipåty\"
By celebrating Independence Day in this way we acknowledge our
gratitude.
• A‰˙k\tk´∑ Ak¥oi;nv\;®Ps\®p^; Aqk\‰˙c\enr®Kc\;kiu eqr®Kc\;Tk\ … piuj
eÂkak\Âkf" Remaining alive in shame and defeat they feared more than
death.
In pattern V-®Kc\; ‘p- and V-®Kc\; ‰˙i- to V;
• Niuc\cM®Ka;kiu wåd®Pn\≥.®Kc\; m‘pAp\ FB = CB wåd m®Pn\≥Ap\B¨;" One should not make
propaganda abroad.
• eR∑;ekak\p∑´ m´S∑y\tra; ehaÂkrc\ tPk\k påt^kiu put\Kt\®Kc\; m‘pr'
‘pic\Pk\påt^k lët∑AeÂkac\; ROt\K¥e®paSiu®Kc\; m‘pr" When canvassing for
election votes one must not attack the other party and one must not
disparage persons from a rival party.
• q¨≥kiu ta;®ms\®Kc\; m‰˙ieK¥ FB = CB q¨≥kiu mta;B¨;" She did not prevent him.
• BamY e®paSui®Kc\; m‰˙i FB = CB BamY me®paB¨;" She uttered no word.
• miBtui≥ wt†ra; 5-på;t∑c\ ‰˙c\‘pna;qtui≥qv\ påwc\®Kc\; m‰˙ieqa\lv\;…" Although
the rituals of the token novitiate and ear-piercing are not listed in the Five
Duties of Parents (pompous paraphrase for mpåwc\eqa\lv\;).
In pattern V-®Kc\; ®Ps\- to V; essentially the same as V but with added
emphasis; only in formal styles:
• Alc\;erac\N˙c\. elekac\;elqn\≥ ekac\;s∑a reqaAKn\;kiu saÂkv\.tiuk\A®Ps\
P∑c\.Ta;®Kc\; ®Ps\påqv\" The room that has been made into the library is one
that gets plenty of light and fresh air (more emphatic than a room which
gets light and air has been made into the library).
51
• qiK¥c\liu≥ A´d^liu saer;®Kc\; ®Ps\påty\" It is because I want to know that I am

writing like this (CB but slightly more formal as is usual in letter-writing).
• rtnapMu“moi>eta\”k^;m˙a ts\en≥t®Ka; rhn\;eta\' qMGaeta\ nv\;på;®Kc\;
®Ps\relqv\" The numbers of monks in Yadanabon diminished day by
day.
In pattern V-®Kc\; KM- to undergo V-ing, be V-ed; for more examples see
under KM-;
• @anmØ; Kn\≥Ap\®Kc\; KMrqv\" He was appointed head of department.
• Tiutiuk\p∑´k A®pn\t∑c\ emac\rs\qv\ mc\;Âk^;mhabNÎolB∑´≥ K¥^;®mHc\.®Kc\; KMrqv\" On
his return from that battle the title of Mingyi Maha Bandula was conferred
upon Maung Yit.
• mpuÂk∑y\qv\ Sramf SiuSuM;m®Kc\; mÂkaK% KMrqv\" Ma Pu Kywe was
frequently scolded by the teacher.
• ts\N˙s\ek¥a\ ÂkaeAac\ Pm\;S^;Ta;®Kc\; KMrpåqv\" Was held in detention for
over a year.
In pattern V-®Kc\;c˙a in order to: see under c˙a"
In pattern V-luik\qv\.®Ps\®Kc\; exclamatory: see under ®Ps\®Kc\;"
®Kc\; 2 (V~V-lYc\) if one must V, if V-ing is inevitable; sub cls mkr, FB;
• eqmc\;qv\ eKÅ®Kc\;eKÅlYc\ q¨¨≥liu Aiu”k^;Aium ts\eyak\kiuqa eKÅqc\.qv\"
When Death has to summon someone he should summon an old person
like him.
K∑´- (~V-) to divide and V, to split up and V; comm pre-vb, CB+FB; from
verb K∑´- to divide;
• AÂk^;tn\;kui K∑´qc\m˙" We’ll have to split the advanced class into two groups
(“divide and teach”).
• k´' mc\;n´≥ cån´≥ K∑´sa;ÂkreAac\" Right. Let’s share this (food) between us.
• qa;APN˙s\eyak\ el˙ts\sc\;s^ K∑´“p^; s^;Piu≥ s^s√\liuk\rty\" The father and the
son arranged to travel in separate boats.
K∑´ (N~) N and a half; nn mod, CB+FB; from verb K∑´- to divide;
• e®Kak\muic\K∑´ six and a half miles; ts\nar^K∑´ an hour and a half; quM;k¥p\K∑´ three
and a half kyat.
K∑c\. (V~) permission, authority, right to V; opportunity to V; sp hd nn,
CB+FB;
• m´SN∂ ep;K∑c\. ‰˙iqv\" They have the right to vote.
• bmaska; qc\K∑c\. ’kMliu≥" Because the chance to learn Burmese came my
way.
52
• q¨tui≥ eÂkak\tak d^miukers^ eÂkak\ta mhut\B¨;' l∑t\lp\s∑a er;qa;K∑c\.

eÂkak\ta" It is not democracy that they fear: they are afraid of the right
of free expression (“of writing freely”).
• R∑aq¨R∑aqa;tiu≥m˙a pvaqc\K∑c\. mrj samtt\Âk" The villagers were illiterate as
they had no opportunity to study (to go to school).
• kÁn\eta\.kiu d^saAup\ K% c˙a;K∑c\. ‘ppåty\" He allowed me to borrow this book
for a short time.
• tK¥oi>Niuc\cMer; påtêt∑kiu mtra;qc\; eÂk®ca®p^; eR∑;ekak\p∑´ wc\K∑c\. pit\ekac\;
pit\m˙ap´" Some political parties will very probably be declared illegal
organisations and forbidden to take part in the election.
c´. see under cy\ appellative suffix
cy\ (N~) small N, young N, a little N; nn mod, mainly FB, = CB kel;'
• qa;cy\e®m;cy\et∑ young children and grandchildren; kel;cy\m¥a;qP∑y\ like
young children; l¨cy\ young person; el˙Âk^;el˙cy\ boats large and small;
qs\qa;Aim\cy\kel;m¥a; little wooden houses.
cy\ and variant cy\. also written c´. (N~) appellative suffix, suffixed to a
personal referent (e.g. a name or term of address) and used when calling or
addressing sn; the creaky tone version is more emphatic or peremptory; CB;
occurs in various forms: the full set is: er' er>' ry\' ry\.' r´.' cy\' cy\.' c´.'
ra' ra.; for other examples see under er and ry\ and ra;
• hut\taepå. biul\”k^;c´." Of course it is, Sir.
cy\. see under cy\ appellative suffix
®ca; a suffix used mainly in certain fixed patterns: see below; associated with
elevated FB, less common in contemporary texts; (a) in patterns V-®ca;
eqa\lv\; V-eqa\®ca;lv\; and similar although, even though V; = V-
eqa\lv\;" pron /va;eqa\l´' va;eqa\l^;/;
• Tiu‘mi>qv\ cy\pc\ cy\®ca;eqa\lv\; tK¥in\k kmıaqieAac\
ek¥a\Âka;K´.eqa‘mi>ts\‘mi> ®Ps\qv\" Although that town was a small one, at
one time it had been world famous (referring to Panlong, at the time of the
conference in 1947).
• TuieS;wå;tui≥kui sa;eqa\®ca;lv\; Anaeragåm˙ l∑t\kc\;Pui≥rn\ KýU\;lim\.mv\" Even
though he takes the medicine, it will be hard for him to be cured of the
illness.
• Awt\Asa;m˙a m¥a;s∑aetak\pe®pac\lk\®Kc\; m‰˙i®ca;eqa\lv\; ABiu;Tiuk\tn\eqa
ATv\Awt\m¥a;pc\ ®Ps\elqv\" Although his clothes were not particularly
showy, they were not cheap clothes.
(b) in pattern V-lui-V-®ca; in the hope of V-ing, in case V;
53
• m˙n\lium˙n\®ca; ps\sm\;liuk\t´.AK¥k\B´b¥" I shot at a venture, to see if I could

make a hit.
• T∑k\epåk\ et∑>liuet∑>®ca; elYak\e®p;enÂkta" They were running around to
see if they could find a way out.
• ec∑ rliur®ca; Alup\ q∑a;‰˙aqv\" He went to look for work in the hope of
getting money.
• m˙^lium˙^®ca; q∑a;Âkv\.qv\" I went to see in case I could catch (the train).
(c) other combinations:
• kÁn\eta\qv\ miBeKÁ;N˙´sa®Pc\. N∑m\;på;s∑a saqc\K´.rqv\hu mSiuNiuc\®ca;" Although it
can’t be said that I was educated frugally on my parents’ hard-earned
money.
• qui≥pc\®ca;lv\; 1920 Aspuic\;t∑c\" However, at the start of 1920 ….
• K¥s\qa;tiu≥ rhn\;tv\; ‘p®ca;m¨ka;" If my dear sons should become monks;
(d) in verse used as rhyming or filling syllable without identifiable meaning;
• mc\;”k^;qv\lYc\' A‰˙v\memYa\' meta\ml¥a;' em.el¥a.®ca;j' tra;mesac\." If the
ruler is lacking in foresight, delights in improper activities and does not
observe the law.
• ®ma;®Pc\.qt\qiu≥' py\®Pt\Bi®ca;' Tiutra;lYc\" That principle which eliminates
(desire) like an archer killing with an arrow.
• Ap∑c\.r´.®Pø' namv\m¨ qK∑t\pn\;ry\lui≥ eKÅrk\el®ca;" q^;Ar∑k\liup" Like the leaf
and fruit of the white-flowered plant known as thakhut-pan.
For the combination Sui®ca;AM. see under Suirc\"
c˙a (N~) for N, for the sake of N, in various combinations with other suffix-
es; FB; (a) N-(f)Ak¥oi;c˙a for the benefit of N, for the sake of N;
• tuic\;q¨®pv\qa;m¥a;Ak¥oi;c˙a Aqk\kui s∑n\≥j" Laying down his life for the sake
of the people.
• mc\;tui≥Ak¥oi;c˙a ‰˙c\K¥s\Bura; ehaTa;eta\m¨K´.epqv\" Our dear lord set forth
(these principles) for your benefit.
• enac\laenak\qa;m¥a;fAk¥oi;c˙a" For the sake of future generations.
• Bura;®Ps\®Kc\;Ak¥oi;c˙a k¥c\.®Kc\;" Practice for Buddhahood.
(b) N-Alui≥c˙a to gain N, in order to obtain N, for N, for the sake of N;
• etat∑c\;tirsÍan\m¥a; Sa;Aliu≥c˙a l¥k\reqak\reqa Sa;t∑c\;" A salt pit that
wild animals can lick for salt.
• ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a;qv\ bhuqutAliu≥c˙a el.laer;Kr^; T∑k\Âkqv\" The students
set out on a study tour to gain experience.
• md∂êdw^qv\ qs\q^;qs\®ms\Aliu≥c˙a etaqiu≥ wc\elf" Queen Maddi went into
the forest in search of fruits and roots (nissaya).
Frequent with nominalized V in N position: V-er;Alui≥c˙a' V-®Kc\;Alui≥c˙a' V-
54
rn\Alui≥c˙a and similar combinations for V-ing, to gain V, to achieve

V;
• k∑n\p¥øta sit\wc\sa;q¨m¥a; Aa;lMu;At∑k\ sns\tk¥ na;lv\tt\kÁm\;eser;N˙c\.
sns\tk¥ ‘p®pc\Tin\;qim\;er;Aliu≥c˙a nv\;®plm\;vWn\saAup\ekac\; ts\Aup\" An
excellent manual for teaching computer skills and systematic main-
tenance for all who are interested in computers.
• pvaqc\Âka;rn\Aliu≥c˙a Nuic\cM®Ka;qui≥ q∑a;erak\®Kc\;" Travelling abroad in order to
study, for the sake of studying.
• Niuc\cMf s^;p∑a;er; tiu;tk\rn\Aliu≥c˙a kun\m¥a;kiu ASc\.m^m^ Tut\lup\Âkrmv\" For
the country’s economy to prosper we must produce goods that are up to
standard.
(c) V-AM.eqac˙a' V-®Kc\;c˙a to V; with verbs of of requesting or being able;
elevated FB and nissaya;
• pu a;f AeSac\AR∑k\kiu yÄM.eqac˙a K∑c\.pn\f" Asked to be allowed to carry
the brahmin’s burden (nissaya).
• dka-dkamm¥a;qv\ Âka‰˙v\s∑a eAac\.A^;m¥oiqip\Ta;®Kc\;c˙a ms∑m\;Niuc\Âkq®Pc\.
AK¥oi>k ry\Âketa.qv\" Some of the lay supporters were unable to
suppress their mirth for long.
• lerac\p¥p¥qv\ pc\ly\®pc\epÅqiu≥ lWm\;‘KM®Kc\;c˙a ms∑m\;Niuc\" The weak light of the
moon was unable to light the whole expanse of the sea.
• Tiutiuk\Aim\At∑c\;‰˙i psßv\;m¥a;kiupc\ mv\q¨mY wc\erak\y¨cc\®Kc\;c˙a m®powM.B´ ‰˙iÂkel
qv\" No-one had the courage to break in and take the property inside the
building.
• kMfAk¥oi;mv\qv\kiu ts\suMts\eyak\eqaq¨qv\ ta;®ms\®Kc\;c˙a mtt\Niuc\" No-
one is able to prevent the effects of karma.
(d) V-es®Kc\;c˙a' V-esAM.eqac˙a' V-sim\.eqac˙a' V-sim\.c˙a and similar
combinations so that V, so as to enable V, so as to bring about V, in
order to cause V, with the purpose of bringing about V;
• ®mn\ma.ss\pvaAeÂkac\;kiu ®pv\q¨tiu≥ qies®Kc\;c˙a tp\meta\®pp∑´kiu ®pqqv\" An
army exhibition was held with the intention of informing the public about
Burmese military science.
• Agçlip\Asiu;rAepÅÒ m¥a;s∑a sit\naK´.“p^;lYc\ Anv\;nv\;APMuPMu AeN˙ac\.Ay˙k\
ep;Niuc\es®Kc\;c˙a lYoi>w˙k\eqaAqc\;”k^;ts\Kukiu P´∑>sv\;K´.eÂkac\;" They formed a
secret association in order to create difficulties for the British government
in various ways.
• tra;s^rc\raÒ Al∑n\tra tik¥m˙n\kn\es®Kc\;c˙a tra;m˙n\kiu ®peqa qMvHp\ts\Ku
Sk\qelqv\" So as to ensure complete accuracy in the administration of
55
the law, he presented a pair of iron tongs which were capable of detecting
the truth.
• lÄm¥a;tui≥ m˙t\qa;sim\.c˙a cåq¨®mt\ e®paÂka;epAM." I will speak so that all may
know.
• eN∑AKå erm®pt\sim\.eqac˙a erkn\kiu t¨;Âkqv\" They dug a lake so that the
water supply would not fail in the hot season.
Regular equivalent of Pali infinitives and words ending attha–ya in nissaya
translation (see Okell 1965 p 212):
• Aœ' Tuiemac\Aa;" AawåhM' Tim\;®ma;®Kc\;kui" katuM' ‘pAM.eqac˙a" w¡ti' Ap\f"
It is appropriate for (her brother) to be betrothed.
•reva' mc\;Âk^;f" s¨Lam%˜' pt†®ma;UeqYac\k¥c\kui" gh%tÊay' y¨sim\.eqac˙a"
phi%i' esluik\f" He sent (her) to obtain the jewel crest of the king.
s- 1 or stc\- (~V-) start V-ing, begin to V; comm pre-vb, CB+FB; from
verb s- to begin;
• ®mn\masa stc\(j) qc\sU\k" When I began learning Burmese.
• Agçlip\eKt\k s(®p^;) epÅta" It first appeared under the British.
s 2 (V~) the start, the beginning of V-ing, the early stages of V-ing; sp
hd nn; CB+FB; freq with the verb ®po-; cf also the pattern V-Kås “at the start
of V-ing” sv Kå; from verb s- to begin;
• 1947Ku N˙s\Sn\;s ®Ps\qv\" It was the beginning, the early part of 1947.
• eragå ®Ps\skpc\ n^;ra Srawn\N˙c\. tiuc\pc\qc\.qv\" One ought to consult a
nearby doctor at the begining of an illness, when one first falls ill.
• Agçln\m˙a eA;s ‘p®p^ Tc\pår´." I should think it is already beginning to get
cold in England.
• kÁn\eta\.ts\kiuy\lMu; eKÁ;et∑ r´Ws ®pola“p^" My whole body had begun to break
out in a sweat.
s- 3 and As- beginning with, starting from; in various patterns:
(a) in patterns N-m˙ sj' N-m˙As FB = CB k s®p^;' N-kAs beginning
with N, starting from N, including N, such as N; sub cls mkr and nn
mkr;
• dên≥k s®p^;" Starting from today.
• wn\Âk^;K¥op\m˙ sj" Starting from the Prime Minister (and including the rest of
the Cabinet).
• dåRiuk\ta' Dat\pMuSrakAs Aa;lMu;k sit\emas∑a esac\.Âkv\.enÂkqv\" They all,
from the director and the cameraman onwards, looked on in dismay.
• Pinp\kAs gRutsiuk\ qim\;ep;rqv\" She had to put everything away for him,
even including his sandals.
56
• qÂkçn\rk\m¥a;t∑c\ q∑a;er;laer;kAs AsÂsU\Aa;lMu; eK¥aem∑>eAac\

k¨vêp;mv\" During the Thagyan period they will help the whole
programme, from transport onwards, to run smoothly.
(b) in pattern N1-As N2-ASuM; starting with N1 and ending with N2,
from N1 to N2, from N1 right down to N2, everything from beginning
to end; CB+FB; cf N1-k N2-ATi;
• liuAp\eqa psßv\;m¥a;' lYp\ss\m^;PiukAs g∑m\;pt\t^;ASMu; … Aa;lMu;®pv\.sMum˙
q^ta.kiu q∑a;et∑>rqv\" It was not until he had acquired all the necessary
equipment, from an electric cooker right down to cotton wool and
bandages, that he went to see Thida.
• qsßaepåk\m¥a;kui ‘mi>Âk^;m¥a;kAs ek¥;lk\etaR∑aASuM; SN∂®pROt\K¥K´.®Kc\;" From
large towns to small villages, people demonstrated against the traitors.
• Cf AsASuM;eta. mPt\req;B¨;" I haven’t yet read it from beginning to end,
from cover to cover.
(c) in patterns FB N-sqv\m¥a;' N-sqv\tui≥' N-As‰˙iqv\m¥a;' N-As‰˙iqv\
tui≥' N-m˙As, or CB+FB N-sq®Pc\.' N-As‰˙iq®Pc\.' N-kAs, N and similar,
N and the rest, N and so on, N etc; also with more than one N, and with
statements in place of Ns; pron /sa.q˙^/;
• Aim\quM;eS;Am¥oi;m¥oi;N˙c\. Tiu;eS;' eqak\eS; sqv\tiu≥kiu ‘plup\qv\" Home
remedies of all kinds, injections, oral medicines and so on are produced
there.
• d^pliumaB´∑>' B´∑>l∑n\qc\tn\; As‰˙iqv\m¥a;kiu tk\erak\qc\Âka;liuÂkeqa q¨m¥a;"
People who wish to take diplomas, postgraduate courses and so on.
• {ekac\;Âkpår´.eta\' ekac\;Âkpår´.} sq®Pc\. AK¥c\;K¥c\; Kn´≥t´.t´. e®paenÂkqv\"
They taunted each other, saying “Marvellous! Well done!” and such
things.
• kiusM‰˙a;m˙a razm%^s¨lapuvrc\est^' pt†®ma;est^ As‰˙ieqa e‰˙;tn\Kiu;”k^;
Bura;Aq^;q^;tiu≥kiu l˙v\.lv\P¨;emYa\®Kc\;' eK¥ac\;m¥a;kiu AN˙M≥A®pa; q∑a;erak\
lv\pt\®Kc\;' ts\Kåts\Kå kmμ@an\;Tiuc\®Kc\; sq®Pc\.qa AK¥in\kiu kun\l∑n\esra"
Ko SS spent his time visiting famous pagodas such as the RSP Zedi and
the Ruby Zedi, exploring all the streams, sometimes sitting in meditation,
and so on.
• mec∑p∑c\.Aelac\;l´" AKuAim\epÅk Aip\raepÅm˙a ‰˙ieÂkac\; sq®Pc\. mimiqiqmYkiu
sit\pålk\på e®paSiuelqv\" He told them willingly everything he knew:
how Ma NP’s body was at present upstairs on her bed and so on.
(d) in patterns seqa' sqv\.' As‰˙ieqa' As‰˙iqv\\ FB = CB st´.' As‰˙it´.
and verse sqa; in the context N1, N2 ~ N3 N1, N2 and similar N3s, N3s
57
such as N1 and N2 …; literally “N3s starting with N1 and N2”; also with
more Ns than two;
• eÂk;erac\' A®paerac\' m^;Kiu;erac\ st´. Aerac\m¥a; ‰˙ipåty\" We have colours
such as bronze, blue and grey.
• UAs‰˙it´.haet∑kiu … erSëntun\; ePak\Tv\.‘pt\®Kc\;" Breaking and boiling
eggs and similar ingredients when the water is boiling.
• cå;e®pm' mn\k¥v\;es.' tvc\;q^; As‰˙ieqa Aram¥a;" Perch, tamarind, djenkol
and similar ingredients.
• Wordperfect, Lotus, dBase As‰˙iqv\. qaman\RuM;lup\cn\;quM; eSa.P\0´m¥a;"
Standard office software like W, L and D.
• Alup\qma;' etac\q¨ly\qma; seqa ®mn\ma®pv\q¨l¨Tu" The Burmese people,
comprising workers and peasants and others.
• lup\qa;®pv\q¨≥en≥sU\' eÂk;muM seqa ®mn\maqtc\;sam¥a;t∑c\" In the Burmese
papers, such as the Working People’s Daily and the Mirror.
• qk\”k^;miB" Srasqa;" siu;rqKc\" ek¥;z¨;‰˙c\tiu≥" Your superiors (“masters”)
and benefactors such as your elders, parents and teachers (verse).
Note that these phrases are sometimes used following a complete list of the
items comprising the set, which makes their use redundant. In such cases
the omission of the phrase, or its replacement by hëqa' h¨qv\. FB = CB
Suit´. would be appropriate, e.g.
• A-quM;luM;Siuqv\m˙a Aer;' APt\' At∑k\ sqv\tiu≥kiu Siuliu®Kc\; ®Ps\qv\" The
three “A”s means writing, reading, counting and so on (in fact there are no
others).
• Èek¥ac\;t∑c\ m¨ltn\;' Aly\tn\;' ASc\.®mc\.tn\; sqv\. Atn\;Aa;luM;kiu
qc\Âka;ep;enqv\" In this school all Standards (levels) are taught, such as
primary, middle and high school Standards (though these three are all the
Standards there are).
s 4 (ts\-N-s N˙s\-N-s) a few Ns here and there, one or two Ns; also
written t-N-s N˙s\-N-s: see under ts\; set pattern, CB+FB; from As a
fragment, crumb, portion;
• sats\luM;s N˙s\luM;s" A word here and there.
• ts\k¥p\s N˙s\k¥p\s etac\;Âkqv\" They asked for just a kyat or two here and
there.
• q¨≥N˙y\ esaesa Tj Alup\K∑c\qiu≥ U^;tv\enÂkq¨ ts\eyak\s N˙s\eyak\skiu
et∑>rqv\" He saw one or two people who like himself had risen early and
were heading for their place of work.
• q¨≥kb¥akel; ts\pud\s N˙s\pud\skiu kÁn\eta\tiu≥ Pt\P¨;qv\" We had read one or
two of his poems here and there.
58
s 5 (N~) a piece for N, a hem, a trailing corner of N, typically referring to

cloth; comm elem cpd nn, CB+FB;
•luMK¥v\s piece of material for a longyi, the hem of a longyi; esac\s a corner of
a blanket; pit\s a piece of cloth; ec∑seÂk;s pieces of silver, scraps of
money; Aet∑;s strands of thought.
s 6 often pås sts s.M (Stc~) indicates a yes-or-no question; stc fin phr ptcl;
rare except in rustic speech or very formal style; = CB Stc-la;'
• k¥n\;mapås" Are you well?
• emac\ edÅedÅkiu et∑>K¥c\ty\ hut\pås" You wish to meet the lady, is that not
so?
• kiuT∑n\;zM eqqv\ Siuta edÅedÅ yMupås" Do you believe that Ko Tun Zan is
dead?
• tc\tc\ Kui;e®p;qv\ Suiqv\kui emac\mc\; Âka;sM." Have you heard that TT has
eloped?
sP¨; (m-V~) V unprecedentedly, as never before; sub cls mkr, CB+FB; with
negated verbs only;
• Tuien≥k mÂkMosP¨; T¨;k´s∑apc\ cå;m¥a;kui Pm\;mielqv\" On that day they caught
an unprecedently large number of fish.
• ABiu;Âk^;k q¨≥min\;mkiu ®pn\me®pasP¨; e®paliuk\qv\" The old man answered his
wife in a way he never spoken before.
• pn\;eta\Sk\qPui≥ p¥k\k∑k\K´.qv\. en≥h¨j m‰˙isP¨;" There has never been a day
when we failed to present flowers.
Occasionally followed by B¨; sentence marker:
• dêlak\ pulc\;K∑Met∑m¥a;ta ts\Kåm˙ met∑>sP¨;B¨;" I have never ever seen so
many empty bottles.
• kÁn\meta. By\m˙ merak\P¨;B¨;" rn\kun\l´ ts\eKåk\m˙ merak\sP¨;B¨;" I haven’t
been anywhere. I’ve never even been to Yangon.
sP∑y\ (V~) such as to cause V, so as to cause V, so as to arouse feelings
of V; vb atrb mkr and sub cls mkr, CB+FB; cf V-sra ekac\;qv\.' V-sra
ekac\;eAac\;
• qayaeA;K¥m\;“p^; ROK¥c\sP∑y\ … etar∑a”k^;ts\r∑a" A rural village that was
tranquil and beautiful to behold.
• AM.ÂqsP∑y\AeÂkac\;et∑ m¥a;m¥a; påelel' piu®p^; s´∑mk\sra ekac\;elelpåp´" The
more they include sensational events, the greater their power of
attraction.
• qv\mYew;lMqv\.enraqiu≥ min\;mp¥oiel; N˙s\U^;tv\; AePa\mpåB´ laerak\Âkqv\
Siuqv\m˙a Al∑n\tra AM.ÂqsP∑y\ ®Ps\jenelqv\" It was astonishing to her
that two young women should come to such a distant place on their own.
59
• A”kim\”kim\ ciu“p^; qna;sP∑y\ etac\;pn\enta" She begged forgiveness weeping

piteously again and again.
• Umμak K¥s\sP∑y\ ry\emaliuk\qv\" Omma laughed charmingly.
s®m´ see under ®m´ always
sra (V~) (a) thing which can be V-ed, is to be V-ed, has to be V-ed; sp
hd nn; CB+FB, = FB V-P∑y\(ra);
• ksa;sra playthings, toys; sa;sra something to eat, food; Also attributive to a
following N:
• Tiuc\sra enra somewhere to sit; ensra AKn\; a room to live in; tv\;sra Aim\
a house to stay in.
(b) in pattern V-sra‰˙i- to have some V-ing to do; similar to V-Pui≥ ‰˙i-;
• kÁn\mkiu Ba m˙asra ‰˙ieq;ql´" What else do you want me to do for you?
• venm˙a q∑a;sra ‰˙ipåty\" I have to go somewhere in the afternoon.
• em;sra ‰˙ipåty\ Sra" I have a question for you.
• l¨puMketa. Tc\elak\sra m‰˙ipåB¨;" The looks of the person don’t suggest
that he could be (the right one to arrest).
(c) in pattern V-sra(AeÂkac\;) ‰˙i- there is a reason to V, a
likelihood, possibility, risk, of V-ing;
• m‘p®pc\påk p¥k\q∑a;sra ‰˙iqv\" There is a danger that (the cave) will fall in if
it is not repaired.
• ÈtMKå;m¥a;m˙alv\; ®po®pc\mO m‰˙ipåk ‘pip¥k\sraAeÂkac\; ‰˙ij" There is a
possibility that these doors, if not maintained, will decay.
• q¨≥kiu pug©oil\er;Ar qeBamk¥sraAeÂkac\; m‰˙ipåB¨;" On a personal level there
is no reason to disapprove of him.
• Kc\b¥a; et∑;tal´ m˙n\sraAeÂkac\; ‰˙itapåB´" There is a possibility that your
ideas are correct.
• ts\lts\l Siuta By\lium˙ piuNiuc\sraAeÂkac\; m‰˙ipåB¨;" From month to month
there is no possibility of there being any (money) to spare.
• kb¥aSraf ’ki;sa;Aa;Tut\mOAepÅ ATc\l´∑sraAeÂkac\; ‰˙ipåqv\" There is a
danger that the poet’s effort may be misunderstood.
• Cf tky\liu≥ Pm\;sraAeÂkac\; epÅlarc\l´" And if some grounds for arresting
him emerge.
(d) in pattern V-sra lui- to be necessary to V; similar to V-Pui≥ lui-;
• AeÂkac\;®pn\sra mluipå" There is no need to reply.
• q¨tiu≥At∑k\ sit\p¨sra mliupåB¨;" There is no need to worry on their account.
(e) in pattern V-sra ekac\;- to generate feelings of V, to make one
feel V, and V-sra ®Ps\- to cause feelings of V;
• Aa;nasra ekac\;ty\" It was embarrassing.
60
• qip\ K¥s\sra ekac\;t´. Kel;kel;p´" What a sweet, loveable little baby!

• mv\mY gu%\y¨sra ekac\;luik\påqnv\;" What a great source of pride!
• kel;et∑At∑k\eta. sit\mekac\;sra ®Ps\miqa;" I felt concerned for the
children (of such a marriage).
As‰˙iqv\ and variants: see under s- beginning with
sluM; see under luM; all, both
sa;- 1 (V~-) to consume, to V with relish, to savour V-ing, to V perm-
anently; comm elem cpd vb, CB+FB;
• RO- to look: ROsa;- to gaze upon; KM- to accept, receive: KMsa;- to enjoy, to
suffer; el;- to be heavy: el;sa;- to respect; wc\- to enter: wc\sa;- to enter
and possess (as spirit); tc\- to put on, above: tc\sa;- to exaggerate; e®pa-
to speak of: Tuiqpit\AeÂkac\;kui K%K% g u%\y¨j e®pasa;mimv\" later he
was to speak of that strike with pride and satisfaction.
sa; 2 (N~, N~ N) type, kind; comm elem cpd nn, usually attributed, CB+FB;
• AÂk^;sa; large; AÂk^;sa;sk\mOlk\mO heavy industry; Aeq;sa; minor, small-
scale; Ap¥Msa; showy, classy (slang); Aekac\;sa; good quality; AvM.sa; low
quality.
Asa; (N~, VA~) instead of, in place of N; instead of V-ing, rather than
V-ing; nn mkr and sub stc mkr, CB+FB; VA almost always ends in V-my\./-
m´./-mv\.;
• ePeP.Asa; U^;el; liuk\K´.my\" I am coming with you instead of your dad.
• Aiu; p∑c\.laeqaAKå Aiu;T´´t∑c\ erWm¥a;Asa; på;p¥√\;Teneqa e®m∑ehak\m¥a;kiu
et∑>reta.qv\" When the pot was uncovered, he found, instead of pieces of
gold, a cobra spreading its hood.
• pva Sk\qc\mv\.Asa; ek¥ac\;k T∑k\®p^; lk\Tp\q∑a;qv\" Instead of
continuing her studies she left school and married.
• Windows 95-kiu wy\qMu;my\.Asa; d^Tk\ ekac\;my\ Siut´. Windows NT-kiu
esac\.sa;Piu≥" Instead of buying Windows 95, to wait for Windows NT which is
supposed to be better.
• Tm\;piu;k AKueta. epå.rmy\.Asa; piuel;enqliuliu" As if the yoke, rather than
becoming lighter, had now become heavier.
s^ (Nº+N~) each N; nn mod, CB+FB; distributive; found in the patterns listed
below; see also k¥s^ under k¥ each; from verb s^- to set in line; (a) ts\-N1
ts\-N2-s^ one N2 per N1, an N2 to each N1;
• saPt\tt\q¨tiu≥k ts\eyak\ ts\l˙v\.s^ qMenqMTa;N˙c\. Pt\ÂkSiuÂkqv\" The
readers each took turns (“one person one turn ech”) in reading
expressively.
61
• qa;APN˙s\eyak\ ts\eyak\ ts\lMu;s^ l∑y\Ait\T´ Tv\.l∑y\K´.Âkty\" Father

and son each picked up one (“one person one each”) and put it in their
shoulder bags.
• ts\Ë;lYc\ ts\m´s^ ep;piuc\K∑c\.‰˙iqv\" Each individual is entitled to cast one
vote.
• AKn\; ts\Kn\;K¥c\;kui miqa;su ts\sus^k puic\Suic\qv\" Each flat is owned by one
family.
• plataATup\ el;cå;Tup\ lk\ts\Pk\s^ S∑´®p^;" Carrying four or five packets
of parata in each hand.
• wåt∑c\;Upuq\en≥m¥a;Ò Aqc\;wc\ts\U^;s^lYc\ lk\er;sam¨ ts\m¥k\N˙as^
ABiDmμaSiuc\ram¥a;kiu er;qa;esl¥k\" On Sabbath days in Lent he had each
member of the association write out a page of Abhidhamma text.
(b) with N1 omitted: one N each;
• mc\;qm^;m¥a;kiu ts\R∑as^ T^;miu;yaU\KM ep;qv\" He gave the princesses a village
each as their fief.
• réBa\qMu;k¥ip\tiu≥k ts\eyak\s^ ny\e®mK´∑ewl¥k\" The Thirty Comrades each
taking one region.
• Tuim∑n\q¨pug©oil\ ts\Ë;s^fAeÂkac\;kui … ls√\ er;qa;K´.påqv\" I wrote about
one of those admirable persons every month.
(c) with numbers other than one: two (three etc) N each;
• ts\eyak\ quM;k¥p\s^ ep;liuk\på" Give them three kyats each.
• erW>e®pac\;K sa;rit\ ts\Aim\eTac\lYc\ 15i/-s^ Tut\y¨Âk" Distribute K15 to
each household for moving expenses.
• ts\r∑a N˙s\eyak\s^ vÂs\kiup^p^ At¨t¨ tk\Âkrmy\" Two brothers from each
village had to attend together.
• ts\r∑am˙a 4 - 5 Aim\elak\s^ tk\K´.r“p^;" They visited four or five houses in
each village.
• AmOqv\ quM;eyak\kuilv\; eTac\.quM;m¥k\N˙as^t∑c\ ts\enras^ Aq^;q^; ‰˙iÂkpåes"
Let each of the three disputants stand in one of the three corners.
• ek¥ak\sag¨ 730 k T^;et∑m˙a 9 lMu;s^ tp\Sc\Ta;t´´. eÂk;Sv\;lv\;" The
nine pagoda bells that were hung from the finial of each of the 730
buildings enshrining the inscriptions.
(d) ts\-N-s^ one N after another, one by one:
• Aqk\ By\elak\s^ ‰˙iÂkql´" How old is each of them?
• kuiedåc\;N˙c\. kuilëmac\tui≥qv\ … erkui Kp\j tws^ eqak\Âk®p^;enak\" After Ko
D and Ko LM had drawn water and each drunk their fill.
• lk\S∑ŃOt\Sk\my\Sui teyak\s^teyak\s^Sui m“p^;Nuic\B¨;" If you were going to
shake hands with each one (of a large crowd) you would never finish.
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• d^®pœnaet∑kui kÁn\eta\tui≥ tSc\.s^tSc\.s^ d^luip´ ek¥a\lWa;q∑a;rm˙ap´" We shall

have to overcome these problems step by step.
• Aun\;q^; 5-lMu;kiu ts\lMu;s^ lim\®Pot\ka" Twisting off the five coconuts one by
one.
• Ara‰˙ik saer;elac\;et∑r´. zatikiu ts\Ë;s^ em;ty\" The official asked the
applicants (for the post of clerk) their ages one by one.
• Pk\et∑kiu ts\p¥s\s^ erÂkv\.eta." He counted the leaves bunch by bunch.
An example illustrating patterns 3 and 4:
• “bitiqY®bøRiukrk\ Asiu;rk ts\r∑as^ ts\ny\s^r´. ny\e®medq Ae®KAenkiu
mÂkv\.B´ te®p;tv\; tv^tv\; ts\®pv\lMu;‰˙i ek¥;r∑aet∑ Aa;lMu; N˙s\Bk\KÁn\
ts\Aim\ 10 eK¥ac\;s^n´≥ m^;k∑c\;m^;tut\ 5 Kus^ lup\rmy\liu≥ Amin\≥Tut\ty\" The
bureaucratic British government, without considering the circumstances
of the different regions village by village or district by district, issued an
order to apply uniformly to all villages throughout the country that they
were to make ten sharpened stakes per house, and five torches per house.
(e) in certain set phrases:
• ts\m¥oi;s^ quite different, different kinds; Aim\ePa\mkel;ha q¨n´≥ r∑ak
Aepåc\;AePa\et∑n´≥ enratka ts\m¥oi;s^ ®Ps\enta" The young maid was
different in every respect from her companions in the village.
t®Ka;s^ quite different, separate; liuc\sc\Dat\pMuT´k Rup\n´≥ AKuRup\n´≥ ts\®Ka;
s^" Bam˙ mSiuc\eta.B¨;" The picture in the licence photograph and the pre-
sent appearance are quite different. They no longer bear any relation to
each other.
q^;®Ka;s^ separate; k∑n\bk\ta Apiuc\;tiu≥kiu q^;®Ka;s^ ss\eS;qv\" They in-
spect each component of the convector separately.
• eAak\KMSp\sTrit\ ts\KuepÅt∑c\ ts\piuc\;lYp\k¨;psßv\;m¥a; ts\KuK¥c\; q^;®Ka;s^
tp\Sc\rn\" To attach each semiconductor individually to a substrate.
kuiy\s^ each with his own; q¨tiu≥m˙a Tmc\;Tup\kiuy\s^' d¨;el;kiuy\s^ pålaÂk
ty\" They each cme with their own food and their own crossbows.
(f) for the combination Nº+N-k¥s^ see under k¥ 3 each
s^; (Nº~) and As^; (~Nº) item, comm nmtv for anything riddden, animals or
vehicles; CB+FB;
•®mc\;N˙s\s^; two horses; sk\B^; ts\s^; a bicycle; tuiyuita quM;s^; three Toyotas.
es- sts es.- (V~-) to allow, cause sn to V; vb mod; in various patterns and
combinations: (a) to allow sn to V, to make, cause, sn to V (in state-
ments); more common in FB; the regular equivalent of Pali causative in
nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p 203); cf CB V-Kiuc\;- to tell sn to V. Where
an aspirate-unaspirated pair of verbs exists, the unaspirated verb with es is
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equivalent to the aspirated verb, e.g. l∑t\esqv\ “to cause to be free” =

lWt\qv\ “to set free, release”.
• Aenak\tMKå;epåk\k Sc\;espåqv\" (The conductor) lets (the passengers) off
by the rear door (of the bus).
• ten≥ k¥eta. Kc\b¥a;kiu kesmy\" One day I will get you to dance.
• ts\Ë;N˙c\.ts\Ë; Am¥k\p∑a;es' edåq®Ps\esNuic\qv\. ska;m¥a;kiu' By\AKåmY
me®paSuiÂkep" They never said to each other anything that could cause
anger.
• ®pv\mN˙c\. etac\tn\;ny\m¥a; mp¨;epåc\;Niuc\esrn\ Am¥oi;m¥oi; eq∑;K∑ép;qv\" (The
British Government) sowed dissension in all sorts of ways so that Burma
proper and the hill regions were unable to unite.
• k¥n\;maesrn\At∑k\ qc\.tc\.mYteqa Asa;Asakiu sa;rmv\" One must eat an
appropriate and balanced diet in order to be healthy.
• Niuc\cM®Ka;qa;ts\U^;qv\ Niuc\cMqa;N˙c\. Aim\eTac\‘pkamY®Pc\. Niuc\cMqa;A®Ps\kiu
AliuAel¥ak\ mr‰˙iesr" A foreigner shall not automatically acquire (be
allowed to acquire) citizenship by the mere fact of being married to a
citizen.
• mc\;AeP mRuik\esrpåB¨;k∑a" We’ll make sure your father doesn’t beat you.
• mhaeyaeg©' ®mt\eqaya√\Ò" niq^dåept∑a' enesj" Causing her to sit in a
splendid carriage (nissaya).
Sometimes with creaky tone for emphasis:
• d^miukers^ A®pv\.Aw rpåes.my\ Siut´. AamKMK¥k\" A guarantee that they would
be allowed to have full democracy.
• Burc\N˙c\. miPura;Âk^;tiu≥lv\; qna;eta\m¨Âkrka; … q¨≥PKc\f AmOkiu
®pn\lv\ss\eS;påes.mv\hu ktiep;eta\m¨liuk\Âkqv\" The king and queen
took pity on her and assured her that they would most certainly have her
father’s case re-examined.
• ®mn\®mn\ kun\es.K¥c\lYc\ ts\p∑c\. ®pa;qMu;Sy\N˙c\.p´ erac\;" If you want to sell off all
your stock, sell them at 30 pya a bloom.
• pit\ka;r´. enak\k∑y\m˙a tky\ Tui;' ”kit\' qt\' ®Pt\' rm\;ka;entaet∑kui
priqt\ ®mc\es.K¥c\sm\;l˙påty\" He really wanted the audience to see the
punching and fighting and brawling that went on behind the screen.
(b) to let, allow, sn to V, to make, cause, sn to V (with imperatives);
• enpåes or enepes" Let it be. Never mind. Forget it. Please don’t bother.
• q¨m¥a;et∑ ®pœnaet∑' AKk\AKét∑ ’kMK¥c\’kMpåes" Let others run into
problems and difficulties if they must.
• eZ;k∑k\kqa SMu;®Pt\påes" Let the free market alone decide.
• k´k∑a qÄip\K¥c\ta Aip\påes" Let her sleep if she wants to.
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• A´då q¨≥kiu mem.påesn´≥" Don’t let him forget that.

• Binp\ mKÁt\påesn´≥" Let him not take his shoes off (i.e. don’t make him take
his shoes off).
(c) let sn V, to order sn to V; in royal orders and stage directions;
• ss\qv\eta\ K¥^tk\esqv\" He ordered the royal troops to advance.
• cå;Piu; ep;eshu Amin\≥ K¥eta\m¨f" (The king) ordered that the price of the fish
be given (to the fisherman).
• ‘mi>Aup\mc\; Asv\;Aew; mtk\K¥c\rc\ enesliu≥ K¥m˙t\liuk\ty\" (The DC) ordered
that if the Township Officer did not want to attend the meeting, he need
not do so.
• mc\;qm^; T∑k\es" q^K¥c\; Siues" Enter the princess. She sings a song (stage
directions).
(d) in pattern V-påes may sn V, in prayers and imprecations (1st, 2nd
or 3rd person); neg m-V-påesn´≥ CB = FB m-V-påesN˙c;\.
• Aqk\ts\raek¥a\ ‰˙v\påeshu Suep;liuk\qv\" He wished him a long life (“of
over 100 years”).
• Klut\mTi S¨;m®cipåesn´≥liu≥ Suetac\;påty\" I pray that you may not meet with
any harm (“hit an obstacle, be caught by thorns”, on your journey).
• k´' v^mel; quN∂r^" mc\; Auiekpåes" Right then, young lady, Thondari. May
you be OK.
• cå m¥k\rv\ k¥qlui nc\tui≥ mk¥rpåesn´≥" May your tears never flow as mine
do.
• Am¥oi;qa;eAac\p∑én≥”k^;kuil´ ®Kim\.®Km\.q´q´ Sc\NWŃuic\Âkpåeslui≥ SN∂®porc\;
niguM;K¥op\påty\" In conclusion I express the wish that you may all be able to
celebrate National Day with great joy.
• ANiuc\k¥c\.tt\q¨tiuc\; eB;et∑>påes" Let evil befall everyone who uses violence.
• m˙n\t´.ska; me®parc\ kÁn\eta\m. in\;m miu;’ki;ps\ eqrpåes" If I am not speaking
the truth, may my wife be struck dead by a thunderbolt.
• d^lÄa;lMu; dÂim\m˙a tv\;m˙ala;" mhut\påesn´≥" Are all these people to stay in
this (one small) house? I hope they won’t.
• enac\ ®Ps\elraBwÒ Bura≥;tpv\.eta\qv\ kÁn\l¨m¥oi;Ò m®Ps\rpåesN˙c\.Bura;hu
Suetac\;elf" He prayed saying “May I not be born as a slave in any
future life”.
• Bura; s¨;rpåes" May the Lord strike me down.
• Âk∑k\qt†wået∑kiu By\eta.m˙ msa;på" sa;K´.eqa\ eB;AN †ray\ ts\KuKu
et∑>“p^; eqpåes" I shall never eat a mouse. If I should eat one may I
encounter some danger and die (spoken by a snake in a fable).
Sometimes followed by r´. or qa; or qtv\; or eqa or eqa\ or eqaw\ (an
65
archaic spelling) for added solemnity: these suffixes add weight to the
utterance, having an effect like that of adding “Amen” in English:
• Bura;s¨;rpåesr´." May the Lord strike me down (if I am not telling the truth).
• mimi em∑;Tiuk\påk lk\vHoi;k Nui≥rv\T∑k\esqa;hu Di™an\ra Nui≥rv\m¥a; pn\;T∑k\qv\"
He made asseveration, saying “If it is right for me to bring up this child,
let milk flow from my finger”, and milk poured forth.
• Èek¥ac\;kn\pMu®pc\m¥a;qv\ saPt\q¨mit\eS∑m¥a;Aa; qc\Kn\;saekac\;m¥a;N˙c\.
ep¥a\rWc\mO quKAepåc\; ep;Niuc\påesqtv\;" May these Monastery Tales have
the power to give instruction and pleasure to my dear readers.
• Aqk\ts\raek¥a\ ‰˙v\påeseqaw\" May you indeed live beyond 100 years.
• edåc\;Aiu;ewry\liu≥ t∑n\eskeseqa" May the peacock (symbol of nationalist
Burma) utter its cry and parade (in triumph).
• ekac\;®mt\eqaAeÂkac\;nimit\tiu≥®Pc\. ekac\;hit\mgçla eAac\eÂkac\;
®PaÂkpåeseqa\" May blessings rain upon you and bring you all success.
V-esqtv\; is the regular equivalent of Pali third person imperative in
nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p 203):
• sirM' Âka®mc\.s∑a" z^wtu' Aqk\‰˙c\eta\mësqtv\;" May you live for a long time.
(e) in pattern V-påres may I V, in prayers and requests (1st person);
neg m-V-påresn´≥ CB = FB m-V-påresN˙c\."
• erts\K∑k\elak\ eqak\påres" Please may I have a glass of water.
• Akun\®pn\e®papåeta.la;liu≥ Siueta. q¨k yKume®papåresn´≥Ë;‰˙c\" When he said
“Tell us the full story”, she said “Please may I not tell you yet”.
• {eÂqa\ SraÂk^;n´≥ kÁn\m yKuBwm˙al´ AiueAac\mc\;eAac\ epåc\;rpåes' ®Ps\elra
qMqra ASk\Sk\m˙al´ c˙k\pc\ ®Ps\kl´ ts\kiuc\;tv\; At¨ na;påres}liu≥
pn\e®K∑qmO Suetac\;®Kc\;®poK´.j" She prayed, saying “May the great master and
I live together in this life to a ripe old age, and in all future lives even if we
are born as birds may we roost together on the same branch”.
• Alka;haet∑ AK¥in\kun\ mKMpåresn´≥b¥a" d^l¨kiu Kc\b¥a; mieAac\ Pm\;Niuc\rc\
Pm\;på" mieqaAKå kÁn\eta\ qipåres" Please don’t oblige me to waste my
time on inessentials. If you can arrest this man, do so. When you have
caught him, please let me know.
• Riuk\påes Âk^;Âk^;l˙ry\' Riuk\påes' qm^;kiu Riuk\på ememTa;' qm^;
B∑a;B∑a;tiu≥Sêta. q∑a;menpåresn´≥' ememTa;n´≥p´ enpåres" Let her beat me,
Kyi-kyi Hla, let her beat me. Strike me, Mother Htar. Please don’t make
me go and live with Granny. Please let me live with you, Mother Htar.
(f) in combination V-eslui FB = CB V-esK¥c\ to want sn to V;
• budÎBaqaAeÂkac\; qiesliuqv\" I should like you to know about Buddhism.
• By\AK¥in\ laesK¥c\ql´" What time do you want me to come?
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• kÁn\eta\.kiu enak\SuM; e®paesK¥c\ty\ Tc\ty\" I think they want me to speak

last.
• q¨≥qm^;kiu Aim\m˙alv\; enesK¥c\hn\ mt¨" It didn’t look as if she wanted her
daughter to live at home.
(g) in combination N1-®Ps\es N2-®Ps\es whether it be X or Y; usually
FB; = CB N1-®Ps\®Ps\ N2-®Ps\®Ps\;
• Macs Ass\ ®Ps\es' Mac clones ®Ps\es" Whether they be true Macs or Mac
clones.
• Industry Âk^; TëTac\Niuc\qv\ ®Ps\es' mTëTac\Nuic\qv\ ®Ps\es" Whether they
are able to set up an industry or not.
• IT Industry m‰˙ieq;liu≥p´ ®Ps\®Ps\' IT s∑m\;Aa; tiu;tk\mO enak\k¥eneq;liu≥p´
®Ps\®Ps\ By\liup´ ®Ps\enpåes" However it may be: whether because they don’t
yet have an IT industry, or because IT is still slow to make progress.
• kumπ%^fAP´∑≥wc\ ®Ps\es' m®Ps\es" Whether he is a member of the company or
not.
Sometimes in related use with other verbs:
• kÁn\eta\.kiu Riu;l∑n\;A,l∑n\;q¨hupc\ Siupåes" Let them say I am too simple-
minded (sc if they wish).
(h) in set phrases mv\qui≥®Ps\es however it may be, and mv\qui≥Suies
however you put it, whatever you say, anyway; pron /m¥^qOi Suiez/;
• lët∑ ls\lYc\eta. Aqael; Tka Aly\lm\;epÅm˙a elYak\erac\;rf"
mv\qiu≥Siues' esaesa kun\®p^; t∑k\e®Kkiuk\qv\pc\" When no-one was looking
she got up and sold her wares on the middle road. Whatever you may
say, if she sold out early at least she didn’t make a loss.
• enac\eta\®ms\kiu qeBça ®Pt\eqaAKå mv\qiu≥ ‰˙ilim\.mv\kiu et∑;pc\ met∑;wM.eta.ep"
mv\qiu≥®Ps\es enac\eta\Âk^;N˙c\. enac\eta\cy\®ms\kiu Sk\j ®Pt\ek¥a\repU^;mv\"
m¨;K¥c\qelak\ m¨;peleseta." I dared not think about how things would go
when the boat crossed the Naungdaw River. Anyway, we were going to
have to cross both the Naungdawgyi and the Naungdaw-ngeh. Let sea-
sickness do its worst!
(i) For the combination esË;eta. or esAuM;eta. see under Ë;eta. let it V, even
if V.
eskam¨ (V~) although, however; sub cls mkr, FB; = CB V-epm´;.
• Alup\tawn\ m¥a;eskam¨ q¨qv\ mvv\;vøep" Although he had many duties
he did not complain.
• mv\mYpc\ ep;reskam¨ 80-raKiuc\NOn\; k¥n\mv\" However much they had to pay,
80% would remain (to them).
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• Tiueta\l˙n\er;t∑c\ eAac\®mc\mO mrK´.eskam¨" Although they were not successful

in that rebellion (uprising).
sui≥- (V~-) let’s V; vb mod, CB; often V-Âksui≥; neg m-V-sui≥n´≥; cf V-reAac\;
• miu;K¥op\®p^' ®pn\Âksiu≥" It’s dark. Let’s all go home.
• nMmv\ em;Âksiu≥r´." Let’s ask each other’s names.
• me®pap´ enÂksiu≥" Let’s not tell them (“remain without telling”).
• enak\Tp\ met∑>Âkpåsiu≥n´≥la;" Let’s not meet again, OK?
• lm\;eB;m˙a ts\er;elak\ Aip\ÂkË;siu≥" Let’s take a nap at the side of the road.
• nm¨nats\KuAenn´≥ Âkv\.Âkmy\ Siurc\ qc\ha … yuznliu Shopping Centre-Âk^;
ts\Kukiu q∑a;ty\ Siupåsiu≥" To take an example, let’s suppose you went to a
large shopping centre like Yuzana.
esac\ (Nº~) and Aesac\ (~Nº) item, comm nmtv for letters, articles,
newspapers, magazines, tickets, etc; CB+FB;
• lk\m˙t\ N˙s\esac\ two tickets; q^tc\;saAesac\ 30 thirty newspapers.
sU\ 1 (V~) while, when V-ing, V-ing; loc nn, CB+FB, slightly formal; in CB
often V-s√\tun\;k or V-s√\AKå; cf V-t´.AKå CB = FB V-eqaAKå;
• kÁn\m sU\;sa;ensU\ q¨k ska; Sk\j e®paqv\" While I was considering he
continued speaking.
• AP∑a;Âk^;k qMskak∑y\m˙ enj k´Âkv\.ka e®pasU\ q¨≥qa;k tMKå;kiu
Kp\q∑k\q∑k\ TP∑c\.ep;qv\" While the (old) mother was speaking, eyeing me
from behind the iron grille, her son stood up and briskly opened the door
for me.
• ®mn\maNiuc\cMqv\ Agçlip\tiu≥ lk\eAak\t∑c\ ‰˙iensU\At∑c\;" During the time when
Burma was still under the rule of the English.
• nn\;sMeta\m¨sU\AKå" During his reign, while he was on the throne.
• Tuis√\AKå" At that time.
• rn\kun\m˙a ‰˙isU\tun\;k dåm¥oi; et∑≥P¨;m˙aepå." You surely came across that sort of
thing while you were in Yangon.
• qk\eta\ Tc\‰˙a;‰˙is√\kaltun\;k" When he was alive, during his lifetime.
Frequent in captions to photographs in newspapers:
• ‘mi>ny\eA;K¥m\;qayaer;N˙c\. P∑M>‘Pi;er;ekac\s^ Uk˚™ Ë;emac\emac\e@;k
P´’ki;®Pt\P∑c\.l˙s\ep;s√\" Township Peace and Development Council Chairman
U MMH cutting the ribbon (at an opening ceremony).
•buil\mØ;Âk^;tc\qin\;l∑c\ Am˙aska;e®paÂka;s√\" Colonel TTL giving instruction.
s√\ 2 (N~) every N, where N is a unit of time; nn mkr, mainly FB; = CB N-
tiuc\;' from verb s√\- to arrange in line;
• en≥sU\ every day, daily; lup\qa;®pv\q¨≥en≥sU\qtc\;sa Working People’s Daily;
en≥sU\liuliu almost every day; Apt\sU\ every week, weekly;
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Apt\sU\Tut\saesac\ weekly newsletters, weekly journal; lsU\ S∑m\;

q∑a;ekÁ;ty\" He goes and offers food (to the monk) every month.
s√\ 3 (N~) row, series, of Ns, N perceived as a line, a continuity; comm
elem cpd nn; CB+FB;
• eKåc\;s√\ heading, title; sas√\ series (of publications), a regular publication;
Am˙t\s√\ serial number; qMsU\ gamut, scale (in music); sarc\;s√\ list;
Sui‰˙y\ls\lm\;s√\ Socialist programme; miuc\eTac\K¥^Kr^;s√\ the journey to Mong
Tong; Biu;s√\ eBac\Sk\ lk\Tk\ktv\;k from the time of his grandfather
and great-grandfather; qMqram˙ l∑t\e®mak\eÂkac\; k¥c\.s√\tra; the
principles of practice for escaping from samsara; dåRiuk\tats\Ë;f
lup\Riu;lup\s√\ tawn\m˙Ap apart from a Director’s regular duties; TawsU\ qti
rl¥k\ remembering you always (commonly used at end of a letter).
sit\ (V~, VA~) attitude, feeling of V; sp hd nn, CB+FB; from noun sit\
“mind”;
• ek¥np\sit\N˙c\. wc\;em˙;eneqa m¥k\luM;AsuM" Apair of eyes gleaming with (a feeling
of) contentment.
• rc\T´m˙a mnaliusit\' mekac\;ÂkMsit\' mwc\reAac\ A®m´ gRusiuk\ty\" I always try
not to harbour (“let enter my heart”) feelings of envy and ill-will.
• kiuy\.r´. mun\;t´.sit\ AaGatsit\ ep¥ak\k∑y\Pu≥i Siuta kiuy\p´ lup\liu≥ rmy\" The
elimination of one’s feelings of hatred and resentment is something that
one can only achieve onself.
• kuiy\K¥c\;sasit\n´≥ lup\Âkpå" Please proceed with an attitude of sympathy and
understanding.
• puic\rNui; emYa\kui;sit\" The expectation of becoming the owner.
In combination V-K¥c\sit\ or V-luisit\ desire to V, wish to V;
• meN∑rc\T´m˙a ek¥a\q¨≥AepÅ rn\et∑>K¥c\sit\et∑ epÅlaqv\" A desire formed in
Ma Nwe’s heart to pick a quarrel with Kyaw Thu.
• kiuqin\;eS∑tiu≥k mTitTi enak\e®pac\enm˙n\; qij ry\K¥c\sit\kiu
m¥ioqip\Ta;relqv\" Realising that Ko TS and his friends were gently
poking fun at him, she had to suppress her urge to laugh.
• rn\kun\ erak\P¨;K¥c\sit\m¥a; epÅla®pn\elqv\" She again felt a wish to have
been to Yangon.
• q¨t∑c\ ®pliu(eqa)sit\ epÅlaqv\" He felt a desire to show off.
• l¨naet∑n´≥ pt\qk\®p^; … e®pa®pluisit\ ®Ps\rpåty\" I felt I wanted to tell them
about the patients.
sm\;- (V~-) conveys urgency, strong wish; vb mod; CB, rare in FB; (a) do
V, please V; in requests and commands;
• e®pasm\;påAuM;' enak\ Ba ®Ps\q∑a;ql´" Please tell me! What happened next?
69
• mlup\sm\;pån´≥" eqlim\.my\" For goodness’ sake, don’t do that! You’ll die.

• qa;' lk\ q∑a;eS;liuk\sm\;" Boy! Just go and wash your hands.
• Py\sm\;k∑y\" mROp\sm\;n´≥" Stand clear, man. Don’t get in the way.
• mc\;ska;kiu ®pc\e®pasm\;" You’d better change your words! (i.e. be less
discourteous).
(b) dearly wish to V; in connection with events passionately desired;
• Âka;K¥c\sm\;påBi" I very much want to hear it.
• Sraeta\”k^; ®mc\sm\;esK¥c\' qism\;esK¥c\påBity\lui≥ eAak\em.rpåty\" I thought
how much I would like the Sayadaw to see and know about this.
• Ë;l˙ qiesK¥c\sm\;taet∑ Am¥a;”k^;" Many are the things I’d love U Hla to
know.
• meqKc\ ®mc\q∑a;sm\;påres" Let me see it before I die.
sim\.- (V~-) cause to V (in the future); vb mod, FB, usually verse; from verb
modifier es “to cause” + AM. “future” qv;
• Kuns\rk\At∑c\; rsim\.mv\" I will see he receives it within a week.
Common in patterns V-sim\.(eqa)c˙a and V-sim\.(eqa)eÂkac\; in order to
make sn V, in order to cause V;
• Âka;pim\.q¨®mt\" Am¥a;m˙t\sim\." (verse, explained in prose as) lÄm¥a;tui≥
m˙t\qa;sim\.c˙a cåq¨®mt\ e®paÂka;epAM." I the virtuous will speak so that the
many may take note.
• q∑a;sim\.eqac˙a" In order to make him go.
• enak\enac\e®m;qa;' s^;p∑a;sU\‰˙v\ tv\sim\.eqaeÂkac\;" (To ensure) that our
descendants shall enjoy prosperity.
• rp\m¥k\N˙akui' k∑y\kasim\.eÂkac\;" (verse, explained in prose as)
Ak¥c\.ekac\;q¨tui≥kui kak∑y\Aer;y¨sim\.eqac˙a" So that men of virtuous
conduct may be protected.
s∑ (V~) V-s greatly, how V! marks exclamatory statement; stc mkr, FB;
• KuKMNuic\mv\ ew;s∑" He is totally unable to resist (“being able to resist is far
away”) (when his favourite queen argues with him).
• Aazanv\ p^l˙påeps∑" What a true hero he was!
• yen≥vka; T¨;®Ka;l˙eps∑" What an exceptional night it is tonight!
s∑a 1 (V~) -ly; forms adverbs from verbs; sub cls mkr, FB; = CB VV (qv under
“Repetition”);
• miBska;kiu el;sa;s∑a na;eTac\på FB = CB el;el;sa;sa; na;eTac\på" Listen
respectfully to your parent’s words.
• réBa\ quM;k¥ip\ g¥pn\®pv\qiu≥ lYoi>w˙k\s∑a q∑a;f" The Thirty Comrades went
secretly to Japan.
• l∑t\lp\s∑a er;qa;K∑c\." The right to write freely, freedom of expression.
70
• e‰˙;U^;s∑a or pTmU^;s∑a" First of all.

• AKåAa;el¥a\s∑a" As appropriate (“in accordance with the time”).
• kMAa;el¥a\s∑a" Fortunately.
The regular equivalent of Pali adverbs in nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p
206):
• sirM' Âka®mc\.s∑a" z^wtu' Aqk\‰˙c\eta\mësqtv\;" May you live for a long time.
• quKM' K¥m\;qas∑a" qyitÊ' Aip\eta\m¨rpåfela" Did you sleep well?
Form V-s∑a®Pc\. common in closing phrases in personal letters:
• Kc\mc\s∑a®Pc\. affectionately, in friendship; qtirs∑a®Pc\. remembering you;
ek¥;z¨;tc\s∑a®Pc\. gratefully, in gratitude.
Used extensively by some contemporary writers, perhaps on the model of
English adverbs:
• lk\KMs∑a acceptingly; ry\K¥c\s∑a as if wanting to laugh; sit\mpås∑a
uninterestedly, without interest; na;mlv\s∑a uncomprehendingly;
rv\R∑y\K¥k\m´.s∑a aimlessly.
s∑a- 2 (V~-) very, intensifier; in verse used to supply a rhyme; most common
in verb attributes (V-s∑aeqa N); vb mod, FB; cf CB l˙-;
• Pun\;Âk∑y\raza' k¥c\.Ap\s∑af" A powerful king should practise (these
principles).
• ”k^;s∑aeqa sit\Sc\;r´mO" Deep distress.
• K¥s\®mt\Nui;l˙s∑aeqa miPura;" His dearly beloved queen.
• ek¥np\l∑n\;l˙s∑aeqa Dat\pMuekac\;et∑ ren“p^mui≥" As he had taken some
photographs he was extremely pleased with.
• m¥a;s∑aeqa priqt\tiu≥qv\ ®cim\qk\s∑a na;eTac\enÂkqv\" The large
(numerous) audience listened quietly.
• Used without eqa in the set phrase ®mt\s∑aBura; The Noble Lord (Buddha).
S (Nº~) and AS (~Nº) Nº-fold, times; comm nmtv, CB+FB;
• n˙s\S tiu;laqv\ increased two-fold, doubled; AS quM;Sy\ thirty fold;
ASepåc\;m¥a;s∑a many times over.
S^ (N~, sts VA~) vicinity, place, presence of N, where N is a person; oc-
casionally used when N is a place; used with words meaning “to, from, at”
etc; cf French chez; loc nn, CB; = FB TM; frequently not voiced;
• q¨cy\K¥c\;S^m˙a Ta;K´.my\" I’ll leave it at my friend’s place.
• kuiesaS^ q∑a;mlui≥" I’m going to Ko Saw’s.
• By\q¨≥S^k rql´" _ Sra.S^k rtapå" Who did you get it from? — It was
from Saya; contrast the same phrases without the suffix: By\q¨k rql´"
_ Srak rty\" Who got it? — Saya got it.
• Aim\S^qiu≥ emac\;q∑a;qv\" He drove towards the house.
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•By\S^ q∑a;enm˙n\; mqiB¨;" I don’t know where she can have gone.
•kÁn\eta\tiu≥ ‰˙it´.S^ A®m´ ®pn\tap´" He always comes back to where we are.
S¨ (Nº~) and AS¨ (~Nº) item, comm nmtv for sacred objects, treatises, etc,
also folding paper manuscripts (parabaik) and fishing nets; CB+FB;
• Bura;quM;S¨ three pagodas; purpuik\N˙s\S¨ two parabaik; pva‰˙ikwits\S¨ a wise
man.
S´ (V~) is/was in the process of V-ing, is/was still V-ing; stc mkr,
CB+FB; cf CB V-tun\;'
• TiuAK¥in\k biul\K¥op\eAac\Sn\;qv\ ®bitiqYAsiu;rN˙c\. AÂkit\Any\ eS∑;eN∑;enS´
®Ps\epqv\" At that time General Aung San was in the process of intense
discussions with the British Government (to obtain independence).
• sarc\;m¥a; ‘plup\S´pc\ ‰˙ieq;ra" As the lists are still being drawn up.
• yKulv\; gyk\Riuk\Kt\S´pc\ ®Ps\j" And it is still causing repercussions.
• ek¥a\emac\emac\k pvaqc\S´miu≥ m^;PiueK¥ac\tawn\qv\ q¨flk\T´qiu≥
luM;luM;l¥a;l¥a; k¥erak\K´.elqv\" As KMM (her husband) was still study-
ing, responsibility for the cooking had fallen entirely into her hands.
• B%\pit\rlim\.my\ eÂk®ca®p^; t‘mi>luM; e®Kak\kp\kp\' Siuc\ eta\eta\ m¥a;m¥a;
pit\Ta;S´p´" Following the announcement that the banks may have to
close, the whole town is dead. Quite a few shops are still closed.
S´S´ (VA~ etc) on the point of V-ing, about to V; loc nn, CB+FB; common
in patterns V-luS´S´' V-mv\.S´S´' V-n^;S´S;´
• enwc\luS´S´ ‰˙i“p^ ®Ps\j" as the sun had nearly set.
• Tiur∑aqiu≥ erak\luS´S´t∑c\ elÂk^;mun\tiuc\; k¥laelf" They had nearly
reached the village when a great storm broke.
• ema\eta\ka;ts\s^;qv\ kÁN\up\tiu≥ ‰˙iraqiu≥ tv\.tv\. e®p;wc\laj emac\sM‰˙a;Aa;
tiuk\Kiuk\mv\.S´S´ ‰˙ielf" A car was driving straight towards us and was on
the point of running into MSS.
• eA;®cim\; 8-tn\; e®Prmv\.S´S´m˙apc\ AeP SMu;K´.qv\" Just before AN was to
have taken her Eighth Standard exam, her father died.
• eqKån^;S´S´" On the point of death.
• eqeta.m´.S´S´m˙aeta. P∑c\.e®paq∑a;rmy\" When he is on the verge of death he
will have to tell all.
Sui- 1 to sing, say, state; used in a variety of contexts with extended
meaning including to claim, think, suppose, be the case, be true,
obtain, etc: see the following entries. In FB h¨-' m˙n\-' ®Ps\- are often used
with comparable meanings.
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• ®pv\q¨l¨Tului≥ Suit´.enram˙a d^Nuic\cMm˙a ‰˙it´. 45 qn\;ek¥a\ Nuic\cMq¨ Nuic\cMqa;m¥a;

Aa;luM;kui Suiluitapå" When we say “the people” we mean all the 45 million
citizens of this country.
• tK¥oi≥q¨Kui;Ta;®pet∑l´ Ac\mtn\ qt†i‰˙ity\lui≥ Suirmy\" We have to admit that
some thieves and robbers have great courage.
Sui 2 (Stc~) with question intonation didn’t you say that Stc, I hear that
Stc, someone said Stc: is that right? truncated main clause, from mSuiB¨;
la; etc, CB;
• men≥k lamy\ Sui" Ba‘plui≥ mlaql´" I thought you said you would come
yesterday. Why didn’t you come?
• ts\eyak\k elAui;”k^; Sui" I hear that one of them is an old wind bag.
• bmaska; qc\enty\ Sui" I gather you’re learning Burmese: is that so?
• Aim\epÅ Ev\.qv\et∑ erak\en®p^ Sui" I hear you have visitors in the house: is
that right?
Sui 3 see under Sui®p^; saying, and Suirc\ if
Sui 4 see under mSiu unspecified, any
Sui 5 in pattern mSuiTa;n´≥ “not only” and variants, see under mSuiTa;n´≥
Suik see under Suirc\ if, in the case of
Suiktv\;k sts SuikT´k (Stc~) ever since sn said Stc, as soon as Stc;
sub cls, CB+FB; pron /Suigd´g/;
• Rup\‰˙c\mc\;qm^; wåwåwc\;erW cpl^ erak\laqv\ Suiktv\;k ®mNuqv\
wåwåwc\;erWAeÂkac\;kui em;r®mn\;rqv\m˙a emaenf" From the moment she
heard that the film star WWWS had come to Ngapali MN had been asking
about her all the time.
• r∑akiu l¨sim\;Ev\.qv\ erak\ty\ Siuktv\;k By\qët∑p´'
Balalup\Âktap´Siuta ts\r∑alMu; qtc\;®pn\≥q∑a;el. ‰˙ipåty\" As soon as
people heard that there were strangers visiting the village, the whole
village used to spread the news of who they were and why they had come.
• k∑n\p¥øtaqs\ts\luM;kiu wy\ty\ Siuktv\;k mimilup\cn\;m˙a AquM;K¥m˙p´
ekac\;påty\" As soon as you have bought a new computer, the best thing
is to put it to use in your business.
Suika (Stc~) saying Stc, on the grounds that Stc; sub cls, FB; = CB Sui®p^;'
•men≥kpc\ KRu Arnv\;qv\ Suika luM;qaBk\qui≥ q¨kuiy\tuic\ luik\q∑a;qv\" Only
yesterday he said that there weren’t enough shellfish and went off to
Lontha.
SuiKåm˙ (Stc~) only when Stc; sub cls, FB;
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• buik\T´t∑c\ haenqv\' buik\Saqv\ SuiKåm˙ qv\en≥mnk\ hc\;K¥k\sra m‰˙i" Only

when (she realised that) her stomach was empty, that she was hungry,
(did she remember that) there was nothing to cook for breakfast.
Sui®ca;AM. see under Suirc\ if, in the case of
Suies see under mv\qui≥Suies anyway
Suita CB = FB Suiqv\ “that which says”; cf FB mv\qv\; FB form pron
/Suiq˙^/; nominalized clause (see under ta), with different functions
according to context: (a) (N~) the thing called N, such a thing as N, the
expression “N”;
• Nuic\cMeta\ Suita Bal´" What is “the state”?
• ss\tm\; Suiqv\m˙a m˙t\tn\;ts\m¥oi; ®Ps\påqv\" A sit-tan (“this thing called sit-
tan”) is a kind of record. (In more formal style h¨qv\m˙a would be used in
place of Suiqv\m˙a; = CB ss\tm\;Suita m˙t\tn\;ts\m¥oi;p´")
• laB\ep;laB\y¨ Suita By\q¨m˙ Aa;mep;qc\.B¨;" No one should encourage
(this thing called) bribery.
• Performa Suitaha 5300 t®Ps\l´påp´" The Performa model is just the 5300
under another name.
• pehLi Suita Bae®patal´" What is the meaning of the word “paheli”?
(b) (statement~) the claim that [statement], the fact that [state-
ment], such a thing as [statement]; common with verbs of knowing, say-
ing etc; cf FB V-eÂkac\;'
• ek¥ac\;q∑a;ty\ Suita hut\r´.la;" Is it true (as claimed) that he went to the
school?
• d^kui erak\lalim\.my\ Suita men≥ktv\;k qienpåty\" He has known since
yesterday that they’d probably be coming here.
• ln\dn\k mit\eS∑et∑Aa;luM;kui qti rty\ Suita e®pa®pep;på" Please tell all
friends in London that I remember them. (Cf qtireÂkac\; e®pa®pep;på")
• Alup\k Tut\ps\ty\ Suita m®Ps\qc\.B¨;" Being thrown out of your job is
something that shouldn’t happen.
• Atc\; tuik\et∑ eSak\Kuic\;enty\ Suita kÁn\eta\tui≥ Âka;enrty\" We have
heard that people are being forced to construct buildings.
(c) (question~) the matter of [question], the question of [question];
common with verbs of asking, saying, believing, thinking, etc; cf FB V-
eÂkac\;'
• m´ By\lui ert∑k\my\ Suita meÂk®caeq;B¨;" They haven’t yet announced
how they’re going to count the votes.
• Asv\;Aew;m˙a Bae®parc\ ekac\;ml´ Suita s√\;sa;Ta;AuM;" Have a think about
(the matter of) what we should say at the meeting.
74
• l¨Tur´. SN∂n´≥ v^mv^ Suita mqiB¨;" They don’t know whether or not it is in
accord with the wishes of the people.
• l∑t\lp\er; Ba®Ps\lui≥ rK´.ql´ Suitakui sU\;sa;rm˙apå" We must consider (the
question) why it was that we achieved independence.
Suit´. CB = FB Suiqv\. or Suieqa (a) (statement~ N) the N that is said to be
[statement]; verb attribute;
• bn\ekak\k lWc\.ty\ Suit´. AqM mÂka;luik\rpåB¨;" I didn’t happen to hear
the broadcast he was said to have made from Bangkok.
• eN∑;ep. Suit´. ATv\et∑" Material which is (claimed to be) tremendously
warm.
• ekac\;ep. Suit´. Aq^;et∑" Fruit which is (said to be) really good.
• pvaer;l∑t\lp\mO Suit´.AT´m˙a l∑t\lp\s∑a e®paSuipuic\K∑c\.' l∑t\lp\s∑a
er;qa;puic\K∑c\.' l∑t\lp\s∑a Tut\ePa\puic\K∑c\. Suitaet∑ Aa;luM; påPui≥ luipåty\" In
the notion of freedom of education we need to include freedom of speech,
freedom of writing, and freedom of publication.
• Aenak\tuic\;f Aec∑≥Aqk\m¥a; TiKt\enqv\ Suieqa ‘mi>Âk^;m¥a;" Large towns,
which are said to be affected by western influence.
(b) (statement~ N) the N that says [statement], the N that means
[statement], the N that is related to [statement];
• namv\rc\;k S¨;S¨;ek¥a\på" Kc\mc\t´. q¨cy\K¥c\;et∑k S¨;lui≥ AeKÅ m¥a;eta. S¨;
Suit´. namv\ t∑c\K´.ty\" His real name was Su Su Kyaw, but his close
friends called him Su, so the name Su became established.
• d^muikers^ Suit´. eKåc\;s√\" The heading “democracy”.
• qeBa mekac\;B¨; Suit´. ADipπay\ T∑k\ty\" It has the meaning “He’s not
kind”.
• Nuic\cMer; Ae®KAen By\lui ‰˙iK´.ql´ Suit´. AeÂkac\; el.laTa;ty\" I studied
the question of what the political situation was at the time.
• AK¥c\;K¥c\; NOt\Sk\Pui≥ Suit´. enram˙a A®pn\Al˙n\ ®Ps\qc\.ty\" In the matter of
greeting one another the action should be reciprocal.
(c) (name~ N) the N that is called [name];
• msN∂a Suit´. saer;Sram an author named Ma Sanda; eka\n´ Suit´. tk˚quil\ a
university called Cornell; cå;N˙s\ raq^ Suiqv\. saAup\ the book called “A
Five-year Period”; ek¥;kuic\ Suiqv\. AraTm\;m˙a the official known as a kyay-
gaing; c˙k\et∑ Suit´≥ ka;m˙a in the film called “The Birds”; eÂkak\sra m‰˙iB¨;
Suit´. sit\Dåt\ha a fearless attitude (“the attitude that says there is
nothing to fear”).
Suit´.Aram˙a' Suit´.kisßm˙a see under Suirat∑c\ when we speak of
75
Suieta. (a) (N~) because it is N, as, since it is N; sub cls, CB, cf FB ®Ps\j'
®Ps\qv\.At∑k\;
• ep¥ak\qv\.' k¥n\rs\qv\. psßv\;k mv\qv\. psßv\;pålim\." mui;Kå Suieta. T^;p´
®Ps\tn\raqv\" What could the lost object be? Since it was the rainy season
it would surely be an umbrella.
• Agçlip\sa Suieta. qip\sa;mekac\;B¨;" As it is English food, it’s not very tasty.
• mc\;k ek¥ac\;Sra Suieta. saepeta. wåqna påm˙aepå≥" As you are a school
teacher you must be interested in literature.
• enak\em;K∑n\;k Avaqa;tË;t´." Avaqa; Suieta. kÁn\eta\tui≥Am¥oi;epå.ena\"
The next question is from an Upper Burman. As he’s an Upper Burman
then he must be one of our relatives.
• l∑t\lp\er;en≥ Suieta. l∑t\lp\er;n´≥ pt\qk\lui≥l´ kÁn\eta\ e®paK¥c\tael;
nń´på;på; ‰˙ipåty\" As it’s Independence Day there are also a few things I’d
like to say about Independence.
(b) (statement~) since [statement] is the case, given that [state-
ment];
• sMsMk Ev\.qv\ eKÅlamy\ Suieta. Tmc\; Tp\K¥k\Ta;Pui≥ luilim\.my\" As San San
is bringing a visitor we’ll need to cook some extra rice.
• q¨k Ara‰˙iÂk^;qa; Suieta. l∑y\l∑y\n´≥ rm˙aepå≥" As he is the son of a senior
official, of course he’d get one easily.
(c) (question~) when we consider the [question], in answer to [ques-
tion];
• q¨k By\lui ®pn\e®pal´ Suieta. {mluiB¨;}t´." What he replied was: “It’s not
necessary”.
• Ba®Ps\lui≥l´ Suieta. … " When we ask why …, the reason is as follows: ….
• ADipπåy\k Bal´ Suieta. … " When we ask what is meaning of this …, the
meaning of this is ….
• suMsm\;Âkv\.eta. By\lui et∑>rl´ Suieta. … " When we inquire into this and
ask what we find, …, our findings are ….
Suien (Stc~) I’ve been telling you Stc, I thought I told you Stc; convey-
ing mild exasperation; truncated main clause, from Suientapå etc, CB;
• h´. mel;' Aip\eta.liu≥ Siuen" Hey! Ma Lay! I thought I told you to go to
sleep!
ASuipå (~N) the aforesaid N, the N mentioned previously; truncated verb
attribute, from ASuim˙a påqv\. etc, CB+FB;
• ASuipå dåRuik\ta" The previously mentioned director.
• ASiupå qtc\;ekac\;kiu Âka;rqv\N˙c\.ts\‘pic\nk\" As soon as he heard the good
news I referred to.
76
Suipåk see under Suirc\ if, in the case of

Suipåeta. and Suipåsui≥ (N~, Stc~) let’s say N/Stc, shall we say, you might
say N/Stc, in other words N/Stc; main clause, CB;
• ln\dn\kui lam´. AsÂsU\ P¥k\luik\på®p^" AeÂkac\;eÂkac\;et∑eÂkac\. Suipåeta." I
have cancelled my plans to come to London — let’s say for a variety of
reasons.
• Âkv\.eta. Bae®Kram˙AsAn m‰˙iB¨;Kc\b¥" _ Kc\b¥a; m®mc\B¨; Suipåeta.b¥a" I
looked but there weren’t any footprints or clues at all. — In other words
you didn’t see any.
• mmnamv\keta. Umμap´la;hc\ _ Suipåeta.k∑y\" Your name is Ohmmar is it?
— Yes, you could say that.
• kÁn\eta\n´≥ et∑>eleta." ts\eyak\ts\eyak\ K¥s\’kik\“p^; AeÂkac\;påÂkera
Suipåeta.Kc\b¥a" When she met me we fell in love and — to put it briefly —
we married.
• mSuic\taet∑ e®pamenpån´≥b¥a … d^m˙a Kc\b¥a; ®pn\mep;Nuic\B¨; Suipåeta.…" Don’t
beat about the bush. Let’s just say that you can’t give it back to me.
• kÁn\eta\. AedÅts\eyak\ Suipåeta. cy\cy\ktv\;k kÁn\eta\tui≥n´≥ enty\"
(This woman), you could say she was an aunt of mine, lived with us since
I was small.
• Suipåeta. _ Kc\b¥a;k priqt\T´ken®p^; lk\cå;eK¥ac\; eTac\®pmy\ Suipåeta."
For example: suppose you are in the audience and you show five fingers
(how does the blindfolded man know how many fingers you are showing?).
Suip^; see under Sui®p^; saying
Suiepmy\. or Suiepm´. or Suiepmv\. CB = FB Suieqa\(®ca;)lv\; (N~, Stc~) although
it is/was N, despite being N; although it is true that Stc; sub cls;
• sk\®pc\k ®pc\ep;qv\" sk\®pc\ Suiepmv\. sk\®pc\ ASc\. (3)mYqa ®Ps\qv\" The
mechanic carried out the repair. Though he was described as a mechanic
he was only minimally qualified.
• kuiy\ekac\;lYc\ eKåc\;By\er∑> Suiepmy\. mekac\;qët∑k Kp\m¥a;m¥a;mui≥ sui;rim\mita
Am˙n\på" Although (the proverb) says that if the body is sound the head
won’t be turned, there are nonetheless a lot of wrong-doers and you can’t
help being anxious.
• Apå;k krc\ Siueqa\lv\; ®mn\maeq∑;k ts\wk\ påqv\miu≥ kel;et∑k krc\N˙c\.
qip\mt¨l˙ep" Although (it was true that) Apa was a Karen, he was half
Burmese so his children didn’t look much like Karens.
• k¥n\;mapåf" satt\påf" Âk∑y\wpåf Suieqa\®ca;lv\; mit\ekac\;eS∑ekac\;
m‰˙ipåk mqc\.el¥a\eK¥" Although a man may be healthy, well educated and
well off, if he has no good friends that is not as it should be.
77
• kÁn\eta\qv\ ek¥ac\;Sra Alup\®Pc\. Aqk\em∑;wm\;ek¥ac\;qv\hu Suieqa\lv\;

ts\Pk\klv\; miBlk\cup\ly\kel;kui lk\mlWt\Nuic\B´ l¨c˙a;®Pc\.
T∑n\yk\lup\kuic\enreq;f" Although I earned a living as a teacher, I
couldn’t abandon the land I inherited from my parents and I had to work
it with the help of a labourer.
Suip´ (Stc~) so it is said, according to reports; truncated main clause, CB;
sts with sentence marker omitted before Su;i
• A´d^m˙a Al∑n\ ep¥a\sra ekac\;ty\ Suip´" They say that one has lots of fun
there.
• dêkac\keta. … tiuc\;rc\;eS;pvaSiuta Bal´ Siut´. sit\wc\sa;mOn´≥ lata
Siup´" ”k^;”k^; k¥y\k¥y\" But this fellow came along with a consuming
interest in finding out what traditional medicine was like, so they say.
• ek¥ac\;®p^;rc\ Bwts\Kukui At¨ t∑´tv\eTac\mlui≥ Suip´" He even said that when
he was out of university he’d like to start a new life with me.
• dÂÂkMkiu saer;”k^;kiuAun\;erWn´≥At¨ ”kit\ÂkMÂk Siup´" People said that they
hatched this plot with senior clerk U Ohn Shwe.
• på‰˙n\;el;qma;et∑k ty\m¥a; Siup´" The rumour was that the Persians had
huge numbers of archers.
Sui®p^; or Sui®p^;eta. sts shortened to Sui (a) (Stc~) after saying Stc, thinking
Stc, having in mind that Stc, on the grounds that Stc; sts written Suip^;
or Suip^;eta.; sub cls, CB; cf FB Suika' h¨j;
• ®pn\mAm\;pån´≥ Sui®p^; T∑k\q∑a;Âkty\" They said “Don’t give me the change”
and went out.
• lk\Aup\K¥^“p^; nmt\set; Sui“p^; NOt\Sk\Âkpåty\" They greet each other by
saying Namaste with hands raised, palms together.
• b^dui”k^; AquM; mk¥eta.B¨; Sui®p^; m^;lYoips\luik\mlui≥" Thinking that the old
cupboard was no longer any use I was going to burn it.
• q¨m¥a;k mhut\ta lup\mla; Sui“p^;eta. eÂkak\laty\" They become fearful,
wondering if other people are going to do something wrong.
(b) (N~) making the sound N, going N, with an N, where N is expres-
sive of a sound; usually in shortened form Su;i
• q¨Kui;k wun\;Sui epÅla“p^;" A thief appears suddenly (“with a boom”).
• eha ®bon\;duic\;Sui Aim\e‰˙>kui erak\la“p^" Hey presto, they’re suddenly there in
front of the house (“going boom bang”).
Suiyc\ see under Suirc\ if, in the case of
Suirc\ or Suiyc\ or Suilui≥‰˙irc\ or Sui CB = FB SuilYc\' Sui(på)k' Sui®ca;AM. (a) (N~,
Phr~) if you take the case of N/Phr, in the case of N/Phr; sub cls;
78
• tK¥oi> min\;Kel;et∑ Suirc\ TB^ tuitui wt\Âkty\" (In the case of) some girls
(they) wear their longyis short.
• k¥mqa Sui ®cc\;ty\" If it were me, I would have refused you (i.e. if you had
asked me I would have said no).
• q¨≥AePkSui Ac\mtn\ K¥m\;qata" Her father is very well off.
• yKu SuilYc\ mv\qi≥u eqa ®pœnam¥a;kui rc\Suic\enreplim\.ml´" What kind of
difficulties will they be facing at the present time?
• qv\en≥SiulYc\ Kc\l∑m\;tiu≥Aim\m˙a l¨sMutk\sMu ‰˙ienqv\" On this particular day
there was a crowd of friends at KL’s.
• q¨tui≥ ROeTac\.Ar Suirc\ d^kisß eta\eta\ Aer;Âk^;taepå≥" From their point of
view this matter is very important.
• lK ts\Kutv\;n´≥ Suirc\ ASc\me®pB¨;" Just on one person’s salary one can’t
manage.
• d^luiSui(rc\) saAup\kui q¨≥S^ mpui≥n´≥eta." In that case, don’t send the book to him
after all.
• tnv\;Aa;®Pc\. Suilui≥‰˙irc\" Put another way, in other words.
• ®mn\maNuic\cMm˙a Suilui≥‰˙irc\ qip\“p^;eta. Sc\;r´t´.qët∑ m‰˙iB¨;" In Burma there are
no really poor people.
• ek¥ac\;tun\;keta. kuiy\qeBamk¥ mN˙s\qk\q¨ SuilYc\ mepåc\;B´ enluik\RMup´"
While they were at school, if it was someone they didn’t get on with, all
they had to do was avoid their company.
Also common in short connecting phrases:
• d^luiSui or dåSui CB = FB qui≥SuilYc\ if that’s the way it is, in that case, so;
• tky\Sui really, actually;
• UpmaSuirc\ for example.
(b) (statement~) if [statement] is the case, if [statement];
• Ae®KAenkui siss\Âkv\.ROmv\ Suipåk FB = CB Ae®KAen siss\Âkv\.my\ Suirc\" If
we examine the situation.
• Am˙n\Atuic\; e®parmy\ Suirc\" To be quite frank.
• lk\S∑ŃOt\Sk\my\ Sui teyak\s^teyak\s^ Sui m“p^;Nuic\B¨;" If they were to
greet each other with handshakes, given that they’d do it one by one, it
would never end (re ways of greeting a crowd of people).
• kÁn\eta\tui≥Aa;luM; lk\t∑´®p^;eta. lup\my\ Suirc\ e®P‰˙c\;Nuic\påty\" If we all work
hand in hand then (these difficulties) can be overcome.
• Aa;luM; ekac\;enty\ Suirc\ tui;tk\sra mluieta.B¨;epå." If everything is all
right then there’s no need for improvement.
79
• cpl^ q∑a;K¥c\ty\ dk\d^r´. Sui K¥k\K¥c\; luik\pui≥Pui≥ s^sU\tap´" If she said “I want
to go to Ngapali, Daddy” then he immediately made arrangements to take
her.
• nv\;nv\;m¨;®p^ SiulYc\ U^;el;k A®ps\‰˙as®m´" When Uncle got a little drunk, he
would become grouchy.
• tky\eta. esaewqv\ Rui;gu%\el;kui Rui;qa;s∑a Sk\lk\Tin\;q∑a;mv\ Suipåk
kb¥aqs\ekac\;kc\Ò Am¥a; ema.Âkv\.rmv\. ‘gih\®pats\sc\;pc\ ®Ps\mv\" If SW
continues to maintain her simplicity, then she will become a blue planet
in the poetic firmament, looked up to by many.
(c) (statement~) as soon as [statement], immediately on [state-
ment], once [statement]; compare V-tan´≥' V-V-K¥c\;'
• erak\la®p^ SuilYc\ yaU\p¥k\kui pålaqv\. sk\®pc\k ®pc\ep;qv\" As soon as
(the break-down truck) arrived the mechanic on board repaired the
broken down vehicle.
• k¥mlv\; enekac\;“p^; RuM;®pn\tk\ty\ Suirc\p´ sentngçeN∑ ts\rk\m˙ mna;rB¨;"
No sooner was I better and back at work than I didn’t have a single day,
not a Saturday or Sunday, off.
• meN∑keta. ek¥ac\;lWt\qv\ SiulYc\pc\ l∑y\Ait\kiu ps\K¥ka ek¥a\q¨≥S^
erak\latt\®m´pc\" As for Ma Nwe, no sooner were they out of school than
she regularly flung down her Shan bag and turned up at KT’s.
(d) (question~) if we consider the [question], in answer to [question];
• q¨tui≥ Aenn´≥ BaKk\ql´ Suirc\ AqMT∑k\påp´" For them, what’s difficult is the
pronunciation.
• q¨tui≥ ASui k¥ena\ BaeÂkac\. meTak\KMql´ Suirc\ Ae®KAen puiSui;q∑a;m˙a
sui;lui≥på" My reason for not supporting their proposal is that I’m afraid it’ll
make the situation worse.
Often used in Burmese where English would use a connecting phrase, e.g.
• BaeÂkac\.l´ Suirc\ the reason is … (“if we ask why …”); By\N˙s\m˙al´ Suirc\ the
year was … (“if we ask in which year …”); By\q¨l´ Suirc\ the person was
… (“if we ask who …”).
Suirat∑c\' SuiraÒ (Stc~) when we speak of Stc, when I say Stc, in the
matter of Stc; sub cls, FB = CB Suit´.Aram˙a' Suit´.kisßm˙a;
• Rui;raAluik\ Sk\KMqv\ SuiraÒ" In this matter of hereditary succession.
• Am˙n\k Aip\ty\ Suiram˙a kuiy\erasit\på luM;w Ana;y¨tam¥oi; ®Ps\rmy\" In fact,
this matter of sleeping should be a complete relaxation for both body and
mind.
• Baqaska;kui el.larmv\ SuiraÒ {f' qv\ mer∑;} mSuiluipå" When I say we
must study language, I don’t mean things like í, thi, and maywè.
80
• dutiyAÂkim\®pc\Sc\tv\;®Pt\®Kc\; SuiraÒ m¨lAaeBa\kui luM;w m®pc\på" Though

this is described as a “second edition” I have not made any change in the
original meaning.
Suila; (N~, Phr~) Was it called N?, I think they said N, N or something
like that; truncated main clause, CB;
• k¥op\wy\rm˙a … A´ namv\eta. meKÅtt\B¨;k∑y\' Aqk\ky\eS; Siula;p´"
This thing I have to buy … I can’t say the name of it: was it something like
“life-saving medicine”?
• mmeA;®cim\;tiu≥Aim\k min\;met∑k mc\;qm^;et∑la;hc\" _ hut\påB¨;hy\'
RMu;saer;met∑ Siula;" Are the women at your house film stars? — Certainly
not. I think someone said they were secretaries.
• Aim\‰˙c\eyak¥\a;k biul\mØ; Siula;p´" tv\tv\Kn\≥Kn\≥ entt\qv\" The landlord
was a major, I think they said. Serious and respectable.
• “p^;eta. BaAsv\;Aew; Siula;' mnk\®Pn\ RuM;kiu e®Kak\nar^K´∑ Aerak\ lapåt´."
Also he said I have to be at the office at 6.30 tomorrow for some meeting
or other (“what meeting was it he said?”).
• A´´d^T´m˙a ka;‘pic\p∑ÁeÂkac\; pålaty\" By\Nuic\cMm˙a lup\t´. ka;‘pic\p∑´ Suila;p´´"
In that (article) there was something about motor racing. I can’t
remember what country it was that the races were held in.
Suilui≥ (Stc~) because it was said that Stc, because I heard that Stc; sub
cls, CB;
• pn\;Kuic\el;et∑ luiK¥c\ty\ Suilui≥ kÁn\m lapui≥ta" Someone said you needed
sprays of flowers so I brought some.
• Sra gen≥ dÂK¥in\ ®pn\erak\my\ Suilui≥ AKu laet∑>tapå" I heard that you
were coming back today at this time, so that’s why I came to see you.
Suilui≥‰˙irc\ see under Suirc\ if, in the case of
SuilYc\ see under Suirc\ if, in the case of
SuiqmY all that can be said to be N: see under mY as much as
Suiq¨ (name~) person known as; (name~N) N known as [name], N
called [name]; noun, CB+FB;
• emac\tc\ Suiq¨TMm˙ elYak\lWats\esac\ relqv\" An application was received
from (a person called) Maung Tin.
• kuieAac\ Suiq¨ e®paluik\eqa ska;ts\K∑n\;" A word spoken by the person
called Ko Aung.
•Kc\q^ta Suiq¨ min\;kel;qv\" The girl called Khin Thida.
Suieqa see under Suit´. said to be
Suieqa\ (a) (N~, Phr~) if you consider N, if you put it in Phr; sub cls, FB;
cf FB SuilYc\, CB Suirc\ qv and variants;
81
• TiuAmOÒ Bgçla;‘mi>pulip\tiu≥ l¨Siu;m¥a;kiu Pm\;S^;K∑c\. m‰˙ieta.eK¥" AeÂkac\;kiu

Siueqa\ B^l¨;K¥s\stn\qeBçaqv\ Bgçla;pc\ly\eAa\T´t∑c\ mun\tiuc\;mij
Kr^;qv\m¥a;N˙c\.tk∑ qeBçaqa;m¥a;på ts\eyak\mk¥n\ ns\®mop\p¥k\s^;j
kun\eleqaeÂkac\.eptv\;" In this case the Bengal Police were unable to
arrest the culprits. The reason was (“if we state a reason”) that the vessel
Baluchistan was struck by a storm in the Bay of Bengal and went down
with no survivors either of passengers or crew.
• eA;misMqv\ edÅedÅtc\ kiuy\sa; eZ;erac\;Piu≥ ’ki;sa;rqv\" ts\nv\;Aa;®Pc\.
Siueqa\ eZ;q∑a;erac\;enrqv\k eA;misMAt∑k\ AN †ray\ kc\;f" Aye Mi
San tried to take over the market work from Daw Daw Tin. For one thing
(“if we put it one way”), going out to work in the market kept her out of
harm’s way (i.e. out of reach of the man of the house).
• mc\;Aepåc\;tui≥qv\ UpmaAa;®Pc\. Suieqa\ ®Keq.çmc\;N˙c\. te®p;v^s∑a k¥c\.Âkraqv\"
All kings, to make a comparison (“if we cite a parallel”), should act exactly
like the king of the lions.
(b) (question~) if you ask question; frequent in the phrase ABy\eÂkac\.
Suieqa\ “if we ask the reason”, the reason is …, this is because …;
• erd^yium¥a;t∑c\ &c\;Am¥oi;Asa;kiu m¥a;s∑a AqMu;‘pÂkelqv\" ABy\eÂkac\. Siueqa\
ec∑kun\ qk\qa®Kc\;' enra my¨®Kc\; seqa AeÂkac\;AK¥k\m¥a;eÂkac\.pc\ ®Ps\
elqv\" This type is widely used in radios. This is because of its cheap-
ness and small size and other features.
• ts\sMuts\ra q´l∑n\s mrqv\kiu qi‰˙iNiuc\elqv\" ABy\.eÂkac\. Siueqa\ Aky\j
q´l∑n\srlalYc\ kiusM‰˙a;f m¥k\lMu;m¥a; e®pac\lk\j" NOt\Km\;m¥a;qv\
k¥p\tv\;s∑a sij Ta;tt\elqv\" I knew he had not found a clue. (I could
tell) because when Ko SS found a clue his eyes flashed and he held his
lips tightly closed.
• ts\en≥t∑c\ kÁN\up\qv\ hqçatqiu≥ q∑a;rn\ kisßepÅlaf" ABy\eÂkac\. Suieqa\
rn\kun\erak\ hqçatq¨ hqçatqa;m¥a;k … qMGa.dånS∑m\;elac\;p∑´”k^;
q∑a;erak\®polup\mv\ SiueqaeÂkac\. ®Ps\qv\" One day I had occasion to go to
Hinthada. This arose because I had heard that people from Hinthada
who were living in Yangon were to hold a grand feast for the monks.
Suieqa\lv\; see under Suiepm´. although
Suiqv\ see under Suita that which says
Suiqv\. see under Suit´. said to be
Sk\- or Sk\lk\- (~V-) to continue, resume V-ing; comm pre-vb, CB+FB;
from verb Sk\- to connect;
• ®mn\ma®pv\t∑c\ ®mn\maska; Sk\lk\( j) qc\K¥c\påqv\" I want to continue
learning Burmese in Burma.
82
•Sk\(®p^;) na;eTac\ÂkpåAuM;" Please continue listening.

Sc\.- 1 (~V-) to V in succession, to repeat V-ing, V another time; comm
pre-vb, CB+FB; cf Tp\-' ®pn\-; from verb Sc\.- to stack one above another;
• N˙s\K∑k\ Sc\.sa;®p^; …" Having eaten two bowls one after another.
• ka;tMKå;pit\qM ®pc\;®pc\;N˙s\K¥k\ Sc\.Âka;r“p^;t´´.enak\" After he had heard the
slam of a car door twice in succession.
• gs\ta’ki;kiu Sc\.jSc\.j t^;Kt\liuk\qMeÂkac\." Because of the sound of a
guitar string being plucked repeatedly.
Sc\. 2 see under tSc\. through, via
SuM; (N~) most, extreme N; most frequently in pattern A-V-SuM; V-est; also
m-V-SuM; least V; nn mod, CB+FB; sts attributed in pattern A-V-SuM;eqa
N;
• pTmSuM; first of all; Arc\SuM; earliest; enak\SuM; latest, last; By\Pk\SuM; furthest
on the left. Aekac\;SuM; the best; A’kik\SuM; most liked, favourite; Ayut\SuM;
at least; A®mn\SuM;m^;rTa; fastest train; A®mt\SuM;l¨ the most excellent man
(cf CB A®mt\SuM;eqaq¨); mp¨SuM; AK¥in\ least hot time.
• d^kmıaelakm˙a emt†aqa Aer;A”k^;SuM;på" In this world it’s love that is the
most important thing.
• eTac\T´m˙a Al∑n\SuM; 2-N˙s\p´ enrmy\" At the most he will only have to spend
two years in prison.
• cr´k¥påes Suita Ak¥in\ÂkSuM;på" “May they go to hell” is the most common
curse.
• Aerac\;rSuM; mg©zc\;" The magazine with the highest sales.
• manSuita … ANupvany\py\m˙a mekac\;SuM;p´" Pride is the worst thing in the
world of fine art.
• q¨ ®pMo;luik\ta”k^;kui m”kiok\SMu;B´" His big smile is what I like least of all.
• sit\mekac\; A®Ps\rSuM;en≥" My most unhappy day.
• Al˙pAP∑y\raSuM;eqa g uik\kui Pm\;j" Adopting the most elegant and delicate
manner.
• Atun\lOp\esNuic\SuM;eqa AaRuM" The object of perception that can cause the
greatest disturbance (for men this is women).
ASuM; 1 (VA~) in patterns m-V-Nuic\qv\.ASuM;' V-mrqv\.ASuM; FB = CB V-
mrt´.ASuM; and similar finally, after failing to V; sub stc mkr; pron
/q˙iASun\;/;
• mv\qui≥mY eZ;Ss\j mrqv\.ASuM;t∑c\ … Aa;luM; ep;q∑c\;luik\Âkrqv\" After
they had tried to agree on a price and failed, they had to return
everything.
83
• ÂkMra mreta.qv\.ASuM; Kc\mk twk\ wn\KMqv\" KM did her utmost to think

of an explanation, but in the end was obliged to make a partial
confession.
• e®pamrt´.ASuM; Ruik\ps\luik\mity\" She did her utmost to control (the child) by
speaking to him, but when that failed she gave him a smack.
• At¨ enlui≥ mrt´. ASuM; k∑a‰˙c\;ps\luik\ty\" They tried hard to live together,
but in the end they had to separate.
• ts\pt\Kn\≥ kÁn\eta\ esac\.eqa\lv\; mVui®pak epÅmla" menNuic\qv\.ASuM;
kÁn\eta\ luik\q∑a;Pui≥ ®pc\rqv\" I waited about a week, but there was no sign
of Ma NP. As I couldn’t wait any longer, I made ready to go after her.
ASuM; 2 in pattern m-V-K¥c\(m˙)ASuM; more than one wants to V, more
than enough V-ing; “ending only when you don’t want to V any more”; sub
cls mkr, CB+FB;
• z^;Tup\ sa;t´. mc\;qm^;et∑' ASup\kc\Sa ®Ps\eAac\ eÂka\®caep;t´. mc\;qa;et∑' …
b^sks\ wå;ent´. m¥k\K∑k\et∑ Rup\®mc\qMÂka;m˙a m®mc\K¥c\m˙ASuM; ®Ps\enta" All
these actresses on the TV chewing dried plums, and actors advertising
things that lead to lung cancer, and faces munching biscuits — there are
more than I care to see.
• ®KMqma; Suit´. Uy¥a√\mØ;r´. Alup\kui m®mc\K¥c\m˙ASuM;p´ ‰˙ieta.taepå≥" (When I lived
on a market garden plot) I saw more of the gardener’s work than I needed
to.
• m®mc\K¥c\ASuM; et∑>enrtak nt\keta\et∑ nt\Tin\;et∑r´. lk\T´m˙a ec∑sk˚øet∑
AeP∑;qa; kuic\lui≥" What you couldn’t avoid seeing (at the nat festival) was
that the nat mediums and nat minders had their hands full of wads of
notes.
• q¨tui≥rc\®m∑aAsuMkuilv\; m®mc\K¥c\ASuM; l∑t\lp\er; ep;Ta;Âkelqv\" (The
nursing mothers) gave their breasts freedom (i.e. exposed them) for as
long as you wanted to look, until you were tired of seeing them.
• Pun\;luic\;et∑ wc\wc\p¨;enq®Pc\. ®mt\Kuic\tui≥m˙a mÂka;K¥c\m˙ASuM;" With the phones
getting crossed lines all the time MK heard more than he wanted to.
• Aui … met∑>K¥c\' m®mc\K¥c\m˙ ASMu;' lc\mya; At¨laÂk“p^; lc\k enak\min\;m
y¨lui≥ cui“p^; ®pn\q∑a;r‰˙aqv\. min\;met∑" Oh, you couldn’t miss them. A
married couple would arrive together, the husband would take a second
wife, and the women would go back home in tears.
• msa;K¥c\ASuM; epåm¥a;ty\" They are so plentiful that you can eat until you’ve
had more than enough.
ASuM; 3 see under As…ASuM; beginning and ending
va in Ba…va' By\…va “and so on”: see under Ba what? and By\ which?
84
Av^ and v^s∑a (N-N˙c~\. FB = CB N-n´≥~) matching, in accordance with; nn

mkr; cf Ar' Aluik\' Aa;el¥a\s∑a' Ael¥ak\' Atiuc\;'
• s^;p∑a;er;lup\cn\;sv\;km\;K¥k\m¥a;N˙c\.Av^" In accordance with the rules for
economic enterprises.
• qMGatui≥qv\ winv\;eta\N˙c\.v^s∑a qkçn\;kiu RuM“p^; q∑a;Âkqv\" The monks set off,
wrapping their robes round them in obedience to the vinaya rules.
• wtÊoekac\;ekac\;qn\≥qn\≥el;et∑kui eKt\n´≥Av^ Pn\t^;Ruik\k¨;ent´. dåRuik\ta
Ë;”k^;®mc\." Director U KM, who makes films on decent stories in accord with
the times.
v^s∑a see under Av^ in accordance with
t- 1 see under ts\ one
t- 2 (~V and variants) V-ly; used to form adverbial expressions from verb
bases; prefixed sub cls mkr, CB+FB. The more commonly occurring
expressions derived with prefix t- are usually given their own entries in
dictionaries. There are several common patterns (for a more detailed listing
see Okell 1969 pp 409-414):
• pattern t-V or t-N: tl∑´ wrongly; tAa; intensely;
• pattern t-V1-t-V2: tRiuteq respectfully; tpc\tpn\; laboriously; tAM.tÂq

in astonishment;
• pattern A-V1-t-V2: Al∑y\tk¨ easily; A®mt\tNiu; reverently; A’ki;tsa;

diligently;
• pattern N-t-V (specially where the noun begins with a weak syllable):
sMns\tk¥ systematically; qtitr recalling; Aer;t”k^; urgently, making a
fuss;
• pattern m-V-t-V: mekac\.;tekac\; moderately good; mk¥k\tk¥k\ half

cooked, not quite cooked;
• pattern t-VV: t®Pv\;®Pv\; slowly; try\ry\ temaema laughing; tha;ha;

going "Ha Ha"; thc\.hc\. snivelling.
t-NN see under ts\-NN some N or other
t-N-s N˙s\-N-s a few Ns here and there: see under s
t-N-tel see under ts\-N-tel some Ns
85
t-N-tv\; and variants t-N-T´ etc only one, (one and) the same: see under
tv\; only, just
tka (N~) all Ns, every N, many Ns; mostly in formal contexts; cf N-tiuc\;'
nn mod, CB+FB; pron /dgå/;
• Niuc\cMtkat∑c\ Sv\;p¨;K´.eqa Niuc\cMer;bhuqut" Political experience gained in
many countries.
• Niuc\cMtka.®pœnam¥a;" International problems.
• l¨tka e®pata myuMn´≥" Don’t believe what any and everyone says.
• l¨¨tka K¥s\Âkt´´. ASiueta\ ekac\mel;" The girl singer that everyone loved.
• Arp\tka l˙v\.q∑a;®p^; tpv\.m¥a; sutt\Âkpåty\" They go round all the
districts and collect supporters.
• q¨Kiu;Da;®pet∑ enratka p¨l˙ty\" There are thieves and robbers
everywhere.
• r∑atka erak\' Bura;p∑´tka' Bun\;”k^;p∑´tka erak\en®pn\eta." As they visited
every village, every pagoda festival, every monastery ceremony.
• lk\eSac\tkam˙a d^lk\eSac\k Aekac\;SuM;®Ps\my\" Of all possible presents
this present must be the very best.
• lup\nv\;et∑k suMtka.suM suMl∑n\;ÂkeK¥qv\" There is a huge range of ways of
doing it (of assuring success in Tenth Std exam).
tka; (Stc~, V~) Stc indeed, Stc after all; used in elevated style to give an
exclamatory or emphatic tone to an utterance; cf CB Stc-kiu;' Stc-kla;'
suffixed to V in patterns V-påtka;' V-eptka;' V-eK¥tka;' stc fin phr
ptcl and stc mkr, FB; pron /dgå;/;
• cå.qa;kel; eq®p^tka;" My little son is dead, alas!
• cå;på;Âk^;em˙ak\el®p^tka;" Alas! All is lost!
• cpl^f q´p∑c\.el;m¥a;qv\ nc\;laqmYe®Krakiu Aqc\. KMy¨rn\
esac\.enÂkelftka;" Verily, these small grains of sand at Ngapali are
waiting to bear the footprints all who tread on them.
• AM.P∑y\q¨r´påeptka;hu K¥^;m∑m\;qv\" Praised him, thinking “What a wondrous
warrior this is!”.
• eyak\¥a;®mt\eptka;hu wm\;e®mak\Âkv\N¨;s∑a N˙luM;q∑c\;mieta.qv\" With joy he
embraced the thought “This is a noble being!”.
• Tiuq¨m˙a k¥a;N˙c\. t¨Biftka;" Truly this man is like a tiger.
• ÈUsßa Al∑n\ l˙påtka;" How very beautiful is this object!
• Èmin\;mm¥a;An^;Apå;m˙a cåenliu≥ meta\eK¥tka;" Verily, it is not appropriate
that I should dwell close to these women.
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• Tiuk´.qiu≥eqa ®pv\q¨≥ AMuÂk∑Niu;Âka;mO' sv\;RuM;mOm¥oi; m‰˙iK´.P¨;påtka;hu et∑;j

Aa;rqv\" He felt heartened, thinking “Never before has there been such
an uprising, such a mobilization of the people”.
• yen≥vka; AeN˙ak\Ay˙k\tiu≥ epåm¥a;l˙eptka;" What a multitude of
obstructions have afflicted me this night!
tky\ and Aky\ (a) (~ V) in truth, really V; variant forms tky\' tky\.'
tky\.kui' tky\tn\;' tky\tm\;' tky\.tky\ (CB+FB) and Aky\ (FB);
adverb; pron /dgy\/ etc;
• tky\ K¥s\ty\" He really loves her.
• tky\.kiu K¥s\ty\" He really really loves her.
• tky\.tky\ bmaska; tt\K¥c\rc\" If you really want to learn Burmese.
• tky\tn\; k¥eta. mq∑a;K¥c\B¨;" In reality I don’t want to go.
• då tky\på' tky\ hut\påty\Kc\b¥a;" That’s the truth. It really is so.
• Aky\sc\ss\ ®polup\K∑c\.m‰˙iep" In fact he was not authorized to do it.
(b) (~N) true, real, genuine N; usually in form tky\;. CB+FB; attribute;
• tky\.tn\Biu; the real price;
•tky\. ADipπay\Ass\keta. the real meaning;
•tky\.wårc\.pn\;K¥êwPn\er;qma; a genuine experienced art critic.
tky\tm\; see under tky\ in truth
tky\lui≥ CB = FB Aky\j (~ Stc) if Stc; variants Aky\tv\.' Aky\tn\ti'
Aky\tN†o; signals the opening of a conditional clause, apparently created to
correspond to Pali sace, noce, yadi “if”. The clause may end in a suffix like
AM. “future” in formal and nissaya-influenced styles, which reflects the Pali
construction, or in a suffix like rc\ “if”, which is the standard Burmese
construction for a conditional and makes the opening signal redundant,
except insofar as it is helpful to readers and listeners to know in advance
that the current clause is conditional. From tky\ “really”;
• cåqv\ Aky\j e®p;AM." If I were to run away.
• k¥op\tiu≥e®m∑m¥oi;qv\ By\eqaAKåmY Âk∑k\qt†wået∑kiu msa;på" Aky\j sa;miAM.'
sa;eqae®m∑qv\ mÂkaKc\ AN †ray\ts\KuKun´≥ ÂkMo“p^; Aqk\ eqpåesqa;liu≥
qsßaSiuliuk\ty\" He gave his word, saying “We snakes will never eat a
mouse. If we should chance to eat one, then may the snake that ate the
mouse speedily meet with some danger and die.”
• tky\liu≥ sa;qMu;q¨ ts\eyak\k em;my\" By\pRiugrm\ha Aekac\;SMu;l´liu≥"
k¥op\keta. N˙s\KuslMu; ekac\;ty\liu≥p´ e®Prm˙ap´" If a consumer were to ask
which is better program, I would have to answer that both are good.
• Aky\j pug©oil\Am¥a;k Asu‰˙y\yats\Ku … p¨;t´∑j kiuc\eSac\påk" If a number
of individuals hold a share jointly.
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• Aky\tn\ti ec∑ Âkp\tv\;påk" If money is really tight.

• tky\liu≥ q¨≥kiu met∑>rc\" If we don’t find him.
• Aky\j rn\q¨ erak\lalYc\" If the enemy should arrive.
tky\. see under tky\ really, real
tk∑ sts Ak∑ or tk∑nk\ (N-N˙c~\. FB = CB N-n´≥~) along with, including N;
nn mkr; regular equivalent in nissaya translation of Pali instrumentive case
followed by saddhi∑ (Okell 1965 p 200);
• mc\;n´≥tk∑ mc\;Aim\qa;Aa;lMu;" All your house mates, along with yourself.
• edqN †rqtc\;sam¥a;k Dat\pMuN˙c\.tk∑ ePa\®pep;K´.Âkqv\" The local
newspapers reported (the event) with photographs.
• tŃ˙c\.tk∑ pt\wn\;k¥c\ts\KulMu;qv\ Rut\®Kv\; lc\;Tin\q∑a;elqv\" The whole
area, including the hut, was suddenly illuminated.
• tw' qc\f" qhayikahi' Kc\p∑n\;mtui≥N˙c\.' qdÎ˜' tk∑" N˙ayit∑a' erK¥oi;j"
Having taken a shower with your companions (nissaya).
tk∑nk\ see under tk∑ along with
tK¥oi> see under AK¥oi> some
t®Ka; see under A®Ka; other
tsuM see under ts\suM some or other
tSc\. see under ts\Sc\. via
tet∑ see under ts\et∑ the group
tpå; see under ts\på; other, ts\på; apart from
t®p^;ka; (Phr~) if Phr; FB, infrequent; pron /db¥^;gå;/;
• Tiuqiu≥t“p^;ka; Tiuq¨kiu qsßa Siuesela." If that should happen, if such should
be the case, make that man pledge his loyalty.
t‘pic\nk\ see under ts\‘pic\nk\ at the same time as
tmuM≥ (Stc~) indeed, verily, adds emphasis to Stc; stc fin phr ptcl, FB, formal
and currently uncommon;
• set;®Kc\;AmO‘prlYc\ eAac\®mc\rmv\hëqa AyÄS As∑Álm\;m¥a;
T∑n\;ka;K´.påqla;hu et∑;mipåeK¥qv\tmuM≥" I wondered whether they had held
beliefs and superstitions about human sacrifice by ritual burial bringing
good fortune.
• eRWsk\eta\ny\twuik\ Apuic\sa; ep;luik\eÂkac\; y¨SlYc\lv\; ®Ps\Nuic\eK¥qv\tmuM≥"
It is also possible to assume that he conferred upon them ownership of
the area around Shwesettaw.
tmY see under AmY equal to
telYak\ see under ts\elYak\ all along
ta 1 (V~) that which is V-ed, thing that was V-ed, V-ing; converts a verb
clause to a “nominalized clause”, a noun-like entity that can be used as a
88
noun in a larger sentence; sp hd nn, CB; = FB V-qv\; cf V-m˙a' also V-mO' V-

K¥k\' V-®Kc\;' V-er;' V-qv\; after a stop consonant pron and sts written Ta;
(a) the verbal noun behaves like an ordinary noun and combines with
noun modifiers (such as et∑) and noun markers (such as n´≥' eÂkac\.):
• dået∑k kuieT∑; Ta;K´.taet∑på" Those are the things that Ko Htway left
behind.
• mhut\ta lup\K´.rc\" If one should do something wrong.
• sa;“p^;“p^;K¥c\; ®pn\kun\Âktak m¥a;påty\" Most often they go home as soon as
they have finished eating.
• saer;Âk^; ‰˙c\;®ptakui na;eTac\luik" If you want to listen to the clerk’s
explanation.
• kÁn\eta\ na;mlv\ta ts\Ku ‰˙ipåeq;ty\" There is still one thing that I don’t
understand.
• Ahut\y¨rtaham¥oi; mhut\B¨;" It’s not the sort of thing you have to take as
true.
• ms∑m\;eSac\Niuc\tar´. tn\Piu;" The price of being incapable.
• K¥s\s' Kc\s' Âkc\nas ®Ps\laÂktan´≥ts\‘pic\nk\" At the same time as they are
beginning to love one another.
• saepqn\≥qn\≥p´ ®Ps\tamui≥ kÁn\eta\tui≥ wm\;pn\;tqa Pt\®Ps\Âkpåty\" As it was
pure literature we read it with great pleasure.
• Aun\;eRW e®patan´≥pt\qk\lui≥ … em;Âkv\.eta." When I asked about what Ohn
Shwe had said.
(b) the verbal noun serves as the topic of a sentence, often describing
an emotion or attitude:
• et∑>rta Ac\mtn\ wm\;qapåty\ Kc\b¥a" I am extremely pleased to meet you,
sir (“at having the opportunity to meet you”).
• RØ;Pinp\ s^;rta mqk\qaB¨;" It is not comfortable having to wear shoes.
• kiuesa Apc\pn\; KM®p^; AqMq∑c\;ep;Ta;ta ek¥;z¨; Am¥a;”k^; tc\påty\" I am
very grateful to you, Ko Saw, for having taken the trouble to make the re-
cording for me.
• pTmU^;SuM; K¥op\t´. lk\ra ®Ps\liu≥ qip\ pMumk¥taeta. sit\mekac\;påB¨;" But I’m
not happy about the design not being very good, as it was the first piece of
work I sewed.
• d^m˙a enrta By\lui enql´" How do you find it living here?
• d^luiteyak\n´≥teyak\ lk\mTirp´ NOt\Sk\ta Âkv\.lui≥l´ ekac\;ty\' yU\l´
yU\ek¥;ty\" Greeting each other in this way, without their hands
touching, both looks good and is civilised.
• bmaska; e®pata qip\p^ty\" The way you speak Burmese is very accurate.
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• mel; ska;e®pata qip\na;eTac\ekac\;tap´" Ma Lay talked in a very

compelling way.
(c) as the topic of clauses to do with duration of time:
• esac\.enta Âka®p^la;" Have you been waiting long?
• rn\kun\ erak\enta qip\ mÂkaeq;B¨;" I haven’t been in Yangon very long yet
(“my being in Yangon has not lasted long yet”).
• bmaska; qc\enta N˙s\lp´ ‰˙ieq;ty\" She has only been learning Burmese
for two months.
(d) as a topic not specifically related to the following verb, sometimes
suggesting the meaning “when V” or “if V”:
• el˙ m˙aTa;ta mlaeq;liu≥" Because the boat we had ordered had not come
yet (“our ordering of the boat”).
• q¨tui≥ AKn\;eKÅ eka\P^ tuik\ta q∑a;eqak\tap´" When they took me to their
room and offered me coffee, I accepted.
• AeP telak Tut\Âkv\.®p^; puM:T´kui ®pn\mTv\.miB¨;" puM;epÅtc\Ta;mita AKu
m‰˙iB¨;" Father had recently taken out (his zata horoscope) to look at and
hadn’t put it back in the tin. He had put it on top of the tin and now it
wasn’t there.
• gti KMTa;ta mP¥k\n´≥" Don’t break your promise.
• qa; etetk p¨Satakui q∑a;ekÁ;luik\eq;ty\" When her young son Tay
Tay made a fuss she even went and fed him.
• AqMenAqMTa; mlup\tt\rc\ ry\K¥c\taetac\ mry\Nuic\eta.B¨;" When they
can’t produce the right intonation, I can’t laugh any more even if I want
to.
• d^^Suic\kui K%K% ®Pt\q∑a;taetac\m˙ Kc\b¥a; puic\m˙n\; mqiB¨;" I’ve often passed
by this shop but I never knew it was you who owned it.
(e) for ta in the combinations luik\ta and Suita see the separate
entries luik\ta and Suita respectively.
ta 2 see under ty\ verb stc marker
titi (Nº+N~) precisely, exactly; nn mod, CB+FB; opp Kn\≥' elak\;
• el;pt\titi Sk\j pt\på" Continue winding (the wire) for precisely four
times round.
• Sy\tn\ kiu;r∑k\ titi" Exactly nine K10 notes.
• ec∑ts\Sy\titi yëlf" He took exactly ten kyats.
t^ and At^ (~N or ~sfx) which N?, what? where? etc; selective noun; FB,
archaic, = FB mv\, CB By\; variant forms Atv\ and Atv\;.
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• qk˚raz\‘Pikin\; erak\j m‘Pieqa\ A®ps\ t^qui≥ ‰˙iqnv\;" When the time comes
to renumber the years (of the era), if one does not renumber them, what
would the penalty be?
• Bura;qKc\qv\ka; AtÂrp\m˙a ‰˙ieta\m¨qnv\;" … tra;eta\qv\ka;
AerAt∑k\ At^mY ‰˙iqnv\;" In what place is the Lord? And how many are
his teachings?
•t^m˙a or Atv\.m˙a" Where?
At¨ or At¨t¨ 1 (VA1~ … V2) since V1 is unavoidable, one might as well
V2; sub stc mkr, CB+FB;
• ®pn\liu≥ mrm´.At¨t¨' d^m˙a Aip\epå." Since you can’t get home anyway, you might
as well sleep here.
• ®Ps\®p^;t´. kisßÂk^; ®pc\lui≥ mrt´.At¨t¨ nc\.Aim\nc\ ®pn\Pui≥ra cå tuik\t∑n\;K¥c\påty\"
Since one cannot undo what has happened I want to persuade you that
you might as well come back to your own home.
• kÁn\eta\klv\; Aip\liu≥ mrm´.At¨t¨ ska;Tiuc\ e®paeta.my\ eAak\em.ka"
Thinking that I might as well sit and talk as I wouldn’t be able to sleep.
• msa;luik\reqa Am´tuM;kui mimi msa;rmv\.At¨t¨ enak\Tp\ By\q¨m˙ sa;lui≥
mreAac\ qét∑N˙c\. pk\ps\luik\qk´.qui≥" Like someone who flings sand on a
piece of meat he can’t eat, thinking that he can’t eat it anyway, he won’t
let anyone else eat it either.
• mui;suim´.At¨t¨ Ak¥Ç KÁt\q∑a;my\" As I’m going to get soaked anyway, I might as
well go without my shirt.
• d^lui myuMrm´.At¨t¨ kuiy\Ak¥oi; ‰˙ita kuiy\ lup\rlim\.my\" Since we can’t trust
the others, we might as well look after our own interest.
At¨' At¨t¨ 2 see under N˙c\. together with
t´k see under ktv\;k since
t´. 1 (N~, Stc~) indicates that the preceding words are reported
speech, part of a story or a written text, a name etc; unclassified suf-
fix, equivalent to a main clause such as lui≥ e®paty\ etc, CB, cf FB qtt\;
sts written tv\;. before t´. sentence markers ty\ and my\ often weaken to
q- and m-; also used in mid-sentence at pause points when reading aloud
a document or telling a story;
• kÁn\eta\. nMmv\k tc\wc\;t´." My name is Tin Win.
• ePePn´≥ mliuk\K¥c\eta.B¨;t´." He says he doesn’t want to go along with Dad.
• dêAak\m˙aeta. piu;Ass\t´." Down at the bottom here it says “Real Silk”.
• bmaliueta. nant\q^;t´." In Burmese it’s called na-nat-thi (pineapple).
91
• Anim\.SuM;wn\Tm\;ken ATk\SuM;ATi By\q¨m˙ BaAeÂkac\;n´≥m˙ qMRMu; mq∑a;rt´."

(The order) says that no civil servant, from the lowest to the most senior,
must go to a (foreign) embassy for any reason at all.
• rp\liuk\t´.la;" So he says "Stop", does he?
• eragåAe®KAen By\lui Tc\®mc\qt´.l´" What does he say he thinks of the
progress of the illness?
• e‰˙;e‰˙;tun\;k em¥ak\ts\ekac\ ‰˙iqt´≥" Once upon a time there was a
monkey, so the story goes.
t´. 2 (sts ty\.) and q (V~ N) N that V-s, which V-s; vb atrb mkr referring
to past or present, CB, = FB qv\. and eqa; both forms occur with negated
and non-negated verbs; from suffix ty\/qv\ with induced creaky tone (see
English entries sv);
•qMAmt\”k^; ent´. Aim\ the house the ambassador lives in; merak\P¨;eq;t´.
Niuc\cMet∑ countries that he hasn’t been to yet; eta\eta\ hut\t´. N˙´Sra an
oboist who is pretty cool; wk\qa; msa;t´. lët∑ people who don’t eat pork;
®mn\mal¨m¥oi; mhut\t´. Am¥oi;qm^; a woman who is not Burmese;
etac\Âk^;tui≥Bk\k lat´. puik\SM ‰˙it´. lët∑ people who have money and
come from Taunggyi and nearby; RuieqqmO respect; em∑;qmiKc\ the mother
who bore me; tiuk\”k^;ts\Aim\kiu wy\y¨“p^;qkal after he had bought
himself a large house (= wy\y¨®p^;t´.AKå); &c\;enraqiu≥ erak\‰˙iqkal when
we arrived at that place; m®mc\qhn\ ‘pelf he pretended not to see them;
m‰˙iqelak\ almost none.
t´. 3 see under tv\. vb mod
AetaAt∑c\; (N~, VA~) during, while, in the meantime; cf N-At∑c\;' loc
nn, CB+FB;
• dÂetaAt∑c\; By\m˙a q∑a;enml´" Where will you go and live in the
meantime?
• qv\AetaAt∑c\;" TuiAetaAt∑c\;" During this/that time.
• q¨tiu≥ eS∑;eN∑;ent´.AetaAt∑c\; Bam˙ mlup\Niuc\B¨;" We can’t do anything while
they are discussing it.
• q¨ meqeq;Kc\kalAetaAt∑c\;Ò" In the time left before he dies.
• Alup\lup\ensU\AetaAt∑c\;" While it is working.
eta.- 1 (V~-) V at last, after all, inevitably, nearly, merely; with negated
verbs V (no) longer, (no) more; vb mod, CB+FB; occasional variant era. or
kera.; for a discussion of eq;' Ë;/AuM;' eta. see Okell 1979;
• kiu;nar^ Tiu;m˙p´ erak\eta.ty\" So we didn’t arrive till (as late as) nine
o’clock.
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• kÁn\mtiu≥ ek¥ac\;e‰˙>‰˙i m˙t\tiuc\t∑c\ ka;Siuk\eqaeÂkac\. Sc\;®p^;lYc\ ek¥ac\;

wc\;T´qiu≥ wc\eta.qv\" Then as the bus reaches the stop in front of our
school, I get off and go into the compound (at last).
• tuik\‰˙c\k puik\SMÂk^;hëqa Amv\kui Atc\;y¨Ta;luik\qv\.At∑k\ p^mui;nc\;hëqa
Amv\kui quM;s∑´releta.qv\" As the press owner took possession of the
name Paikhsangyi I was obliged to use, was reduced to using, the name P
Monin.
• m^;rTa; T∑k\Piu≥ cå;mins\p´ liueta.ty\" There’s only five minutes to go till the
train leaves (so hurry up: cf cå;mins\ liueq;ty\ there are still five minutes
to go: no hurry).
• ts\ekac\tv\; k¥n\eta.eqa pus∑n\Âk^;kiu Tv\.liuk\qv\" She helped herself to
the last remaining big prawn.
• rTa; Siuk\eta.my\" The train is just about to arrive.
• Tmc\; sa;eta.mla;" _ kÁn\m dên≥ msa;eta.påB¨;" Are you going to eat now?
— No, I shan’t be eating today after all.
• ®pn\er;RuMp´ ‰˙ieta.my\" All we shall be able to do then is to write it out again.
• d^liu lup\rc\ piuSiu;eta.mepå." If he does that it’ll just get worse.
• bma®pv\ m®pn\eta.B¨;la;" Won’t you ever go back to Burma again?
• ka; ms^;eta.p´ e®Kl¥c\ elYak\q∑a;my\" We won’t go any further by car but
we’ll go on foot.
• eta\på®p^' msa;Niuc\eta.B¨;" That’s enough, thanks; I can’t eat any more.
• Rup\qMk s^;p∑a;er;eÂka\®cazat\et∑kui mÂkv\.K¥c\eta.rc\ Tpit\luik\lui≥rtapåp´" If
you don’t want to watch the commercials on TV any more, you can get up
and turn it off.
• q∑a;eta.' q∑a;eta." Goodbye (“go now, go now”).
• mq∑a;pån´≥eta." Well don’t go then. Don’t go after all.
• Tut\®p^;qa;et∑ ®pn\mTv\.n´≥eta." Don’t put back the ones you have already
taken out then.
Variant form era."
• k´' då®Pc\. q∑a;elera." Right then. In that case, you may go.
• eKt†q∑a;mK¥liuk\elN˙c\." AeAa\KMr®p^qa m˙t\epera." Don’t set them down even
for a moment. (If you do) consider yourself severely reprimanded.
• erWsc\ra mc\;N˙y\ sU\;sU\;sa;sa; lup\påera.la;" My dear SZ, you are impossible.
Why don’t you act thoughtfully?
Variant form kera."
• AÂkm\;Pk\kera.mh´." I am goint to resort to violence!
eta. 2 sts eta.rc\ (Phr~) however, but; as for, at least; stc med phr ptcl,
CB; = FB ka;' m¨' m¨ka;' cf FB eqa\;
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• bmaska; na;lv\påty\' Pt\eta. mPt\tt\påB¨;" I can understand

Burmese but I can’t read it.
• qip\ A®mn\”k^;eta. memac\;esn´≥ena\" Don’t let him drive too fast, will you?
• Aemk Aqk\ 70 ‰˙i®p^" AePeta. SuM;q∑a;på®p^" My mother is 70, but my
father has died.
• Tut\®p^;qa;et∑eta. ®pn\mTv\.n´≥ena\" But don’t put back the ones you have
already taken out, will you.
• pTmU^;SuM; K¥op\t´.lk\ra ®Ps\liu≥ qip\ puMmk¥taeta. sit\mekac\;påB¨;" But I felt
bad that it wasn’t a very good design because it was the very first piece I
sewed.
• eA;®cim\;tiu≥At∑k\eta. cpl^ Siuta ASn\;tk¥y\ m‰˙il˙påB¨;" For AN and her
friends, at any rate, Ngapali was not unusual (because she lived there).
• qv\Ana;ts\wiuk\t∑c\eta. ®mNuqv\qa eA;®cim\;f Arc\;N˙^;AKc\mc\SuM; q¨cy\K¥c\;
ts\eyak\ ®Ps\jlaqv\" In this area at least, it was MN who came to be
one of AN’s closest friends.
• emac\l˙eT∑;kiueta. q¨≥sit\T´ ‰˙iqv\.Atiuc\; e®par´qv\" To Maung Hla Htway at
least (though not to her boss) she dared to say what she really felt.
• AeÂkac\;®ptaketa.rc\ … kak∑y\reAac\ ‘plup\®Kc\; ®Ps\ty\lui≥ e®paSuipåty\"
As for the reason they gave: they said it was to guard against ….
eta. 3 and eta.Kå (V~) when V; because, since, as V; sub cls mkr, mainly
CB but also used in FB; in temporal meaning = FB eqaAKå, eqa\; in causal
meaning = FB eqaeÂkac\;. also suffixed to certain nouns: see below;
• Aa;eta. laK´.my\" I’ll come over when I’m free.
• enak\®p^;eta." And then, later on, afterwards.
• St\Kn´ TTuic\luik\eta. eKåc\;T´m˙a muik\Kn´ ®Ps\q∑a;elf" When she sat up too
abruptly she felt a shooting pain in her head.
• Âkv\.eta.Kå … erK∑k\kel;ts\Ku et∑>r®pn\ty\" When he looked, he found a
small cup.
• vk¥eta. priqt\k Tc\taTk\ m¥a;qv\" In the evening (“when it came to
evening”), the audience was more numerous than expected.
• qa;Âk^;fAqM Âka;liuk\reta. edÅl˙em ®mø;ep¥a\q∑a;qv\" When she heard her
eldest son’s voice, Daw Hla Me was thrilled.
• qip\ mtt\Niuc\eta. Aim\m˙ap´ lup\ty\" Since they couldn’t afford to spend very
much they held (the wedding) at home.
• ksa;k∑c\;klv\; q^;qn\≥ m‰˙ieta. d^lm\;epÅt∑c\pc\ kel;m¥a;k ksa;
enÂkrqv\" And as there wasn’t a separate playground this street was
where the children had to play.
94
• kun\eZ;NOn\;et∑ ”k^;eta. d^liu ec∑‰˙aNiuc\m˙ Aim\ts\Aim\m˙a AquM;srit\ elak\ta"

Since prices are so high a household can’t meet its expenses unless one
earns some (extra) money like this.
eta. is used with nouns in the combinations dêta.' A´dêta.' By\eta.'
qv\eta.' enak\eta."
• ®mn\maNuic\cMm˙a Suilui≥‰˙irc\ qip\“p^;eta. Sc\;r´t´.qët∑ m‰˙iB¨;" qip\“p^;eta.
K¥m\;qat´.lët∑l´ m‰˙iB¨;" dêta. K¥m\;qat´.l¨n´≥ Sc\;r´t´.q¨Âka;m˙a k∑a®Ka;mO
Ac\mtn\ nv\;ty\" In Burma there are no immensely wealthy people and
no immensely poor people. So the gap between rich and poor is very
small.
• dêta.Kå d^pvarp\et∑på qc\rqla;" So then you have to take these subjects
as well?
• By\eta. q∑a;ml´" When will you go?
• enak\eta. met∑≥eta.påB¨;" I didn’t meet them again afterwards.
• Biu;m˙^lk\m˙a et∑>t´.saha AK¥in\;AK¥k\ ep;t´.saB´' qv\eta.Kå qv\sakiu
er;q¨ha Biu;m˙^n´≥ qv\AK¥in\ qv\nar^m˙a et∑>Biu≥ K¥in\;t´.l¨ ®Ps\my\" The letter
that was found in Hpo Hmi’s hand is a letter making a rendez-vous. So
the person who wrote the letter must be someone who made an
arrangement to meet Hpo Hmi at this time.
See also entries Siueta. since, because, and ®p^;eta. and
eta.Kå see under eta. when, because
eta.rc\ see under eta. however
eta\ 1 (N~, V~) indicates sacred, royal or official status; nn mod and
sp hd nn, CB+FB; compounds of the form V-eta\ are nouns, most often
used in the pattern V-eta\ m¨- “to perform an honourable V-ing”, “to V”,
when referring to royal or sacred subjects, or visitors deserving great re-
spect, or humorously;
Sacred status:
• eRWtigM u estêta\ the Shwe-dagon Pagoda; qtc\;kÁt\ m^;T∑n\;p∑éta\ the
End-of-Lent Festival of Lights; Sraeta\ reverend teacher, abbot (of a
monastery); Bun\;(eta\)Âk^;ek¥ac\; monastery; Dat\eta\ sacred relic, relic of
the Buddha; Aem;eta\ ‰˙ira as he (the monk) asked a question.
Royal status:
• nn\;eta\ royal palace; ePåc\eta\ royal barge; mØ;eta\mt\eta\ royal advisers,
ministers; qa;eta\qm^;eta\ royal children.
Official status:
• ‘mi>eta\ capital city; ‘mi>eta\Kn\;meSac\ town hall; Niuc\cMeta\ kingdom, nation,
state; Niuc\cMeta\ q^K¥c\; national anthem; Niuc\cMeta\ AlM the state flag;
95
®pv\eTac\su ®mn\maNiuc\cMeta\ Union of Burma (from 1948), Union of Myanmar

(from 1989; the suffix was dropped after 1962 but subsequently reinstated);
Ev\.qv\eta\ state guest; pvaeta\qc\ state scholar.
After 1962 the Government began to discourage the use of eta\ in connec-
tion with the state, so pvaeta\qc\ became pvaqc\" Other examples how-
ever, such as Ev\.qv\eta\' ‘mi>eta\, remained unchanged.
With verbs:
• mc\;tra;Âk^; T∑k\eta\ m¨qv\" The king goes out (“performs a royal exit”).
• nt\R∑a sMeta\ m¨qv\" (The king) dies (“performs a royal residing in the
village of the spirits”).
• cåkiuy\eta\®mt\ Âka;eta\ mm¨B¨;eq;B¨;" I, your King, have never heard of
this.
• lk\Pk\ quM;eSac\eta\ m¨påAuM;" Please partake of some lapet.
• Âk∑eta\ m¨på" Please proceed, please come in (sts jocular).
• Âk∑eta\ mm¨pån´≥ (sts mÂk∑eta\m¨pån´≥)" Please don’t go in.
V-eta\ is also used with the verb eKÅ- in one or two expressions, e.g.
sa;eta\ eKÅqv\ (the king) eats, sk\eta\ eKÅqv\ (the king) sleeps.
eta\ 2 and eta\. (mostly Stc~) term of address, used in addressing peo-
ple or compelling their attention; used by women to men or other women,
fairly familiar; the short, creaky-tone form is more emphatic and peremptory;
cf English “My boy, My girl” etc; appended appellative, CB;
• N˙c\;S^k eta\eta\n´≥ mtMu;påB¨;eta\" It’ll be a long time before the roses are
out of season (customer to flower-seller).
tui≥ (N~) marks plural; nn mod, CB+FB, but with different applications in
each; for tui≥ suffixed to more than one N, see notes below; (a) in CB+FB: N~
this N and others associated with it, hence most common with person-
al referents such as pronouns, personal names and kinship terms; to be dis-
tinguished from CB N-et∑ “Ns” qv;
• q¨ “he, she” q¨tiu≥ “they” (“he and his group”);
• kÁn\eta\ “I” (man speaking), kÁn\m “I” (woman speaking) kÁn\eta\tiu≥'

kÁn\mtui≥ “we” (“I and my group”);
• cå “I” (familiar) cåtiu≥ “we” (familiar); diu≥ “we” is an abbreviation of cåtiu≥,

hence diu≥bma “we the Burmese”;
96
• kÁN\up\tiu≥ ®mn\maNiuc\cM our country of Burma;
• U^;qk\T∑n\;tiu≥ U Thet Tun and his group, his supporters, his family, his
countrymen;
• edÅedÅtiu≥l´ laÂkmla;" And will you all be coming, Aunty?

(b) in FB only: N~ Ns; used where English would use a plural N, to indi-
cate more than one of the N; = FB m¥a; and CB et∑;
• eAak\på em;K∑n\;tui≥kui (= em;K∑n\;m¥a;kui) e®PSuipå" Answer the following
questions.
• g¥pn\tiu≥f (= g¥pn\m¥a;f) AkÄv^®Pc\." With the help of the Japanese. In this
use tui≥ is also suffixed to numeral expressions (unlike FB m¥a; and CB et∑):
• Âkiyapsßv\; (5) m¥oi; ‰˙iqv\" yc\;psßv\;(5) m¥oi;tiu≥m˙a …" There are five kinds
of verb particles. These five kinds are ….
(c) in FB: N1 N2~ N1 and N2 (only), acknowledging the fact that N1 and N2
together are more than one, and not including the rest of the group as in (a),
nor making the Ns plural as in (b);
• ksa;k∑c\;N˙c\. T∑n\sk\RuMtiu≥qv\ R∑ae®mak\Bk\t∑c\ ‰˙iÂkqv\" The sports ground
and the tractor shed are to the north of the village.
• By\Bk\t∑c\ AqMlWc\.RuM;Âk^;kiu&c\;' vaBk\t∑c\ pvaer;tk˚qiul\tiu≥kiu&c\;'
®mc\rpåqv\" On the left the Broadcasting Station and on the right the
Institute of Education can be seen.
• SMu;®Pt\K¥k\m¥a;N˙c\. Aet∑>AÂkMorc\.k¥k\mO' Âkc\namOtiu≥N˙c\. Sk\sp\Ta;®Kc\;" Linking
their decisions with mature experience and compassion.
In this use the Ns may be singular or plural (i.e. with or without FB m¥a;):
• Niuc\cMer;AP´∑>Asv\;m¥a;' Alup\qma;m¥a;' ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a;tiu≥qv\ ®bitiqY
lk\eAak\m˙ l∑t\e®mak\rn\ ’ki;pm\;Âkf" Political organisations, workers
and students all struggled to be free from the British.
(d) in CB+FB: where N1 and N2 are persons, N1 N2~ may alternatively
mean N1 and N2 and others, like N~ in (a) above;
• kiuwc\; meA;tiu≥ either (a) Ko Win and Ma Aye and their family/ friends/
team/ colleagues (etc as appropriate), or (c) Ko Win and Ma Aye (only), as
in kiuwc\; meA;tiu≥ qm^; the daughter of Ko Win and Ma Aye.
• emac\cy\N˙c.\ mel;tiu≥qv\ rn\kun\t∑c\ enTiuc\qv\" Maung Nge and Ma Lay (or
Maung Nge and Ma Lay and the rest of them) live in Yangon.
(e) in CB+FB: N1~ N2~ N1 and N2 and similar items, and that sort of
thing;
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• e®meAak\ m^;rTa;tiu≥ Bt\ska;tiu≥ Underground trains, buses and that sort

of thing; esac\tiu≥ eKåc\;AuMtiu≥ Batui≥ blankets, pillows and so on; emac\tc\tiu≥'
emac\Btiu≥' emac\l˙tiu≥ laÂkqv\" Mg Tin, Maung Ba and Mg Hla all came
(implying “and their crowd, and that lot”).
(f) in pattern tui≥ts\et∑ or tui≥tet∑ see under ts\et∑ the group
tc\’ki- see under ”koiu- and ”koiutc\- in advance
etac\ and etac\m˙ (Phr~) even, as much as; stc med phr ptcl, CB+FB; = FB
tiuc\eAac\; perhaps formed from the verb tiuc\- “to reach” fused with the
subordinate clause marker eAac\ “so as to”;
• Bun\;”k^;e‰˙>my\etac\ q∑a;e®pamity\" He even went and said it in front of a
monk.
• P∑c\.etac\ P∑c\.Kiuc\;eq;ty\" They even asked him to open it up.
• tK¥oi>lët∑ R¨;q∑a;eAac\etac\ lup\Âktap´" They even drove some people mad.
• cå;pus∑n\ mrrc\eta. T∑k\liu≥etac\ e®p;rmla; mqiB¨;" If I can’t catch any fish or
prawns I even wonder if I ought to run away.
• q¨ qRup\eSac\takiu tky\la;liu≥etac\ eAak\em.®p^; ts\Kåts\Kå eÂkac\eÂkac\
Âkv\.enmity\" When she was acting I thought she was really (the
character) and I gawped in amazement.
• Amy\el;' el;narêtac\m˙ K∑én®p^" Goodness me! It’s half past four already!
• Kr^;k l˙m\;l∑n\;qv\" Aim\k N˙s\nar^ ’kiT∑k\taetac\m˙ Alup\K∑c\kiu AK¥in\m^
merak\K¥c\" The distance was too great. Even if she left home two hours
ahead of time, she risked not arriving at work in time.
• Pinp\ s^;rc\etac\m˙ ml∑t\B¨;" Even if you wear sandals you can’t avoid it.
• RuM;wc\;Tétac\m˙ Arm\; emac\;Âkpåla;" So they even drive carelessly within
(the precincts of) the court.
tuic\ 1 also tuic\tuic\ and tuic\eAac\ (N~, VA~) up to, until, as far as; nn mkr
and sub stc mkr, mainly FB but also used in CB for emphasis and in certain
fixed phrases; = CB ATi' etac\; derived from verb tiuc\- “reach” and subor-
dinate clause marker eAac\ “so as to”, so tiuc\eAac\ = “so as to reach, as far
as”;
• yKuTk\tiuc\ ®pn\qM”kio;l´ mreq;B¨;" Up to now we still haven’t had a reply to
our telegram.
• Asm˙ ASMu;tiuc\ AsU\tsiuk\ e®pa®ppåres" Let me tell the whole story, in order,
from beginning to end.
• qv\AmOt∑k\ k¥op\ SMu;Kn\;tiuc\ eSac\r∑k\ep;my\" I will see this case through
until the very end.
• emac\sM‰˙a; laqv\.tiuc\ mesac\.B´ tiuk\epÅm˙ mha;tra;N˙c\. Ae®p;AlWa; Sc\;
q∑a;“p^;lYc\ lm\;qiu≥ erak\qv\.tiuc\eAac\pc\ e®p;lWa;l¥k\ ‰˙iqv\kiu ®pøtc\;
98
epåk\m˙ et∑>®mc\Âkrelf" He didn’t wait till Maung SS came, but ran out of
the building at full tilt, and we could see from the window that he was still
running up to the point when he reached the road.
• cå;N˙s\tiuc\tiuc\ qc\Âka;“p^;t´.enak\" After studying for a full five years.
• eqeqK¥aK¥a Âkv\.sm\;" 2 ”kim\tiuc\tiuc\ ®pc\“p^;Ta;eÂkac\; Tc\‰˙a;ty\ mhut\la;"
Take a careful look at this. It’s obvious that it has been mended twice, is
it not?
• ®mn\ma®pv\At∑c\;ÒqalYc\mk AiN∂iytiuc\;' Bgçla;ny\' BMuBiuc\ny\ sqv\tiu≥qiu≥
tiuc\eAac\pc\ Tc\epÅek¥a\Âka;K´.qv\" He was famous not only in Burma, but
as far as India, Bengal, Bombay and such places.
• etaÂkk\m¥a;f®mv\qMkiu v√\.Ë;yMm˙sj miu;eqak\yMtiuc\eAac\ Âka;enq®Pc\." As
he heard the cries of the jungle fowl from evening right through to dawn.
• saqc\ qMGa (60) ek¥a\tiu≥Aa; saepk¥m\;gn\m¥a; piu≥K¥laK´.qv\m˙a yen≥tiuc\eAac\
®Ps\påqv\" He has been teaching the sacred texts to a class of 60 student
monks and is still teaching up to the present day.
tuic\ 2 and tuic\eAac\ (VA~) even if, even though, although V; sub stc mkr,
CB+FB; cf CB V-rc\etac\' V-epmy\;.
• l¨K¥c\; mqiÂkqv\.tiuc\ sit\K¥c\;keta. rc\;N˙^;®p^; ®Ps\qv\" Even though they
didn’t know each other he already felt close to him.
• miuc\ 150Kn\≥ emac\;qv\.tiuc\ 45-k¥p\ ®pv\.K¥c\m˙ ®pv\.qv\" Even if he drove 150
miles (a day in his taxi) he would scarcely manage to take 45 kyats.
• Bn\gluikel;k eq;cy\qv\.tuic\ qp\rp\qv\" Although the bungalow was
small it was well kept.
• Atn\Âkaqv\tiuc\eAac\ Sraeta\ Âk∑mlaq®Pc\." As the Sayadaw didn’t come
even though some time had passed.
• q^tc\;q^l eSak\tv\Âkt´.tiuc\eAac\ … qMqram˙ l∑t\e®mak\eÂkac\;
k¥c\.s√\tra;AepÅ el.laK¥k\ Aa;nv\;enpåeq;ty\" Although they observed
the precepts, they failed to apply themselves adequately to studying the
conduct required to escape from samsara.
Also suffixed to qiu≥ “thus”:
• qMeyazU\kiu Atc\; ®Pt\®p^; Alup\wc\lup\K´.rqv\" qiu≥tiuc\eAac\ ts\pt\ts\Kå
Aim\®pn\rmv\.rk\kiu emYa\mitt\qv\pc\" She forced herself to make the break
(with friends and family) and took the job. Even so, she used to look
forward eagerly to the one day a week when she went home.
tuic\; 1 (N~) every N, each N; nn mod, CB+FB; sts the whole phrase is
repeated: N-tiuc\; N-tiuc\;"
• l¨tiuc\; everyone; en≥tiuc\; every day; N˙s\tiuc\;N˙s\tiuc\; yearly, every single year;
AKn\;tiuc\;m˙a in every room; kel;tuic\;At∑k\ for each child.
99
• kÁn\m ventiuc\; lay¨på.my\" I’ll come and collect them every evening.
• mg©zc\;tiuc\;liuliup´ mT∑k\Niuc\ÂkB¨;" Almost every single magazine was unable to
appear (as the presses were too fully occupied).
The combination Kåtiuc\; “every time” has acquired the meaning “as usual,
usually”:
• Kåtiuc\; ts\K¥k\m˙ ®pn\enk¥miu≥" Since he usually came back only after one
o’clock.
• Kåtiuc\;liupc\ q¨≥Alup\kiu q¨ eA;eS;s∑a lup\enqv\" He carried on calmly with
his work as usual.
• Kåtiuc\;liu y¨K´." Bring me the same as usual!
• Kåtiuc\; Awt\kiu wt\q∑a;el" Go wearing your usual clothes.
tuic\; 2 (V~) every time, whenever; sub cls mkr, CB+FB;
• dêkac\ e®patiuc\; myuMn´≥" Don’t believe everything this fellow says.
• qk\qatiuc\; ekac\;l˙qv\ mTc\n´≥" Don’t think that it is a good thing
whenever (something) is easier, less work.
• Èqiu≥ eKÅliuk\tiuc\;" Everytime he called her like this.
• tra; ehaliuk\tiuc\;lv\; {Krk\edå≥ ®pn\q∑a;} h¨j A®m´tm\; eÂk∑;eÂka\
etac\;Siuqv\" And every time he made a speech, he always voiced the
demand "Craddock go home!"
• saAup\ ‰˙amet∑>tiuc\; sit\tiumity\" I get annoyed everytime I can’t find a book.
• mØ;mt\m¥a;tiu≥' Âka;tiuc\;®mc\tiuc\;' Siu;yut\tiuc\;kiu' hut\tiuc\;mtc\" The ministers
did not report truthfully each thing they heard and saw, each thing that
was evil (cf Atiuc\; in accordance with).
Atuic\; (N~, VA~) according to, in accordance with N; in the manner of
N; N as itself, in its original state; as if V; nn mkr and sub stc mkr,
CB+FB; cf Ar' Av^' Aluik\' Aa;el¥a\s∑a' Ael¥ak\;
• RMu;Sc\;la®p^; pn\;Siu;tn\;Atiuc\; elYak\laqv\" After coming out of the office
she walked along Pansodan.
• TMu;sMAtiuc\; ek¥;z¨;tc\ska;kiu ‘pM;j e®paqv\" As usual she said Thank you
with a smile.
• q¨≥sv\;km\;m¥a;Atiuc\; stc\eSac\R∑k\rpåqv\" I had to start doing the job in
accordance with their regulations (a writer working as a taxi driver).
• qc\ m˙aliuk\qv\.Atiuc\; kÁN\up\ lup\qv\" I did as you ordered, as you said.
• q¨≥Atiuc\; Siurc\" If we go by him, by what he says.
• qv\Atiuc\;qaSiulYc\ ts\lelak\enlYc\ Ak¥Çel;ts\Tv\pc\ K¥op\wt\Niuc\sra
AeÂkac\; ‰˙if" If things continued in this way, there was a chance that
she would be able to afford an eingyi.
100
• Aa;luM; qit´.Atiuc\;p´ d^®pœnaha ml∑y\B¨;" As you all know, this is not an

easy problem.
• As\kiuAtiuc\; vêl; limμaqv\" The younger brother is well behaved, like his
elder brother.
• emac\rs\qv\ Ae®p;‘pic\®Kc\;kiu wåqna påqv\" wåqna påqv\.Atiuc\;lv\;
T¨;KÁn\q¨ ®Ps\qv\" Maung Yit was keen on running races and excelled at it
as a result.
• spå;kiu sk\®Pc\. mÂkit\p´ spå;Atiuc\; tc\piu≥Âkf" They loaded and sent the rice
just as it was without milling it.
• dÂtiuc\; sa;rqla;" _ hut\k´.' d^tiuc\;p´" Can one eat it just as it is? — Yes,
just as it is.
• mlim\tt\eqa meN∑k Am˙n\Atiuc\; e®paliuk\miqv\" Ma Nwe, who was
incapable of falsehood, told (“spoke in accordance with”) the truth.
• BÂk^;kiu kënk¥Atiuc\; k¨lup\ep;rn\ tM®mk\sv\;tiu≥' erpMu;tiu≥kiu ‰˙aqv\" So as to
help her uncle as usual, she looked around for the broom and bucket.
• q¨tiu≥ e®paliuk\rc\ dÂtiuc\;K¥v\;p´" Whenever they say anything, it’s always the
same story.
• cn\; kun\lYc\ eS;rc\;Atiuc\; tiuk\" If the violent fever is over, give the original
medicine as before.
• pn\;qv\et∑k T∑k\S∑´my\.Atiuc\; q¨tui≥Suic\k pn\;wy\q∑a;Piu≥' … eKÅÂk eAa\Âkn´≥
S¨S¨vMvM lup\Âkera" The flower-sellers made a great noise, calling out that
they should buy flowers from their shops, all but grabbing (“as if about to
grab”) them physically.
In verse or older texts, V-qv\.Atiuc\; may be shortened to V-tiuc\;"
• hut\tiuc\; mtc\ = hut\qv\.Atiuc\; mtc\" Did not report in accordance with
the truth.
ts\ or t- (~N) (a) one N, a N; for spelling variant t- see note below; num-
ber, CB+FB. Mostly in numeral compounds of the form [counted noun + ts\+
numerative]; e.g. l¨ts\eyak\ / l¨teyak\ a person; sats\esac\ /
satesac\ one letter. In appropriate contexts the counted noun is omitted;
e.g. ts\N˙s\ / tN˙s\ a year; ts\ra / tra one hundred. Such numeral
compounds are not normally listed in a dictionary.
(b) the whole N, throughout the N; restricted to a few expressions; e.g.
®ms\ts\elYak\ all along the river; ‘mi>ts\wiuk\ all around the city; Niuc\cMts\K∑c\
throughout the country; kmıats\w˙n\; or kmıats\w˙n\;luM; (variant spelling w˙m\;)
throughout the world.
In numeral compounds the spelling t- was widespread up to 1984, when
the Burmese Language Commission decreed that this word should be writ-
101
ten ts\ in all contexts. The new spelling was enforced by fines for non-use
and quickly came into universal use. The old spelling is still to be seen in
texts printed before 1984, and later in handwritten documents: many Bur-
mese have found it hard to change the habit of a lifetime. Two advantages
of the change are that it helps to differentiate t- the prefix from t- “one”
(now ts\); and it brings ts\ “one” (pron /t/ in compounds) into line with N˙s\
“two” and Kuns\ “seven” (pron /N˙, K∑n\n/ in compounds but never so written).
ts\-NN or t-NN some N or other; for variant spelling t-see under ts\;
CB+FB;
• ts\m¥oi;m¥oi; some kind or other; ts\KuKu something or other; ek¥ac\;
qa;ts\eyak\eyak\ some student, any student; ts\enrara some place or
another, somewhere; ts\Nuic\Nuic\cM some country or other; ts\en≥en≥ one day
or another, sometime.
ts\-N-s N˙s\-N-s see under s a few Ns here and there
ts\-N-tel or t-N-tel some Ns; a N here and there; for variant
spelling t-N-tel see under ts\; CB+FB;
•ts\eyak\tel one or two people; ts\rk\tel a day here and there;
ts\Kåtel from time to time, sometimes.
ts\-N-tv\;' ts\-N-T´ and variants “only one, (one and) the same”: see
under tv\; only, just
ts\K¥oi> see under AK¥oi> some
ts\®Ka; see under A®Ka; other
ts\suM formerly tsuM (~t-N1-eqa N2) some N or other, any N, a certain N,
(not) any N, (no) N; selective noun, FB; pron /tzun\/; regular equivalent of
Pali koci in nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p 208);
• ts\suMts\raeqa e®pac\;l´®Kc\; qiu≥mhut\ ®Pv\>s∑k\®Kc\; m‰˙ieÂkac\;" That there is
no alteration or addition.
• enak\Tp\ts\suMts\ra ‘plup\®Kc\;m¥oi; mliuAp\ep" No further action is required.
• ema\ta’ki; ts\suMts\ra KÁt\y∑c\;enmv\" There will be something wrong with
the motor belt.
• ts\suMts\eyak\k Aim\e‰˙>Kn\; m^;Klut\kui pit\luik\qv\" Someone turned off
the light switch in the front room.
• puM®pc\tui≥qv\ l¨qa;tui≥kui ts\suMts\Kueqa Atuic\;AtaATi ekac\;k¥oi;
qk\erak\esNuic\qv\m˙alv\; Am˙n\pc\®Ps\påqv\" It is true that folk tales can
up to a certain point bring some benefit to people.
• q¨ ≥sit\t∑c\ T¨;®Ka;eqa KMsa;mO ts\suMts\ramY m‰˙i" There was no unusual
feeling in his mind.
102
•kipåhM' N˙s\rk\quM;rk\" ki◊ßi' ts\suMts\K∑n\;eqa ska;kui" reVa' mc\;Âk^;Aa;"

mawedT' mSuipålc\.Ë;" For a day or two say no word to the king (nissaya).
ts\Sc\. formerly tSc\. (N-m˙~ FB = CB N-k~, N-ken~) (passing) through,
via N, by N as intermediary; nn mkr, FB+CB;
• Bn\ekak\m˙tSc\. lapåmv\" I shall travel via Bangkok.
• mqn\;®mm˙tSc\. ep;liuk\my\" I shall get it to you by/through Ma Than Mya.
q¨kts\Sc\. ePak\qv\ yërac\;tt\qv\" She regularly bought them from
him for reselling.
• kc\mram˙n\B^l¨;kts\Sc\. ®mc\rqv\. pMurip\" The image you could see through
the camera lens.
ts\et∑ or tet∑ (N~) N and the rest of them, that group of Ns; numeral
phrase, used as nn mod, CB+FB;
• tk˚qiul\ny\e®mqv\ ek¥a\q¨tiu≥ Aepåc\;Aqc\;ts\et∑ saepeS∑;eN∑;ra'
lk\Pk\rv\eqak\ra' Bw KMsa;K¥k\et∑ suepåc\;rc\P∑c\.raenra ®Ps\enK´.®p^" The
university campus had become the place where KT and his group
discussed literaure, drank tea, and shared their experiences of life.
• ek¥a\q¨≥AeP Alup\‘pt\q∑a;®p^; ek¥a\q¨tiu≥emac\N˙mts\et∑ ®KMAlup\kiu yKc\kTk\
piulup\Âkrta meN∑qiqv\" Ma N knew that after their father had lost his job,
KT and his sister had to spend more time working in the smallholding.
• Acy\SMu;qa;el;N˙c\. Kc\l∑m\;tiu≥tet∑kiu emem sit\mK¥tK¥ ®Ps\enqv\" Mother
was a little uneasy about (leaving) her youngest son and KL.
• mc\;tiu≥ cåtiu≥ts\et∑l´ Baliuliun´≥ kel;r´. miKc\PKc\et∑ ®Ps\lakun\Âkpåekah"
You and I find ourselves the mother and father of a child!
ts\på; 1 formerly tpå; (N~, ~N, ~eqa-N) other, different N; also A®Ka;
tpå; N; selective noun, mainly FB, pron /dba;/; from Apå; “place, numera-
tive for royal and sacred persons” as in Bun\;”k^; ts\på; “one monk”; regular
equivalent of Pali a¥¥a in nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p 220);
• tiuc\;tpå;m˙" From another country, i.e. from a foreign country.
• AKåtpå;" At a certain time, once upon a time.
• q¨tpå;kui TiKuik\esK¥c\lui≥ mhut\B¨;" It’s not that they want to cause harm to
another.
• kiuy\.kiuy\kiu l¨tpå; mqiesK¥c\rc\ Ak¥Çm˙a namv\ er;mTa;rB¨; mit\eS∑r´." If you
don’t anyone to know who you are, you shouldn’t write your name on
your coat, my friend.
• A®Ka;tpå;eqal¨" Another person.
• tpå;eqa Ay¨ ‰˙iq¨" An adherent of another sect, a heretic.
• tpå;q¨tiu≥f lWm\;miu;®Kc\;kiu KMrqv\" He came under the influence of other
people.
103
• ek¥ac\;Tiuc\Sraeta\qv\ A®Ka;tpå;qui≥ Âk∑q∑a;enKiuk\ ®Ps\qv\" It was a time

when the presiding monk had gone elsewhere.
• AvM' tpå;eqa" nwmt†ikaBaznM' e®mAui;qs\kui" A new, different, earthen pot
(nissaya).
• Cf tpiutpå; q∑a;- to go elsewhere and tepå≥tpå; q∑a;- to go for relief,
euphemisms for going to the toilet.
ts\på; 2 formerly tpå; (N-m˙~) apart from N, besides, except N; nn mkr,
FB, cf CB N-k l∑´liu≥; pron /tBa;/;
• Tium˙tpå;" Apart from that, besides, moreover.
• Èpvakiu kÁn\eta\m˙tpå; mv\q¨mY mtt\på" Except for myself, no one has
this knowledge.
• mimiPKc\m˙tpå; mv\qv\.eyak¥\a;kiumY es.es.sp\sp\ mÂkv\.ep" She never looked
carefully at any man other than her father.
ts\‘pic\nk\(tv\;) formerly t‘pic\nk\(tv\;) (V-qv\N˙c~\. FB = CB tan´≥~) at
the same time as V, as soon as V, no sooner than V; sub stc mkr; pron
/tb¥oic\nk\T´/;
• ly\qma;tiu≥qv\ miu;qMkiu Âka;qv\N˙c\.ts\‘pic\nk\ T∑n\tuM;kiu ®pc\Âkqv\" As soon
as the farmers hear the sound of rain they prepare their ploughs.
• eTac\epåk\wm˙ T∑k\miqv\N˙c\.t‘pic\nk\ Niuc\cMer;ska;tiu≥qv\ Sraeta\f
NOt\P¥a;m˙ Aliuliu epÅepåk\la®pn\eta.f" The moment he emerged from the
prison gate, talk of politics once again sprang from Sayadaw (U Ottama)’s
lips.
• Alup\Aa;tan´≥ts\‘pic\nk\ kÁn\eta\. e®KeTak\et∑klv\; lMumun\dm\; Bk\kiu
Ë;tv\en“p^" No sooner was I free from work than my feet headed towards
Lon-mon-dam.
ts\elYak\(luM;) formerly telYak\(luM;) (N~) the length of, all along N; nn
mkr, CB+FB;
• lm\;ts\elYak\luM; the whole length of the road, all the way; sKn\;ts\elYak\
all along the route, at each camp; ®mn\maqmuic\;ts\elYak\ all through
Burmese history; BwtelYak\luM; throughout one’s life; ®ms\w
kÁn\;epÅts\elYak\ l˙v\.lv\e®p;lWa;enrf had to flee through the length
and breadth of the delta.
tv\ and Atv\ see under t^ which
tv\. 1 (V~) suffix of uncertain meaning, FB, mainly in verse; sts appar-
ently emphatic, sts merely filling a slot after a rhyme; pron /ti/; common
after negated verbs; unclassified;
• mnv\;kuM;q^' m¥a;el®p^tv\." Have been threaded together in no small number.
• nt\tv\.ep¥a\rWc\" Even the nats enjoy it.
104
• k¥m\;®mc\eT∑®pa;' Apå;på;N˙c\.' m¥a;qv\.TuM;nv\;' m˙t\P∑y\K¥v\;tv\." There are many

precedents to be noted in the numerous texts.
• Tiutra;lYc\' Tc\‰˙a;sc\ss\' mg©c\qs\tv\." That principle is a new route to
salvation, truly remarkable.
• m´zaetac\e®K' s^;et∑et∑tv\." At the foot of Meza, where the current swirls.
After negated verbs:
• ®pv\TÁer;' epåk\N˙c\.ek¥;qui≥' ÂkMet∑;l˙v\.ka' mqiqatv\." They were
unskilled in matters of state, like the parrot and the pauk flower.
• rn\ss\Teqa\' ®P®Pluik\lM' ss\U^;N∑Mm˙' r∑M>elr∑M>r∑M>' enak\mwM.tv\." Once he has
hurried to meet the challenge of battle and found himself enmeshed
therein, he becomes timid and is no longer brave.
• nv\;qv\N˙c\n˙c\' luiAc\®pv\.K´' merac\.r´tv\." His desire is not satisfied, he
claims he has not enough, and he is discontented.
• ekac\;®m´ mekac\;' mui;lv\;eAac\;j' eqac\;K´.ekak\pc\' m¥oi;m‰˙c\tv\." The rains,
which are normally good, are sparse, and the rice crop that was so
abundant does not thrive.
• Tuiqv\.mc\;ka;' esac\.®Kc\;tra;' my∑c\;m˙a;tv\." Such a king does not deviate
from the principles to be observed.
• Rut\trk\mk∑y\tv\." Was not immediately obscured.
tv\.- 2 also written Tv\.' qv\.' t´.' T´. ' q´. (V~-) suffix of unknown
meaning; described in MED as “emphatic”, and in Judson sv as “directly”,
but not all examples support this interpretation; vb mod, CB+FB; pron /t´.'
T´./; rare in contemporary language; examples below are arranged by
context;
Followed by sentence marker, commonly B¨;, perhaps suggesting “regularly,
normally”:
• ®mn\ma Suita AK¥in\m^ merak\T´.B¨;" Your Burman doesn’t regularly arrive on
time.
• eS∑;eN∑;Pui≥ dkaet∑ ek¥ac\; mlat´.B¨;" The donors don’t come to the
monastery for discussions.
• lc\n´≥mya; AK¥c\;K¥c\; nc\n´≥cå mquM;t´.B¨;" Husband and wife don’t use the
terms nin and nga to each other.
• S∑m\;ekÁ;et∑kui Sraeta\k mluik\t´.B¨;" The Abbot doesn’t go to sun-gyway
invitations.
• bm®pv\k pc\.kët∑k mkuik\t´.påB¨;" Spiders in Burma don’t bite.
Followed by subordinate clause marker, commonly FB j or CB ®p^;"
• påt´.eAac\ … e®paAuM;m˙" I’ll have to persuade her to come with me.
• AmO qaTv\.eAac\" So that the case goes well.
105
• wc\miÂkTv\.eqaeÂkac\." Because they had already entered.

• qMeta\Ë;tc\Tv\.eqa\" When they had informed the king.
• Âkv\.Tv\.påeqa\lv\;" Although they had a look.
• enram˙ Tt´.j {tit\es}hu eAa\luik\ra" When he got up and cried out
“Silence!”
• Sn\eS;t´.j Tmc\;Aui; tv\Nuic\‰˙aelqv\" She washed the rice and put it on
to cook.
• TuiAKå eyak¥\a;k tPn\ wc\t´.j {…} e®paens√\pc\" While the husband had
come in and was just saying …
• A´d^kentv\.®p^; ®pn\q∑a;my\" I’ll go straight home from there.
Sts apparently with j/®p^; understood:
• kuieqac\;sin\k l˙m\;t´. enak\luik\qv\kui kuil˙P¨; ‘pM;j l˙v\.Âkv\.Nuic\el®p^" Ko
Thaung Sein’s taunt made Ko Hla Bu turn and smile.
• AepÅAk¥Çel; ekak\t´. wt\j {eZ;Ë;eta. epåk\q∑a;®p^"} He took up his
jacket and put it on saying “I’ve made my first sale”.
• em;t´. Âkv\.luik\ra" When he inquired.
Followed by verb modifier:
• mK¥√\;Tv\.wM." They dared not approach.
• melYak\Tv\.wM.eAac\" They dared not address him.
• mep;mSk\Tv\.qapå" It was not appropriate to hand it over.
tv\. 3 see under t´. quoted
tv\. 4 and Atv\. see under t^ which
tv\; 1 (Stc~) indeed, verily, emphatic; often adds a note of gravity,
solemnity, to a passage; frequently used to round off a paragraph sonorous-
ly; stc fin phr ptcl, FB; pron /d^;/; cf CB p´/B´;
• Èl¨qv\ U^;l˙eptv\;" This man is indeed U Hla.
• cåka; tMcå;qa;tv\;" I am indeed a fisherman’s son.
• qYc\.namka; kmıatv\qer∑> ‰˙imv\tv\;" His name will stand as long as the
world lasts.
• Aa;lMu;kiu sin\eKÅK´.el®p^tv\;" She had issued a challenge to them all.
• ®ms\Âk^;tmn\;Sv\\' qaBiqv\tv\;" The dam over the great river is a delight to
behold.
The combination qv\+tv\; frequently contracts to qtv\;"
• qk\eta\ 60-®pv\.qv\. 1939-KuN˙s\t∑c\ p¥Ml∑n\eta\m¨‰˙aqtv\;" He sadly passed
away in 1939, in the 60th year of his life.
• eqd%\A®ps\ ep;liuk\elqtv\;" They sentenced him to death.
In pattern N1-tv\; hëqa N2 N2 named N1, N2 which is known as
N1, N1 which may be likened to N2; a formula for presenting a simile;
106
• tra;tv\; hëqa S^m^;" “The lamp which is called the Law”, the lamp of the
Law.
• tra;tv\; hëqa sk\" The wheel of the Law.
• AiN∂iy®pv\N˙c\. ®mn\ma®pv\ K´∑er;t´∑er;®pœnatv\; hëqa tim\n^" “The red cloud
named the issue of the separation of India and Burma”, the red cloud of
the separation issue.
• TiueSac\;på;m¥a;qv\ SraÂk^;f saSiuBwtv\; hëqa biman\t∑c\ Aut\®ms\
®Ps\qv\" Those articles were the foundation stones of the edifice of
Sayagyi’s career as a writer.
• Èl¨≥elakÂk^; At∑c\;qiu≥ P∑a;®mc\l∑n\e®mak\ mlaeq;m^' kÁn\eta\qv\
miKc\ftiuk\Kn\;Ò qeNÎtv\K´.rpåqv\" Tiu≥At¨ kÁn\eta\qv\ saer;Sra
®Ps\mlam^ ®mn\ma.yU\ek¥;mOBw Anupvasaeptv\; hëqa miKc\Âk^;f
tiuk\Kn\;t∑c\ p!iqeNÎ tv\enK´.req;qv\" Before I was born and passed into
this world I was nurtured in my mother’s womb. Likewise before I
became a writer I was nurtured in the womb of Burmese art and literature
and cultural life.
tv\;k see under ktv\;k since
tv\; 2 (Nº+N~) only, just, not more; nn mod, CB+FB; pron /T' d´´/;
• k¥p\cå;Sy\tv\; a mere 50 kyats; N˙s\nar^tv\;t∑c\ within only two hours;
N˙s\eyak\tv\; only two people, two alone.
In pattern ts\-N-tv\; or t-N-tv\; one and the same N, the same
N, N alone; often written T´ in CB;
• ts\Aup\tv\; puMN˙ip\qv\ printed in a single volume; ts\t∑´tv\;t∑c\ in the same
railway compartment; ts\eyak\T´ q∑a;ty\ I went on my own;
lk\ts\Pk\tv\;n´≥ m,Niuc\t´.eqt†a a suitcase that can be lifted with just one
q¨n´≥ k¥ena\n´≥ ts\N˙s\T´m˙ap´ em∑;ty\ he and I were born in the same
hand;
year.
In pattern ts\-N1-tv\;eqa N2 the sole N2;
• ts\U^;tv\;eqa qm^; her only daughter; ts\K∑n\;tv\;eqa ewPn\ska;kiu
Siuqv\ spoke just a single word of comment; ts\Tv\tv\;eqa Aekac\;SMu;
Ak¥Çel; her best and only good blouse; ts\på;tv\;eqa mc\; sole monarch;
tKutv\;eqa Ë;tv\K¥k\ m‰˙iB¨; they didn’t have just one single objective.
In pattern ts\-V-tv\; V- to do nothing but V, V all the time, V
continuously, V and V;
• ts\eKÅtv\; eKÅentap´" She was calling and calling.
• tem;tv\; em;enty\" She was asking and asking.
107
• thut\kt ´. v\; hut\k´.rc\;N˙c\. rp\l¥k\qa enelf" He just stood there saying

hut\k´. over and over again (where hut\k´. is used as a verb).
In certain set phrases:
• ts\‘pic\tv\; simultaneously; ts\v^ts\v∑t\tv\; evenly, altogether;
ts\K¥k\tv\;N˙c\. at a single stroke, all at once; ts\Kåtv\; at the same time,
all at once, right away; ts\Kåtv\; pron /dgd´/ and sts written tkT´
Really! Words fail me! Goodness gracious!
• etac\tn\;ny\m¥a;kiupå tpåtv\; l∑t\lp\er; mep;liuq®Pc\." As they did not
wish to give independence at the same time to the hill regions as well.
• tawn\m¥a;kiu meq∑®Pv\p´' l¨TuN˙c\. tqa;tv\; rp\tv\j Am˙n\tra;At∑k\ tiuk\p∑´
wc\q∑a;rmv\" Without shirking our tasks we must stand solidly (“in one
flesh”) with the masses and fight for the truth.
tt\- 1 (V~-) (a) know how to V, be able to V; usually where V denotes
some skill; vb mod, CB+FB; cf r' qa' Nuic;\
• mqim\;tt\liu≥ pup\q∑a;ta" It was because they didn’t know how to store it
that (the crop) rotted.
• bmaska; e®patt\qla;" _ ekac\;ekac\; me®patt\påB¨;" Can you speak
Burmese? — No, I can’t speak it very well.
• kÁn\eta\®Pc\. By\liu lup\rmy\ e®paB´ me®patt\B¨;" As for me, I just can’t say
what I should do.
• ka; memac\;tt\eq;påB¨;" He doesn’t yet know how to drive, can’t drive yet.
• pel∑ ekac\;ekac\; mOt\tt\ty\" He plays the flute well.
Sts in pattern V-j tt\- FB = CB V-lui≥ tt\-:
• e®paj tt\qla;" _ e®paj mtt\" FB = CB e®paliu≥ tt\qla;" _ e®paliu≥
mtt\påB¨;" Can you speak? — No, I can’t.
(b) usually V, to be in habit of V-ing, be likely to V;
• eS;lip\ eqak\tt\qla;" _ meqak\tt\påB¨;" Do you smoke? — No, I
don’t smoke.
• msMpy\qv\ q¨cy\K¥c\;m¥a;kiu k¨v^tt\qv\" Ma Sabeh usually helps her
friends.
• na;mlv\j Tp\em;liuk\lYc\ piuSiu;q∑a;tt\f" If she failed to understand them
and asked again, things usually got worse.
• vk¥eta. nń´ K¥m\;latt\ty\" It is likely to get a bit cold in the evenings.
• AeÂkac\; m®ppń´≥ Alup\ m‘Pt\tt\påB¨;" They don’t usually sack people
without giving their reasons.
• qtiTa;" eK∑; kiuk\tt\ty\" Be careful! The dog bites.
• etaArk\ ”kiok\tt\m˙n\;l´ qi®pn\" Also I happened to know that he liked
country spirit.
108
tt\ 2 in combination mekac\;tt\- to be inappropriate if not done, to be

unavoidable, to look bad; CB+FB;
• ekac\el; teyak\k na;p¨na;Sa lup\lui≥ m®Ps\men mer;K¥c\B´
er;luik\rpåty\" A´d^saAt∑k\ Bam˙ lup\ep;sra AeÂkac\;®pn\sra mluipå"
mekac\;tt\lui≥ er;ep;luik\rtapå" A young man badgered me so that I had
to write it although I didn’t want to. Please don’t feel obliged to do
anything or respond to the letter. I just wrote it because it was hard to
avoid doing so.
• qc\Âka;nv\;qc\tn\;kui cpi qeBamk¥eta.påB¨;" ®p^;K´.t´.Apt\keta.
ls\etac\ls\ty\" kÁn\eta\keta. mekac\;tt\lui≥ Sk\tk\enpåty\" Ngapi
doesn’t think much of the teaching methods class any more. Last week
she missed it. I am going on with it because it wouldn’t look good if I
missed it too.
• l¨mOer;Ar mekac\;tt\lui≥ Tut\mem;eqa em;K∑n\;" A question that it is socially
inappropriate to ask.
tt\ 3 in combination V-qtt\- it says; indicates that a statement is being
retold; unclassified suffix, FB; cf CB t´;. regular equivalent of Pali kira in
nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p 218);
• Aim\qiu≥ ®pn\erak\lYc\erak\K¥c\;lv\; SuM;q∑a;qtt\" “And,” says the story, “as
soon as he reached home he died”.
• d^liuSiurc\ qaekac\;eq;ty\' tiu≥tet∑ enrip\T´m˙a tiuk\rtaepå.hu ®pn\j
e®Pqtt\" “In that case, so much the better: we shall be fighting out of the
heat of the sun” he replied, according to the story.
• qt†qMwsÍrani' Kuns\N˙s\tui≥pt\luM;" kmμM' AmOkui" kt∑a' ‘pj" BriyM' mya;kui"
lBikir' rqtt\" After working for seven years he acquired a wife, so the
story goes (nissaya).
tt\ 4 see under mtt\ almost
tn\- 1 (V~-) to be suitable, fitting to V, worth V-ing; to be liable, likely
to V; vb mod, FB+CB; cf V-Ap\-' V-qc\.-' V-Tuik\-' V-ra-' V-Pui≥ ekac\;-;
• meqtn\pń´≥ eqrty\" He died before his proper time, before he deserved to
die.
• hut\tn\qelak\ hut\f" It is quite likely to be true (“as true as it should
be”).
• ®ptn\qelak\ ®pRuMp´ liuty\" You need only show as much as should be
shown.
• me®patn\qv\.ska;m¥a;" Words that it is not fitting to utter.
• AKuenAK¥in\m˙a bma®pv\ erak\tn\®p^" She should have arrived in Burma by
now.
109
• yU\ek¥;mO k∑y\ep¥ak\påk l¨m¥io;på ep¥ak\k∑y\tn\qv\" If your culture

disappears then the whole race is liable to fade away.
In the pattern V-tn\ V to V if or where V-ing was required;
• nk\®Pn\Kåm˙p´ Sn\ eK¥;c˙a; K¥k\tn\ K¥k\my\" And tomorrow I’ll borrow some
rice to cook if I have to.
• psßv\;m¥a;kui K¥tn\ K¥' tc\tn\ tc\N˙c\. AsÂs√\ ‘plup\Âk®p^;enak\" After making
their dispositions, loading and unloading the baggage as required.
• ‘Pt\tn\ ‘Pt\' ®Pv\.tn\ ®Pv\. sqv\®Pc\. AsÂs√\qs\ Tut\lup\rmv\" (A person
trying to become a writer) will have to develop a new style of working,
deleting or supplementing as required.
In the pattern N1 tn\ty\ N2 tn\ty\ (CB = FB) N1 tn\qv\ N2 tn\qv\
either N1 or N2 as appropriate:
• Sy\.cå;rk\ tn\ty\ ts\l tn\ty\ k¥op\ en®p^;m˙" After I’d been there for a
fortnight or a month.
• p¨taAiukiu ts\l tn\qv\ N˙s\l tn\qv\ Sc\;“p^; Bun\;”k^;ek¥ac\;m˙a
rhn\;k¥c\.wt\ na;lv\eAac\ ”kio;sa;rmv\" You must go down to Putao for
one or two months and try understand the code of conduct of the monks
in the monastery.
tn\ 2 (Nº+N~) worth (specified sum of money); truncated verb attribute,
short for tn\t´.' tn\eqa, CB+FB;
•N˙s\k¥p\tn\ tMSip\eKåc\; a two-kyat stamp; Sy\tn\ ec∑sk˚øm¥a; ten-kyat notes;
90-tn\ ts\R∑k\ ep;luik\" Give him a 90-kyat note.
tn\ekac\; see under ekac\; 1 to be likely
tn\ra- (V~-) to be usual, normal to V, be likely, appear to V; vb mod,
mostly FB;
• qamn\Aa;®Pc\. SiulYc\eta. qv\raqÛtum˙a eKÁ;msiu≥tn\ra" In the normal course
of events she wouldn’t have been perspiring in this sort of weather.
• ep¥ak\qv\. k¥n\rs\qv\. psßv\;k mv\qv\.psßv\;pålim\." miu;Kå Siueta. T^;p´
®Ps\tn\raqv\" What could the lost object be? As it was the rainy season it
would most likely be an umbrella.
• TiueKt\lv\; ts\m¥oi; sit\vs\sra ekac\;eqaeKt\ ®Ps\tn\raqv\" That period
must have been a particularly depressing period.
• Èqiu≥e®pa®Kc\;qv\ Am˙n\Atiuc\; e®paSiueqa q¨f lk %aN˙c\. t¨qv\'
A®ps\‰˙ieqaq¨qv\ A®ps\kiu wn\mKMB´ Èqiu≥ me®patn\ra" This statement bears
the stamp of a man who speaks the truth. A guilty person would not
speak in this way without admitting his guilt.
110
• cepÅlaqv\ lk\t∑c\‰˙ieqa wå;rc\;tut\N˙c\. Riuk\N˙k\lYc\lv\; Riuk\N˙k\tn\rafhu

eAak\em.mi®pn\elf" Then it occurred to him: Nga Pawla most probably
struck her with the cudgel he had in his hand.
tn\;- (~V-) to V directly, without delay or deviation; comm pre-vb,
CB+FB; from tn\;- to stretch out straight;
• lk\Pk\rv\Suic\ken tn\;®pn\my\" I’m going to go straight home from the café.
• ®Kc\;etac\;kiu ts\Pk\k S∑´“p^; enak\eP;kiu tn\;wc\q∑a;ty\" She picked up her
basket by one side and went straight to the back of the house.
• Bun\;”k^;lv\; qMGasc\ ‰˙iraS^qiu≥ tn\;Âk∑q∑a;elqv\" The monk made straight
for where the (other) monks were sitting.
• d^ts\Kå … liuK¥c\takiu tn\;®p^; eZ;Ss\Niuc\®p^" But this time I was able to start
bargaining for what I wanted without hesitation.
tun\; (V~) while, when V-ing; sub cls mkr, CB, = FB V-S´; see also tun\;k
below;
• kel;et∑ Tmc\;sa;entun\; k¥m Awt\ q∑a;l´liuk\AuM;my\" I’ll go and change
while the children are eating.
• nc\ m‰˙itun\; cå d^kiu ts\eKåk\p´ erak\ty\" I only came here once while you
weren’t here.
• AKu qtirtun\; m˙t\Ta;påres" Let me make a note while I still have it in
mind.
• lqatun\; biuc\;cc\" Spin while the moon shines (“make hay while the sun
shines”).
• Used before the verb ‰˙i-, or at the end of a sentence with ,
In pattern V-tun\; ‰˙i- to be still V-ing, in the process of V-ing; often
with ‰˙i- omitted;
• mui;R∑atun\; ‰˙ieq;qla; or miu;R∑atun\;p´la;" Is it still raining?
• ek¥ac\; tk\tun\; ‰˙ieq;ty\" He is still going to school.
• ePePha Arc\kl´ k¥n\;maer;At∑k\ Siu®p^; tc\;ns\ m˙n\m˙n\ Riuk\ty\' Kul´
Riuk\tun\;p´" Father used to play tennis regularly for the sake of his health.
And he still plays.
tun\; see under tuM; open question
tun\;k (V~, N~) while, when V-ing, during N, with reference to past time;
nn mkr and sub cls mkr, CB+FB;
• By\tun\;k erak\ql´" When did you arrive? hiiutun\;k Ae®KAen the
situation at that time; Arc\tun\;k formerly; qv\tun\;k at this time, then;
ss\m®Ps\m^tun\;k before the war; cy\cy\tun\;k when I was young;
e‰˙;e‰˙;tun\;k long ago, once upon a time. mmr^tun\;k in Ma Ma Yi’s time,
when MMY was here; rn\kun\m˙atun\;k dåm¥oi; qip\mRiuk\P¨;på" AKueta. eta\eta\
111
Riuk\tt\en®p^" I hadn’t done much of that sort of typing before when I was
in Yangon. Now I can type pretty well.
• e®patun\;k ts\m¥oi;' erak\eta. pMusM ts\m¥oi; ®Ps\entt\qv\k m¥a;qv\" Usually
it was one thing when she talked, but a different story when she arrived.
• elyaU\p¥M p¥k\k¥tun\;k mc\; m‰˙iB¨;ena\" You weren’t here when the plane
crashed, were you?
• As\mS^m˙a entun\;k K%K% Âkv\.rty\" We often used to watch while we
were living at my sister’s.
tm\; (V~) indicates that the verb involves some form of mutual action;
mostly with negated verbs, except in the names of games; sub cls mkr,
FB+CB;
• Aa;mnatm\; m˙apåena\" Tell me, ask (for what you want) without any
embarrassment, won’t you?
• dusRiuk\ Sy\på;tiu≥kiu mematm\; e®paehaSMu;mel. ‰˙ielqv\" He used to preach
sermons on the Ten Sins without tiring.
• q¨tiu≥N˙s\eyak\ Aim\mwc\tm\; qeBat¨Âkty\" They made an agreement that
neither would go into the other’s house.
• mv˙atm\; Riuk\ty\" He beats them without mercy.
• mK∑´tm\; K¥s\my\" We shall love one another and never part.
• melYa.tm\; emac\;q∑a;ty\" He drove on without slowing down.
• lk\k mK¥tm\; Pt\ROenrmv\" You will read it without being able to put it
down.
• m´lip\ NOik\Âkmy\" kMT¨;q¨ ‰˙c\;tm\;k∑a" We’ll draw lots. (The agreement is
that) the winner settles the bill.
In names and descriptions of games:
• egåk\q^; Riuk\tm\; ksa;Âkqv\" They played golf.
• kel;et∑ liuk\tm\;e®p;tm\; ksa;enty\" The children were playing catch.
• yuMtm\;ska; e®paty\" Play a game (in which both participants agree to
believe whatever the other one says, however farfetched).
• p∑´k,tm\; ksa;ty\" Play at putting on a zat show.
As an optional element in certain words:
• A®m´(tm\;) always; tky\(tm\;) really, truly.
tuM 1 (V1~ V2~) doing now V1 now V2, alternating between V1 and V2;
sub cls mkr, CB+FB; used with pairs of verbs of opposed meaning, before
the verb ®Ps\-; most commonly in the phrase K¥^tuMK¥tuM “picking up and putting
down, dithering”; cf K¥v\…K¥v\' luik\…luik\' la;…la;' hy\…hy\; prob-
ably from verb modifier tu;M
112
• K¥^tMuK¥tMu AÂka”k^; ®Ps\en“p^;m˙ kÁn\m my¨®Ps\eta.på" After dithering for a long

time I turned down (the offer).
• K¥^tuMK¥tuM tAuMeN∑;eN∑; ®Ps\r‰˙aqv\" He was paralysed with anxiety and
indecision.
• K∑atuMkp\tuM ®Ps\enty\" They were alternately approaching and retreating.
tuM- 2 (V~-) indicates recurring action; unclassified suffix, FB;
• N˙M≥mYluM;®KMo' mtt\tuMlv\; ts\suMts\Ku' tt\eAac\®poj" And should he not be able
to provide complete security, he must find a way to do so.
• Tuin˙y\lv\;ekac\;' ®Ps\tuMe‰˙ac\;j" And should this happen again.
• ABy\tuMnv\;" Whither now?
tuM; sts tun\; (Stc~) indicates an open question; stc fin phr ptcl, CB = CB &
FB l´ or FB nv\;' rather brusque, familiar;
• A´då BatuM;" What’s that?
• Ba(‘p)liu≥ mla(q)tuM;" Why didn’t you come?
• By\m˙a ksa;mliu≥tuM;" Where are you going to play?
• By\q¨k m®pn\B´ enm˙amiu≥tuM;" Who do you think is going to stay behind?
• By\Siu;liu≥tuM;" Not bad! (“How could that be bad?”).
• Balui≥ wc\s∑k\K¥c\rtatuM;" Why do you have to interfere?
ty\ 1 and variant forms q' ta' Ta (V~) V-s, V-ed; indicates general
statement of realised or non-future state; also habitual action; translatable
by English past or present tenses, stc mkr, CB, = FB qv\ from which it is
derived; may be omitted in rapid speech before la; and l´ question mark-
ers; attributive form t´. or ty\. qqv;
In form ty\, the standard form:
• miu; R∑aenty\" It was raining, is raining.
• men≥k P¥a;enty\" He was ill yesterday.
• mnk\Pn\ Asv\;Aew; tk\sra ‰˙ity\" I have to attend a meeting tomorrow.
• Upuq\en≥tiuc\; Bura;q∑a;P¨;ty\" Every sabbath day he goes to visit the pagoda.
• For ty\ in questions without la; or l´ see under Zero question marker in the
English entries.
The form q is used before some phrase particles, some appended appella-
tives and ejaculations, and sts before the particle t´. “reported speech”:
• er nk\qla;" Is/was the water deep?
• naqk∑a" It really hurts, man.
• cå;k¥p\ etac\;qb¥oi>" They asked 5 kyats, my boy!
• ®ms\T´ em¥apåq∑a;qt´." The story goes that he was carried away down the
river.
Examples of q omitted:
113
• Sran´≥ et∑>la;" = Sran´≥ et∑>qla;" Did you see Saya?

• By\k rl´" = By\k rql´" Where did you get it from?
The form ta (after a stop consonant pron and sts written Ta) is mainly
used in the contexts described below. Note the contrasting ordering of ty\
and ta with suffix på — V-påty\ but V-tapå;
a) for emphasis, or when correcting the hearer’s mistaken view:
• cåetac\ Aim\kui erak\m˙ erak\påAuM;mla;lui≥ eAak\em.enta" There was me
wondering if you’d ever get home!
• et∑;K¥v\; et∑;enta" Spends all his time brooding.
• mhut\B¨;" P∑c\.Ta;ta" No! I did open it (correcting a wrong impression).
• Ahut\kiu Tut\ps\Ta" mqiB¨;la;" They did actually throw him out! Didn’t
you know?
b) as the preferred form before the phrase particles epå.' p´' på' kui;"
• qip\ wm\;qatap´" I am very pleased indeed.
• et∑>Âkeq;taepå." See you again soon!
• m¥√\;e®pac\. m¥√\;ek∑;et∑etac\ na;lv\entakui;" Well well! So you have a grasp
of straight and curved lines, I see.
c) when the information conveyed by the verb is already known to the lis-
tener and the new information in the sentence is in one of the noun phrases
preceding the verb; compare English sentences of the form: It was because
X that Y;
• AKuUk˚™n´≥ nń´m˙ mtv\.B¨;" Kn\≥ktv\;kuik mtv\.Âkta" He doesn’t get on at
all well with the current president. They’ve been at odds ever since he
was appointed.
• AKn\;T´m˙akiu Tiuc\enta" It was actually inside the room that she was sitting
(i.e. not outside).
• mqim\;tt\liu≥ pup\q∑a;ta" raqÛtueÂkac\. mhut\B¨;" It was because they didn’t
know how to store it that (the crop) rotted. It wasn’t because of the
climate.
• tK¥oi>ek¥ac\;et∑m˙aqa d^lui ®Ps\entapå" It’s only in some schools that this is
happening.
• tra;luie‰˙>enAenn´≥ em;ta mhut\påB¨;" ®Pø®PøeAac\r´. PKc\ ts\eyak\Aenn´≥
em;tapå" I’m not asking you this as the plaintiff’s lawyer. I’m asking you
as Pyu Pyu Aung’s father.
• By\tun\;k em∑;tal´" When were they born?
• dêkac\ Balup\ental´" What’s this fellow up to now?
(d) in sentences embedded before the verb ®Ps\- “to be the case that”:
114
• k¥c\;plata d^N˙s\ N˙s\epåc\; 100 ‰˙i“p^mui≥ ra®pv\.p∑´qBc\ Sc\yc\ta ®Ps\påty\" As

for the celebration of this festival, (it was the case that) it was held as a
centenary celebration since it was 100 years since the event.
• q¨≥eÂkac\. mc\;sv\;sim\kiu rK´.ta ®Ps\t´.At∑k\" As it was thanks to him that he
had attained his position as king.
• då.eÂkac\. piu;krc\ Am¥oi;qa;m¥a;k dÂr∑k\kiu {ya;eqak\} liu≥ eKÅÂkta
®Ps\ty\liu≥ qmiuc\;k Siuty\" History relates that it is for this reason that
the Pwo Karen call this leaf Ya-thauk.
The form ty\ with la; is used when the questioner is putting words in
the mouth of the listener and requires confirmation:
• dåSui Alup\k NOt\T∑k\my\la;" (= dåSui Alup\k NOt\T∑k\my\ hut\la;") In
that case are you (do you mean you are) going to resign?
• min\;met∑kiu eKÅlaliu≥ rty\la;" (Are you claiming that) you can bring
women here?
• mÂka;rrc\ lk\e®mHak\ep;på" Âka;ty\la;" If you can’t hear me please raise
your hand. (Do you mean) you can hear, then?
With negated verbs (m-V) the form ta is common in the context (c)
above:
• dåeÂkac\.miu≥ mlata" So that’s why they didn’t come.
• mhut\B¨;" Sa;kui mTv\.tael" No: it was the salt she had failed to add.
• By\luiham¥oi; m’kik\tal´" What sort of things does he not like?
The form q with negated verbs is used before tuM; and l´ question mark-
ers:
• Ba‘pliu≥ mq∑a;K¥c\ql´" Why don’t they want to go?
• By\AK¥in\ mAa;qtuM;" What time are you not free?
Also before la; question marker in positive-negative pairs:
• ®mc\P¨;qla; m®mc\P¨;qla;eta. me®patt\påB¨;" I can’t say whether they had
seen them before or not.
The form ty\ with negated verbs is rare, but does occur, in contexts sim-
ilar to those described for ta under (c) above:
• min\;kel;e‰˙>m˙amui≥ me®paty\" It was because there was a girl present that I
didn’t say it (where the listener knows that the speaker said nothing).
• Kr^;K ep;Nuic\rk\n´≥ mep;ty\" It was in spite of being able to pay the fare that
they didn’t (where the listener knows they failed to pay).
• kuiy\KMrl´ mekac\;B¨;" t®Ka;l¨ ts\eyak\eyak\k mhut\pń´≥ KMrl´ puietac\
mekac\;eq;ty\" It would be a shame if you had to suffer for it yourself.
And if someone else had to suffer for it, without being the culprit, that
would be even worse.
115
• lip\saA®pv\.AsuM k¥op\qa mqity\" It’s just that I don’t have the full address.
• AeKÅKuic\;‰˙aeq;ty\" … put;^ sip\enty\ e®paluik\m˙ mKuic\;eta.ty\" She asked
me to fetch him … it was only when I said I was telling my beads that she
desisted.
• v^met∑k Aemkui q∑a;®p^; lk\KMPui≥ e®pata kMekac\;lui≥ tut\n´≥ Ruik\mKMrty\"
My sisters went and asked my mother to accept (the eloped couple), and it
was only by good luck that they didn’t get a beating.
• R∑am˙a Bun\;Âk^;ek¥ac\;qa m‰˙ity\" BuMSuic\kel;eta. ‰˙ity\" It’s only a
monastery that the village lacks: a drinks shop is something it does have.
• eta\mui≥lui≥ m‰˙k\ty\‰˙c\" No-one but you would be able to bear the shame.
Before the verb ‰˙i- the suffix ty\ is occasionally used as a nominalizer:
• erak\P¨;ty\ ‰˙ieAac\ q∑a;my\" I’m going to go for the sake of having been
there.
•APt\ tc\ty\ m‰˙iB¨;" There’s nothing left.
•mc\;. Ë;el;k Aim\kui kp\ty\lui≥kui m‰˙iB¨;" Your uncle is never at home.
ty\- 2 (~V-) to V very much, a lot; comm pre-vb, CB; cf qip\-' Pi-' nc\;-'
t∑n\;-' lWt\-;
• dên≥ ty\ Aiuk\ty\" How hot it is today!
• ty\lui≥l´ Kk\påla;" What an awkward problem!
• eS;lip\ ty\ meqak\påB¨;" I don’t smoke much.
• ‰˙c\tiu≥keta. Atit\et∑ nimit\et∑ ty\ Ay¨qv\;tun\; ‰˙ieq;takiu;" Well, after
all, you lot are still deep in the grip of superstitions about omens.
ty\. see under t´. which V-s, vb atrb mkr
et∑ (N~) general plural, indicating more than one of the head noun;
also used with mass nouns, when it may sometimes be translated by “lots
of N”; nn mod, CB; = FB N-m¥a;' normally pron /ed/ in colloquial style, or
/ed∑/ in formal contexts; not normally used in numeral compounds such as
“three men, four books” where English uses a plural;
• ek¥ac\;qëk¥ac\;qa;et∑ students; etaR∑aet∑T´m˙a in country villages;
ereÂkac\; qy\y¨piu≥eSac\er;AP´∑> qeBçaet∑ Water Transport Board boats;
saer;®Kc\;n´≥ Aqk\em∑;t´. saer;Sram˙a ekac\;taet∑ ‰˙iqliu mekac\;taet∑
‰˙ity\" Just as there are advantages for a writer who earns his living by
writing, so there are disadvantages. ec∑et∑ money; AmOik\et∑ rubbish,
pieces of rubbish; eKÁ;et∑ sweat, lots of sweat; priqt\et∑ the audience;
A´d^vk kuiy\et∑ K¥s\K¥s\etak\ p¨®p^; ck∑n\;kel; eqq∑a;ty\" That night
Nga Kun’s child died, after his body (“bodies”) had become blazing hot.
In combination ts\et∑ or tet∑ see under ts\et∑ the group
116
At∑k\ (N~, VA~) on account of, because of, as a result of; on behalf of,
for the sake of, for the purpose of; nn mkr and sub stc mkr, CB+FB; also
in combination N-At∑k\eÂkac\. “because of”, and FB V-rn\At∑k\ “for the
purpose of”; sts N-fAt∑k\ FB = CB N-r´.At∑k\;
• kÁn\eta\.At∑k\eta. sit\ mp¨pån´≥" Don’t worry about me, on my account.
• A´d^saAt∑k\ Bam˙ lup\ep;sra AeÂkac\;®pn\sra mluipå" There’s no need to do
anything or write a reply for that letter.
• AakaqquetqnAt∑k\ y˙√\‘pic\eSac\R∑k\lui≥ laK´.påty\" They had been
competing in space research.
• TiukisßfAt∑k\ Am¥a;Âk^; sit\mekac\;®Kc\;" Great unhappiness on account of
that matter.
• mc\;keta\r´.At∑k\ Kk\l˙K¥v\r´.eN˙a" It’s a problem for you, isn’t it, Madam?
• kel;et∑At∑k\eÂkac.\ rn\kun\m˙a enrs\K´.rty\" She had to stay behind in
Yangon because of the children.
• qiu≥At∑k\eÂkac\. FB = CB A´dÂt∑k\eÂkac\." For that reason.
• lam´. v^laKMm˙a ska;e®parm´.At∑k\(eÂkac\.) dÂetaAt∑c\;m˙a t®Ka;haet∑
ty\ mkiuc\K¥c\B¨;" As he will have to speak at the coming conference, he
doesn’t much want to take on other things in the meantime.
• ÈwtÊo er;Niuc\s∑m\; ‰˙irn\At∑k\ mv\mY Apc\pn\;KM ’ki;sa;K´.rqv\kiu e®paliumipåqv\"
I want to say how much effort and hard work I had to put in to be able to
write this novel.
• r∑akiu esaesa ®pn\erak\er;At∑k\ sa;“p^;“p^;K¥c\; ®pn\kun\Âktak m¥a;påty\" They
usually go home straight after eating, so that they can get back early.
t∑c\ (N~) (a) in, at, on, among N; nn mkr, FB; cf FB Ò' wy\; = CB N-m˙a; reg-
ular equivalent of Pali locative case meaning “among” in nissaya translation
(Okell 1965 p 200);
• kÁn\eta\ susuepåc\; 21-rk\ Ac˙a;yaU\@ant∑c\ Alup\ lup\K´.påqv\" I worked a
total of 21 days in the taxi department.
• rTa;epÅt∑c\ suMeTak\m¥a; påekac\;påÂkmv\" There may be detectives on the
train.
• q¨qv\ nMnk\ 6-nar^t∑c\ Aip\rak Niu;qv\" He awoke from sleep at six o’clock
in the morning.
• Kuns\rk\ts\pt\Kn\≥ AÂkat∑c\" In about a week’s time, after about a week.
• ÈsaAup\kiu pMuN˙ip\Tut\ewrat∑c\ rv\r∑y\K¥k\ka;" Our purpose in publishing this
book is ….
• ek¥ak\m¥k\rtnatiu≥t∑c\ sin\qv\ AmaSuM; ®Ps\qv\" Among precious stones,
diamond is the hardest.
• taqu d∑^qu gåTaqu' TuiN˙s\gåTatui≥t∑c\" In those two ga–tha– verses (nissaya).
117
• qiu≥rat∑c\ tky\ lk\et∑> AqMu;‘pqv\.AKå" However, when you use them in

practice ….
• kÁn\eta\ q∑a;mv\.S´S´t∑c\ q¨ erak\laqv\" He arrived as I was on the point
of leaving.
In the combination V-qv\t∑c\ upon V-ing, when V (see Allott 1994 p
5):
• … qark¥s\ e®paSuieqa ska;kui eRWna;eta\Âka; elYak\Ta;qv\t∑c\
Sd∂n\Sc\mc\;qKc\ Bw‰˙c\mc\;tra;Âk^;lv\; Sraeta\qMGaeta\ mc\;v^mc\;qa;
mØ;eta\mt\eta\tui≥kui sv\;ew;v^V∑t\tuic\pc\eta\m¨ra" Upon their having inform-
ed the king of the report from Sarkies, his Righteous Majesty, Lord of Life,
Master of the Great Chaddanta Elephant, held a meeting with the
Sayadaws and monks, and the royal princes and ministers.
(b) in, within, inside, not beyond N; CB; often pron /dc\/ and then sts
written tc\; cf AT´;
• diuB^Siuc\ d^na;t∑c\ ‰˙iqla;" Is there a laundry near here, in this
neighbourhood?
• rn\kun\T´t∑c\eta. met∑>P¨;eq;B¨;" I have never yet come across one in Yangon
itself.
• piuk\SM ROM;RuMt∑c\ mkB¨;" It wasn’t only that he lost money.
• lip\sael; em;RMutc\påk∑a" I’m only asking for her address.
• nm\;tan´≥t∑c\ eqNiuc\ty\" One can die by merely sniffing at it.
• kÁn\eta\tiu≥ Kr^;k mN †el;m˙at∑c\ SuM;ta mhut\eq;B¨;" Sk\q∑a;rAuM;my\"
Our journey wasn’t yet over at Mandalay; we had to go further on.
• qv\min\≥K∑n\;n´≥tc\ hs\K¥\eka.K\ Suiq¨ha q¨≥priqt\kui sPui≥' kliPui≥ wåqnaTMuq¨
m˙n\;lv\; qilarm˙a ®Ps\qv\" From this speech alone one can appreciate
that Hitchcock was a man who enjoyed teasing his audience.
• ts\en≥eta. g¥pn\ kc\eptiuc\k qtc\;rq∑a;®p^; kÁn\eta\tiu≥kiu liuk\Pm\;ty\"
d^t∑c\ kÁn\eta\tiu≥ts\et∑ l¨suK´∑®p^; etaR∑aet∑m˙a elYak\e®p;®p^; pun\;enÂkrty\"
One day Japanese Kempetai got news of us and came after us.
Whereupon we all split up and fled into different villages and had to stay
hidden.
• d^m˙atc\ kÁn\eta\ wtÊotiukel;ts\pud\ er;liuk\ty\" Here, at this point, I
wrote a short story.
•d^tc\ rp\Âksiu≥" Let’s stop at this point.
•Kut∑c\k Pun\; laty\" Sn phoned just now. (The phrase Kut∑c\k has variants
Kunc\k' Kunk' Kun' and Kunel;tc\")
t∑c\; or At∑c\; (N~) (a) inside, within (a place); loc nn, mainly FB; = CB
(A)T´; opp A®pc\ outside;
118
• nn\;t∑c\;wy\ inside the palace; tp\t∑c\;qiu≥ into the fort; ®pv\t∑c\;ss\ civil war;
‘mi>At∑c\;piuc\; the area inside the town; Ak¥Ç At∑c\;Ait\ inside coat pocket;
®pv\t∑c\; qy\y¨piu≥eSac\er; AP´∑> Inland Water Transport Board; ®pv\t∑c\;kun\
internal products, home produced goods (cf ®pv\Tér;wn\”k^;@an Ministry of
Home Affairs); eÂk®caK¥k\At∑c\; på‰˙i®pqeqa qc\;P´∑≥sv\;m¥√\; the constitution
of the group as stated in the announcement; ek¥ac\;prwu%\At∑c\; Pinp\
ms^;ÂkpåB¨;" They don’t wear sandals within the monastery precincts.
(b) during, within (of time); CB+FB;
• ss\At∑c\;k SuM;q∑a;qv\" He died during the war.
• ts\N˙s\At∑c\; satm\; tc\rpåty\" You have to hand in the thesis within one
year.
• miu;t∑c\; q∑a;liu≥ mrB¨;" You can’t go during the rainy season.
• ®mn\maNiuc\cMqv\ Agçlpi \tiu≥ lk\eAak\t∑c\ ‰˙iensU\At∑c\;" During the period
when Burma was under British rule.
•wåt∑c\; el;l he four months of Lent, i.e. Lent; m¥a;mÂkamÂt∑c\; before long;
dÂetaAt∑c\; in the meantime.
t∑n\;- (~V-) to V very much, a lot; comm pre-vb, CB; cf qip\-' ty\-' Pi-'
nc\;-' lWt\-; from verb t∑n\;- to push;
• KuAKå mek∑;Bk\m˙a N˙m\;et∑ t∑n\;wy\enÂkty\" At present around Magwe
people are falling over each other to buy sesame.
• kel;et∑k saem;p∑Át∑k\ t∑n\;qc\enreta." As the children had to be
studying hard for their exams.
Ta see under ty\ stc mkr
Ta;- 1 (V~-) V permanently, V and leave, V so that there is some
lasting result; vb mod, CB+FB; FB sts V-j Ta;-; negative form usually
V-m~; mostly not voiced, but voiced by some speakers;
• U^;el;qv\ kÁn\eta\tiu≥ lamv\kiu qij Tmc\; K¥k\Ta;qv\" Uncle cooked a
meal ready because he knew that we were coming.
• K% kiuc\Ta;på" Hold on a moment, please (i.e. keep hold: to person
telephoning).
• Ak¥Ç KÁt\Ta;på" Please take off your jacket (and keep it off).
• ®ptc\;epåk\et∑ Aa;luM; P∑c\.Ta;ty\" All the windows have been opened.
• Uped Tut\mTa;B¨;la;" Didn’t they bring out a regulation?
• A´då kÁn\eta\ luM;w em.Ta;ty\" I had completely forgotten that.
• 10tn\; eAac\Ta;t´. kel;et∑" Children who have passed their Tenth
Standard exam.
• eqt†ak Tc\Ta;qv\Tk\ el;q®Pc\." As the case was heavier than she had
thought.
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• dÂeÂkac\;kiu Tv\.“p^; mer;K¥c\rc\lv\; ®Ps\påty\" Sra qiTa;eAac\qa

e®partapå" And it’s all right if you don’t want to put these facts in. I had
to tell you just so that you were aware of them.
• e‰˙>m˙t\tuic\ pårc\ T∑k\Ta;Âkena\" If there’s anyone for the next bus stop,
come to the front in good time, won’t you?
• A´d^lui eragå ‰˙aeP∑ss\eS;mOet∑kui mluiAp\p´ mlup\rB¨; Suit´. ta;®ms\K¥k\
‰˙iTa;lui≥" Because there is this rule that forbids us from using this
diagnostic method when it is not necessary.
• ®p^;K´.t´.lk T∑k\Ta;t´. mN †el;y√\ek¥;mOg¥any\" The Mandalay Culture
Journal that came out last month.
Ta; 2 or Ta;U^; (Stc ~) leave it that Stc, let it be, let it stand that Stc,
even if Stc; a way of setting up an unlikely hypothesis; main clause,
CB+FB; pron /Ta;AuM;/;
• mimik qeBa t¨qv\ Ta;" Say she did herself agree (what then?).
• kiukiuemac\Aa; ‘psuliuqv\ Ta;U^;" Even supposing she did want to look after
Ko Ko Maung.
Ti and ATi and TieAac\ (N~, VA~) up to, until V, as far as, as much as
N; nn mkr and sub stc mkr, CB+FB; = FB tiuc\eAac\;\ not voiced;
• KuTk\Ti m˙t\mieq;ty\" I remember it even now.
• dÂTi Aim\et∑Aa;luM;" All the houses up to here.
• Kå;Ti ‰˙v\l¥a;eqa SMpc\" Hair that reached down as far as her waist.
• ®ms\Âk^;na;m˙ er;‘mi>(A)Ti m^;rTa;®Pc\. q∑a;Niuc\qv\" One can go from Myit-kyi-na
to Ye by train.
• tepåc\;l®pv\.ek¥a\ ts\rk\en≥m˙ wåSiul®pv\.en≥(A)Tiqv\ eN∑kal ®Ps\qv\" The
period from the full moon of Tabaung to the full moon of Wazo is the hot
season.
• eqt´.ATi (= FB eqqv\.ATi) mem.påB¨;" I shall not forget this till my dying
day.
• ereN∑; S¨laqv\ATi esac\.på" Wait till the water boils.
• m^;lYoi>ps\m´.ATi mmiuk\påB¨;" He wouldn’t be so stupid as to burn them.
• kÁm\;k¥c\tt\e®mak\qv\.ATi Sv\;p¨;qv\" He studied (languages) until he
mastered them fully.
• lël;Sy\elak\ATi tc\ps\ta" He loaded up as many as 40 (passengers).
• Bura;l¨”k^;et∑k lk\ew˙≥RMukiu P∑c\.ep;liuk\rt´.ATi ®Ps\q∑a;ty\" (The demand
from the audience was so strong that) the pagoda trustees had to open up
the boxing hall.
• razaDiraz\ha q¨ Al∑n\ K¥s\t´. lg∑n\;Aim\kiu qt\ps\Piu≥ATi lup\K´.påty\" R
attempted to go as far as killing L, who he was extremely fond of.
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• q¨tiu≥qv\ eBaluM;k∑c\;TieAac\ lm\;elYak\Âkqv\" They walked as far as the

football ground.
• emac\wc\;qv\ miu;lc\;TieAac\ saPt\q®Pc\. eKåc\;m¨;enqv\" Maung Win felt
giddy from reading until dawn.
T^; and AT^; (N~) male N; nn mod, CB+FB; cf Pui' P male, m female;
• N∑a;T^; bull; eK∑;T^; dog; Sc\T^;/Sc\AT^; bull elephant.
T´ and AT´ (N~, VA~) inside, among; while, during; on top of, as well
as; loc nn, CB+FB; cf At∑c\;' opp A®pc\ outside;
• Aim\T´ wc\Âkv\.mla;" Will you go inside the house and look?
• etaT´k R∑a" The village in the forest.
• rc\T´wy\ din\;Kn´´ ®Ps\q∑a;qv\" He felt a great thump in his breast.
• enak\saT´ k¥m˙ t®Ka;AeÂkac\;Araet∑kiu er;påAuM;my\" In my next letter I’ll
write about other matters.
• piuk\SMAit\kel;T´k ec∑Asit\ Tut\liuk\qv\" She took 25 kyats out of her
purse.
• dÂT´T´m˙a qim\;Ta;my\" I’ll put it away inside here.
• Sramk ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a;AT´m˙ ts\eyak\kiu Atn\;mØ;A®Ps\ eR∑;K¥y\liuk\qv\"
The teacher chose one person from among the students as leader of the
class.
• c˙k\tiu≥AT´m˙a edåc\;qv\ k¥k\qer A‰˙iSuM; ®Ps\qv\" The peacock is the most
glorious, the noblest, of birds.
• lK ®pt\ent´.AT´m˙aqa lup\rpåty\" He only had to do it while his pay was
stopped.
• qv\AT´m˙a 45-k¥p\ ®pv\.rer;klv\; Aa;Tut\rpåqv\" On top of this I had to
endeavour to make my full (daily) amount of 45 kyats (driving a govern-
ment taxi in Yangon).
• qv\AT´t∑c\ lm\;klv\; Âkm\;luik\eq;qv\" On top of this the road was very
bumpy.
T´k see under ktv\;k since
T´. see under tv\. vb mod
Tui (~N or ~sfx) this, that, with ref to sth pointed out or just mention-
ed, the afore-mentioned; selective noun, FB; cf FB yc\;' = CB A´d^' A´hui;
regular equivalent of Pali so, eso in nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p 208);
• TiuAKåÒ then, thereupon, at that time; Tiu≥enak\ later, after this; TiuTk\ more
than this; Tiu≥®pc\ beside that; Tium˙tpå; besides, moreover; Tiuqiu≥' Tiuk´.qiu≥ like
that, so, thus; Tiunv\;At¨' Tiunv\;t¨s∑a similarly, likewise; TiuAt¨pc\lYc\ in
like manner. q¨qv\ Riu;qa;e®Pac\.mt\qv\" Tiu≥eÂkac\. q¨≥kiu Am¥a;k
yuMÂkv\el;sa;qv\" He is honest and upright, and for that reason most
121
people trust and respect him. TiuTiueqa saAup\m¥a;Ò ®mn\ma®pv\AeÂkac\;

påqv\" There is something about Burma in all those various books.
q¨riyaqtc\;sam˙a TuiAKåk rk\®Ka;qtc\;samYqa ®Ps\elqv\" At that time
the Sun newspaper was only issued every other day. AKn\;T´ wc\j
TiuTiuÈÈ Âkv\.qv\" I entered the room and looked here and there (cf CB
hiuhiud^d^).
Tk\ 1 and ATk\ (N~) above, upon, superior to N; loc nn, FB; = CB
(A)epÅ; opp eAak\ underneath;
• nn\;eta\Tk\wy\" Upon the throne, in the palace.
• kÁn\eta\ saepsc\®mc\.Tk\kui saer;q¨ ehae®paq¨ ts\Ë;Aenn´≥ tk\erak\K∑c\.
rK´.ta N˙s\Aeta\ Âkapå®p^" For some years now I have had the opportunity
to give talks (“to mount the literary platform”) as a writer and lecturer.
• ®pv\‘mi>ATk\m˙a menP¨;B¨;" We have never lived above (i.e. upstream from)
Prome.
•biul\mØ;ATk\ raT¨;et∑" Ranks senior to major.
Tk\ 2 (N~, VA~) over and above, more than, than, compared to N or V;
nn mkr and sub stc mkr, CB+FB; equivalent of Pali ablative case in nissaya
translation (Okell 1965 p 200);
• AKuAim\ Arc\Aim\Tk\ Âk^;ty\" This present house is bigger than our
previous one.
• R∑aq¨Âk^;Tk\ ASc\.Atn\; nim\.qv\" They are of lower rank than the village
headman.
• ts\pn\;kn\Tk\ msa;Niuc\B¨;" I can’t eat more than one plateful.
• q¨≥Tk\ mep;K¥c\B¨; or q¨ ep;taTk\ mep;K¥c\B¨;" I don’t want to give more
than he gave.
• lOic\;tMpiu;tiu≥qv\ qv\.Tk\ Âk^;ma;®pv\.lYMlaÂkepeta.mv\" The waves were to
become bigger and stronger than this.
• cå;rk\en≥Tk\ enak\mk¥esp´" Not later than the 5th.
• ciurtalv\; 5-KåTk\ mnv\;eta.på" I wept at least five times.
• eragå®Ps\m˙ kuqqv\Tk\ eragå m®Ps\m^ ’kitc\kak∑y\qv\k piujqc\.®mt\qv\"
It is more suitable to prevent an illness in advance than to treat it only
after it has occurred.
• v k¥eta. priqt\k Tc\taTk\ m¥a;ty\" In the evening the audience was
larger than he expected.
• Ae®KAenqv\ Siu;qTk\ Siu;laqv\" The situation became worse and
worse.
• A‘pM;Ary\ nv\;qv\Tk\ nv\;laqv\kiu Ta;k qtiTa;mif" Htar noticed
that he laughed and smiled less and less.
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• TuiDmμasriyq^l‰˙c\tui≥qv\ AmOm´≥ enÂkqv\Tk\ AK¥c\;K¥c\; suepåc\;j q^l‰˙c\

DmμasriyAqc\; P∑´>ka påLitk˚quil\ mrqv\.tuic\eAac\ ®Ps\e®mak\Nuic\mv\.
nv\;lm\;tui≥kui ‰˙aeP∑qc\.Âkepqv\" Although they had no Pali University,
these nuns, rather than remaining idle, should have formed associations
and sought means of establishing one.
• ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a;qv\ q¨≥Tk\cå sa’ki;sa;Âkqv\" The students strove to outdo
one another (“me more than him”) at their studies.
• då .Tk\ k¥m m˙at´.saAup\kiu wy\K´.rqla;" By the way (“over and above that”),
did you buy the book I asked for?
• pitueta' ABTk\" puet†a' qa;qv\" eqey¥a' ®mt\f" The child is more
noble than the father (nissaya).
Tk\Ti (N~) until, up to N; nn mkr, CB+FB;
• (A)KuTk\Ti" Up to the present, till now, still.
Tk\tuic\ (N~) until, up to N; nn mkr, FB;
• yen≥Tk\tiuc\" Until now, to the present day.
Tk\mnv\; (Nº+N~) not less than Nº; truncated sub cls, short for N-Tk\
mnv\;B´ etc, mainly FB; pron /Tk\mn´/;
• cå;eyak\Tk\mnv\; laqv\" No less than 5 people came.
• ABiu;Aim\m˙a tiuk\Âkk\K¥v\. Aekac\ 20 Tk\mnv\; ‰˙ity\" At the old man’s
house there were no less than 20 fighting cocks.
Tuik\- (V~-) be suitable, fitting, right to V; worthy, deserving of V-ing;
vb mod, CB+FB; cf V-Ap\-' V-qc\.-' V-tn\-' V-ra-' V-Pui≥ ekac\;-;
• kÁn\ts\eyak\qv\ Amt\Âk^;m¥a;N˙c\. meS∑;eN∑;Tiuk\" A slave should not join dis-
cussions with ministers.
• ss\p´∑Niuc\q¨tiuc\; rTiuk\eqa pn\;eK∑" A wreath that all who are victiorious in
battle should be given.
• eS∑m¥io;qa;K¥c\; rp\qa;r∑aqa; mK´∑®Ka;B´ N˙ip\k∑p\Tiuk\q¨kiu N˙ip\k∑p\j'
K¥^;e®mHak\Tiuk\q¨kiu K¥^;e®mHak\®Kc\;" Punishing those who deserve punishment,
and praising those who deserve praise, without exception for relatives or
villagers.
• qa;qm^;tiuc\; miBtiu≥f SuM;mq∑n\qc\mOkiu naKMTiuk\f" Every child ought to pay
heed to its parents’ admonitions.
•el;sa;Tiuk\t´. qtc\;sa" A newspaper worthy of respect.
Tc\. see under Induced creaky tone in the English entries
Tv\ (Nº~) and ATv\ (~Nº) garment, comm nmtv for clothes; CB+FB; pron
/Ty\/;
•s∑p\k¥y\ N˙s\Tv\ two vests; esac\ ts\Tv\ a blanket.
Tv\. see under tv\. vb mod
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Tp\- or Tp\mM- (~V-) to V twice, over again, repeat V-ing; comm pre-vb,
CB+FB; cf Sc\.-' ®pn\-; from verb Tp\- to layer;
• &c\;en≥ ®pc\qs\ qMAra‰˙itiu≥lv\; e‰˙>eta\qiu≥ Tp\j wc\qv\" And on that day the
French envoys visited His Royal Highness again.
•sa Tp\mM er;ep;liuk\påmv\" I will write the letter out for you again.
•d^ts\piud\ Tp\Siuty\" One sings this verse twice.
TM and variants TMpå; and TMem˙ak\ (N~) vicinity, place, presence of N,
where N is a person; used with words meaning “to, from, near” etc; loc nn,
FB; = CB S^; not voiced;
• q¨Âk∑y\TMqiu≥ q∑a;elj" Going towards the merchant.
• tRup\ Udv\;mc\;TMk lk\eSac\ erak\qv\" Gifts arrived from the Emperor of
China.
• U^;l˙TMÒ ema\eta\ka; m‰˙ij" Because U Hla does not possess a car.
• q¨cy\K¥c\;TM ep;sa" A letter to a friend.
• Bun\;eta\”k^;TMpå;qui≥ erak\laka Riueqs∑a ‰˙iKiu;kn\eta.qv\" He approached
the monk and bowed reverently.
• Sra.TMpå;t∑c\ ts\en≥ts\på; qc\AMel.k¥k\ka" Studying under the teacher
every day.
• Amt\ts\eyak\f Aqna;KMK¥k\eÂkac\. q¨≥lc\eta\emac\TMpå;qiu≥
®pn\laK∑c\.relf" Thanks to the favour of one of the ministers, she
obtained leave to return to her husband.
• qKc\.TMem˙ak\t∑c\ qsßa Suil¥k\" Swearing allegiance in the presence of the
master.
TMpå; see under TM vicinity, place, presence of N
TMem˙ak\ see under TM vicinity, place, presence of N
då (~ or ~sfx) this, that (thing); variants A´då and ehadå qqv; selective
noun, CB; = FB qv\Ara' ÈAra' TuiAra; derived from d^+ha “this + thing”,
hence occurs with noun markers but does not require a following noun, cf d^
below;
• dåk q¨≥AKn\;' dåk kÁn\eta\.AKn\;" This is his room, this is my room.
• wy\K¥c\t´. lk\eSac\k dåpåp´" The present I wanted to buy was just that.
• ehadåk p´K¨;ka;" That one there is the Pegu bus.
With suffixes:
• dåelak\ this much, to this extent: då.elak\ duk m‰˙apån´≥" Don’t go to so
much trouble.
• dåeÂkac\. or dåeÂkac\.mui≥ that’s why, for that reason.
• dåepm´. or dåept´. or dåepm´.lui≥ but, however.
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• dån´≥ so, with that; by the way: dån´≥ q¨l´ SuM;q∑a;®pn\era" So then he went and
died too.
• dån´≥ hiuen≥k AeÂkac\; e®pa®ppåAuM;" By the way, tell me about what happened
the other day.
• dån´≥etac\ or dån´≥m¥a;etac\ even so: cå tt\Niuc\qelak\ k¨v^ty\'
dån´≥m¥a;etac\ cå.kiu ek¥;z¨;mtc\B¨;" I helped him as much as I could, but
even so he wasn’t grateful.
• då®Pc\. in that case, and so.
• dåm˙mhut\rc\ or dåm˙mhut\ alternatively, otherwise, or, or else.
• dåm˙qa only thus.
d^ (~N or ~sfx) this, that N; this place, here; variants A´d^ and ehad^ qqv;
selective noun, CB; = FB qv\ N' È N;
• d^(k)en≥" Today.
• dêS;kiu kiuy\N˙c\.mk∑a eSac\Ta;rty\" You have to keep this medicine by
you at all times.
• d^ erak\enta Âka®p^la;" Have you been here long?
• A´d^ q∑a;mliu≥" That’s just where I was going to go.
• d^ laK´." Come here!
• d^m˙a Tuic\på" Please sit here.
• A´d^k rlat´. Aet∑>AÂkMoet∑" The experience he brought from there.
• dêlak\ mqy\Niuc\P¨;" I can’t carry this much.
• dÂTip´" Only as far as this.
• d^liu lup\på" d^nv\;Atiuc\; lup\på" Do it like this. Do it this way.
• d^liu l¨m¥oi;" This sort of person, people like this.
• d^Âka;T´m˙a" In the meantime.
• dêta. q¨tiu≥ Ba lup\Âkql´" In that case, what did they do?
• ehad^m˙a ‰˙ity\" Look! Here it is.
• dÂ®pc\ (or d^.®pc\ or di®pc\) Ba liuK¥c\eq;ql´" Besides this what else do you
want?
d%\ (N~, V~) (a) penalty, punishment; comm elem cpd nn, CB+FB;
• eTac\d%\ imprisonment; eqd%\ the death penalty; el¥a\d%\ payment of
compensation; ®pv\N˙c\d%\ exile;
(b) damage, injury;
•ss\eB;d%\ war damage; mui;d%\eld%\ storm damage; kÁt\d%\ leech bite;
Ael;d%\ imposition of weight.
na; and Ana; (N~, VA~) near, by N, the vicinity of N; the edge of N; loc
nn, CB+FB; = FB An^;'
• sa;p∑ńa; the edge of the table; km\;na; the strand; km\;na;lm\; Strand Road.
125
• vAKå k¥eta. qK¥oÙc\;na; mq∑a;r´B¨;" They dare not go near the burial
ground at night.
• q”kçn\na; n^;®p^ Siueta. Alup\et∑ m¥a;Âkeraepå.ena\" As it’s getting near
Thingyan now I expect you must all be pretty busy by now.
• wn\Âk^;m¥a;RuM;Ana;m˙a ka;h∑n\; mt^;r" You mustn’t sound your horn in the
vicinity of the Secretariat.
• nt\tiu≥qv\ tiuk\tMKå;m˙ sj sÂkwLana;tiuc\eAac\ esac\.e‰˙ak\kun\f" The gods
kept watch (over Queen Maya) from the door of the palace to the very edge
of the universe (nissaya).
• sc\ss\eta. qv\Ana;m˙alv\; ÂkaÂka menK¥c\eta." And in reality he didn’t
want to stay around there any longer.
An^; (N~) near, nearby N; loc nn, mainly FB; = CB Ana;'
• hMqawtÂwiuc\;Âk^;An^;t∑c\ saepbiman\kiu ®mc\rqv\" Near the Hanthawaddy
roundabout you can see the SB building.
• erk¨;enq¨ min\;kel;ts\qiuk\An^;qiu≥ erak\laf" She came up to near the
group of girls who were swimming.
• qmμthiuty\qv\ B¨taRuMÂk^;An^;t∑c\ tv\‰˙ipåqv\" The President Hotel is
situated near the main station.
n^;S´S´- see under S´S´ on the point of
n^;n^; and n^;på; (N~, Nº+N~) nearly N, nearly as much as N, almost as
good as N; nn mod, CB+FB; from verb n^;- to be near;
• ts\epn^;n^; ‰˙v\mv\. wå;tut\eK¥ac\;kel;m¥a;" Pieces of bamboo nearly a foot
long.
• Ac\mtn\ sit\‰˙v\qeBaTa;®pv\.wt´. md∂^ lk\qs\kel;elak\n^;n^; hn\eSac\®p^;
enel. ‰˙ity\" She used to give the impression of being immensely tolerant
and forgiving, almost like a second Maddi.
• pn\;K¥^ka;klv\; “p^;qelak\n^;n^; ‰˙ienpå“p^" His painting was very nearly
completed.
• yKu Aqk\ 50 n^;på; ‰˙ienÂk“p^ ®Ps\qv\. AmOTm\;m¥a;" Staff who are now
nearly 50 years old.
• mc\; d^m˙aenta By\elak\Âka“p^l´" _ N˙s\ N˙s\n^;på; ‰˙ipå“p^" How long have you
been living here? — Nearly two years.
n^;på; see under n^;n^; nearly
en- 1 (V~-) to be V-ing, V for the time being; to stay, remain V-ing; vb
mod, CB+FB; negative form usually V-m~, sts m-V~; sts V-lui≥ en-;
• Ba lup\enql´" _ saTuic\Pt\entapå" What are you doing? — I’m sitting
and reading.
• miu; R∑aenqla;" Is it raining?
126
• A´d^tun\;k rn\kun\m˙a enenty\" At that time I was staying in Yangon.

• rn\kun\ erak\enta By\elak\Âka®p^l´" How long have you been in Yangon
(“arrive and stay”)?
• dÂKn\;T´ ska;e®pamenpån´≥" Don’t keep on talking in this room!
• Âk∑p\“p^; e®Kak\eneqa Dn^miu;kiu Sk\tiuk\ elac\q∑a;qv\" The dani thatched
roof which was dry as a bone (“brittle and dry”) caught fire straightaway.
• kÁn\eta\tui≥ ek¥ac\;qv\ A®m´ qn\≥‰˙c\;enpåqv\" Our school is always clean.
• tAM.tÂq ®Ps\enliuk\Âkta" They are struck with amazement.
• Tiuc\enrekac\;Niu;' Sc\;rekac\;Niu;N˙c\. K¥^tuMK¥tuM ®Ps\enS´t∑c\" While she was in a
state of uncertainty as to whether she should stay sitting there or get off.
• emac\Âk^;lv\; eSac\r∑k\P∑y\‰˙ieqa kisßtiu≥kiu eSac\r∑k\enelf" And Maung-gyi
occupied himself with (“remained carrying out”) some things he had to do.
• cå.sit\T´m˙a Âkv\lc\lui≥ entap´" “cim\;K¥m\;lui≥ enty\" My mind is tranquil. It
is at peace.
• qBaweB;AN †ray\m¥a;klv\; pk\pc\;kui wc\tui;lui≥ eneK¥qv\" Natural
hazards were staring him in the face.
• ®Kc\et∑keta. kÁn\eta\.kui duk ep;lui≥enÂk“p^" The mosquitoes are bothering
me.
en 2 (N1~ N2) N2 living in, resident of N1; truncated verb attribute, FB, =
FB N1-t∑c\ eneqa N2, CB N1-m˙a ent´. N2;
• mek∑;‘mi> ek¥ac\;lm\; Am˙t\-230-en Ë;T∑n\;®m" U TM of 230 Kyaung Lan,
Magway.
• qasv\‘mi>en edÅtc\em" Daw TM, resident of Thazi.
en 3 see under ken from
enk¥ (V~ N) N that is usually, habitually, V-ed, that regularly V-s; vb
atrb mkr, CB+FB;
• Sy\nar^Siueta. k¥m erak\enk¥ AK¥in\p´" Ten o’clock — that’s the usual time
I arrive.
• q¨ q∑a;enk¥ lm\;miu≥ mm˙a;Niuc\B¨;" He can’t go wrong because it is the way he
always goes.
• sa;enk¥ Asap´ sa;K¥c\påty\" I only want to eat the food that I usually eat.
• d^r∑aet∑ha purs\laenk¥ purs\ekak\enk¥ r∑aet∑epå." These villages are
villages to which the crickets regularly come, and where they are regularly
caught.
Also with N unstated:
• kÁn\mtui≥k sa;enk¥ mhut\eta. Âkk\q^;Tty\" As they are not the sort of
thing we are accustomed to eating, we were horrified.
127
• saer;tiuc\;liuliupåp´´ SraË;eAac\viokiu qtirt´´.AeÂkac\; A®m´´ Tv\.er;enk¥"

Almost every time I wrote (to my parents) I would include a mention of
remembering Saya U AN.
• d^‘mi≥d^Bk\piuc\; erak\rc\eta. B”k^;eSac\ d^zrp\epÅm˙a tv\;enk¥ Aip\enk¥"
When he was in this area, BGS customarily lived and slept in this zayat.
enenqaqa (V-Pui≥ ~) far from V-ing, let alone V-ing; sub cls mkr, CB+FB;
• A´dåm¥oi;et∑kui lk\et∑> lup\Pui≥ enenqaqa sit\k¨;etac\ my√\r´B¨;" Far from
actually doing that sort of thing, I dared not even contemplate it.
• kÁn\eta\ By\lui ®Ps\q∑a;elqv\ mqi' q¨f lk\kel;et∑kui lWt\ps\Pui≥ enen
qaqa qMluik\Dåt\®ciqlui kÁn\eta\.lk\et∑kui K∑amr" I don’t know how it
happened, but far from being able to let her hands go, I found I was held
as by a magnet.
• Ë;el;k¥c\k erac\;Pui≥ enenqaqa mnk\tuic\; Bura;m‰˙iKui;rc\qa enrmy\' …
teya mTui;t´.en≥kui m‰˙iB¨;" Selling his violin was out of the question: U LK
could put up with not being able to say his daily prayers, but there was
not a day when he missed out on playing his violin.
• ’kik\Pui≥ enenqaqa kuieAac\.kui q¨n´≥ ttn\;tv\; enK´.P¨;lui≥etac\ mm˙t\mitakui
Âkv\." Let alone fancying Ko Aung, just see how she didn’t even remember
having been in the same class with him.
• k¥op\ eKåc\;kuik\enta Âka®p^" ep¥ak\Pui≥ enenqaqa qk\qaty\etac\ m‰˙iB¨;" I
had had the headache for a long time. Far from going away, it gave me no
respite.
Aenn´≥ CB = FB AenN˙c\. and Aen®Pc\. (N~, VA~) as N, in the rôle of N, from
the point of view of, with the status of N; nn mkr and sub stc mkr;
• tra;luie‰˙>enAenn´≥ em;ta mhut\påB¨;" ®Pø®PøeAac\r´. PKc\ ts\eyak\Aenn´≥
em;tapå" I am not asking you this as the plaintiff’s lawyer. I am asking
you as the father of PPA.
• qipπM‰˙c\ ts\eyak\Aenn´≥ By\lui ®mc\ql´" As a scientist, how do you see it?
• nigM u;K¥op\Aen®Pc\." In conclusion, by way of conclusion.
• ®pv\eTac\suqa; eq∑;sv\;v^v∑t\mOkiu g u%\‘pqv\.Aen®Pc\. ®pv\eTac\suen≥hu
qt\m˙t\Ta;qv\" (That day) has been designated Union Day in honour of
the unity and solidarity of the citizens of the Union.
• l∑t\lp\er;tiuk\p∑´t∑c\ etac\q¨ly\qma;tiu≥qv\ Ac\Aa;suts\KuAenN˙c\.
påwc\K´.Âkqv\" The peasants and farmers participated as one of the forces
in the struggle for independence.
• qti ep;t´.Aenn´≥" By way of a reminder.
• kÁn\mAenn´≥ Am˙n\Atuic\; e®parmy\Suirc\" If I am to speak frankly.
128
• d^ha mlup\rB¨;lui≥ e®parm˙a kÁn\eta\.Aenn´≥ Ac\mtn\m˙ wn\el;påty\" It is very

hard for me to say one should not do this sort of thing.
en®p^;' en®p^;eta. see under ken from
Aen®Pc\. see under Aenn´≥ as, in the rôle of
enra (VA~) (a) place where V, location, site of V; loc nn, CB+FB; cf more
formal V-ra;
• qv\mYew;lMqv\.enraqiu≥ min\;mp¥ioel; N˙s\U^;tv\; AePa\mpåB´ laerak\Âkqv\
Siuqv\m˙a AM.ÂqsP∑y\ ®Ps\jenelqv\" That two young women should come
on their own to such a far-away place was quite astonishing.
• l¨‰˙c\;eqaenrat∑c\ er∑;j k¨;Âkqv\" They found a place where there weren’t
many people and swam there.
(b) the matter of V, when V-ing;
• AK∑n\ ekak\qv\.enrat∑c\lv\; k∑´®pa;enf" There are also differences in the
matter of levying taxes (cf ekak\rat∑c\).
• pva‰˙at´.enra' sU\;sa;ÂkMSt´.enram˙a hiuAekac\kiu cå lMu;w mm^B¨;" In the
matter of acquiring knowledge, of taking a balanced view, I am nowhere
near the level of that fellow.
• AeÂk∑; ®pn\Sp\t.´ enram˙a ®pœna ‰˙ilapåty\" Problems emerged in the
matter of debt repayment.
• Am¥oi;qa;er; lup\t´.enram˙a kuiy\.k¥ratawn\kui Tm\;eSac\rmy\" When we are
serving the nationalist cause, we must each carry out the duties that are
allotted to us.
enj in pattern m˙enj see under m˙ from
n´≥ see under N˙c\. and, N˙c\. with, and N˙c\. don’t
n´≥ followed by other suffixes: see under N˙c\. followed by the suffixes
n´≥v^s∑a see under Av^ in accordance with
n´≥Av^ see under Av^ in accordance with
n´≥tk∑ see under tk∑ along with
n´≥t‘pic\nk\ see under ts\‘pic\nk\ at the same time as
n´≥tmY see under AmY equal to
n´≥ts\‘pic\nk\ see under ts\‘pic\nk\ at the same time as
n´≥pt\qk\®p^;' pt\qk\lui≥ see under pt\qk\j concerning
n´≥AmY see under AmY equal to
ena\ sts ena or eN˙a (Stc~) that’s right isn’t it? OK? Is that all right? If
you don’t mind; suffix implying a question, soliciting agreement or assent,
or softening a request; friendly, intimate; stc fin phr ptcl, CB only; the form
ena is associated with rustic or familiar speech;
• en ekac\;ty\ena\" You are well, I hope?
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• RW´lim\.my\ena" You’ll get soaked — you know that, don’t you?

• q∑a;my\ena\" I’m going, OK?
• lWc\.ps\liuk\my\ena\" I’m going to throw it away — is that all right?
• K%el; esac\.enena\" Just wait here a moment. OK?
• enak\ mk¥n´≥ena\" Don’t be late now, will you?
Nui≥ (~ or ~sfx) that, thus; selective noun, CB; cf CB då' d^l,ui FB qui≥; colloquial
alternative for FB qui≥' Èqui≥ “thus”; only used in a few set contexts:
• Nui≥epm´. (= FB qui≥epm´.' CB dåepm´). however, in spite of that; Nui≥mhut$rc$ [= FB qui≥
mhut$rc$, CB dåm˙mhut$rc$] alternatively, otherwise; Nui≥ (used alone at start
of sentence) Well then, Now, In that case, Right, etc: Nui≥ enpåAuM;" Well then:
hold on a minute.
Nui;- 1 (V~-) likely to V; vb mod, CB+FB;
• {’ki;Âky\} Suieqa ewåharkui eTak\eqa\ {‘Ki;®Ky\}hu rs\m˙qalYc\ qc\.Nui;qv\"
In view of the spelling ’ki;Âky\ the spelling ‘Ki;®Ky\ is likely to be correct.
• mc\;qa;qv\ ekac\;Niu;eqa ®mc\;kiu eR∑;®Ky\j etaksa; T∑k\qv\" The prince
chose a likely looking horse and set out to hunt.
Nui; 2 (V~) in the hope, expectation, suspicion, fear that V; sub cls mkr,
CB+FB; also in patterns V-Nui;Nui;' V-Nui; V-Nui;' V1-Nui; V2-Nui;, sts followed by N˙c\.
or ®Pc\;. cf V-mla;lui≥;
• puic\rNui; emYa\kui;sit\" The expectation of becoming the owner.
• l¨≥eBac\qui≥ e®pac\;wc\rekac\;lim\.Nui;N˙c\.lv\; tit\tit\Kui; ”kMmieK¥eq;qv\" He
wondered secretly whether he should return to the lay life.
• em.ep¥ak\A.MNui;N˙c\. en®pv\eta\m˙ T∑k\j" Left the country in the hope that he
would forget her.
• qeBça erak\Niu;Niu; esac\.enqv\" He waited hoping the boat would arrive.
• Âkk\qa; K¥ep;laNiu;Niu;®Pc\. emYa\esac\.enqv\" She was waiting in the hope that
she would be served with some chicken.
• ts\en≥ rNiu;rNiu;n´≥ esac\.emYa\epm´. Bam˙ mrB¨;" I waited expecting to get it one
day but I got nothing.
• Tiuc\enrekac\;Niu;' Sc\;rekac\;Niu;N˙c\. K¥^tuMK¥tuM ®Ps\enS´t∑c\pc\" While she was
wavering, wondering if it would be better to remain sitting there or to get
off (the bus).
• wc\q∑a;rekac\;Nui; A®pc\kp´ esac\.na;eTac\rekac\;Nui; ewK∑´mr ®Ps\enqv\" She
couldn’t decide whether she should go in (to the courtroom) or wait and
listen outside.
• mc\; huina; ‰˙iNui; d^na; ‰˙iNui; Tc\Tc\lara" Now thinking you might be here,
then thinking you might be there.
130
• huil¨kui Pm\;Nui; d^l¨kui Pm\;Nui;N˙c\. tTit\Tit\ ®Ps\enÂkrelqv\" They were

terrified, expecting now one person to be arrested, now another.
Ank\ (N~, VA~) among, out of; loc nn, CB+FB; cf AT´;
• réBa\quM;k¥ip\tiu≥Ank\ biul\K¥op\eAac\Sn\;qv\ eKåc\;eSac\ ®Ps\qv\" Among the
Thirty Comrades, General Aung San was the leader.
• em∑;K¥c\; el;eyak\Ank\ Acy\SMu; ®Ps\qv\" Of the four brothers and sisters,
he was the youngest.
• tp\epåc\;N˙s\Sy\ K¥^tk\qv\.Ank\ emac\rs\qv\ l¨cå;eTac\tp\ ts\tp\kiu
Aup\K¥op\qv\" Among the 20 units that advanced, Maung Yit commanded a
unit of 5,000 men.
• Sraeta\Âk^; min\≥Âka;K´.t´.Ank\m˙a påK¥c\rc\ påmy\" It may well be included in
what the abbot preached.
enak\ (N~, VA~) behind N; after, later than V; loc nn, CB+FB; opp e‰˙> in
front, Al¥c\ preceding; purists distinguish enak\ “behind” from Aenak\
“West”, but some younger writers also use the form Aenak\ for “behind”;
• q¨≥enak\m˙a mTiuc\K¥c\B¨;t´." He doesn’t want to sit behind her, he says.
• qs\pc\enak\k ‘bM;Kn´ T∑k\laty\" It suddenly came out from behind the
tree.
• d^.enak\ s^mMkin\;et∑" Projects following on this.
• saem;p∑´ e®P®p^;t´.enak\ met∑>eta.B¨;" I haven’t seen him since we took the
exam.
• ss\ ®Ps\“p^;qv\.enak\" After the war broke out.
Examples of the prefixed form:
• kÁn\eta\.Aenak\m˙ l¨k tn\;s^liuk\ty\" People formed a queue behind me.
• qm^;el;namv\r´.Aenak\m˙a {rn\Niuc\} Siuta Tv\.K¥c\ty\" I wanted to add “Yan
Naing” after my little daughter’s name.
nc\;- or nc\;kn\- (~V-) to V very much, a lot; comm pre-vb, mainly CB; cf
qip\-' ty\-' Pi-' t∑n\;-' lWt\-; from verb nc\;- to tread on;
• saAup\et∑eta. nc\;kn\Pt\tap´" He reads books voraciously.
Nuic\- (V~-) (a) to be able to V, can V, be possible to, be permitted,
entitled to V; vb mod, CB+FB; pron /Nuic\ or NOic\/; cf r' tt\' qa;
• e®KeTak\ ts\Pk\ k¥oi;enliu≥ q¨ lm\; ekac\;ekac\; melYak\Niuc\B¨;" He can’t
walk very well as he has a broken leg.
• AKueta. ®Ps\l´ m®Ps\påB¨;" ®Ps\l´ m®Ps\Nuic\påB¨;" But now it has not happened,
and it could not happen.
• er myuiNiuc\eAac\ PaTa;ty\" They patched it so that it couldn’t leak.
• yaU\p¥k\kiu sk\®pc\k ®pc\mep;Niuc\qv\k m¥a;qv\" Most times the mechanic
was not able to mend the broken-down vehicle for me.
131
• ®Ps\ty\ Suita By\q¨m˙ m®cc\;Nuic\påB¨;" No one can deny that it is so.

• ®Ps\Niuc\påty\" Possibly, it may be so, it could happen.
• Al∑y\SMu; qiNuic\t´.nv\;k" The easiest way to discover.
• Aqk\ 18-N˙s\ ®pv\.q¨tiuc\; m´SN∂ ep;Niuc\qv\" Every citizen of 18 years of age
can vote.
• qv\tiuc\;®pv\t∑c\ Aliu ‰˙ira q∑a;Niuc\påqv\" You may go wherever you like in
this country.
(b) with negated verbs: to take an unduly long time in V-ing; cf K´-;
• r^zt\ T∑k\kui mT∑k\Nuic\B¨;" The results are taking a long time to come out.
• Amin\≥ k¥kui mk¥Nuic\luik\ta" The authorization is taking a long time coming.
• Ta;Ta;qv\ Aip\cuik\cuik\N˙c\. ewew.Alakui qti‘pens√\ mlaNuic\j" Hta Hta was
waiting sleepily for WW to arrive, and as she was taking a long time.
(c) in combination tt\Niuc\- (“to know + to be able”) to be capable, to
manage, to afford;
• dêlak\p´ tt\Nuic\påty\" That’s all I can manage.
• qip\ wy\K¥c\taepå≥" mtt\Nuic\B¨;" Of course I’d like to buy. I can’t afford it.
• kMfAk¥oi; mv\qv\kiu ts\suMts\eyak\eqaq¨qv\ ta;®ms\®Kc\;c˙a mtt\Niuc\" Not
a single person has the power to to prevent the outcome of (this thing we
call) karma.
• tt\Niuc\qelak\ k¨v^påmy\" I’ll help as much as I am able.
nv\; 1 (V~, VA~) method, manner, way of V-ing; sp hd nn; cf puM; pron /n^;/;
• ln\dn\tk˚qiul\ qc\nv\;et∑ e®pa®ppåAuM;" Please tell us about London
University teaching methods.
• Upedl∑t\ wc\K∑c\. rnv\; m‰˙iB¨;la;" Isn’t there a way of getting an entry
permit that avoids the regulations?
• Aenak\Niuc\cMqa;et∑ lup\t´.nv\;n´≥ mlup\Âkpån´≥" Don’t do it the way Westerners
do!
• kmμwåsa r∑t\Pt\nv\;m¥a;kiu Apt\sU\ el.k¥k\qc\®pep;®Kc\;" Weekly teaching
and studying in the methods of reciting the kammawa.
• k¥k\eAac\ ‘plup\nv\;Am¥io;m¥io; tt\kÁm\;rmy\" You have to know different
ways of ensuring that (food) is cooked.
Also suffixed to nouns:
•diuc\yalk\ts\nv\; dialectical method; d^miukers^nv\; democratic method;
®mn\ma.nv\; the Burmese way, etc.
nv\; 2 (Stc~) indicates an open question; stc fin phr ptcl, FB, old-
fashioned, increasingly yielding place to l´; cf CB tuM;' pron /n^;/;
• ®mn\maNiuc\cMÒ ®ms\k¨;tMta;Âk^;epåc\; mv\mY ‰˙iqnv\;" How many large river
bridges are there altogether in Burma?
132
• Èq¨qv\ mv\q¨nv\;" Who is this man?

• pvakiu By\Ar∑y\t∑c\ qc\rmv\nv\;" At what age should one study?
• ek¥a\q¨ Baet∑ ®Ps\enqnv\;" What was happening to Kyaw Thu?
nMeB; see under eB; side
AN˙a (~N or ~sfx) that; selective noun, mainly FB; rare and old-fashioned; cf
FB Tu;i
• er;rc\;er;rc\; AN˙aet∑kiu' EK¥c\;kb¥an˙c\. et∑;liuk\eta.' eA;sra.AKåpåepena\k∑a"
While writing I think of those things in the egyin and other poems, and
how it makes one feel good!
AN˙^ (~N or ~sfx) this, that; selective noun, mainly FB; rare and old-
fashioned; cf FB qv\ ;
• luik\‰˙aÂkeqa AN˙^l¨m¥a;kuilv\; … eRWeÂkaÂk^;et∑ … luik\‰˙aKuic\;K¥c\sit\
epåk\enmif" Seeing all those people searching, I conceived a desire to ask
them to look for veins of gold.
• AN˙^®pøesaT^;tiu≥ kiuc\t´. el;et∑" The bows carried by this PZT.
NOik\ see under Ò in, at, on (listed at end of Burmese entries)
N˙c\. 1 FB = CB n´≥ (N1~ N2) and, together with; coord mkr; with more than
two Ns the usual patterns are N1 N2 … NY-N˙c\. NZ, or N1-N˙c\. N2-N˙c\. … NY-
N˙c\. NZ, or N1-N˙c\. N2-N˙c\. … NY-N˙c\. NZ-N˙c\.' and correspondingly with CB n´≥;
• qaqayayan´≥ sv\sv\ka;ka; ®Ps\puM rty\" It appears to be a pleasant and
populous place.
• U^;l˙' U^;tc\N˙c\. edÅ®mtc\" U Hla, U Tin and Daw Mya Tin.
• cå;N˙c\.cå; epåc\; ts\Sy\" Five plus five makes ten.
• mut†mN˙c\. yiu;dya; Asp\" The frontier between Martaban and Siam.
• ts\kc\;N˙c\. ts\kc\; mt¨ÂkeK¥" One guard post was not the same as
another.
N˙c\. 2 FB = CB n´≥ (N~, N1~ N2) with, by, in relation to, because of, etc: see
examples; nn mkr and nn atrb mkr; in some meanings = FB -®Pc\.;
(a) with, equipped with, having;
• m¥k\m˙n\N˙c\. Am¥oi;qm^;ts\eyak\" A woman with glasses.
• erK¥oi;Kn\;N˙c\. AKn\;" Room with a bathroom.
• Aim\eTac\n´≥la;" Are you married? (“with household”).
(b) with, in concert with;
• q¨≥rv\;sa;n´≥ ska;Tuic\e®paenty\" He was sitting and talking to his girlfriend.
• dên≥mnk\ SraÂk^;n´≥ K¥in\;Ta;lui≥på" It’s because I made an appointment to see
Saya this morning.
• ek¥ac\;Aup\”k^;N˙c\. et∑>K¥c\qv\" They wanted to meet the headmaster.
• U^;tc\emac\n´≥ ASk\Aq∑y\ ‰˙iqla;" Are you in touch with U Tin Maung?
133
• Niuc\cM®Ka;q¨ ts\eyak\N˙c\. Aim\eTac\ k¥q∑a;qv\" He married a foreigner.

• d^bmamn´≥ rera" So he took this Burmese girl (as his wife).
(c) with, by, by means of (instrument), of (material); = FB ®Pc\;.
• eBapc\N˙c\. mer;r" You must not write with a ball-point pen.
• elyaU\p¥Mn´≥ q∑a;mla;' m^;rTa;n´≥ q∑a;mla;" Will you go by plane or by train?
• lk\n´≥ l˙v\.liu≥ mrB¨;" It can’t be turned by hand.
• Aim\kiu ek¥ak\N˙c\. eSak\qv\" They built the house of stone.
• mhabNÎolqv\ ss\q¨Âk^;AgçåN˙c\. ®pv\.suMqv\" Maha Bandoola possessed in full
measure the qualities of a warrior.
• ep;t´.Sun´≥ ®pv\.påes" May the blessing you gave me be fulfilled.
• kTikA®Ps\N˙c\. Alup\ lup\enqv\" He is working as a lecturer.
• qti ep;t´.Aenn´≥ e®pata" I told her to remind her (“as a reminder”).
(d) also ~At¨ or ~At¨t¨ with, together with, alongside, in the
company of;
• miBN˙c\.At¨ enqv\" He lives together with his parents.
• sui;l∑c\V∑n\≥N˙c\.(At¨¨) T∑k\luik\K´.qv\" I left the house with SLN.
• ePePn´≥(At¨) mliuk\K¥c\eta.B¨;t´." He says he doesn’t want to go along with
Daddy.
• ly\qma;Âk^;et∑n´≥At¨t¨ spå; rit\qim\;Âksiu≥" Let’s harvest the paddy together
with the farmers.
(e) with, together with, in relation to; with verbs of comparing,
matching, resembling, differing, being near, being far, joining, separating,
etc;
• RuM;m˙alv\; q¨m¥a;n´≥ sarc\ k¥mk Agçlip\liu piue®paNiuc\ty\" I can speak more
English compared to the others in the office.
• q¨≥pn\;p∑c\.et∑ kel;et∑ wc\K¨;ps\ty\n´≥ t¨ty\" It looks as if the children just
came in and picked his flowers.
• Arc\khan´≥ qip\k∑aty\" It’s very different from the stuff we had before.
• pc\ly\n´≥ ts\miuc\elak\ ew;t´. Arp\" A place about a mile from the sea.
• dênram˙a Aenak\Nuic\cMTuM;sMha dui≥TuM;sMn´≥ qip\k∑atap´" In this matter western
customs are very different from ours.
• qayakun\;R∑aqv\ ‘mi>N˙c\. ml˙m\;mkm\;Ò ‰˙iqv\" T village is not far from the
town.
• eZ;n´≥ piun^;t´.Aim\ mekac\;B¨;la;" Wouldn’t a house nearer the market be
better?
(f) with, in the specified manner; with adverb expressions and
subordinate clauses, often optional; = FB ®Pc\.;
• Am˙t\tm´.(N˙c\.) erak\laqv\" He arrived unexpectedly.
134
• te®P;e®P;(N˙c\.) emac\;q∑a;qv\" He drove away slowly.

• qc\rc\;qc\rc\;(N˙c\.) q¨ Agçlip\ska; tt\laqv\" By dint of studying he
learnt English.
• saqa; mqip´(n´≥) By\ t^;liu≥rml´" How can he possibly play it without
knowing the words?
• lët∑keta.b¥a Aqitra; ‰˙il¥k\n´≥ miuk\m´ty\" That’s the way people are:
they know what they ought to do, but they are wicked nonetheless.
(g) for (price); with verbs of buying and selling;
• By\elak\n´≥ wy\rql´" How much did you buy it for?
• ®mn\®mn\ kun\es.K¥c\lYc\ ts\p∑c\. ®pa;qMu;Sy\N˙c\.p´ erac\;" AluAyk\ wy\Âkmv\m˙a
eqK¥af" If you want to sell off all your stock, sell them at 30 pya a bloom.
They’ll be falling over themselves to buy them. That’s for sure.
• el;k¥p\n´≥p´ y¨ As\mer" Have it for just 4/-, Sister (seller to buyer).
(h) what with, because of; right after; following FB V-qv\ or CB V-ta;
= FB V-q®Pc\;.
• kel;et∑ qip\enrtan´≥ q¨tiu≥ enak\k¥ty\" They were late because they had
to put the children to bed.
• q¨qv\ S¨S¨vMvM AqMÂka;qv\N˙c\. Aip\ram˙ Niu;laqv\" He was woken from
sleep by hearing the sound of a noise.
• Aim\ ®pn\erak\tan´≥ Tmc\; sa;ty\" Right after getting back home he had a
meal.
(i) (V-eÂkac\;N˙c)\. that; in reporting statements, speeches, etc; FB; cf V-
eÂkac\;®Pc\;.
• qkçamkc\; ®Ps\P∑y\‰˙imv\ siu;rim\reÂkac\;N˙c\. e®paSiuq®Pc\." As he said he was
concerned that it might look suspicious.
• eTac\d%\ts\n˙s\mYqa k¥KMesrn\ s^rc\K¥k\ K¥liuk\eÂkac\;N˙c\. qtc\;sats\esac\t∑c\
et∑>®mc\Pt\ROliuk\relqv\" He saw a report in a newspaper that the
sentence was imprisonment for only one year.
• Amrp¨r‘mi>qiu≥lv\; laerak\lv\pt\esliupåeÂkac\;N˙c\. etac\;pn\e®paSiuelf" He
apologised, saying that he would like them to come and visit him in A.
For N˙c\.tk∑' N˙c\.Av^' N˙c\.AmY and variants, see separate entries below.
N˙c\.- 3 (V~-) to V ahead, in advance, before someone else; vb mod,
CB+FB;
• kÁn\eta\tiu≥ merak\m^pc\ A®Ka;ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a; saqc\Kn\;T´qiu≥
erak\enN˙c\.Âkel“p^" Even before we arrived other students were already in
the classroom before us.
• qm^;AÂk^; N˙s\eyak\klv\; {t^b∑^ påmlarc\eta. qm^;tiu≥ Tmc\;msa;eta.B¨;}
hu ’kitc\ SN∂®pN˙c\.qv\" And his two elder daughters mounted an advance
135
demonstration, saying "We shall stop eating if you don’t bring back a TV
set".
• l¨Âk^;et∑ Arc\ T∑k\N˙c\.m˙ ekac\;my\" It will be best if the senior people go
out first.
• q¨tiu≥Sêta. samer;N˙c\.pån´≥ena\" Don’t write to them before (I do), will you?
N˙c\. 4 FB = CB n´≥ (m-V~) don’t V; indicates negative command, prohibition;
stc mkr; cf older FB lc\;.
• pva liueqa\ mp¥c\;N˙c\." If you wish to be educated, be not slothful.
• AROM;ep;ka ®pn\mlapåN˙c\." Do not return in defeat.
• ApÄpc\ mTa;pån´≥" Try not to worry.
• mciupån´≥eta." Don’t cry any more.
• By\m˙ mq∑a;n´≥ena\" Don’t go anywhere, will you?
• meqak\påresn´≥" I’d rather not drink it (“allow me not to drink”).
N˙c\.v^s∑a see under Av^ in accordance with
N˙c\.Av^ see under Av^ in accordance with
N˙c\.tk∑ see under tk∑ along with
N˙c\.t‘pic\nk\ see under ts\‘pic\nk\ at the same time as
N˙c\.tmY see under AmY equal to
N˙c\.ts\‘pic\nk\ see under ts\‘pic\nk\ at the same time as
N˙c\.pt\qk\j' see under pt\qk\j concerning
N˙c\.AmY see under AmY equal to
N˙y\ (N~, VA~) like, the same as; nn mkr and sub stc mkr, CB+FB; in CB
mostly in exclamatory phrases; cf CB li,u FB k´.qiu≥;
• q¨≥N˙y\ esaesa Tj Alup\K∑c\qiu≥ U^;tv\enÂkq¨ ts\eyak\s N˙s\eyak\skiu
et∑>rqv\" He saw one or two people who like himself had risen early and
were heading for work.
• Aqa;Aerm˙a eÂk;n^kui p∑t\tuik\Ta;qv\.N˙y\ wc\;m∑t\enqv\" (The child’s) skin
glowed like burnished copper.
• elyaU\ … e®m®pc\S^qiu≥ Tiu;Sc\;q∑a;pMum˙a sc\era\ts\ekac\ km\;sp\t∑c\
na;liuk\qv\.N˙y\ epå.på;l¥c\®mn\l˙qv\" The plane came to land lightly and
speedily, like a seagull alighting on the beach.
• By\.N˙y\l´" How’s things? How did this happen? (more forceful than
By\luil´").
• Aiu' mc\.;N˙y\" Oh really! People like you (sc. are hopeless, etc).
• d^Kel;N˙y\' Siu;rn\eka" My goodness! This child (“people like this child”)!
He’s terrible.
p 1 or Ap (N~) outside N, apart from N; loc nn, CB+FB; cf CB A®pc\; opp
At∑c\; inside;
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• rhn\;kui eKÅj qim\Apqui≥ q∑a;j" He summoned the monk and went out of
the sima.
• ®pv\t∑c\;®pv\p Sk\q∑y\er;" Internal and international communications.
• wåt∑c\;wåp" Both during Wa (Buddhist Lenten period) and at other times.
• ®pv\psa" Foreign letter, letter for abroad.
In the combination m˙Ap outside of N, besides, apart from, excluding N:
• ®pn\ep;lup\mv\. k¥a;m 22-eyak\m˙Ap" Apart from the 22 men and women
who were to be held as hostages (the rest were released).
• dåRiuk\tam˙Ap pug©oil\ts\Ë;qv\" A person other than the director.
• &c\;®mn\ma.AqM erd^yiulOic\;m˙Ap A®Ka;eqa erd^yiulOic\;m¥a;" Radio signals other
than those from the Myanma Athan.
p 2 see under på≥ indeed
på- 1 (Stc~, V~-) indicates politeness, respect, deference, or (when
correcting a mistaken idea) emphasis, insistence; stc fin phr ptcl and
vb mod, CB; used in questions only when the speaker wishes to show
marked deference; in FB less frequent except after negated verbs, or where
the writer directly addresses the reader, as in instructions or formal letters:
see examples below; takes creaky tone (på≥) in certain combinations: see
separate entries below;
• q∑a;påAuM;my\" Goodbye, I’ll be going.
• Tmc\; msa;eta.påB¨;" I won’t eat after all.
• Tiuc\på" Please sit down!
• q¨≥kiu me®papån´≥" Please don’t tell him!
• hut\påty\" That’s right.
• hut\k´.på" Yes, yes (a polite expression that became widespread in the 1960s,
replacing the expected hut\pår´.).
• kÁn\eta\.nMmv\ emac\tc\på" My name is Maung Tin.
• BaAliu ‰˙ipåeq;ql´ Kc\b¥a" What else do you require, sir?
• nMmv\ By\liu eKÅpåql´" What might your name be?
• vaBk\ mhut\B¨;" By\Bk\på" Not the right side: on the left.
In FB:
• miu;K¥on\;tiuc\;lv\; miu;mR∑apå" And it does not rain every time there is thunder.
• Èqiu≥ mhut\på" It is not so.
• ts\Pk\på zya;kiu Âkv\.på" Please consult the chart overleaf.
• eAak\på em;K∑n\;m¥a;kui e®Ppå" Answer the questions below.
• kÁn\m tc\tc\wc\; saer;luik\påqv\" This (letter) is from me, TTW.
• AeS∑eta\ kiuy\sit\N˙s\®Pa k¥n\;maK¥m\;qaesrn\N˙c\. Aemrikn\®pv\q¨m¥a; Sk\lk\
tiu;tk\qayawe®paesrn\At∑k\ kÁNu\p\AenN˙c\. Sum∑n\ekac\; etac\;liuk\påqv\"
137
On my behalf I wish you (fellow head of state) well in both body and soul,
and that the American people may continue to prosper.
In subordinate clauses rare in CB, but in FB used with some markers (påk'
m-påB´' påm¨' påm˙' pårn\' pål¥k\' pålYc\' påeqaeÂkac\.' påeqa\lv\;' påj);
e.g.
•Aliu ‰˙ipåk AeÂkac\;Âka;på" If you need anything please inform me.
•AKk\AK´ ‰˙ipåeqaeÂkac\." Because there are difficulties.
på 2 (N~) including, as well as N, and, N too; stc med phr ptcl, CB+FB;
derived from verb på- “be included in, contain, go along with”; cf ApåAwc\;
and era…på;
• l∑t\lp\er; etac\tn\;ny\m¥a;kiupå tpåtv\; mep;liuq®Pc\." Not wishing to give
independence to the hill regions as well (as central Burma), at one and
the same time.
• q¨≥mya;på laAuM;mla;" Will his wife come too?
• kel;et∑påmk¥n\ ts\R∑aluM; laÂkty\" The entire village including the
children came along.
Also in the pattern N1-era N2-på:
• en≥era vpå by day and by night;
• sit\era kiuy\på wholeheartedly (“with mind and body”);
• es¥;m˙aera qmwåymm˙apå rNiuc\påty\" You can get them both at the market
and at the Co-operative.
på 3 (N1~ N2) N2 included in, located in, belonging to N1; truncated verb
attribute, short for N1-t∑c\ påeqa N2 etc; CB+FB; derived from verb på- “be
included in, contain, go along with”; in certain set attributes:
• ASiupå aforementioned: ASiupå saK¥op\ the aforementioned contract; eAak\på
mentioned below: eAak\påAtuic\; as detailed below; ATk\på mentioned
above: ATk\på Uped the law referred to above; ts\Pk\på located on the
other side: ts\Pk\på zya; the table overleaf; lc\påqm^; husband’s
daughter by a previous wife (“included wth the husband”); tiuc\pc\rapå
accomplice (“one included in the planning”).
på 4 in the pattern V-på m¥a;- to V many times: see under
Pn\ times
påk see under k if
påkla; or påla; (V~) How V! exclamatory, indicating surprise; stc mkr,
also used with noun sentences, CB;
• ty\ ®mn\påkla;" Goodness, you were quick!
• Bam˙ m®Ps\påkla;" Nothing happens then!
• q¨tiu≥ wc\r®p^; diu≥ mwc\rpåkla;" Aren’t we allowed in then, while they are?
• dêkac\ Aemrikn\påla;" So this chap is American then?
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•Amel;' Am´qa;hc\;påla;" Wow! So it’s beef curry!

pås see under s question
påes' påres see under es may you V, may I V
påm¨ see under m¨ if
pårn\ see under rn\ in order to
påla; 1 and påË;la; or påAuM;la; (V~) how about V-ing? Why not V?
Why don’t you V? stc mkr, CB; combines the effects of på “please V” with
la; “question”;
• enak\ts\Kå emac\kel; eKÅlaK´.påla;" Why don’t you bring your little
brother next time?
• Awt\Asa;et∑ b^RiuT´ Tv\.Ta;påla;" Aren’t you going to put your clothes in
the cupboard?
• wtÊokel; Bael; er;Âkv\.påla;" Why not try writing a little story or
something?
•Tiuc\påAuM;la;" Won’t you sit (i.e. stay) a bit longer? Cf negative imperatives
with la: — sit\mk∑k\påesn´≥la;" Don’t be downhearted.
påla; 2 see under påkla; surprise
pålim\. and pålim\.ml´ (V~, N~) I wonder what V? What can be V-ing?; stc
mkr, CB;
• Bam¥a;pålim\." And what on earth might that be?
• By\q¨pålim\.ml´" I wonder who that might be?
• gen≥v Sium˙a Baq^K¥c\;m¥a;pålim\." I wonder what songs they will sing tonight?
• By\k Âka;rpålim\.(ml´)" I wonder where he could have heard it from.
• qv\eKt\k By\elak\m¥a; Sui;enlui≥pålim\." What a dreadful age we live in!
pål¥k\ see under l¥k\ -ing
ApåAwc\ (N1~ N2) N2 including N1, as well as, and, too; nn atrb mkr,
CB+FB; cf på “including”; derived from verb påwc\- “be included in, partici-
pate”;
• Atum‰˙iek¥ac\;eta\”k^;ApåAwc\ Bun\;”k^;ek¥ac\;”k^;et∑ m^;elac\p¥k\s^;rty\" The
major monasteries, including the Atumashi, had been destroyed by fire.
• kÁn\eta\. kb¥aet∑ K¥y\r^mg©zc\;ApåAwc\ A®Ka;eqamg©zc\;et∑m˙a mÂkaK%
er∑;K¥y\KMK´.rpåty\" My poems have often been selected by Cherry Magazine
and other magazines.
• sv\;m¥√\; 7-8-1 m˙ 7-8-8 ATiApåAwc\k" The regulations from 7-8-1 up to
and including 7-8-8.
• kiusiu;Niuc\qv\ ®mwt\rv\kiu liula;N˙s\qk\qëyak¥\a; Am¥a;A®pa;T´m˙
ts\eyak\ApåAwc\ ®Ps\f" Ko SN was one of the many admirers of MWY.
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på≥ or p (V~) V indeed, exclamatory, emphatic; sts used in the same way
as epå≥; stc mkr and stc fin phr ptcl, CB, old style and poetic; derived from på
polite;
• Rui;på≥ mq^ra" You’re so naïve, Ma Thi!
• latapå." I’ll come by all means.
• Âka;P¨;epqv\ ts\Kåpå.' ®pv\®mn\mam˙a T∑n\;lartak' Ac\mtn\ l∑m\;sra
Bweppå." I have indeed heard of this. Being born in our country of Burma
is a life we look back on with nostalgia.
• qv\l¨kiu Kc\Kc\v∑n\≥k m¥k\sik¥q∑a;tap" It was this man that KKN fancied.
• pc\ly\km\;sp\ ts\elYak\m˙a Riuk\put\lat´. lOic\;et∑ha tiu≥e®mr´> Ac\Aa;et∑p´p"
The waves that beat all along our coast are a power for our land.
• pMuS∑´klv\; ekac\;liuk\p" And he’s really good at drawing.
In the pattern V-K¥c\qp Suirc\ “if sn really wants to V”:
• Âkv\.K¥c\qp Suirc\ senen≥elak\ laK´.påla;" If you’re really keen to see it,
how about coming round on Saturday?
Also in set phrases:
• tc\på.Bura; and m˙n\på.Bura;" Yes, my Lord (used to monks and royalty).
på.my\ (V~) I certainly will V, indicates firm commitment; stc mkr, CB;
• tt\Niuc\liu≥‰˙irc\ kiurc\ eSac\r∑k\ k¨¨vêp;på.my\\" If it lies within my power I (the
koyin) will certainly give you my assistance.
• lup\ep;på.my\" I will do it for you without fail.
•sit\K¥på' kÁn\m lapå.my\" Rest assured, I will come.
på.mla; and på.ml´ (V~) Will it really V? Are you sure it will V? indicating
incredulous question; stc mkr, CB;
• At¨¨ Kr^;q∑a;liu≥ ®Ps\på.mla;" Would it really be appropriate for the two of us
to travel together?
• lup\m˙ lup\Niuc\på.mla;" Will you really be able to do it?
• Niuc\på.mla;" Will you be able to manage?
• By\liu e®Prpå.ml´" How on earth could I answer?
på; 1 (Nº~) and Apå; (~Nº) person, comm nmtv for people; used for beings
deserving respect such as monks, deities, royalty; also for revered objects
and conventional sets of abstract notions, both good and bad; CB+FB; cf
eyak\' Ë;'
• Bun\;Âk^; n˙s\på; two monks; mc\;qm^; quM;på; three princesses; nt\ts\på;qiu≥ like
a god (verse); miBn˙s\på; both parents; kp\”k^; quM;på; the Three Great
Scourges (epidemic disease, war and famine); rtna quM;på; kiiu;k∑y\qv\ to
worship the Three Gems; qsßa el;på; the Four Truths; q^l cå;på; the
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Five Precepts (also often in Pali order cå;på;q^l); pårm^ Sy\på; the Ten
Perfections.
på; 2 see under m˙tpå; apart from, tpå; other, different
Apå; (N~) vicinity, place, presence of N, where N is a person; used with
words meaning “to, from, near” etc; loc nn, FB, more high flown than FB TM;
= CB S^; cf FB TMpå;'
• mc\;tra;Âk^;Apå;wy\" In His Majesty’s presence.
• meN∑ q¨tiu≥Apå;m˙ T∑k\K∑alaeta." As Ma N moved away from them.
• Ë;lt\r´.Apå;keta. q¨≥N˙m m®mkl´ … m¥k\rv\yiu“p^;lYc\ ®pc\;®ps∑aciuenqt´." At U
Lat’s side stood his sister Ma Mya, weeping copiously.
• Tiuq¨cy\mm˙a p´∑keta\”k^; edÅ®mNuApå;t∑c\ eS;ep;k∑m\;y¨ lup\enel.‰˙ielqv\"
This young woman used to work as a personal attendant for the lady Daw
MN.
p^ see under ®p^ stc mkr: is V-ing now
p^; see under ®p^; to finish V-ing, ®p^; after V-ing, ®p^; already V-ed
ep- (Stc~, V~-) euphonic; generally adds a note of gravity or emphasis to
the sentence, sts suggesting considered opinion; stc fin phr ptcl and vb mod,
CB+FB, with effect differing according to context: see sections below; cf på'
el' eK¥;
(a) N~ at end of sentence slightly formal, old style, grave,
euphonic; FB, rare in CB; usually followed by another phrase particle;
• Bun\;lk\RMu;tiu≥qv\ … AT∑n\;etak\SMu; AK¥in\AKåÂk^;ep" It was the time when
his power was at its height.
• d^pvarp\k Ac\mtn\ APiu;tn\t´. pvarp\epp´" This subject is a very valuable
one.
• SraÂk^;qv\ Asv\;Aew;priqt\kiu Âkv\.ka AM.P∑y\q¨r´påeptka;hu K¥^;m∑m\;qv\"
Sayagyi, looking at the people attending the meeting, praised them saying
“How astonishing this is”.
• erKr^;N˙c\. Aqk\em∑;wm\;ek¥ac\;q¨ts\U^:k erlOic\;era kun\;lOic\;era By\m˙a
m¨;eta.mv\nv\;" kÁm\;k¥c\qëpkiu;" Why should a professional sailor feel
seasick? He is after all an experienced person.
• mv\qv\.AK¥in\k As‘peqa ska;ss\Tiu;p´∑epl´ mqi" She didn’t know when the
argument had started.
• TiuKuN˙s\på;ka; eAak\påtui≥eptv\;" Those seven attributes are the following.
• qv\en≥ tngçeN∑en≥epp´" eAac\eAac\eta. pålalim\.mv\ mTc\ep" Today was
Sunday. She didn’t think that AA would be among (the visitors).
• Ac\mtn\ l∑m\;sraBweppå." It is a life we look back on with nostalgia.
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• Kc\b¥a;®Pc\.b¥a AM.liu≥p´ mkun\Niuc\elak\t´. l¨ts\eyak\påepp´' tt\l´ tt\Niuc\på

epqb¥a" As for you, you are absolutely amazing. And you are really
inventive.
(b) V~ in FB euphonic, old style; frequent in the pattern m-V-ep at end
of sentence;
• Bun\;eta\”k^; ts\på;qv\ m‹p\t∑c\;qui≥ Âk∑erak\laepqv\" A monk came into
the mandat.
• el.laÂkv\.lYc\ eAak\påAtuic\; Apiuc\; 4piuc\; K´∑®Ka;j et∑>rmv\ ®Ps\epqv\" If
you want to examine this topic, you will find it set out below in four
sections.
• AKn\;T´m˙ ty\l^Pun\;qM Âka;rqv\" kiusiu;Niuc\qv\ q¨≥miBm¥a;Aim\t∑c\
erak\eneplim\.mv\" She heard the phone ring in her room. No doubt Ko SN
had reached his parents’ home.
• Ë;epåk\Sin\qv\ Aeta\pc\ Siu;q∑m\;eqa l¨ts\eyak\ ®Ps\eplim\.mv\hu
et∑;Tc\Âkrelf" They decided that UPS must be a pretty evil man.
• Aemqv\ An\t^Âk^;tiu≥ miqa;suAt∑k\ nMnk\sakiu ®pc\Sc\jenep®p^" Her mother
was preparing breakfast for Auntie and her family.
• e®parc\;Siurc\; Aeta\pc\ vU\.nk\q∑a;ep®p^" It had become quite dark while they
were talking.
• Ev\.qv\m¥a; erak\laÂkepra" When the visitors arrived.
• l¨qamn\tiu≥ lup\Niuc\eqa lup\cn\;m¥a; mhut\ep" It is not the sort of task that can
be performed by ordinary people.
• ebdc\ em;ensra mliueta.ep" It was no longer necessary to consult the
astrologers.
(c) V~ in CB frequent in expressions of judgement or considered
opinion, sometimes ironical;
• eta\påepty\ Kc\b¥a" dåeÂkac\.l´ namv\ ek¥a\Âka;eptaB´" You are talented,
Sir. That is why you are so well known.
• AKuelak\Suirc\ lÄm¥a;®mc\Ta;t´. Rup\pMulWaT´k hs\K¥\eka.K\n´≥ tky\.hs\K¥\eka.K\
Ass\tui≥ e®Pac\.e®Pac\.”k^; ®Ka;na;epty\ Suita Tc\‰˙a;elak\på“p^" By now it
should be clear that the Hitchcock in the well known portrait and the true
Hitchcock are totally different.
• Aun\;epåc\esaB∑a;ha Al∑n\ qsßa ‰˙ipåepty\" The OB Sawbwa is indeed loyal
to me.
• By\.N˙y\eta\ry\" dêlak\kel; ®Ps\rtan´´≥m¥a; ®pom˙®pork\påepty\" What’s all
this about? You are very harsh to me for such a small thing.
• eta\påepty\" Oh well done! What a clever fellow you are! (ironical)
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• ny\K¥´>qma;tui≥ka; lp\®mc\Âkpåepqv\" e®KTui;ekac\;Âkpåepqv\" The

colonialists were mighty good at seeing their opportunity and making the
most of it (ironical).
• ‰˙c\;påep.Kc\b¥a" l∑n\påera" eta\påep' ekac\;påepty\" It is quite clear, Sir.
Abundantly so. Well done. Everything is fine.
• q^K¥c\;qs\et∑n´≥ ’kiSui®Kc\; Suirc\lv\; mm˙a;epB¨;" You could not go wrong if you
were to greet them with some new songs.
• ty\ â%\m¥a;epqb¥a" rip\B´ mrip\mipåepB¨;" What a vivid imagination you
have. I had not even suspected (anything of the sort).
• ®mn\maet∑lv\; mVOi;K´.epBu" We Burmans are not in decline.
• qv\lui AsÂs√\m¥oi;m˙a AKm\;Ana;mØ; ts\eyak\tv\;n´≥ mlMuelak\epB¨;la;" In
an event of this kind would not a single MC be enough?
• Arc\s“p^; er;Biu≥ s^sU\t´.l¨k eKåc\;eSac\ mhut\epB¨;la;b¥a" Is it not the
individual who first arranged for (the letter) to be written who is the
leader?
(d) in combination V-epeta. imperative, often brusque; CB;
• em;my\ Siu" em;epeta." You said you would ask her, didn’t you? Well do it
then.
• k´…k´… AK¥in\‰˙itun\; qMu;pc\k∑c\;kui luik\Âkepeta." Right. Come along now to
Thoun-bin-gwin while there’s still time.
• k´ enak\Tp\“p^; e®pasra‰˙irc\ RMu;k¥m˙ e®paepeta." If you have more to say, say
it when you get to the police station.
(e) in combination V-epes let sn V; FB+CB;
• enepes" Let it be, leave it alone.
• liuk\K¥c\rc\ liuk\epesepå." Let him come if he wants to.
• q¨ mnaKMrc\ q¨≥ABiu; AB∑a;et∑S^ q∑a;enepes" If he won’t obey, then he must
be sent to his grandparents.
• q¨tiu≥kiu miBiu≥ra tawn\keta. k¥op\ tawn\ ‰˙iepes" Âka;la;" As for the duty of
catching them, let that be my responsibility.
Sts with induced creaky tone:
• B^-y¨-t^ {B∑t\}K¥c\ {B∑t\}ep.es" If he wants to B-U-T “but” then let him
“but”.
(f) in combination V-eplui≥ thank goodness for V, but for V; CB;
• eta\eq;liu≥eh.' eK¥ac\;erT´ k¥epliu≥" What a mercy! We were lucky that it
fell into the stream … !
• Bura;qKc\ ky\epliu≥" Thanks to the mercy of God.
• kMAa;el¥a\s∑a Kc\b¥a;tiu≥ e®p;laÂkepliu≥" Niu≥mui≥®Pc\. k¥op\m˙a enak\m¥a; AmO
sMueTak\Niuc\Piu≥etac\ AK∑c\.‰˙ieta.my\ mhut\påB¨;b¥a" What a mercy you lot came
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running up. But for that I wouldn’t have stood a chance of being able to
conduct any more investigations.
(g) with induced creaky tone: V-ep. How V! exclamatory; CB; perhaps
a fusion of ep and r´.;
• rk\sk\påep.k∑y\" You are very hard on me.
• cå.e®m;k ®ma;ps\k¥c\.entakiu;" hut\ep. k∑a" So my grandson has been
practising archery! Well done, my boy!
(h) in the pattern V-ep. Suit´. N and similar N that is extremely V;
CB+FB;
• Aim\A®pn\t∑c\ l˙ep. Siuqv\. N˙c\;S^pn\;et∑kiu qy\q∑a;tt\ra" As he was in the
habit of buying the most beautiful roses on his way back home.
• Km\;na;ep. Siut´. nn\;eta\m¥a;" Palaces of great grandeur.
•ekac\;ep. Siut´. Aq^;et∑" Fruit that is tremendously good.
ept´.(lui≥) see under epm´. although
epm´.' epm´.lui≥' ept´.' ept´.lui≥' epmv\.' epqv\.' epmc\.' kepm´.' mn´≥ (N~, V~) (a)
although V, in spite of N, however; sub cls mkr, also used with noun
sentences, CB; = FB V-eqa\lv\;' epqv\. pron /epq˙i/; cf Phr-eta.;
• misMtiu≥k Aqk\cy\epmy\. kiuy\.Bwkiu kiuy\.Baqa Run\;kn\rty\" Though Mi
San was young in years she and her family had had to struggle to
establish themselves.
• Tiu≥eÂkac\. mun\≥hc\;Kå; ekac\;epmv\. qv\Siuc\qiu≥ erak\el.erak\T m‰˙iK´." For this
reason he had not been in the habit of coming to this foodstall even
though the monhinga was good.
• Aqa; meK¥aept´. eta\eta\.kiu Kiuc\ty\" The material is not very fine but it’s
remarkably strong.
• EE enK¥c\qv\ Suiepqv\. … EE enmreqa eKt\ ®Ps\en®p^" We’d like to live in
peace, but it’s not a time when you can live in peace.
• q¨tui≥ N˙s\eyak\ qk\t¨r∑y\t¨K¥c\;epmy\. Ae®KAenK¥c\;mt¨B¨;" Though the two
of them are the same age they have different backgrounds.
• dåepmy\.liu≥ hiuk lk\KMm˙a mhut\B¨;" Nonetheless, it won’t be accepted over
there.
• K¥atit\kepm´. Aeta\ lat´. K¥atit\p´" He may be only a lad, but he does
pretty well.
(b) following an interrogative: however sn may V, whoever may V,
etc; CB; cf interrogative followed by repeated verb sv Repetition;
• By\elak\ e®paepm´≥ na;meTac\B¨;" However much one tells him, he won’t
listen.
144
• By\ATip´ erak\enepm´.lui≥ eKÅrc\ K¥k\K¥c\; ®pn\latap´" However far he may

have gone, he comes straight back when you call him.
epmv\. see under epm´. although
epmc\. see under epm´. although
epqv\. see under epm´. although
ep. see under ep indeed
ep;- 1 (V~-) V for, on behalf of (sn else), so as to assist, to affect (sn
else); vb mod, CB+FB; negative form usually V-m~, sts m-V~;
• kÁn\mr´. cå;bn\;kui k¨“p^; m,ep;påena\" Give me a hand in lifting my tray of fish
would you?
• k¥op\k mer;tt\eta. Srakiuy\tiuc\ er;ep;‰˙aty\" As I can’t write the Saya
wrote it down for me himself.
• ‰˙c\;®pep;på" Please explain this.
• n^n^n´≥ et∑>t´.AKå d^sael; ep;ep;på" When you see NN could you please give
this letter to her for me.
• ®mn\mal¨m¥oi;m¥a;At∑k\ ®mn\mak¥p\ec∑®Pc\. lk\KMep;enpåty\" (Hotelier
announces:) For Burmese guests we are accepting payment in Burmese
currency (not in dollars as for foreign guests).
• hiuBk\k Âka;rla;" mÂka;rrc\ lk\e®mHak\ep;på" Can you hear over there?
If not, please raise your hand for me.
• sui;ek¥a\kui k¨Âkv\.ep;qv\" She helped SK with his looking (into the broken
engine).
• ®bitiqYAsui;rqv\ … ®pv\mN˙c\. etac\tn\;ny\m¥a; mp¨;epåc\;Nuic\esrn\ Am¥oi;m¥oi;
eq∑;K∑ép;l¥k\ ‰˙iepqv\" The British government was sowing dissension to
prevent cooperation between central Burma and the hill districts.
• psßv\;psßym¥a;kiu sit\K¥lk\K¥ Ta;K´.Niuc\er;At∑k\ BÂk^;emac\k esac\.j
enep;tt\K´.qv\" So that they could leave their belongings behind without
worry, Ba-gyi Maung used to watch over (the house) for them.
• m∑n\m∑n\k q¨≥rc\kiu AqaPiep;Ta;ka siu;rim\t”k^; Âkv\.enf" MM held her hand
to her heart and looked on anxiously.
ep;- 2 (~V-) allow sn to V; comm pre-vb, CB+FB; from verb ep;- to give; neg
ep;mV- or sts mep;-V; cf V-es-, which is being superseded in CB by ep;-V,
and V-K∑c\. ‘p-;
• ts\Kåteleta. ekac\el;kiu ep;emac\;liuk\påla;" Why not let the boy drive
sometimes?
• ts\N˙s\Tk\ ep;mlup\eta.B¨;" They don’t allow (the Karen girls) to work for
more than a year.
• emac\el;kui mep;kuic\n´≥" Don’t let your brother touch it.
145
• q¨≥S^ saqp\qp\ mer;eta.B¨;ena\" d^sakuiqa ep;Pt\luik\på" I won’t write

separately to her. Would you please let her read this letter?
• sk\B^; mep;s^;K¥c\B¨;" I don’t want to let you ride my bike.
p´ 1 formerly B´ sts kp´ (Stc~) really, indeed, emphatic, sts
exclamatory; at least, at any rate; stc fin phr ptcl, mainly CB, = FB pc\'
tv\;' ®Ps\qv\; before p´ sentence markers ty\ and my\ in CB usually take
the forms ta and m˙a" Spelling. Until the 1970s the spelling B´ was in
general use for the sentence final phrase particle (as in dêkac\k Avaqa;
B´ this fellow is an Upper Burman), and the sentence medial phrase particle
(cå;k¥p\B´ ep;rty\ you only have to pay K5), and the subordinate clause
marker (AePa\ mpåB´ mq∑a;r´B¨; I dare not go without taking a companion).
At that point a spelling reform prescribed p´ for all three words. By 1986
there was a further revision: p´ was retained for the phrase particles, but the
marker was to be written B´" This is the practice current at the time of
writing (2000).
• wm\;qapåty\ Kc\b¥a" qip\wm\;qatap´" I am delighted, Sir. I really am
delighted.
• Kc\b¥a;®Pc\.b¥a AM.liu≥p´ mkun\Niuc\elak\t´. l¨ts\eyak\påepp´" As for you, you are
absolutely amazing.
• psßv\;et∑ ep¥ak\q∑a;ta mnv\;B¨;p´" He really lost a lot of his possessions.
• d^ kisßeta. ®p^;q∑a;®p^p´" Ba ska;m¥a;sra liueq;ql´" The matter is over and
done with. What need is there for further argument?
• cy\cy\tun\;k enK´.t´. R∑akel;liup´" It is just like the little village where we
lived when we were young.
• kÁn\eta\ sit\p¨tak q¨≥ k¥n\;maer;At∑k\påp´" What I am worried about is his
health. (In FB the same idea might be expressed as: kÁn\eta\ sit\p¨qv\m˙a
q¨≥ k¥n\;maer;At∑k\ ®Ps\påqv\")
• q¨k ss\qa;p´" e®m”k^;epÅm˙alv\; lk\kiu eKåc\;AuM;j Aip\Niuc\qv\" After all he
was a soldier: he was able to sleep on the ground, using his arm as a
pillow.
• lamy\lui≥ e®patap´" qip\eta. meqK¥aB¨;" He certainly said he would come,
but I’m not entirely sure of it.
• TuM;m¥a;l´ A‰˙iqa;påkB´" There are of course precedents (for this action).
p´ 2 formerly B´ (Phr~) (a) even, very, emphatic; highlights the phrase as
the important informative item in the sentence; stc med phr ptcl, mostly CB, =
FB pc\; for the two spellings see under p´ 1;
• Kc\b¥a.; q¨cy\K¥c\;p´ er;tala;" Was it your friend who wrote it?
146
• By\m˙ mq∑a;n´≥ena\" d^Mm˙ap´ enrs\K´." Don’t go anywhere will you? Stay right
here!
• ek¥ac\;qa;Bwktv\;kp´ qienÂkta" We have known each other since our
school days.
• dåqv\pc\lYc\ qBawk¥ta ®Ps\en“p^la;" qBawmk¥takp´
qBawk¥entala;" What it this very thing that was now realistic? Was it
the very lack of realism that was realistic?
• Kc\b¥a;®Pc\.b¥a AM.liu≥p´ mkun\Niuc\elak\t´. l¨ts\eyak\påepp´" As for you, you are
absolutely amazing.
(b) just, only; = FB qa;
• Tmc\; nv\;nv\;p´ ep;på" Please give me just a little rice.
• et∑>p´ et∑>P¨;ty\" ekac\;ekac\;eta. mqiB¨;" I have only met him. I don’t
know him well.
• Aim\®pn\®p^;p´ Tmc\; sa;mliu≥" (I had intended) just to go home and have a meal.
• dåp´ y¨mla;" _ hut\k´. dåpåp´" Is that all you want? — Yes, that’s all.
• q¨p´ qity\' q¨p´ tt\ty\ Tc\®p^;" Thinking only he knows, only he can do
it.
• K¥√\epåc\k ts\sv\; ts\mt\' e®K∑liuk\rc\ e®Kak\R∑k\elak\p´ ‰˙ita" Roselle
leaves are 25 pya a bunch: when you pick off the leaves you’ve only got
about six.
p´ m-V-B´ without V-ing: see under B´
3 in pattern
epÅ and AepÅ (N~, VA~) on, over, above, around; on top of, in addition
to; towards, concerning, with regard to; loc nn, CB+FB; cf Tk\; opp
eAak\ underneath; after a noun, the prefixed form AepÅ tends to be used
for “above” and the unprefixed form for “resting on”;
• sa;p∑épÅ Ta;på" Please put it on the table.
• m^;AepÅm˙a K¥it\Ta;på" Please hang it above the fire.
• b^diuepÅk saR∑k\et∑" Papers from the top of the cupboard, from on the
cupboard.
• Aip\ralip\et∑ Sc\.Tp\Ta;t´.AepÅm˙a Tiuc\Piu≥ Sraeta\kiu elYak\Âkty\" They
asked the Sayadaw to sit on a pile of bedding rolls.
• ‘mi>epÅ elYak\lv\Âksiu≥" Let’s wander round the town.
• e®KeTak\ k¥oi;q∑a;t´.AepÅm˙a d%\eSac\req;ty\" On top of breaking a leg,
he had to pay a fine.
• Aim\pMukl´ k¥U\;rt´.AepÅm˙a tMKå;m‰˙i ®ptc\;epåk\m‰˙i' Kp\em˙ac\em˙ac\ Kp\nim\.nim\." As
well as being cramped the house had no window and no door. It was dark
and low-ceilinged.
147
• Ak¥c\.sarit† ekac\;m∑n\mOSiut´.AepÅm˙a tv\ty\" It depends on how good his

character is.
• Tiue®mAm¥oi;m¥oi;epÅt∑c\ ekak\KMqv\. AK∑n\" Taxes levied on those various kinds
of land.
• q¨≥AepÅ eta\eta\el; qeBa ekac\;ty\" They have been pretty kind to
him.
• tp\meta\AepÅ mm˙n\mkn\qtc\;m¥a; t^;tiu;e®paSiu®Kc\;" Secretly spreading false
reports about the army.
epå≥ (Stc~) of course, by all means, naturally, obviously; presumably,
no doubt, I suppose; you know, let’s say, I mean; stc fin phr ptcl, mainly
CB; before epå≥ sentence markers ty\ and my\ often take the forms ta and
m˙a, sts q and m;
• AÂkim\Âkim\ lup\rrc\eta. emataepå≥" If you have to do it over and over again
then naturally you get tired.
• mc\ kun\q∑a;rc\ er;liu≥ mreta.B¨;epå≥" Obviously, when the ink runs out you
can’t write any more.
• SM.mepå≥" Of course it will fit in.
• m’kik\rc\ Tp\lup\AuM;epå≥" If you don’t like it, do it again of course.
• lk\Pk\rv\el; eqak\påAuM;la;" _ eqak\taepå≥" Would you like a cup of
tea? — Yes I would.
• et∑>Âkeq;taepå≥" See you! (“naturally we’ll meet again”).
• ln\dn\m˙a ‰˙itun\;k dåm¥oi; et∑>P¨;m˙aepå≥" No doubt you came across that sort of
thing while you were in London?
• q¨≥ wtÊo eta\eta\m¥a;m¥a; Pt\P¨;®pêpå≥" I take it you have read quite a few
novels by her?
• qv\luiN˙c\. pëlac\t´. eN∑raq^ en≥ts\en≥m˙aepå≥" q¨≥kui mTc\m˙t\p´ B∑a;Kn´
®pn\et∑>qv\" And so it was that one hot summer day, you know, she
unexpectedly bumped into him again.
Frequent in combination epå.el —
• dåeÂkac\.l´ ROp\ROp\y˙k\y˙k\ ®Ps\taepå.el" That’s why they ran into all this
trouble, you see.
• eragåketa. ts\Kåtv\; A®ms\®pt\eta. mq∑a;B¨;epå.el" ts\Kåts\Kå qëpÅK¥c\
epÅlatt\ty\" Needless to say, the disease wasn’t cured outright. It
does recur from time to time.
• kÁn\eta\tiu≥ ®Ps\e®mak\er;eka\mt^ P´∑>my\" kiuy\n´≥ n^;sp\raepå.el" We’re going to
set up an implementation committee. Just people I’m close to, you
understand.
148
pui- or puimui- (~V-) to V more, be more V, Vadditionally; comm pre-vb,

CB+FB; cf qa- which is more formal; from verb pui- to exceed;
• By\ha piu’kik\ql´" Which do you like better?
• d^Tk\ piumrB¨;la;" Can’t you get more than that?
• eSac\;på; mTv\.req;på" piuj ®pv\.®pv\.suMsuM Tv\.er;liuk\K¥c\påeq;qv\" I haven’t
sent in the article yet; I want to write it more fully, in greater detail.
• cå;eÂka\AnM≥kiu rqv\N˙c\. msa;Niuc\" piumiuj m¨;laeqaeÂkac\. ®pn\ep;liuk\relqv\"
As soon as I smelt the fried fish I couldn’t stomach it. I had to send it
back because it made me feel even more sick.
• A´d^lui el.laK∑c\. r®p^;eta. ®mn\maNuic\cMn≥´ pt\qk\®p^; puilui≥etac\ sit\wc\sa;K.´ty\"
After having had this opportunity to study Myanmar Naingngan I became
even more interested in it.
•‘mi>T´ enrta piu®p^; ekac\;tap´" It really is better living in town.
pk\ or pk\lYc\ (Phr~) indeed, that very, precisely, emphatic; stc med phr
ptcl, in verse; cf CB p´, FB pc\;
• en≥tuic\;pk\lYc\" Every day.
pc\ 1 or pc\lYc\ (Phr~) even, indeed, actually, that very, precisely,
emphatic; stc med phr ptcl, FB; cf CB p´, poetic pk\;
• trp\lMu; Sit\“cim\l¥k\ ‰˙iqv\®Ps\j kÁn\eta\tiu≥f Aqk\RØqMm¥a;N˙c\.
rc\Kun\qMm¥a;kiupc\ Âka;relf" The whole neighbourhood was so silent that
we could even hear our breathing and the beating of our hearts.
• SraÂk^; mPt\ROP¨;eqa eppurpiuk\h¨j m‰˙iqelak\pc\ ®Ps\qv\hu e®paÂkqv\"
They even say that there was practically no manuscript in the library that
he had not read.
• Riu;qa;eqa qBawqv\ piujpc\ Tc\‰˙a;laqv\" The honesty of his character
became even more discernible.
• Al∑n\pc\ sit\ wc\sa;B∑y\ ekac\;qv\" It is very interesting indeed.
• ek¥ac\;qiu≥ nMnk\ 7-narÂK¥in\Kn\≥kpc\ ’kitc\erak\‰˙ienÂkpåqv\" We were
already at the school by (as early as) seven o’clock in the morning.
• yc\;tiu≥Tk\pc\ enak\k¥qv\. ss\tn\;m¥a;" Sit-tans of even later date than
these.
• miu;eKåc\;®Kc\;qv\ etac\q¨m¥a;APiu≥ AsU\ siu;rim\sra ®Ps\j edqf AN †ray\pc\
®Ps\eta.qv\" Drought is a constant cause of anxiety for the farmers, and it
is in fact the (main) hazard of the region.
• Ala;t¨pc\ qa;cå; es¥;NOn\;m¥a;qv\ tiu;®mc\.laqv\kiu et∑>‰˙ireÂkac\;" In
precisely the same way we find that prices of meat and fish have
increased.
149
• TuisU\k Rup\®mc\qMÂka;sk\ m‰˙ieq;" erd^yuipc\lYc\ epÅkas ‰˙ieq;qv\" At that

time there was no television. Even the radio was in its early days.
• Pk\Ss\Asiu;rm¥a;pc\lYc\ AelYa.ep;enreqa yKuAK¥in\m¥oi;Ò" At a time like the
present when even fascist governments are admitting defeat.
• AssArara Al∑n\tra t¨l˙qv\ ®Ps\j emac\sM‰˙a; kiuy\tiuc\ Tiuc\jenqv\hu
kÁn\eta\pc\lYc\ m˙t\Tc\repf" (The shadow) looked exactly like Maung SS
in all respects, so that even I (who should have known better) thought
that it was Maung SS himself who was sitting there.
pc\ 2 (Stc~) indeed, in fact, verily, emphatic; stc fin phr ptcl, FB; = CB p´'
påp´; cf FB tv\;'
• U^;emac\emac\lt\ ry\miqv\" q¨≥zn^;kiu e®pamy\.qa e®paenreqa\lv\; q¨lv\;
d^rp\k∑k\T´m˙a ep¥a\qv\pc\" U MML couldn’t help smiling. In spite of what
he had said to his wife, he too did in fact enjoy living in this
neighbourhood.
• qeBçaeS;AnM≥kiu KMjmr" qeBçaeS;nM≥kiu rel m¨;elpc\" I couldn’t stand the
smell of the paint. The more I smelt it the sicker I felt.
• q¨tiu≥Aq^;q^; wt\luM®pt\kiuy\s^n˙c\." kÁn\eta\tiu≥lv\; wt\luMm¥a;N˙c\.pc\" Each one
of them had his short (college) gown on. We too had our gowns.
• kiuy\.edqN˙c\. Sn\≥k¥c\Bk\”k^; ®Ps\enelqv\" Atu my¨qc\.qv\.enrat∑c\ Atu
y¨®Kc\;pc\tv\;" (Taking a western-style bath in Burma) is totally inappro-
priate for our own country. It is a case of imitating when one should not
imitate.
pc\ 3 (Nº~) and Apc\ (~Nº) plant, comm nmtv for plants, threads, ropes,
hairs, etc; CB+FB;
• evac\el;pc\ four banyan trees; ’ki;ts\pc\ a cord.
epåc\ (m-V~) marks end of negative statement; stc mkr, CB, = CB B¨;, FB
Zero; more common in intimate or rustic speech;
• k´ _ d^m˙a" qrk\q^;qnp\ _ Aél hut\epåc\" N˙c\;S^p∑c\. l˙l˙Âk^;et∑
y¨q∑a;ÂkU^; As\mer" Right now. Look here. Mango pickle — no, that’s not
right. Some really nice roses, that’s what I want you to take along, my
sister.
• ha _ då kiuT∑n\;zM mhut\epåc\b¥a" What? That’s not Ko TZ, Sir.
• tK¥oi>haet∑Siu cå®Pc\. na;mlv\epåc\" liuk\mm^B¨;" Some of his points I just
don’t understand. I can’t follow him.
epåc\; (N~) total, number, in all, combined; nn mod, CB+FB;
• N˙s\epåc\; ts\raek¥a\" Over one hundred years.
• tp\epåc\; N˙s\Sy\ K¥^tk\qv\.Ank\" Of the total of 20 units that advanced.
150
• lëpåc\; (11) eyak\N˙c\. Ae®KK¥ka ek¥ak\®Pør∑akiu tv\K´.elqv\" He settled

there with a group of 11 men and founded Kyaukpyu.
• eK¥a\l´K´.rt´. A”kim\epåc\;lv\; m¥a;“p^" And the number of times she has
tripped up is great.
• Aqc\;wc\epåc\; (5000)ek¥a\" Over 5000 members.
In combination N-epåc\;suM all sorts, of every description;
• Niuc\cMeta\Asiu;rf giu%\;epåc\;sMu qMGa.AP´∑>Asv\;m¥a;" State-approved Sangha
organizations from all sects.
• A´d^ ekalip\epåc\;suMk ek¥ac\;qa;et∑ Akun\ T∑k\tapå" It was from this
range of colleges that students set off (to take part in the literacy
movement).
• “moi>ny\epåc\;suM Ae®KKMpvaek¥ac\;qa; qmg©" Combined Townships High School
(“basic education”) Students’ Union.
In combination N-epåc\;m¥a;s∑a a large number, many;
• m¥k\sin´≥ m®mc\Niuc\t´. piu;mWa;et∑ qin\;epåc\;m¥a;s∑aha" Many hundreds of thousands
of invisible organisms.
• N˙s\epåc\;m¥a;s∑ak ®Ps\p∑a;K´.elqv\" It took place many years ago.
• Aqk\epåc\;m¥a;s∑aN˙c\. l´l˙y\j y¨K´.reqa l∑t\lp\er;" Our independence
obtained in exchange for (the loss of) many lives.
puic\- (V~-) have the right to V, be authorized to V; vb mod, CB+FB;
• e®papiuc\K∑c\. ‰˙iq¨" Spokesman, person authorized to speak.
• Asv\;Aew;eta. Uk˚™m˙ eKÅpiuc\ty\" Only the president is empowered to
convene a meeting.
• d^liuAmOm¥oi; k¥eta. tra;q¨”k^;etac\m˙ Amin\≥ mK¥piuc\B¨;" In this kind of a case
even a magistrate hasn’t the authority to give a decision.
puic\; (N~) part, area, section, space, period; comm elem cpd nn, CB+FB;
often used optionally following expressions of time, place etc; cf Bk\
direction, area;
• ®mn\maNuic\cM Ae‰˙>etac\piuc\;" The south-eastern part of Burma.
• puMAepÅpiuc\;" The upper portion of the picture.
• ven(piuc\;)" Evening, in the evening.
• esaesa(piuc\;)k" Earlier on.
• lkun\rk\piuc\; k¥lYc\eta. ml∑y\" But when it came to the (period of) days at
the end of the month, it wasn’t easy (to make the money last).
• A´d^sk˚n\≥piuc\;At∑c\;m˙a" In the space of those few seconds.
• lam´. rk\piuc\;At∑c\;m˙a" In the next few days.
• ss\Asiu;r tk\t´. enak\piuc\;m˙a" After the military government had come to
power.
151
• U^;enwc\; st´. Tip\piuc\;eKåc\;eSac\et∑" Top leaders including (“starting from”) U

Ne Win.
• tp\meta\Ara‰˙i Acy\piuc\;n´≥ A”k^;piuc\; AK¥oi>" Some junior and senior army
officers.
• kÁn\eta\tiu≥ @anm˙a l¨cy\piuc\;k kÁn\eta\ ts\eyak\p´ Agçlip\liu tt\ta" Of
the younger ones in our department it’s only me who can speak English.
• AK¥in\piuc\; nar^-20 Alup\et∑ m¥a;ty\" They are mostly part-time, 20 hour per
week jobs (that are available).
• bmasaeppiuc\;Siuc\ram˙a eta\ty\" He knows a lot in the area of Burmese
literature.
• s^mMKn\≥K∑ér;piuc\;m˙ saR∑k\satm\;m¥a;' As^rc\KMsam¥a;" Documents and reports from
the administrative departments.
•B^B^s^®mn\mapuic\;@an" The Burmese Section of the BBC.
ps\- (V~-) to V quickly, thoughtlessly, toss off V-ing; vb mod, CB+FB;
pron and sts written ®ps\; not voiced;
• q¨≥pn\;p∑c\.et∑ kel;et∑ wc\K¨;ps\ty\n´≥ t¨ty\" It looks as if the children just
came in and picked his flowers.
• b^diu”k^; AquM; mk¥eta.B¨; Siu®p^; m^;lYoi>ps\liuk\mliu≥" Thinking that the old
cupboard was no longer any use I was going to burn it.
• q¨qv\ kÁn\eta\f saAup\kiu eP¥ak\ps\qv\" He simply lost my book for me.
• em.ps\lui≥eta. mrB¨;" We can’t simply forget them.
• skçap¨KMtp\ Al∑y\kel; k¥SMu;q∑a;reqaAKå AsÂsU\Aa;lMu;kiu g¥pn\tiu≥k
ts\m¥oi; e®pac\;ps\liuk\f" When the fortress of Singapore fell to them so
easily, the Japanese completely changed all their plans.
• Èkisßm¥a; ®p^;®pt\q∑a;eAac\ ‰˙c\;lc\;ps\liuk\påhu AÂkMep;f" They suggested he
should give a definitive explanation so as to clear up these questions.
pt\lv\ or pt\pt\lv\ (N~) surrounding, round the edge of N; the
surrounds of, neighbourhood, around N; (with measurements) square;
loc nn, CB+FB; pron /pt\ly\/;
• Siuc\kel;et∑ha p∑´Kc\;pt\pt\lv\m˙a ts\Siuc\n´≥ ts\Suic\ Tilun^;på; tv\Kc\;
erac\;K¥enÂkty\" All around the grounds of the fair small shops, set so
close as almost to touch each other, were busy trading.
• Pit\sael;r´´> pt\pt\lv\m˙a" Around the edge of the invitation.
• tp\mØ;r´. pt\lv\m˙a" Surrounding their captain.
• R∑apt\\lv\m˙a qs\pc\ m‰˙ieta.B¨;" Around the village there are no longer any
trees.
• el;eppt\lv\ m^;Piu" A kitchen 4 feet square (i.e. each wall is 4 ft long).
152
• Cf also: N˙s\pt\lv\ Asv\;Aew;" Annual meeting (“year comes round

again”).
pt\luM; (N~) for the duration of (time stated), throughout (time); nn
mod, CB+FB;
• ts\qk\pt\luM;" Throughout one’s life.
• qv\AROp\kiu m‰˙c\;qmYkalpt\lMu; kÁn\eta\®Pc\. sit\meA;Niuc\B¨;" I cannot set my
mind at rest for as long as this mystery remains unsolved.
• ®mn\maNiuc\cM lÜ^;er qn\;ekac\sarc\; ‘psuer;t∑c\ tk˚qiul\m¥a; k∑n\p¥øta@anm˙
(24) nar^pt\lMu; sk\Aa;lÄa; A®pv\.Aw®Pc\. påwc\lup\eSac\ep;K´.qv\" During
the compilation of the Census of Burma the University Computer
Department had all its machines and staff working round the clock.
• qc\.eta\eqa AKNOn\;kiu ep;qmYkalpt\luM;" For the duration of the time that
(for as long as) they paid a reasonable rent.
• kmıapt\luM;' e®pamSuM;tv\." If you spoke for an entire world-era, you would
not say enough (verse).
pt\wn\;k¥c\ and wn\;k¥c\ (N~) around, approximately N; the surroundings
of, the environment of N; loc nn, CB+FB;
• m^;pt\wn\;k¥c\m˙aeta. Alc\; Al∑n\nv\;ty\" In the area around the lamp the
light was very weak.
•100 Aum\; wn\;k¥c\Kn\≥qa" Only about 100 ohms.
•q¨¨pt\wn\;k¥c\klët∑epå." People from his own background.
pt\qk\j FB = CB pt\qk\lui≥ or pt\qk\®p^; (N-N˙c~\. FB = CB N-n´≥~)
concerning, in connection with; sub cls;
• kun\es¥;NOn\;m¥a; Âk^;®mc\.en®Kc\;kisßN˙c\. pt\qk\j et∑>SuMeS∑;eN∑;p∑´kiu k¥c\;pqv\" A
meeting was held concerning the issue of the increase in the price of
commodities.
• d^kisßn´≥ pt\qk\liu≥ qtc\;saT´m˙a Bam˙ mpåB¨;" There was nothing in the
papers about this affair.
• kÁn\eta\.pMupn\;q an\n´≥ pt\qk\®p^; Aeq;sit\ e®pa®pTa;“p^;på“p^" Concerning my
appearance I have already given a detailed account.
pud\ (Nº~) and Apud\ (~Nº) item, comm nmtv for short written texts, songs,
poems, paragraphs, etc; CB+FB; pron /put\/;
• zat\lm\; ts\pud\ a narrative; rtu quM;pud\ three yadu poems; q^K¥c\; By\N˙s\pud\
r®p^l´ how many songs have you learned?
pim\. (V~) will V, indicates future; stc mkr, FB, mainly verse; fused from ep
“euphonic” and AM. “future”;
• Âka;pim\.q¨®mt\' Am¥a;m˙t\sim\." The noble one will speak, let all take note
(verse).
153
• ekac\;k¥oi;ska;' cålYc\Âka;pim\." I shall speak words that bring you weal

(verse).
puM 1 (N~) shaped like N, N-shaped; comm elem cpd nn, FB+CB;
• Slc\dåpuM ts\Pk\pit\ Aup\eSac\;" Cover shaped like a cylinder.
• erAui;sc\puM qMsc\" Metal frame shaped like a water pot stand.
• Âkk\UpuM eBaluM;" An oval ball.
puM 2 (V~) (a) manner, way of V-ing, how sn Vs; sp hd nn, CB+FB; cf V-
nv\;'
• e®m∑eS; ePa\sp\rn\At∑k\ e®m∑Sip\ Tut\lup\puMm˙a Al∑n\pc\ sit\wc\sa;B∑y\
ekac\;påqv\" The way snake venom is extracted to make serum is very
interesting indeed.
• l∑t\lp\er; reAac\ ’ki;pm\;K´.rpuMm¥a;kiu mem.mel¥a.Âkesrn\" So as not to forget
the way we had to struggle to obtain independence.
• tiuc\;rc\; ®mn\maeS;pvaf Tk\®mk\puM eSac\;på;m¥a;" Articles on the efficacy of
Burmese indigenous medicine.
• Ac\;qa;et∑ el˙ el˙a\puM ts\m¥oi;p´" The way the Intha paddle a boat is
extraordinary.
• Bura;Âk^;na;m˙a Bura;Rup\p∑a;eta\ TuenpuM q∑a;Âkv\.Âkmy\" We are going to watch
them carving Buddha images near the Great Pagoda.
• q¨klv\; Aim\eTac\qv\' kuiy\klv\; Aim\eTac\qv\ Kk\luik\pMum¥a;" One of the
pair was a married man and the other was a married woman: what a
muddle they got themselves into.
(b) picture, appearance of V-ing; seem to, appear to V; cf V-hn\; espe-
cially frequent in two combinations meaning “seem to V”: V-puM epÅ- (“ap-
pearance of V-ing emerges”) and V-puM r- (“one gets an appearance of V-
ing”);
• hqçaPiu hqçqam eqac\epÅ na;enpuM S∑´Ta;ty\" He drew a picture of a male
and female hamsa goose resting on a sandbank.
• dên≥ Sra eta\eta\ enmekac\;puM epÅty\" Saya seems quite unwell today.
• q¨tiu≥ hium˙a eta\eta\ ep¥a\puM rty\" They seem to have enjoyed themselves
there quite a lot.
• ‘mic\kiu Aem nv\;nv\; ‰˙k\puM rqv\" It seemed as if Myaing’s mother was a bit
ashamed of her.
puM 3 also puMsM' puMsMm¥oi; (VA~) appearance of V, as if V, sort of V; noun
“manner”, perhaps in process of becoming a stc fin phr ptcl; CB+FB; cf
qeBa “as it were”;
154
• mqmamO lup\Âkmy\.lët∑ mhut\m˙n\; qilui≥ Tq∑a;t´´.pMusM" It was as if they had got

up and left knowing that (the others) were not the sort to enagage in
unlawful activities.
• Kå;el;kiu qv\.Tk\ kun\;liuk\Ë;' kun\;liuk\Ë;" Aa;siuk\ S∑´lat´. pMusMm¥oi;" Bend
your back a bit more. Bend more! As if you were using all your strength
to move (the boat) (photographer to subject).
• ts\sMuts\rakiu mqimqa ‰˙aeP∑enqv\. pMusMm¥oi; ®Ps\eqa\lv\;" Although he looked
as if he were furtively searching for something.
ep¥a\- (V~-) to V adequately, reasonably, to give satisfaction in V-ing; vb
mod, CB+FB;
• ka; mSui;påB¨;" Âkv\.ep¥a\påty\" The film’s not too bad. It’s worth seeing.
• dåel;qa ‰˙imy\Suirc\ rmy\Suirc\ Kc\mui;tui≥ elakÂk^;m˙a enep¥a\på®p^" If only she
could have that much, acquire that much, the world would be a good
place for KM to live in.
• Aim\k sit\’kik\ mhut\B´ enep¥a\påty\" The house isn’t exactly what we
wanted, but it’s livable in.
• rn\kun\ erak\q∑a;rc\ eqep¥a\®p^ Tc\enta" I thought if I’d been to Yangon I
could die in peace.
• Âkv\.ep¥a\ROep¥a\ l¨ts\Ë;" A man of personable appearance.
®p- (V~-) show how to V, V towards sn, for sn; indicates the presence of a
listener or observer towards whom the action is directed, hence may often
require a pronoun in English translation; vb mod, CB+FB; not voiced; nega-
tive form usually V-m~, sts m-V~;
• bmaluMK¥v\ wt\nv\; wt\®prty\" I had to show him how to put on a Burmese
lon-gyi.
• Aun\;q^; m®Ks\tt\eta. AP∑a;Âk^;kiu ®Ks\®pKiuc\;rty\" As I didn’t know how to
scrape a coconut, I had to ask the old lady to show me how to do it.
• eAak\på wåk¥ Pt\®ppå" Read out the following sentence.
• Ae®KAen ‰˙c\;®ppåAuM;my\" I will explain the situation to you.
• yiu;dya;q^K¥c\; AKu t^;®ppålim\.my\" They will now play us a Siamese tune.
• kÁn\eta\tiu≥Bk\ l˙v\.®p^; ‘pM;®pty\" She turned towards us and smiled (at us).
• eRWwåqv\ A®m^;kui lOp\®pqv\" Shwe Wa (the cat) waves his tail (at me).
“p^^ (V~) is V-ing (now), has (already) V-ed, is V-ed (by now); stc mkr,
CB+FB; normally pron and sts written p^ in CB; sts weakened to /p/ in
questions before la; and l´" This suffix indicates that the point of realisa-
tion or fulfilment has been reached in relation to a given time. Different
translations are called for, according to the type of verb and the structure of
155
the Burmese sentence. In questions ®p^ can be equated to English “yet”, as

in:
• erak\®p^la;" Is he here yet? Has he arrived yet?
• S¨®p^la;" Is it boiling yet? Has it started boiling? The equivalence is limited
to this one sentence structure. In positive answers to such questions,
Burmese can use ®p^ but English can’t use “yet”:
• erak\®p^" He is here (now). He has arrived.
• S¨®p^" It is boiling (now). It has started boiling. In negative answers, English
can use “yet”, but Burmese can’t use ®p^;
• merak\eq;påB¨;" He’s not here yet. He has not arrived yet.
• mSëq;påB¨;" It’s not boiling yet. It has not yet started boiling. For a more
detailed description see Okell 1969 vol 2 p 383.
• Aem ®pn\erak\®p^la;" _ hut\k´.' ®pn\erak\på®p^" Has Mother arrived back yet?
— Yes, she has.
• Tmc\; k¥k\®p^la;" _ mk¥k\eq;påB¨;" Is the rice cooked yet? — No, not yet.
• sa er;®p^;®p^^la;" _ er; m®p^;eq;påB¨;" Have you written the letter? — I
haven’t finished writing it yet.
• Aqk\ By\elak\ ‰˙ip^l´" _ quM;Sy\.cå;N˙s\ ‰˙ip^" How old is he (now)? — He is
35 years old (now).
• el;nar^ Tui;“p^la;" _ hut\k´.' el;nar^ ‰˙ipå“p^" Is it four o’clock yet? — Yes, it
is four o’clock (now).
• miu; R∑aenpå“p^" It is raining (now: implying that it was not raining before;
contrast miu; R∑aenpåty\ “It is raining”, where there is no reference to the
preceding situation).
• Atn\cy\ em˙ac\la“p^ ®Ps\q®Pc\. Aip\raeKåc\;rc\;m˙ m^;Klut\kiu sm\;j P∑c\.liuk\qv\"
Since it had become quite dark he felt for the light switch at the head of
the bed and put it on.
• As\kiueAac\tiu≥f Aim\eTac\qk\ cå;N˙s\Kn\≥ ‰˙i“p^ ®Ps\eqa\lv\; mr^;®Ps\q¨N˙c\.
ts\KåmY ska;lk\SMu mk¥P¨;eq;ep" Although his brother Aung (and his
wife) had been married for about five years now he had never once yet had
a good chat with his sister-in-law.
• Pm\;Ta;q¨m¥a; l∑t\Âk“p^la;" Are the arrested persons free now? Have the
detainees been freed yet?
• bmaska; eta\eta\ tt\lapêna\" You’ve (already) learned quite a lot of
Burmese, haven’t you?
• kel;cy\ ‰˙s\Ë; Aip\enÂks√\ (puM 1m˙a) As∑n\SuM; ts\Ë;k scuiqv\" dutiypuMt∑c\
quM;Ë; cui®p^" Eight babies are sleeping (in a strip cartoon). In picture 1 the
156
baby at the end starts to cry. In the second picture three of them are
crying.
• 49KuN˙s\tun\;k l∑t\lp\er; r®p^" We already had Independence in ’49.
• tv\.tv\. q∑a;på' Aim\el;cå;luM;elak\ ek¥a\rc\ erak\®p^" Go straight ahead.
When you have passed 4 or 5 houses you’re there (you will have arrived).
• q∑a;“p^" Aiu;T´m˙ ASÂN˙s\kel;m¥a;kiu ®Ks\y¨K´.qmYeta. kun\®p^" That had done it!
All the gravy juices that she had scraped up from the cooking pot were
gone (leaked away out of her overturned lunch box).
Note that there may be differences between V-®p^ with and without certain
verb modifiers:
• Aim\erac\;®p^la;" Have you started selling your house yet? Is your house on
the market? vs Aim\ erac\;liuk\®p^la;" Have you sold off your house yet? Is
your house now sold?
Negative mV-“p^ occurs rarely in CB but is used in FB, where it is the equiva-
lent of CB mVeta.B¨; no longer V:
• A®Ka;nv\; m‰˙i“p^ or A®Ka;nv\; m‰˙ieta.®p^ or A®Ka;nv\; m‰˙ieta.på" There was no
other way.
• cå me®palui®p^" I don’t want to tell you any more, to continue the story.
• yKueta. AemAa;kiu;ra AePqv\lv\; m‰˙ieta.®p^" But now her father, who
had been such a support to her mother, was no longer alive.
“p^;- 1 (V~-) (a) to finish, to complete V-ing; vb mod, CB+FB; in CB
usually pron and sts written p^;' the main verb may optionally be followed by
liu≥ in CB or j in FB; the duration and then the completion of the activity is
the focus of interest; negative form usually V-m~; pron without voicing;
• cå≥ saAup\ Pt\ (liu≥) ®p^;®p^la;" _ hut\k´.' (Pt\)®p^;på®p^" Have you finished
reading my book? — Yes, I have.
• mnk\Pn\ k¥m˙ Pt\(liu≥) ®p^;my\" I won’t finish reading it till tomorrow.
• TuisaAup\kiu Pt\j®p^;m˙ ÈsaAup\ Sk\Pt\på" Go on to read this book only when
you have finished reading that one.
• piuk\SM eta\eta\ m¥a;m¥a; ‰˙ip^;t´.AKåm˙am˙" Only when I have got (finished
getting) a fair amount of money.
(b) to have V-ed, have already V-ed; at end of sentence; mostly in pattern
V-®p^;“p^; rarely preceded by optional liu≥ or j; the prior occurrence of the event
is the focus of interest;
• kiu;nar^ Tiu;“p^;på“p^" Nine o’clock has struck. It is after nine o’clock.
• A´d^ka; Âkv\.®p^;®p^la;" _ Âkv\.®p^;på®p^ or mÂkv\.req;påB¨;" Have you seen that
film (yet)? — Yes, I have or No, I haven’t.
• Tmc\; sa;p^;p^la;" _ msa;req;påB¨;" Have you eaten yet? — No, not yet.
157
• Aim\®pn\erak\®p^;t´.AKå" After they had got back home.

(c) emphasising prior occurrence of V; mid sentence, followed by a
subordinate clause marker etc meaning “when, after” etc, the combination
often being close in function to V-®p^; subordinate clause marker qv;
• Ak¥Ç Ap\®p^;eqaAKå eA;misMqv\ … q¨≥enraqiu≥ ®pn\laK´.elqv\" After she
had handed over the eingyi AMS went back to her place.
• SuM;RMO;®p^;t´.AKå l∑t\lp\er; Ba®Ps\lui≥ ®pn\rK´.ql´" After having lost our
independence, why was it that we regained it?
• ka;epÅk Sc\;“p^;lYc\ ek¥ac\;T´qiu≥ wc\qv\ FB = CB ka;epÅk Sc\;“p^;rc\
ek¥ac\;T´ wc\ty\ or CB ka;epÅk Sc\;“p^;eta. ek¥ac\;T´ wc\ty\" When they
had got off the bus they went into the school. Note the difference between
V-“p^;eta. in this use (= FB V-“p^;lYc\) and its use with pre-verbs (= FB V-j):
see under “p^; 2 “after V-ing”;
• wiuc\;j Pm\;S^;Âk®p^;eqa\ Burc\Âk^;f e‰˙>eta\qiu≥ q∑c\;liuk\Âkelf" They
surrounded and captured him and presented him to the king.
• ÈAmin\≥kiu Tut\®p^;j BamY mÂkaeq;Kc\" Shortly after having issued the
order.
• vsa sa;“p^;enak\ q¨tiu≥ ska; e®paenÂkqv\" That day after having eaten
supper, they stayed talking.
• pc\sc\y¨®p^;m˙ eA;eA;eS;eS; enmv\hu sit\k¨;‰˙iqv\" He was planning to live
an easy life after retiring.
• Ku Puituistk\ lup\®p^;®p^;K¥c\; ®pn\pui≥" Send it back to me as soon as you’ve made
the photostat.
• ss\®mc\;®PøÂk^;kiu s^;®p^;ka … trÂkm\; wc\j tiuk\elf" Riding a great white
warhorse, he launched a furious attack.
• lk\Tp\“p^;s q¨tiu≥ mN †el;m˙a q∑a;enqv\" They went to live in Mandalay
soon after they married.
®p^; 2 and ®p^;eta. (V~) after V-ing, having V-ed, V1 and then V2, V1 and
V2; sub cls mkr, mainly CB; cf FB ka' ra' l¥k\' j; in CB usually pron and
sts written p^;' not with negated verbs, but see m-V-B´; V1 usually has the
same subject as V2, but not invariably;
• nar^ eqa. ep;®p^; sa;p∑épÅ tc\Ta;ty\" After winding up the clock he put it
on the table.
• enha Ae‰˙>k T∑k\®p^;eta. Aenak\kiu wc\ty\" The sun rises in the east and
sets in the west.
• Bura;P¨;et∑ zrp\m˙a eKt† na;®p^;eta. Bura;S^kiu Kr^;Sk\Âkty\" The pilgrims
rested in the zayat for a while and then continued their journey towards
the pagoda.
158
• By\AK¥in\ktv\;k Tiuc\“p^; na;eTac\enqv\ mqi" He didn’t know from what

time they had been sitting and listening (to his conversation).
• K¥s\Kc\Âkc\na®p^; tv\Âkv\t´.sit\Ta;" An attitude of affection and stability.
• epåc\mun\≥ha n^®p^; Âk∑p\enmy\" The bread will be red and crisp.
• Arc\SuM; ®p^;®p^; m˙n\q¨kui {Al∑n\≥Al∑n\ ekac\;qv\}hu … m˙t\K¥k\ ep;f" The
pupil who finished first and had the correct answer was awarded the
comment “Excellent”.
With different subjects:
• edÅeA;eA;eRWk mN †el;SraAtt\qc\qipπMkui qmuic\;@anmØ;A®Ps\ e®pac\;r®p^;
k¥mk mN †el;tk˚quil\ Agçlip\sa@ankui nv\;®pA®Ps\ e®pac\;reta.
edÅeA;eRWn´≥l´ met∑>®Ps\ÂkpåB¨;" Daw AAS has been transferred to the
Teacher Training College in Mandalay, and I have moved to the Dept of
English in Mandalay University, so we don’t see each other.
• AB AÂkMts\Ku r®p^" qm^; rv\R∑y\K¥k\l´ e®mak\®p^; ABl´ sit\K¥m\;qam´. nv\;"
I’ve thought of a plan. It’s a scheme that will enable you to do what you
want and will give me peace of mind.
Pre-verbs often take ®p^; or its variant ®p^;eta. in CB, corresponding in this
environment to FB j;
• AT´ wc\Âkv\.ty\ = AT´ wc\®p^; Âkv\.ty\ = AT´ wc\®p^;eta. Âkv\.ty\ =
AT´ wc\j Âkv\.qv\" He went in and looked.
• d^ha piu’kik\påty\ = piu®p^; ’kik\påty\ = piu®p^^;eta. ’kik\påty\ = puij ’kik\på
qv\" I like this one more.
“p^; 3 and “p^;qa; (V~ N) already V-ed; vb atrb mkr, CB+FB; in CB usually
pron and sts written p^;(qa;); usually in the pattern V~ N (or V~eqa N) or V~
®Ps\-;
• T∑n\“p^;' qmn\r“p^; ly\m¥a;t∑c\ p¥oi; siuk\qv\" They plant seedlings in the fields
which are already ploughed and with a tilth.
• k¥k\®p^;qa; Tmc\; ‰˙ity\eh." There is some rice already cooked.
• kÁn\mketa. lk\m˙t\ wy\®p^;qa;(l¨)på" But I have (am one who has) already
bought my tickets.
• Tut\®p^;qa;haet∑eta. ®pn\mTv\.n´≥eta." But don’t put back (the ones) you
have already taken out.
• d^miukersêtac\;Siu SN∂®pmOAer;AKc\;t∑c\ AK¥oi> påwc\eSac\R∑k\K´.Âk“p^; ®Ps\påqv\"
Some (are people who) have taken part in the pro-democracy
demonstrations.
• mimilk\T´m˙a saer;q¨m¥a;r´. qeBat¨v^K¥k\ lk\m˙t\m¥a; ‰˙iTa;®p^; ®Ps\eÂkac\;
qi‰˙ir®p^;" We learned that he already held in his hand the signed agreement
made with the writers.
159
• q¨tiu≥ qiN˙c\.“p^; ®Ps\epeta.mv\" They will already have learnt about, be aware
of this.
• Alup\ts\wk\ ®p^;®p^;qa; ®Ps\qv\" Half the job is already done.
• qk\eqqaDk ‰˙iN˙c\.®p^;qa;eqa lYoikelac\Amv\namkisßm¥a;" Instances of
secret pen names for which we already have examples.
• Sraeta\ (kn\eta\el; Suit´.) namv\ eR∑;ep;t´. AK¥in\m˙a {kn\eta\Âk^;} Suita
‰˙ien®p^;qa;la;" _ ‰˙ipåty\" ‰˙ien®p^;qa; ®Ps\påty\" When the Sayadaw gave
it the name “Small pool” was there already a “Large pool”? — Yes, there
was. It already existed.
“p^; 4 in pattern ts\-N~ ts\-N one N after another; CB+FB; truncated
sub cls, from ®p^;lYc\ etc; in CB usually pron and sts written p^;'
• rn\q¨tiu≥kiu ts\tp\“p^; ts\tp\ p¥k\eAac\ tiuk\Kiuk\K¥^tk\q∑a;qv\" They
advanced attacking till one enemy unit after another was destroyed.
• ts\Ku®p^; ts\Ku" Bit by bit.
®p^; 5 see under ®p^;eta. and then
A®p^; (V~) on completion of V, after V; loc nn, CB+FB; in CB usually pron
and sts written Ap^;'
• kÁn\eta\qv\ Alup\qc\Srawn\A®Ps\ tawn\Tm\;eSac\A®p^;t∑c\ R∑akui
®pn\erak\qv\" After having worked as a trainee doctor I got back to my
village.
• A´dên≥ et∑>A®p^; ts\pt\Kn\≥AÂkam˙a" About a week after I had met him on
that day.
• buil\K¥op\Âk^;N˙c\.AP∑´>qv\ tp\meta\qa;m¥a;kui et∑>SuMAa;ep;A®p^;
Aenak\e®mak\puic\;qui≥ q∑a;eÂkac\; qi‰˙irepqv\" We learned that after the
General and his entourage had met and encouraged the soldiers, they
went on to the NW area.
®p^;eta. and variants ®p^;' ®p^;lYc\' ®p^;rc\' ®p^;m˙ etc (~ Stc) and then,
subsequently, afterwards; in addition, moreover; sub cls, CB+FB;
compare V-®p^;eta. “V and then” sv ®p^; 2; in CB usually pron and sts written
p^;eta.;
• ®p^;eta. Ba®Ps\l´" What happened then?
• qv\en≥ ®mNuN˙c\. met∑≥req;qv\kiu qtirka Tmc\;kiu kmn\;ktn\; sa;liuk\qv\"
®p^;eta. ®mNutiu≥Aim\Bk\qiu≥ k¨;laK´.elqv\" Remembering that he hadn’t yet
seen MN today, he ate his meal in a hurry. Then he set off towards MN’s
house.
• eA;®cim\;Tk\ ts\N˙s\qa cy\eqa\lv\; ®mNuk eq;ek∑;l∑n\;j eA;®cim\;klv\;
P∑M>T∑a;j quM;el;N˙s\cy\hn\ Tc\rqv\" ®p^;eta. ®mNuqv\ A®m´tm\; kpiukRiu
entt\qv\" Although MN was only a year younger than EN, as MN was so
160
slight, and EN was so big and strong, you took her for a good three years
younger. On top of that, MN always looked untidy.
• Kr^;keta. eTak\f" ®p^; ATm\;N˙c\. erac\;eqa ekac\el;et∑klv\;
epål˙epra…" It was slow journey. On top of that there were crowds of
boys lugging around goods for sale.
• mc\; r∑akiu K%®pn\K¥c\rc\ ®pn\på" ®p^;rc\ ®pn\laK´.epå." If you want to go back to
your village for while, go. Afterwards come back here.
• qa;erAit\Âk^;kiu sa;p´∑epÅ ps\tc\liuk\f" ®p^;lYc\ pk\lk\kula;Tiuc\ ‰˙iraqiu≥
q∑a;ka Tiuc\K¥liuk\qv\" She flung her bag on the table. Then she went
over to the easy chair and sat down.
• meN∑k ®Kc\;kiu S´∑ka Bt\s\ka;epÅ q∑k\q∑k\lk\lk\ tk\qv\kiu AM.Âqs∑a
Âkv\.eneq;qv\" ®p^;m˙ Bt\s\ka; e®Knc\;KMukiu t∑y\tk\rc\; liuk\pålaqv\" Ma
N watched her in amazement as she nimbly boarded the bus, carrying her
basket. Then she too climbed onto the platform and was carried along.
®p^;m˙ see under ®p^;eta. and then, and ®p^; 1 after V-ing
®p^;yc\ see under ®p^;eta. and then, and ®p^; 1 after V-ing
®p^;rc\ see under ®p^;eta. and then, and ®p^; 1 after V-ing
®p^;rc\; (V~ V) V more than before, V increasingly; sub cls mkr, CB+FB; in
CB usually pron and sts written p^;rc\;'
• d^lui tBk\k ‰˙i“p^;rc\; pui“p^;‰˙irc\; tBk\kl´ m‰˙it´.q¨k m‰˙i®p^;rc\; pui®p^;m‰˙irc\;
Suirc\ l¨Tum®cim\qk\mOet∑k ®Ps\kui ®Ps\m˙ap´" In this way, if the haves acquire
more and more, and the have-nots have less and less, there are bound to
be outbreaks of disorder.
• d^luip´ lup\enrc\ mtra;mOet∑k ®Ps\®p^;rc\; ®Ps\m˙ap´" If they continue down this
road there will be more injustice than there is now.
• tépÅk lët∑ tuik\epÅ erak\®p^;rc\; erak\enÂk®p^ ®Ps\f" More and more
people are moving from shacks to brick buildings.
®p^;lYc\ see under ®p^;eta. and then, and ®p^; 1 after V-ing
“p^;qa; see under “p^; 3 already
‘p- (V~-) and so on, and suchlike; used after another verb to broaden the
meaning to include similar types of action; vb mod, CB+FB; cf V+rhyme k\;
• NOik\N˙k\sm\;‘pÂkv\.elqv\" He rummaged and felt around (looking for
something in a drawerful of clothes).
• eS;psßv\; tc\‘pTa;qv\. sa;p∑´" The table on which he laid (and handled) his
medical supplies.
• m¥k\es. P∑c\.Âkv\.®Kc\; ‘p®Kc\; m‰˙ieta.ep" She no longer opened (or moved) her
eyes.
161
• qa;ry\' meta\tS l´‘p®p^; k¥oi;p´.q∑a;m˙®Pc\." My son: just suppose you fell over
or something and broke an arm or a leg?
• s^;krk\Aeqak\A‘p" Smoking (and using) cigarettes.
• Pun\;AquM;A‘p nv\;epqv\" They made little use of the telephone.
e®p;- (~V-) to run and V, go swiftly and V, V suddenly; comm pre-vb,
CB+FB; from verb e®p;- to run;
• lamy\.eB; e®p;et∑>wM.t´. qt†im¥oi;" The kind of courage that speeds forward to
meet a threat.
• ®ma;tMqv\ el;’ki;m˙ e®p;T∑k\q∑a;“p^;" The arrow sped from the bowstring.
• kÁn\eta\.m¥k\es.T´t∑c\ … l˙v\;emac\;qma;N˙c\. N∑a;l˙v\;kui e®p;®mc\mielqv\" In
my mind’s eye I suddenly saw the cart driver and his cart.
• cy\cy\k Butlc\An^;‰˙i t∑c\;etac\R∑aqui≥ Alv\q∑a;qv\kui e®p;qtirmielqv\"
I suddenly remembered childhood visits to TT village near Budalin.
®pc\ 1 or A®pc\ (N~, VA~) outside; besides, as well as, in addition to; loc
nn, CB+FB; cf FB Ap; opp AT´' At∑c\; inside;
• ‘mi>®pc\m˙a enK¥c\påty\" I want to live outside the town.
• p∑´RuMA®pc\ken Âkv\.Âkty\" They watched from outside the theatre tent.
• dÂ®pc\ (di®pc\) Ba wy\sra ‰˙ieq;ql´" What else (besides this) have you to
buy?
• di®pc\lët∑kiu gRu msiuk\pån´≥" Don’t pay attention to other people.
• då.A®pc\ ®pœnats\Ku epÅlaeq;ty\" As well as that another problem arose.
• q¨≥A®pc\ lup\Niuc\qv\.l¨ m‰˙ipå" There is no one besides him who can do it.
• qn\;eKåc\A®pc\ v√\≥ mnk\" The night is never darker than at midnight.
• kiurc\wt\n´≥ ®pn\laeleta. mN˙k\rt´.A®pc\ kiuy\eta\®mt\kiu S∑m\;eta\etac\
kp\liuk\req;qk∑" But when he came back all clad in the robes of a
novice, not only could I not give him a beating (as I planned), but I had to
present the noble fellow with his food!
®pc\ 2 or A®pc\ (N~) surface; open space, expanse; comm elem cpd nn,
CB+FB;
• e®mm¥k\N˙a®pc\ face of the earth; pc\ly\®pc\ open sea; kun\;®pc\®mc\. plateau;
Aip\raA®pc\Ò Aip\esqv\" Caused her to sleep upon a bed (nissaya).
®pn\- 1 or ®pn\lv\- (~V-) to return to, resume V-ing; V over again, re-V;
V back, V in return; comm pre-vb, CB+FB; cf Tp\-' Sc\.-; from verb ®pn\- to
return; pron /p¥n\ly\/;
• Atn\; ®pn\tk\enÂkrty\" They had to attend class again.
• rp\raken ®pn\Tuic\luik\ty\" He sat down again from his upright position.
• ®pn\e®papåAuM;" Please say that again.
• By\tun\;k ®pn\erak\ql´" When did you get back here?
162
• Aem e®paqv\.puMkiu kÁn\mqm^;kiu ®pn\lv\je®pa®pqv\" I retold to my daughter

the story told by my mother.
• AeÂk∑ ®pn\Am\;på" Please give me change.
• l¨Âk^;kiu ®pn\me®pan´≥" Don’t answer back to your elders!
• rn\q¨qv\ ®pn\lv\j tiuk\Kiuk\f" FB = CB rn\q¨ ®pn\tiuk\ty\" The enemy
counter-attacked.
Frequent in Burmese equivalents for English words that use “re-”:
• ®pn\lv\tv\eSak\er; reconstruction, ®pn\lv\TëTac\er; rehabilitation,
®pn\lv\P∑c\.l˙s\®Kc\; re-opening, ®pn\lv\‰˙c\qn\er; re-awakening, etc.
®pn\- 2 (V~-) go back to, resume V-ing, V again; V in turn (of one action
following upon another; often used when narrating a series of events); vb
mod, CB+FB; meaning partly overlaps ®pn\- pre-verb;
• miu; R∑aen®pn\®p^" It’s started raining again.
• la®pn\®p^" There he goes again! (e.g. starting a familiar argument).
• e®paÂk®pn\elf" They repeated it.
• pc\pc\pn\;pn\;n´≥ ®pn\tp\®p^;t´.AKå eltiuk\liu≥ ‘pt\k¥®pn\påelera" After I had
gone to great trouble to fix it up again the wind blew and down it came
again.
• mam^ eKåc\;m¨;®pn\pla;" Are you having another bout of giddiness, Mummy?
®pn\ 3 (N~) one who has returned from N, has been to N; comm elem cpd
nn, CB+FB;
• tRut\®pn\ one returned from (who has been to) China; ss\®pn\ one returned
from the battlefront.
®pn\e®pac\;- (~V-) to V over again, to re-run, work through V-ing; comm
pre-vb, CB+FB;
• q¨cy\K¥c\;m¥a;N˙c\.At¨ Aa‰˙etac\puic\;k tuic\;®pv\m¥a;qui≥ q∑a;Âkmv\ sit\k¨;Âkqv\
h¨j ®pn\e®pac\;qtirqv\" He recalled how he had planned to go with his
friends to visit the countries of South Asia.
• sit\duk erak\Âkrqv\hu ®pn\e®pac\;e®pa®pqv\" He recounted how sad they
had felt.
• emac\sM‰˙a;qv\ &c\;fe‰˙>tv\.tv\.m˙ rp\l¥k\ eAak\påA®Ps\Ap¥k\m¥a;kiu
®pn\e®pac\;e®paSiuelf" Maung SS stood directly in front of him and related
the following events.
P formerly B (N~) male, father; nn mod, CB+FB; cf PKc\ father; miB parents;
AB father; cf Pui male, m female;
• eyak\P brother-in-law; Âkk\P cockerel; em∑;P begetter, father.
Pi- formerly Bi (~V-) to V very much, a lot; comm pre-vb, CB; cf qip\-'
ty\-' nc\;-' t∑n\;-' lWt\-; from verb Pi- to press down;
163
• eS;lip\ Pieqak\ty\" He was smoking a great deal.

• A´d^Siuc\m˙a Pietac\;ty\" They ask tremendously high prices at that shop.
• sit\vs\liu≥ Alup\kiu Pilup\ty\" Because he is so miserable he’s working like
mad.
• eS;qa Pisa;enliu≥ m®Ps\B¨;' Aa;ksa;l´ lup\AuM;" You can’t just take vast
amounts of medicine. Do some sports as well.
P¨;- 1 formerly B¨; (V~-) to have V-d before, have experience of V-ing, have
ever V-ed; vb mod, CB+FB;
• bma®pv\ erak\P¨;qla;" _ ts\Kåm˙ merak\P¨;B¨;" Have you ever been to
Burma? — No, never.
• m^;rTa; ts\KåmY ms^;P¨;eK¥" He had never ridden in a train before.
• ÈkisßN˙c\. pt\qk\j ts\KåmY mer;K´.P¨;på" I have never before written
concerning this matter, on this topic.
• q¨qv\ erns\P¨;q®Pc\. ernk\T´qiu≥ mSc\;eta." As he had once nearly drowned
(been submerged) he no longer went into deep water.
• Ark\®Pø eqak\Âkv\.P¨;K¥c\ty\" He wants to have tried drinking rice spirit —
wants to have had a taste, had the experience.
• d^m˙a d^ts\Kåp´ SuMP¨;ty\ena\" This is the first time we have run into each
other like this, isn’t it?
P¨; 2 see under B¨; stc mkr for negative statements
P¨; 3 see under sP¨; as never before
ePa\ formerly eBa\ in the pattern V-ePa\ r- to make the effort to V, care to
V, take the trouble, bother to V; sp hd nn with verb r-, CB+FB;
• cåk Pinp\Suic\ q∑a;lv\Kuik\m˙a q¨≥As\m' q¨≥Aem' q¨≥Am¥oi; ts\eyak\eyak\
‰˙ien®p^ Suirc\ NOtS
\ k\ePa\ mr' Tuic\påAuM;la; e®paePa\ mr' AëÂkac\eÂkac\
ecåc\;sc\;sc\; ®Ps\repåc\; m¥a;K´.®p^" When I went to the shoe shop, if her sister
or mother or some relative were there, she never bothered to say Hallo, or
to say Do sit down. Time and again I’ve just been left standing there like
an idiot.
• Aim\k emac\v^met∑k Baqtc\;m˙ er;eBa\ mrpå" My brothers and sisters
back home never take the trouble to send me any news.
• meN∑kiu qieqa ek¥a\q¨≥ q¨cy\K¥c\; ts\eyak\k lk\Pk\rv\Siuc\e‰˙>m˙a
eyac\K¥aK¥a ®Ps\eneqa meN∑kiu laem;ePa\rj eta\påeq;qv\" Ma Nwe was
feeling lost in front of the café, when fortunately one of Kyaw Thu’s friends
who knew her was kind enough to come and talk to her.
• Âkv\.' d^PeAÂk^;ha qa;qm^;kiu ts\K¥k\kel;m˙ hn\≥ta;ePa\mrB¨;" Look at
that! This old father can’t be bothered to control his children in any way.
164
• Bap´®Ps\®Ps\ kÁn\mfsit\ Ae®pac\;Al´ ®Ps\q∑a;eAac\ saer;ePa\reqa muiK¥y\kiu

ek¥;z¨;tc\påqv\" Anyway, I was grateful to Moche who had been good
enough to write and help me change my mind.
Pui or APui formerly (A)Bui (N~) male N; one of a pair of opposites; nn mod,
CB+FB; cf P male, m female;
• edåc\;Piu peacock, cf edåc\;m peahen; dry\Pui male deer; Tn\;Pui male palm tree;
wt\SMPui stamen; Dat\Pui-Dat\m positive and negative electrical charges;
ska;Pui-ska;m compound word of which one member is formed artificially
to accompany the other.
Pui≥ 1 or APui≥ formerly (A)Bui≥ (N~, N1~ N2) for, intended for, for the sake of,
as far as concerns; nn mkr and nn atrb mkr, CB+FB;
• As\kiu”k^;qv\ v^cy\Piu≥ Pinp\ts\rn\s^ wy\laqv\" The elder brother bought a
pair of sandals for each of his younger brothers.
• q¨≥Piu≥ hc\; nv\;nv\; K¥n\Ta;på" Leave a little curry for him.
• ek¥ac\; m˙n\m˙n\ tk\q¨tiu≥APiu≥ mv\qv\.samY mKk\på" For those who attend
school regularly no lesson is difficult.
• kÁn\eta\.APiu≥ duk mKMesK¥c\B¨;" I don’t want you to be inconvenienced on my
account.
• q¨tui≥APiu≥ eqer;‰˙c\er;p´ mhut\la;" For them it’s a matter of life and death,
isn’t it?
Pui≥ 2 formerly Bui≥ (V~, V~ N) (a) to V, in order to V, for V-ing; sub cls mkr
and vb atrb mkr, CB+FB; = FB rn\;
• k¨mc\tn\et∑kiu tiuk\Kiuk\Piu≥qa lata" They had only come to fight the KMTs.
• q¨qv\ ec∑ suPiu≥ SuM;®Pt\Ta;el“p^" He had now decided to save some money.
• eqak\Piu≥ er" Water for drinking (cf eqak\er drinking water).
• eÂkac\ Aip\Piu≥ enrakiulv\; q^;qn\≥ Ta;ep;påqv\" And we set aside a special
place for the cat to sleep in.
• Sraeta\k emac\; ‘Pt\Piu≥ e®paty\" The Abbott told me to take the gong
down.
(b) variants Pui≥lui≥' Pui≥At∑k\' Pui≥ra' Pui≥rn\' Pui≥raAt∑k\' Pui≥rn\At∑k\ are all
replaceable by Piu≥, though Piu≥ra and
Piu≥rn\ often have a more noun-like status,
suggesting “the matter of V-ing, something to be V-ed”; cf CB sra (less
formal) and FB B∑y\ra (more formal);
• pugM q∑a;Piu≥liu≥ s^sU\Ta;p^;p^la;" Have you made arrangements to go to Pagan?
• m˙n\kn\påeÂkac\; wn\KMPui≥At∑k\ kÁn\eta\.At∑k\ wn\mel;l˙påB¨;" I had no
problem with admitting that it was true.
• sa;Piu≥At∑k\eta. mp¨rpåB¨;" You need have no worries on the score of eating,
of having enough to eat.
165
• Aim\m˙a sa;Piu≥eqak\Piu≥ra m®pv\.sMurt´.AT´m˙a" As well as not having enough in the

house to eat and drink.
• PC ts\lMu; wy\y¨®Kc\;m˙a qc\ lup\K¥c\qv\. Alup\lup\Piu≥' kel;m¥a; ep¥a\rWc\Piu≥'
k∑n\p¥øtaBk\t∑c\ N˙M≥sp\q¨ts\eyak\ ®Ps\Piu≥ra wy\y¨®Kc\; ®Ps\qv\" Your pur-
chase of a PC is to carry out some work you want to do, to entertain your
children, or to enable you to acquire computer skills.
• qc\ha eZ;wy\Piu≥raAt∑k\ yuznkiu q∑a;ty\ Siupåsiu≥" Let’s suppose you went
to the Yuzana (shopping centre) to do some shopping.
• kÁt\tiu≥klv\; eq∑;sut\Piu≥raAt∑k\ Aqc\.AenATa;m˙a ®pc\Ta;qv\" The
leeches put themselves on the alert to suck our blood.
• tv\;KiuPiu≥rn\ lk\mKMqv\k m¥a;elqv\" Their request to stay the night was
often refused.
• epåc\mun\≥ha n^®p^; Âk∑p\larc\ … Asa eÂka\Piu≥rn\ qc\.ty\" When the piece of
bread goes brown and crisp, then (the oil) is ready for frying.
(c) common patterns: V-Pui≥ lui- to be necessary to V; V-Pui≥ ‰˙i- to
have some V-ing to do; V-Pui≥ ekac\;- to be proper to V, ought to V;
• Awt\l´Piu≥ mliupåB¨;" There’s no need to change your clothes.
• eZ;wy\Piu≥ Am¥a;”k^; ‰˙ieq;ty\" I still have a lot of shopping to do.
• mlaNuic\rc\eta. dui≥kui Aqiep;Pui≥ ekac\;ty\" If she can’t come she should have
let us know.
(d) optionally after a verb followed by certain verb modifiers, namely
l∑y\- elak\- Aa;- Kiuc\;- ekac\;- tn\- Tiuk\- Ap\- qc\.- r´- wM.- qqv;
• q¨tiu≥ lup$Piu≥)Aa;mla; mqiB¨;" I wonder if they’ll be free to do it.
• Awt\elYa\(Pui≥)Kuic\;luik\ty\" She told me to wash the clothes.
• mlup\l∑y\B¨;" lup\Piu≥ ml∑y\B¨;" It is not easy to do.
Pui≥At∑k\' Pui≥ra(At∑k$' Pui≥rn$At∑k$' Pui≥lui≥ see under Piu≥ 2 to V
Pui≥ enenqaqa see under enenqaqa far from
Pui; formerly Bui; (N~) cost of N; worth N, to the value of N, where N is a
price; comm elem cpd nn, CB+FB;
• pn\;K¥^ka;Piu; the cost of the painting; eS;Pui; cost of medicine; K¥c\;cå;k¥p\Pui; five
kyats’ worth of ginger; cå;k¥p\tn\ tMSip\eKåc\; ts\raPui; a hundred kyats’
worth of five kyat stamps.
Pk\ see under Bk\ direction
Pn\ formerly Bn\ sts på (V~ m¥a;-) to V many times, to have frequent
experience of V-ing; sp hd nn with verb m¥a;-, CB+FB;
• eZ;erac\;Pn\ m¥a;eta. eA;misM Aet∑>A’kMtiu;laf" When she had been out
selling a number of times, AMS gained some experience.
166
• l˙MtMm¥a;qv\ Tiu;rPn\ m¥a;j k¥oi;p´.kun\ÂkeqaAKå" When their spears were

chipped and broken by frequent use.
• {Srawn\VWn\Âka;K¥k\Atiuc\; qMu;s´∑på} h¨qv\. satn\;kiu ®mc\et∑>Pn\m¥a;laram˙
ÈwtÊokiu sit\k¨;rpåqv\" It was after seeing the directive “Use according to
your doctor’s directions” many times that I had the idea for writing this
story.
• At¨sa; Atënpåm¥a;eta. vis∑n\;kun\Âkpåerala;" They’d eat together and
spend time together, and then they’d find they were hooked on each
other!
®Pc\. 1 sts ®Pc\.rc\ (Phr~) as for, as regards Phr; stc med phr ptcl, CB; cf CB
eta., FB ka;' fused from ®Ps\-+-rc\ or lYc\ “if it is, if it were”;
• q¨¨≥pn\;K¥^ka;kiu Âkv\.“p^; d^puMga®Pc\. Bura;l¨¨”k^; ®Ps\elak\ty\" d^l¨ha®Pc\.
tky\.kiu qmμaqmt\ ‰˙it´. tra;q¨¨”k^;r´´> UpDip´" Looking at his paintings (you
could say) “As for this one, he could be a founder of a pagoda”, and as for
this person, he looks like a really wise judge.
• då®Pc\. or då®Pc\.rc\" In that case, if that is so.
• kÁn\eta\®Pc\. d^liu mhut\B¨;" As for me, I wasn’t like that.
• ‰˙a®Pc\. m‰˙areq;B¨;" As for looking for it, I haven’t had a chance yet.
• sit\T´m˙a®Pc\. R¨;en®p^liu≥ Tc\påty\" I thought to myself, in my mind, I had
gone mad.
• venesac\;rc\®Pc\. elaknN∂aSip\km\;kp´ pugMenwc\K¥in\kiu
Tp\mMKMsa;m˙t\tm\;tc\ÂkPui≥" In late afternoon (we had decided) to enjoy and
record the Pagan sunset again from the Lawkananda landing place.
• eS;lip\kiueta.®Pc\. q¨¨ meqak\p´ menNiuc\B¨;" As for tobacco, it was impossible
for him not to smoke.
• Kåtiuc\; Ael;K¥in\ s^;t´´. Tc\;RO;eqt†akel;ha AKueta.®Pc\. epå.enty\el" The
little deal box that was usually so heavy was now no weight at all.
• A‰˙c\ m‰˙ieqa el˙kel;kiu®Pc\. s∑´mk\enmi“p^" As for that little ownerless boat, he
coveted it.
®Pc\. 2 (N~) with, by means of (instrument); at the rate of (price); thanks
to, as a result of; in the manner (adverbial); nn mkr, FB; cf N˙c\. FB = CB
n´≥; not voiced; equivalent of Pali instrumentive case in nissaya translation
(Okell 1965 p 200); see also Aen®Pc\. “as” sv Aen and eÂkac\;®Pc\. “that” sv
eÂkac\;' the meaning “with, by means of” is also carried by Aa;®Pc\. qv;
• K´tM®Pc\. er;qv\" They wrote in pencil.
• nP¨;kiu lk\wå;®Pc\. Riuk\liuk\f" He struck his forehead with the palm of his
hand.
• g¥pn\tiu≥ AkÄv^®Pc\." With the help of the Japanese.
• ec∑ts\ra®Pc\. q∑a;epåc\qv\" She went and pawned it for 100 kyats.
167
• mc\;®ps\mc\;d%\kui eÂkak\ln\≥®Kc\;®Pc\. eSak\tv\ramrNuic\elak\eAac\

sit\eK¥ak\K¥a;lamieta.qv\" In fear of the penalties the authorities might
impose, he became so nervous that he almost lost control.
• Tui≥enak\ kiuc\;kiuc\;' kiuc\;kiuc\;®Pc\. elYak\q∑a;elqv\" After that he walked off
bent double.
• AB∑a;Aiuqv\ sit\ROt\eT∑;q∑a;hn\®Pc\. eKåc\;kut\®pn\f" The old lady looked
puzzled and scratched her head.
• enak\®pn\l˙v\.eta.mliu' e‰˙>Sk\l˙m\;rmliu®Pc\. Rut\trk\ Balup\rmv\mqi
®Ps\enhn\ ‰˙iqv\" Undecided as to whether he should turn back or go
ahead, he seemed not to know what he should do.
• qiu≥®Pc\.' Èqiu≥®Pc\.' qv\qiu≥®Pc\.' yc\;qiu≥®Pc\." In this way.
• påtiya'" K∑k\®Pc\." UdkM' erkui" Aahrit∑a' eSac\j" Taking water in (by
means of) the cup (nissaya).
®Pc\. 3 (V-q®Pc\). as, because, as a result of V-ing; sub stc mkr, FB;
• r∑aË;ek¥ac\;Ò lk\‰˙iBun\;eta\”k^; p¥Ml∑n\eta\m¨q®Pc\. r∑aT´´k dkadkamtui≥qv\
mimitui≥ kui;k∑y\sra ek¥ac\;t∑c\ Bun\;”k^; m‰˙iq®Pc\. enak\Tp\
ek¥ac\;Tuic\Sraeta\ts\på; Alui‰˙ij luik\‰˙aÂkelqv\" As the current abbot
of the village monastery had passed away there was no monk in the
monastery the villagers supported, so they looked around for a
replacement.
• Aun\;mOt\K∑k\ ‰˙amet∑>q®Pc\. ezaeKÁ;m¥a;k¥laelqv\" As he couldn’t find the
coconut shell cup he broke out in a cold sweat.
• eqt†ak Tc\Ta;qv\Tk\ el;q®Pc\. Aim\e‰˙>tMta;el;na; merak\m^
eKt†na;liuk\rqv\" As the box was heavier than she thought, she rested a
while before she reached the wall in front of the house.
• enkam¥k\m˙n\Âk^;kiu tp\jTa;q®Pc\. Umμa.m¥k\lMu;m¥a;kiu m®mc\r" Since Ohnma had
put on a pair of sunglasses you couldn’t see her eyes.
®Pc\. 4 (N-q®Pc\). -ly; nn mkr, CB+FB; suffixed to a restricted set of adverbial
expressions;
• AT¨;q®Pc\. especially; sq®Pc\. etcetera; As√\q®Pc\. continuously, all the time;
mtra;q®Pc\. illegally, unreasonably.
®Pc\. 5 see under Aa;®Pc\. 1 by means of, 2 by way of
®Pc\.rc\ see under ®Pc\. 1 as for
®Ps\- 1 (Stc ~) it is Stc, it is a case of Stc; verb, CB+FB; this verb has many
meanings (for a good list see MED sv). It is included here because one of the
characteristics of FB is that it often uses ®Ps\- where the equivalent sentence
in CB does without. See the examples. For the pattern V-luik\qv\ ®Ps\®Kc\;
see under ®Ps\®Kc\; below.
168
• q¨qv\ ek¥ac\;Sra ®Ps\qv\ FB = CB q¨ ek¥ac\;Sra" He is a schoolteacher.

• Èsatn\;qv\ erq∑c\;lup\cn\;AeÂkac\;kiu ePÅ®peqa satn\; ®Ps\påqv\ FB = CB
d^satn\;k erq∑c\;lup\cn\;AeÂkac\;kiu ePÅ®pt´. satn\;på" This paper is a
paper describing irrigation.
• Èka; pTmsit\k¨; ®Ps\f FB = CB dåha pTmsit\k¨;p´" This was the first
(time I had the) idea.
• TiueÂkac\. kÁn\eta\.kiuy\kiu kÁn\eta\ cy\®Pøsaer;Srahu eKÅliuk\r®Kc\; ®Ps\påqv\
FB = CB dåeÂkac\. kÁn\eta\.kiuy\kiu kÁn\eta\ cy\®Pøsaer;Sralui≥
eKÅliuk\rtapå" It is for this reason that I have called myself a “life-long”
writer (writing for over 40 years).
• qiK¥c\liu≥ A´d^liu saer;®Kc\; ®Ps\påty\" It is because I want to know that I am
writing this letter (CB but slightly more formal letter-writing style).
• eS∑;eN∑;p∑´kiu d^zc\Ba 10-rk\en≥ATi ‘plup\mv\ ®Ps\qv\ FB = CB eS∑;eN∑;p∑´kiu
d^zc\Ba 10-rk\en≥ATi ‘plup\m˙apå" (It is the case that) the discussions will
take place until the 10th December.
This use of ®Ps\- is not negatable as it stands. Instead the sentence is
negated by substituting mhut\ “is not true”:
• q¨qv\ ek¥ac\;Sra mhut\ FB = CB q¨ ek¥ac\;Sra mhut\B¨;" He is not a
schoolteacher.
• eS∑;eN∑;p∑´kiu d^zc\BalAT´t∑c\ ‘plup\mv\ mhut\ FB = CB eS∑;eN∑;p∑´kiu
d^zc\BalT´m˙a ‘plup\m˙a mhut\påB¨;" The discussions will not take place in
December.
Examples of FB use of ®Ps\- in attributive and subordinate expressions:
• zn^; ®Ps\qÄa; eKÅliuk\f FB = CB zn^;kiu eKÅliuk\ty\" He called the person
who was his wife, he called his wife.
• Siuk\ka; nc\;Bk\®Ps\q¨ kiuT∑n\; FB = CB Siuk\ka; nc\;Bk\ kiuT∑n\;" His side-
car mate, Ko Htun.
• Am¥oi;qm^;k ka;Am˙t\kiulv\; e®paTa;®p^; ®Ps\f FB = CB Am¥oi;qm^;k
ka;Am˙t\kiul´ e®paTa;®p^;qa;p´" The woman had already told them the
number of the car.
• yc\;kisßN˙c\. pt\qk\j “p^;SuM;q∑a;K´.“p^ ®Ps\j AT¨;e®parn\ mliuAp\eta.på FB = CB
A´d^kisßn´≥ pt\qk\liu≥ ®p^^;SuM;q∑a;K´.®p^miu≥ AT¨;e®paPiu≥ mliueta.påB¨;" As this matter
is finished and done with, there is no further need to make especial men-
tion of it.
• kÁn\eta\ cå;Piu;At∑k\ Sulp\ m¥a;s∑a rmv\ ®Ps\j cå;Piu;Tk\wk\ q¨≥Aa; ep;mv\hu
ktiTa;qv\ FB = CB kÁn\eta\ cå;Piu;At∑k\ Sulp\ m¥a;m¥a; rm˙amiu≥
cå;Piu;Tk\wk\ q¨≥kiu ep;my\liu≥ ktiTa;ty\" As (“it was that”) I would gain a
big reward for the value of the fish, I promised to give him half.
169
• nMnk\ 8-narÂK¥in\t∑c\ ek¥ac\;qa;Aa;luM; erak\‰˙i®p^ ®Ps\q®Pc\. Bt\ska;

quM;s^;®Pc\. T∑k\laK´.påqv\ FB = CB mnk\ 8-nar^Mm˙a ek¥ac\;qa;Aa;luM;
erak\®p^miu≥ Bt\ska;quM;s^;n´≥ T∑k\laK´.påty\" At eight in the morning, since
all the students had arrived by then, we set out in three buses.
• Kr^;qv\m˙a susuepåc\; 6-eyak\ ®Ps\qv\" The passengers (who wanted the
taxi) were six persons in all.
®Ps\- 2 (V~-) (a) to be practicable to V, manage to V, V-ing comes about;
vb mod, CB+FB;
• ts\lluM; Alup\ ROp\enj samer;®Ps\K´.på" I haven’t managed to write as I have
been busy the whole month.
• s^mMqv\.Atiuc\; mlup\®Ps\K´.eK¥" It didn’t actually work out as planned.
• d^zc\Ba 24-rk\en≥vm˙a p¥U\;mna;‘mi>m˙a ehae®parpåty\" ts\®pv\luM;m˙a
A´d^saepehae®pap∑´ ts\Kup´ lup\®Ps\påty\" On December 24th in the evening I
spoke in Pyinmana. This literary lecture was the only one that was
actually held (this year) in the whole country.
• Dåt\S^n´≥m˙ m^;lYoi>®Ps\my\" You won’t be able to set fire to it unless you use
petrol.
• la®Ps\eAac\ laK´.på" Make sure you come, don’t fail to come.
(b) used redundantly in some contexts, perhaps for stylistic effect:
• SraSramm¥a;f estnakui … m¥k\N˙aepÅm˙a Pt\rlui≥ rK´.q®Pc\. … Âkv\N¨;
en®Ps\påqv\" The goodwill of the teachers was plain to see on their faces,
and I felt moved by it.
• Arc\;T´m˙ rOM;®Ps\Âkeleta.f" They lost some of their capital.
• huien≥ ®mwt^k lWc\.Nui;Nui; qv\en≥ ®mwt^k lWc\.Nui;Nui;n´≥ kÁn\eta\ na;s∑c\.en®Ps\ty\"
Thinking that Myawadi might start broadcasting any day now I kept my
ear to the ground.
• huit∑´qv\t∑´ elYak\Âkv\.en®Ps\qv\" I wandered from carriage to carriage (to
see what people were saying about the new train).
• t^b∑^m˙a ®peta. Âkv\.luik\®Ps\qv\" I saw the film when they showed it on TV.
• dåeÂkac\. kÁn\eta\lv\; tv\.tv\.p´ em;luik\®Ps\ty\" That’s why I put the
question straight out.
• pug©likP∑M>‘Pi;mOqv\ … Ak¥oi;myut\tn\rahu et∑;®Ps\K´.qv\" Private enterprise
should not be so unsatisfactory, I thought to myself.
A®Ps\ (N~) as, in the status of, with the position of; nn mkr, CB+FB;
often A®Ps\n´≥ CB = FB A®Ps\N˙c\.' A®Ps\®Pc\.; cf Aenn´≥;
• ‘mi>wn\A®Ps\ Kn\≥Ap\®Kc\; KMrqv\" He was appointed as myo-wun (governor of
the town).
• Bura;A®Ps\ em∑;P∑a;rn\ AK¥in\ tn\®p^" It is time for me to born as a Buddha.
170
• Agçlip\saSraA®Ps\ Alup\elYak\my\" He’s going to apply for a post as a

teacher of English.
• qm^;k Ap¥oimg©zc\;m˙a ema\dy$l$A®Ps\ stc\påwc\K´.påty\ Ë;"
mg©zc\;m¥k\\N˙aPuM;‰˙c\A®Ps\n´≥ påwc\K´.“p^; t^b∑êÂka\®caqRup\eSac\lv\; lup\P¨;K´.påty\"
My first appearance was as a model in Apyo magazine. Then I was a
cover girl in a magazine, and I have acted in TV commercials.
• emac\Kuic\mar´. kb¥aet∑kui suic\;T^;Suic\k q^K¥c\;A®Ps\n´≥ q^Suimy\" STS is to sing as
songs some poems by Maung KM.
®Ps\®Kc\; in pattern V-luik\t´. ®Ps\®Kc\; CB = FB V-luik\qv\. ®Ps\®Kc\;' V-luik\qv\
®Ps\®Kc\;' V-luik\mv\. ®Ps\®Kc\; etc exclamatory and emphatic; unclassi-
fied expression;
• K¥m\;luik\qv\ ®Ps\®Kc\;" em;kui Kuik\Kuik\ tun\enf" It was really cold. Even my
jaw was chattering.
• AÂkv\.r Siu;liuk\t´. ®Ps\®Kc\;Kc\b¥a" me®papån´≥eta." She was horrendous to
behold. Please don’t talk about it.
• qv\rh¨d^kl´ Kc\b¥a; pin\liuk\t´. ®Ps\®Kc\;" ARiu;K¥v\; ‰˙iraeta.taB´" This Jew
was as emaciated as could be. He was nothing but bones.
• hiuerak\eta. eAac\my\ ®mc\mekac\;påB¨; emac\ry\" m¥k\sitBk\lp\et∑
laliuk\Âkt´. ®Ps\®Kc\;" When we got there … My Goodness, what a horrific
sight. One eyed men had come in droves.
• m˙k\et∑klv\; epåliuk\qv\. ®Ps\®Kc\;" There was a positive plague of gnats.
• Aim\k kel;et∑ sa;luik\mv\. ®Ps\®Kc\;" How the children back at home would
wolf down (the leavings of the diners in the restaurant).
®Ps\es 1 FB = CB ®Ps\®Ps\ (N1~ N2~ or Stc1~ Stc2~) whether it be N1 or N2,
whether Stc1 or Stc2; parallel subordinate clauses;
• zat\ ®Ps\®Ps\' A®cim\. ®Ps\®Ps\ p∑´ts\KuKueta. c˙a;Piu≥ ekac\;ty\" You ought to hire
some kind of a show, whether it be a zat or an anyeint.
• min\;m ®Ps\es' eyak\¥a; ®Ps\es l¨ts\eyak\eyak\kiu eKÅq∑a;rmv\" You must
take someone with you, whether a man or a woman.
• Aim\T´m˙ zn^;fAqM ®Ps\®Ps\' qa;qm^;ts\eyak\eyak\fAqM ®Ps\®Ps\
mÂka;req;på" He had not yet heard any voices from the house, whether
his wife’s or his children’s.
• teyaqMp´ ®Ps\®Ps\' sN∂ra;qMp´ ®Ps\®Ps\' esac\;qMp´ ®Ps\®Ps\' gs\taqMp´ ®Ps\®Ps\
lët∑r´. tc\;k¥p\pit\el˙ac\Pis^;ent´. sit\eqakkui K¥op\“cim\;estap´" Whether it
be the sound of a violin, or a piano, or a harp, or a guitar, it cures the
unhappiness that oppresses and confines us.
• q¨ laqv\ ®Ps\es' mlaqv\ ®Ps\es kÁn\eta\ erak\eAac\ lamv\" Whether
he comes or not, I will be there. Sentences like the preceding can also be
171
expressed using repetition (mainly in CB): q¨ lala mlala kÁn\eta\

erak\eAac\ lamy\"
• miu;R∑aqv\ ®Ps\es' enp¨qv\ ®Ps\es q¨ sk\B^; s^;q∑a;el. ‰˙iqv\" Rain or shine,
whatever the weather, he usually goes off on his bicycle (cf CB = miu;R∑aR∑a'
enp¨p¨ q¨ sk\B^; s^;q∑a;el. ‰˙ity\").
• saer;Sraet∑ Suilui≥‰˙irc\ saer;Sraet∑ ‰˙ieta.qv\ ®Ps\es' m‰˙ieta.qv\ ®Ps\es'
q¨tui≥r´. Aer;Aqa;et∑ha k¥n\K´.m˙ap´" In the case of writers, whether they are
still alive or have passed away, their writings will remain with us.
®Ps\es 2 FB = CB ®Ps\®Ps\ (interrogative N+ ~) however, whatever, when-
ever etc; sub cls, CB+FB; CB also uses repeated verb in place of ®Ps\®Ps\;
• mv\mYpc\ ’ki;sa;mv\ ®Ps\es raT¨;tiu;mv\ mhut\ FB = CB By\elak\p´
’ki;sa;’ki;sa; raT¨;tiu;m˙a mhutB
\ ¨;" However hard he tries, he won’t be
promoted.
• By\q¨p´ ®Ps\®Ps\' etac\q¨ly\qma;Âk^;et∑p´ ®Ps\®Ps\' es¥;erac\;t´. es¥;qv\et∑p´
®Ps\®Ps\ Aa;lMu;ha tra;mYtmOkui luila;tap´" Whoever people may be,
whether they are farmers or traders, they all want justice.
• qv\sakiu By\q¨B´ er;qv\ ®Ps\es Biu;m˙^n´≥ qv\AK¥in\ qv\nar^m˙a et∑>Piu≥
K¥in\;t´.l¨ ®Ps\my\ Am˙n\B´" Whoever may have written this letter, it must
have been someone who wanted to meet PH at this time.
• mv\qiu≥pc\ ®Ps\es FB = CB By\liup´ ®Ps\®Ps\' Bap´ ®Ps\®Ps\" Whatever happens,
however it may be, anyway.
®Ps\®Ps\ 1 (Phr~) Phr or something similar, or whatever is possible; sub
cls, mainly CB;
• erK´sim\B^yats\b¨;elak\ ®Ps\®Ps\ ema.eqak\ps\luik\epå." Knock back a can of
cold beer or something.
• ts\wk\eZ;n´≥ ®Ps\®Ps\ ®pn\erac\;K´.på U^;esaerWry\" kÁn\m ts\lN˙s\Sy\ Sp\på.my\"
Sell it back to me at half cost or something, U SS. I’ll repay you K20 a
month.
• Ekr^k ®Ps\®Ps\ AkÄvêtac\;rm˙ap´" We’ll have to ask someone to help —
Ekari or whoever we can get.
• lWc\.ps\my\Siurc\ ehad^zrp\twiuk\ dåm˙mhut\ erly\zrp\ twiuk\ ®Ps\®Ps\qa
laps\l˙v\.påemac\" If you’re going to throw it away, then please come and
throw it away near this zayat or near Ye-leh zayat or somewhere like that.
®Ps\®Ps\ 2 see under ®Ps\es whether…or, and ®Ps\es however
P∑y\ 1 and P∑y\ra formerly B∑y\(ra) (V~, V~N) (a) thing that can be V-ed, is
to, has to be V-ed; sp hd nn and vb atrb mkr, mainly FB; = CB sra;
• p∑´sa;AeÂkac\; qiekac\;P∑y\ram¥a; ePa\®pK´.®p^; ®Ps\påty\" I have now stated what
needs to be known about brokers.
172
• miPura;Âk^;kiuy\eta\tiuc\ Âk^;Âkp\vWn\Âka;®p^; sa;P∑y\eqak\P∑y\m¥a;kiu s^mMpåty\"

The queen herself took charge of the arrangements for the food and drink.
• eÂkk´∑P∑y\zat\qim\;" A tragic end to the story.
• bhuqut®Ps\P∑y\ saAup\" An informative book, factual book.
• ek¥ac\;qui≥ lØP∑y\ psßv\;m¥a;kui y¨¨ka laÂkelqv\" They brought with them
items for donating to the monastery.
• pc\ly\®pc\N˙c\. lOic\;tn\;Âk^;kiu Âkv\.rqv\m˙a e®Kak\®Ka;P∑y\ eÂkk´∑P∑y\ ®Ps\j
laelqv\" Watching the expanse of the sea and its mighty waves became
an unnerving and disturbing experience.
(b) in pattern V-P∑y\ ekac\;- to make one feel V, to generate feelings
of V; with verbs of feeling, mental state, etc; cf V-sra ekac\;-;
• N˙s\liuP∑y\lv\; ekac\;r´.' sit\wc\sa;P∑y\lv\; ekac\;r´.liu≥qa
Siuliuk\K¥c\påeta.ty\" I just want to say it was both pleasing and
interesting.
• Al∑n\eÂkak\mk\P∑y\ ekac\;eqa Rup\Sc\;q an\”k^;®Pc\. kiuy\Tc\®pliuk\qv\" He
made himself visible in a terrifying form.
• ep¥a\rWc\P∑y\ralv\; ekac\;l˙qv\" It was also a very happy occasion.
(c) in pattern V-P∑y\ ‰˙i- there is a possibility of V, a need for V;
• mit\eS∑m¥a;A®Ps\ lk\KMNiuc\P∑y\ m‰˙ipåB¨;" There was no possibility of accepting
them as allies.
• Tiuvk … ep¥a\ÂkvMÂkqv\m˙a e®paP∑y\ra m‰˙i" I need not say what an
enjoyable time they had that night.
• Tiuk´.qiu≥ P∑c\.Ta;påk laerak\eqaq¨qv\ qkçamkc\;®Ps\P∑y\ ‰˙imv\" If we were
to leave the door open like that, anyone who comes along would be
suspicious.
• emac\Âk^;lv\; eSac\r∑k\P∑y\‰˙ieqa kisßtiu≥kiu eSac\r∑k\enelf" And Maung Gyi
occupied himself with things he had to do.
P∑y\ 2 formerly B∑y\ (N-q~) just like, in the manner of; nn mkr, CB+FB; =
CB N-li;u
• eqakeT∑eT∑kiu em.ka erT´t∑c\ cå;Âkc\;mel;qP∑y\ ®mø;jenel®p^" Forgetting
her various worries, she cavorted in the water like a little ngagyin fish.
• v^mel;ts\eyak\qP∑y\ gRutsiuk\ e®paliuk\qv\" He spoke to her caringly as
though she were his younger sister.
• m^;qa;suqP∑y\ K¥s\Kc\rc\;N˙^;Âkpåty\" (Our village) is warm and friendly, just
like a family.
• KRu‰˙v\‰˙v\ KÁn\KÁn\el;m¥a;kiu er∑;ka Âk^;sU\cy\liuk\ Byk\qP∑y\ qêp;enliuk\
qv\" She picked out the long and pointed shells and arranged them by
size, and then threaded them like a necklace.
173
P∑y\ 3 see under sP∑y\ such as to cause

b¥a and b¥a. or b¥ (mostly Stc~) Sir, Madam, term of address, used in
addressing people or compelling their attention; appended appellative, CB;
used by male speakers, to other males or to women; less courteous than
Kc\b¥a; the short, creaky-tone form is more emphatic and peremptory;
• hut\taepå≥b¥a" Of course it is, my good fellow.
• Also used alone with a rising intonation as a polite response meaning “I beg
your pardon, What did you say?”, or as an answer to hearing oneself called:
• Akuier" _ b¥a" Brother! — Yes?
b¥oi; and b¥oi> (mostly Stc~) term of address, used in addressing people or
compelling their attention; appended appellative, CB; used by male speak-
ers, to other males or to women; more familiar than Kc\b¥a; the short, creaky-
tone form is more emphatic and peremptory;
• Piu;qëta\”k^; ®Ps\“p^b¥oi;" I’ve turned into a darned pothudaw, everybody!
• k´ … k¥op\Ark\Suic\kiu ®pn\luik\U^;my\b¥oi>" Right folks. I’m heading back to
the liquor shop.
Frequent as a way of calling someone from a distance: b¥oi> kiuqin\;Niuc\" Hey!
Ko Thein Naing!
B see under P male
Bi- 1 (V~-) How V! emphatic; adds a sense of vividness or strong feeling to
statement; vb mod, CB+FB; frequently with sentence marker omitted
(compare other exclamatory expressions sv zero marker);
• l¨”k^;mc\;m¥a;Aenn´≥ kÁn\eta\n´≥At¨ mYewKMsa;Âkv\.esK¥c\sm\;l˙påBieta.ty\" How
I wish you ladies and gentlemen could share my emotion!
• kÁn\eta\.kiu ’kiSiueqa lk\m¥a;ka; eA;sk\l˙Biqv\" How cold were the
hands that greeted me!
• tky\pc\ q¨≥m¥k\em˙ak\m˙a miKc\qv\ Aqk\ep¥ak\enBiqk´.qiu≥ wm\;nv\;
Tit\ln\≥eneqa Aq∑c\kiu eSac\qv\" She looked as horrified as if her
mother had really died before her eyes.
• ASuM;Ta;K´.eqa rtnakiu lk\wy\ ®pn\lv\r‰˙iBiqk´.qiu≥ SraÂk^;
wm\;qaAa;tk\mimv\m˙alv\; muK¥pc\ ®Ps\qv\" There is no doubt that Sayagyi
would be as delighted as if he had recovered a precious gem that he had
lost.
• Sraeta\ qGçaeta\et∑kl´ m¥a;liuk\påBiqn´≥" Oh! There were so many
reverend abbots!
• qv\Aim\”k^;k ekac\;k ekac\;påBiqn´≥" enak\eP;m˙al´ c˙k\ep¥apc\et∑k
sim\;sim\;siusiun´≥ ty\“p^; qayaty\" What a splendid house it was! At the back
174
there were banana trees flourishing — a really delightful place.

Examples without sentence marker:
• ry\sra ekac\;liuk\påBi" It was so funny!
• Acy\mel;k tROp\ROp\ cius‘pqv\" hc\; sit\p¥k\liuk\påBieta." The younger
one started to cry. Oh, it was so depressing!
• q¨≥As\mÂk^;k Aepåk\k Siu;påBin´≥' cåeta. nv\;nv\;m˙ m’kik\B¨;" Her sister
looks so grim! I don’t like her at all.
• yKuk´.qiu≥ saer;®Kc\;AmOkiu ®porqv\m˙a Arqa ri˙l˙påBi" Being able to devote
myself to writing like this is a great joy.
• km\;e®KN˙c\. m¥k\N˙aK¥c\;Siuc\eneqa qv\liuAim\m¥io;kiu mSiuTa;Bi' ka;lm\;mÂk^;f
A®Ka;ts\Bk\m˙ Aim\m¥a;t∑c\pc\ Ev\.qv\m¥a;kiu lk\KMenÂkreq;qv\" It wasn’t
only (“don’t mention”) houses like this one that faced onto the beach: even
the houses on the far side of the road were taking in guests.
• ÂkMort´. ÂkmμaRuic\;klv\; Sui;luik\påBieta.N˙y\ena\" What rotten luck he had!
• cåtiu≥qa RMO;rmy\Siurc\ d^liu qt†i®p®p^; AeqKMliuk\K¥c\sm\;påBi" How I wish that
we would have been able to die so bravely if we had been defeated.
Bi 2 see under Pi very much
Ba 1 (a) (~ or ~N) What? What N?; selective noun, mainly CB; cf FB
mv\qv\.Ara etc;
• Ba lup\ep;rml´" What can I do for you?
• q¨ Balup\ty\ mqiB¨;" I don’t know what he did.
• BaADipπay\ rql´" What meaning does it have?
• Nuic\cMer;ha Bal´" What is politics?
(b) (N + ~) N and the like, N and so on, and all that; sts augmented to
Ba…va;
• eS;et∑ Baet∑ mpiu≥pån´≥eta." Don’t send any more medicines and the like.
• Ac\g¥c\wuic\k eZ;tk\®pn\“p^la; Bala; vala; em;tt\ty\" Then he asks
“Has the price of engine oil gone up?” and all that sort of stuff.
• Tuiek¥ac\;t∑c\ Aasriypëza\p∑´' Aa;ksa;eÂk;' BaeÂk; vaeÂk;et∑ ekak\“p^;" In
that school they collect for Teachers’ Gifts, for sports subscriptions, this
subscription, that subscription.
• k¥k¥nn eKåc\;epåc\;n´≥ Bavan´≥ T∑k\laÂkty\" They came out in fine style
with gaungbaungs (headdresses) and all that.
• tuik\et∑ Baet∑(vaet∑)l´ meSak\Nuic\påB¨;" And they can’t build brick
buildings and suchlike.
• k¥op\qm^;kiu cå;eTac\ tc\etac\;m˙ ep;sa;my\eta\tiu≥ Batiu≥epå.el" (Saying) “I’ll
let you have my daughter in marriage only if you can pay me K5000, my
good Sir” and all that.
175
• eTac\T´m˙a zim\n´≥ enrqluilui Baluilui (valuilui) er;Ta;påty\" They write to

the effect that in prison they live in comfort and all that sort of thing.
• “p^;eta. BaqMmÂka; vaqMmmÂka;n´´≥ ®bon\;Siu rn\kun\ Sc\;K¥q∑a;Âkty\" And
then, without any warning or anything, they suddenly shoot off down to
Yangon.
• Kuliu AP´∑>n´≥Siueta. priqt\e‰˙>T∑k\rmy\' hiuhiud^d^ q∑a;larmy\'
Aepåc\;Aqc\;m¥a;my\ Bavaepå.b¥a" Being (a performer) with a group like
this, (they said) you’ll have to appear on stage, you have to travel all over
the place, you’ll have to meet lots of people, and all that sort of stuff.
(c) (~sfx) English translation varies according to suffix;
•Ba®Ps\lui≥ or Ba‘plui≥ or Balui≥ why? BaeÂkac\. why? for what cause? Balup\Pui≥
or Balup\ why? for what purpose?
Ba 2 with repetition “whatever, whichever”: see under Repetition in the English
entries
Bava “and such like”: see under Ba what?
BamSui anything at all: see under mSui whatever
Bam˙ and BamY with negated verb: not any: see under m˙ 4 even
eB; and nMeB; (N~) side of N, beside N; loc nn, CB+FB;
• lm\;eB;eZ;qv\m¥a;" Roadside vendors.
• ert∑c\;eB;m˙a N˙s\eyak\qa; eA;eA;eS;eS; Tiuc\rc\;" The pair of them sitting
comfortably beside the well.
• ek¥a\q¨≥eB;m˙a wc\Tiuc\qv\" She came and sat beside KT.
• q¨tiu≥ka;el; meN∑tiu≥eB;m˙ ®Pt\tk\q∑a;qv\" Their little car passed by Ma
Nwe and her companion.
• q´q´qv\ epå.på;rWc\ln\;s∑a®Pc\. Ta;feB;m˙a pålaqv\" Theh Theh came
cheerfully alongside Hta.
• kÁn\eta\.nMeB;m˙a kp\l¥k\ ek¥a\qk\k g^tat^;enqv\" KT was sitting close
beside me playing his guitar.
• buil\Ut†mlm\;nMeB;k" At the side of Bo Uttama Road.
B´ 1 or p´ sts in combination B´l¥k\ or Bń´≥ (m-V~) without V-ing, in spite
of V-ing, not V but …; sub cls mkr, CB+FB; the spellings B´ and p´ are both
used, but B´ is now officially approved;
• piuk\SM mep;Bń´≥ T∑k\q∑a;ty\" He left without paying.
• m‘pic\B´ ROM;elq¨" One who lost without competing.
• ka;kiu gRumsiuk\B´ z∑t\nc\;q∑a;qv\" He paid no attention to the car but drove
straight into it.
• mSaB´l¥k\ mun\≥kiu sa;qv\" He ate a snack although he wasn’t hungry.
176
• sv\;km\;Uped mePak\P¥k\påB´ l¨Âk^;ts\eyak\k mek¥np\RuMel;®Pc\.

Alup\‘Pt\ps\el.…m‰˙iÂkpå" They don’t as a rule sack (employees) if there
has been no infringement of the rules, merely on the whim of some
dissatisfied manager.
Also used before verbs ®Ps\- and ‰˙i- and en- adjectivally:
• ka; m‰˙iB´ ®Ps\enty\" I am without a car at present.
• ska; m¥a;enrc\ m^;rTa; mm˙^p´ enlim\.my\" If you keep on arguing you’ll miss
the train.
• elYak\l´rn\ ska;lv\; s√\;sa;mrNuic\p´ ‰˙ienpuM rf" He seemed to be unable to
think of a rejoinder.
• d^kisßn´≥ pt\qk\lui≥ k¥ena\ mqiB´ ‰˙ienpåqv\" I don’t at the moment know
about this matter.
In pattern Phr-m˙ m-V-B´ He doesn’t even … ! exclamatory, CB;
• lip\sam˙ mqiB´ By\ er;liu≥ ®Ps\ml´" How could he possibly write to her
without knowing her address?
• piuk\SMm˙ mpåB´" I didn’t even have any money on me (so how could I possibly
have bought some?)
•lup\m˙ mlup\P¨;B´" He’s never even done it before.
B´ 2 see under p´ really, indeed, p´ even, very
B¨; 1 sts P¨; (m-V~) marks end of negative statement; stc mkr, CB only;
FB uses no marker in this position: CB me®PB¨; = FB me®P “He didn’t answer”;
sts written Bu in songs (see Creaky tone sentence final in the English
entries); may be translated by English past, present or future tenses
according to context;
• Bura;epÅm˙a Pinp\ ms^;rB¨;" You mustn’t wear shoes at a pagoda, i.e. when
walking round a pagoda (cf FB Pinp\ ms^;r official sign displayed at entrance
to some Burmese pagodas, sts with English translation “Foot-wearing
prohibited”).
• Bun\;”k^;ek¥ac\;wc\;T´ ka; mwc\rpåB¨;" Cars can’t go into the monastery
compound (cf FB yaU\ mwc\r No entry for vehicles).
• Sramk Aemrikn\ mhut\B¨;la;" Teacher, you are American, aren’t you?
• mnk\Pn\ laNiuc\my\ mTc\B¨;" I don’t think I can come tomorrow.
Note that B¨; in itself carries no negative meaning: it only marks the con-
clusion of a negative statement. It is not used in:
(a) subordinate clauses :
• me®Prc\ if he doesn’t answer; me®PNuic\eAac\ so that he won’t be able to
answer;
(b) verb attributes:
177
• me®Pt´.AKå when he didn’t answer; e®Plui≥ mrt´. em;K∑n\; an unanswerable

question;
(c) questions ending in l´ —
• Ba‘pliu≥ mem;ql´" Why didn’t you ask her?
• BaeÂkac\. mlup\rql´" Why shouldn’t he do it?
(d) statements ending in ta —
• men≥k AK¥in\ luM;luM; mrB¨;' dåeÂkac\. mlata" Yesterday I had no time at all.
That’s why I didn’t come.
(e) certain types of statement ending in m-V-ty\' see under ty\"
B¨;- 2 see under P¨;- ever before
eBa\ in the pattern V-eBa\ r- to V make the effort to V: see under ePa\
Bui and ABui see under (A)Pui male
Bui≥ and ABui≥ see under (A)Pui≥ for, Pui≥ in order to
Bui; see under Pui; cost, worth, value
Bk\ sts Pk\ (N~) direction, side, area; loc nn, CB+FB; pron /Pk\/ after
glottal stop;
• etac\Bk\ the south; At∑c\;Bk\ interior; vBk\ night time; By\Bk\
q∑a;rml´" Which way should I go? eS;RMuBk\m˙ laqv\" (The bus) comes
from the direction of the hospital.
In pattern N-huiBk\' N-d^Bk\ the far side, the near side of N:
• m^;p∑oic\.huiBk\ the far side of the traffic lights; lm\;md^Bk\ this side of the main
road
Bk\ sts Pk\ (N~) (a) area of activity; comm elem cpd nn, CB+FB; pron
/Pk\/ after glottal stop;
• ss\Bk\Suic\ra military affairs, military authority; k∑n\p¥øtaBk\t∑c\
N˙M≥sp\q¨ts\eyak\ ®Ps\Piu≥ra" In order to become skilled in computing.
(b) companion, mate, fellow;
• ek¥ac\;enBk\ schoolmate; r´Bk\ comrade, mate; Suik\ka;nc\;Bk\ a fellow
sidecar pedaller.
Bn\ in the pattern V-Bn\ m¥a;- to V many times: see under Pn\
By\ and ABy\ (a) (~N) which N?; selective noun; the form ABy\ is
restricted to FB, while By\ is used in both; cf the more formal FB mv\qv\
etc;
• By\AKn\;m˙a enK¥c\ql´" Which room do you want to stay in?
• By\qtc\;sa Pt\tt\ql´" Which newspaper do you read?
• By\AK¥in\ lamy\ Tc\ql´" What time do you think he’s going to come?
(b) (~sfx) English translation varies according to sfx;
• By\k (CB) where from?
178
• By\m˙a (CB) where (at), in what place?

• By\(kui) (CB) where to?
• By\tun\;k (CB) when (past time)?
• By\elak\ (CB = FB) By\mY' ABy\mY how much?
• By\eta. (CB = FB) By\eqaAKå when (future time)?
• By\q¨ (CB sts = FB) ABy\q¨ who?
• By\lui (CB = FB) By\qui≥' By\k´.qui≥' ABy\qui≥' ABy\k´.qui≥ how? what kind?
• ABy\eÂkac\. (FB) for what reason?
(c) in phrase By\kla or By\kla®p^; however V? (“coming from
where?”);
• h dka' By\kla“p^; Bun\;”k^;k d^liu meta\tera\ lup\pml´´h" Hold on, my
good man. However would a monk behave in such an improper way?
• h´´.' m^;emW;reAac\ Tc\;e®Kak\ ‰˙apåSiu" Tc\;tMu;kiu ern´´≥ pk\eta. By\kla
m^;emW;lui≥ rË;m˙al´´" Hey! I thought I told you to look for some dry wood to
rekindle the fire? If you sprinkle water on the log how can you expect to
get it to rekindle?
• d^“mio>Suita ny\s∑n\ny\P¥a;' Arc\k By\kla dåm¥oi;et∑ la®pta ‰˙ipå.ml´" This
town was far away on the border. In the old days however would they
have come and shown things like that (circus)?
(d) in appropriate contexts and suchlike, and so on, sts augmented by va
(more commonly Ba…va' see under Ba):
• {qMu;eTac\Siurc\ eta\eraepå.b¥a' kÁn\eta\tiu≥kl´ eKt\Âkp\Âk^;miu≥} By\liu valiun´≥
eZ;Ss\enÂkeq;ty\" They try and bargain with you, saying “Surely K3000
would be quite enough. After all we are in a time when money is tight”,
and so on and so on.
ABy\ see under By\ which?
By\N˙s\ or By\N˙ (~N) how many Ns? selective noun, CB+FB; = FB mv\mY;
pron /By\N˙/;
• Aun\;q^; By\N˙s\lMu; y¨m˙al´" How many coconuts are you going to have?
• esaBiu;K¥s\n´≥ hiuvk s“p^; By\N˙s\”kim\ et∑>ql´" How many times did you see
SBC after that night?
• dên≥ laPiu≥ha By\N˙s\eyak\l´ Aem" How many are coming tonight,
Mother?
• Att\pva By\N˙s\m¥oi; ‰˙ipåqnv\;" A™arq tS´.‰˙s\m¥oi; ‰˙iqv\" How many
skills are there? There are eighteen skills.
By\m˙ and By\mY with negated verb: not any: see under m˙ even
B∑y\(ra) see under P∑y\(ra) that must be V-ed, P∑y\ like
179
m 1 or Am (N~) female (with animate nouns); main, central (with inanimate

nouns); nn mod, CB+FB;
• Sram woman teacher; saer;Sram woman writer; N∑a;m cow; eÂkac\m she-cat;
Burc\m reigning queen (in her own right, opp miBura; queen consort); q¨m
she (used by some modern writers in place of standard q¨); lm\;m main
road, highway; ‘mi>m capital, main city; Riu;m backbone; range of mountains;
®pv\m Burma proper (excluding the hill regions); lk\m thumb, inch.
Note. k¥a;m may mean (a) tigress or (b) male and female, shortened from
eyak¥\a; and min\;m" These abbreviations are used on notices above public
toilets etc: k¥a; for men and m for women.
m- 2 (~V) not V; prefix used to negate verbs, CB+FB; when the verb is sen-
tence final, and the sentence is a statement, CB follows it with suffix B¨; qv,
but FB either uses no suffix at all, or uses a verb modifier such as på' ep'
eK¥ etc;
• È‘mi>ny\Ò samtt\q¨ m‰˙i FB = CB d^‘mi>ny\m˙a samtt\q¨ m‰˙iB¨;" There are no
illiterates in this township.
• saer;q¨k g¥pn\tiu≥kiu myMu" The present writer did not trust the Japanese (FB
= CB myuMB¨;).
• kiuy.\kiuy\kiu me®pac\;l´Bń´≥eta. ®pc\pAe®pac\;Alét∑ memYa\m˙n\;pån´≥" If you don’t
reform yourself, don’t expect reforms outside you.
• mlt\m˙aeta. mp¨n´≥" Don’t be afraid that it won’t be fresh.
• l¨ Âka;lui≥ mekac\;t´. Alup\et∑" Actions that people should not hear about.
• q¨qa q´qŃ˙c\. mSMu®Ps\K´.lYc\ qv\®pœnaet∑ epÅepåk\lasraAeÂkac\; m‰˙iep" If
only he had never met TT these problems would never have come about.
In disyllabic compound verbs m- may precede the first element or the second
or either or both, depending on the type of compound:
ordinary compounds favour the pattern m-VV: msU\;sa;- not think over;
mk¥n\;ma- not be healthy; m®cc\;Sn\- not refuse;
pre-verb compounds regularly follow the pattern V-m-V, with the negation
applying to both: piume®paeta.- not say any more; Sk\lk\m‘plup\- not con-
tinue to do; liuk\m®p- not show round;
in compounds with verb modifiers some modifiers prefer one pattern, some
the other, and some may take either: mq∑a;liu FB = CB mq∑a;K¥c\- not wish to
mwc\r- must not enter; lup\m®p^;eq;- not finished yet; mTKiuc\;- or
go;
TmKiuc\;- not order to get up; esac\.men- or mesac\.en- not wait; wy\mep;- or
mwy\ep;- not buy for sn;
verbs with both elements prefixed occur more commonly in non-final position
and in FB:
180
• mem∑>mel¥a\ mep¥a\mpå;p´ Aip\ep¥a\elf" Taking no pleasure (in the music) he

went to sleep.
• mt∑n\≥mr∑M>q¨" A person who does not flinch.
• mermt∑k\Niuc\eAac\ epåm¥a;Âkelqv\" They were so numerous as to be
incalculable.
• PKc\Âk^;N˙c\. … mK´∑mK∑aB´ enTiuc\l¥k\ ‰˙if" He remained with his father
without leaving his side.
• q¨¨≥kiu ®pn\me®pawM.mSiuwM.eAac\l´ eÂkak\r∑M>enrpå“p^" They are so frightened they
dare not reply to him.
Some m-V expressions are used as nouns or adverbs, e.g.
• mqa funeral (“not pleasant”); msc\ excrement (“not clean”); mekac\;mO deeds
that are not good, evil deeds; mtra; lup\ty\ to act unjustly, illegally.
• ka;Âkp\liu≥ mn´ (or mnv\;) tiu;s^;®p^; Aim\kiu ®pn\reta." As she had to force her
way strenuously (“not a little”) into the crowded bus on her way home.
• Ac\mtn\ wm\;qapåty\" He was exceedingly pleased (“strength not
matching”).
• AK¥in\meR∑; lalv\på" Come and visit us any time (“time not selected”).
• mk¥n\;mma ®Ps\qv\" He became ill (“not well”).
• R∑aN˙c\. ml˙m\;mkm\;Ò" Nearby, in the vicinity of the village.
• AÂkv\.t∑c\ ts\m¥oi;' mÂkv\.t∑c\ ts\m¥oi;" When watched, (he behaved) one way,
when not watched (he behaved) another way.
m- 3 see under my\ and mv\ will V, stc mkrs
m-V-Kc\ see under Kc\ before V-ing
m-V-t-V not fully V, moderately V; prefixed sub cls mkr, CB+FB;
induces creaky tone on first V where possible;
• mekac\.;tekac\; moderately good; mep¥a\.tep¥a\ not entirely happy;
mk¥k\tk¥k\ half-cooked; mTitTi not quite touching; Aqk\el;Sy\
m®pv\.t®pv\. not quite 40 years old; k∑∑n\®møns\ l¨mT∑k\tT∑k\ a still wavering
ex-Communist.
m-V-n´≥ see under N˙c\. don’t V
m-V-N˙c\. see under N˙c\. don’t V
m-V-p´ see under B´ without V-ing
m-V-B´ see under B´ without V-ing
m-V-P¨; see under B¨; negative statement
m-V-B¨; see under B¨; negative statement
m-V-mK¥c\; see under mK¥c\; until
m-V-m^ see under Kc\ before V-ing
m-V-m¨j see under m¨j without V-ing
181
m-V-m˙^ see under Kc\ before V-ing

m-V-lc\. see under lc\. don’t V
m-VV-eAac\ see under eAac\ so that
m-V1V2 V1V2 not fully V-ing; sub cls mkr, CB+FB; V2 is usually CB K¥c\ or
FB lui “to want to”; sts followed by CB n´≥ or FB N˙c\. or ®Pc\.;
• sk\kuilv\; mNOi;K¥c\NOi;K¥c\N˙c\. NOi;qv\" He started the engine reluctantly.
• TB^ mwt\tt\wt\tt\n´≥" Barely able to wear a longyi successfully.
• mliuk\liuliuk\liuN˙c\. liuk\pålaK´.elf" He came along with us, rather
unwillingly.
• mvui®pak eKåc\; mvit\K¥c\vit\K¥c\ vit\qv\" Ma NP inclined her head
unwillingly.
• mVui®mtui≥ zn^;emac\N˙Mk qeBa mt¨K¥c\.t¨K¥c\®Pc\. t¨luik\qv\" Ma NM and her
husband grudgingly gave their consent.
mk (N~) not so few, not so little as N; more than N; truncated sub cls,
short for mkB´ etc, CB+FB;
• miBemt†aqv\ ®mc\.\miur\etac\mk ”k^;ma;l˙qv\" The love of parents (for their
children) is greater than Mount Meru.
• tp\meta\Ò Am¥oi;qa;m¥a;qamk Am¥oi;qm^;m¥a;lv\; tawn\ Tm\;eSac\Âkqv\"
Not only men but also women serve in the armed forces.
• R∑alv\; mk ‘mi>lv\; mk¥eqa enra" A place not as small as a village, but
not quite a town.
Sts used without truncation, but still attributively:
• Sraqa mkB¨;" ek¥ac\;qa;et∑l´ påeq;ty\" There weren’t only teachers
there, but pupils as well.
• ts\KåtrM en≥wk\ mkB¨; esac.\rty\" Sometimes one has to wait more than
half an day.
k- is also used as a normal verb in full sentences, often rhetorical ques-
tions:
• Asv\;Aew;kiu l¨cå;Sy\elak\ tk\ty\ Tc\ty\" _ mkB¨;' Anv\;SuM;
‰˙s\Sy\ek¥a\elak\" About 50 people attended the meeting, I think. — No,
more than that! At least 80.
• eZ;T´k Ait\et∑ By\ kml´ pit\set∑på wy\K´.ty\" She bought not only
bags but cotton material as well from the market.
• hab¥a Kc\RMutc\ By\ kml´" At¨tëtac\ elYak\q∑a; enÂkta'
Rup\‰˙c\At¨t¨Âkv\.ty\' It’s not just that they were friendly. They used to go
out walking together. They went to the cinema together.
182
• mv^vaRMu Ba kml´Kc\b¥a" qv\saha l¨ts\eyak\T´ er;t´.sa mhut\B¨;Kc\b¥"

It’s not just that (the letter) is uneven. This letter was not written by a
single person.
mSui CB = FB mh¨ (Phr ~) (what, which) not specified, any, whichever;
truncated sub cls, for mSuiB´ etc, CB+FB; usually follows an interrogative
word or a pair of alternatives;
• By\q¨mSui wc\Nuic\påty\" Anyone at all (“who not specified”) can go in.
• mv\qv\.®pœna mh¨" Any problem whatsoever.
• hiu;e‰˙;e‰˙;tun\;kliu≥ AsK¥^®p^;e®pat´. e‰˙;ska;kiu Âk^;cy\mh¨ l¨tiuc\;’kik\Âkty\"
Everyone whether young or old likes old stories that begin “Long, long
ago”.
• Sc\;r´K¥m\;qamh¨" Both rich and poor alike, whether rich or poor.
• By\pug©iol\ By\qt†wåmSiu AK¥c\;K¥c\; ep;km\;Âkta dån”k^;B´´" If someone
gives something to another, whatever person, whatever creature it may
be, that is dana (charity).
• SraBun\;eta\”k^; ®polup\qv\m¥a;kiu BamSiu liuk\j Atulup\el. ‰˙ieqa
ek¥ac\;qa;N˙s\eyak\ ‰˙ielf" There were two pupils who used to copy
whatever the Sayadaw did.
mSuiTa;n´≥ and variants (Phr ~) don’t mention, don’t consider, not just,
let alone; main clause; variants CB mSuin´≥' mSuiTa;n´≥eta.' mSuiTa;pån´≥ etc, FB
mSuiTa;N˙c\.' mSuiTa;Bi' mSuiTa;BiË; etc;
• vAKå mSuiTa;BiË;" en≥AKåm˙apc\" Not just at night, but even in the day.
• qv\luiAim\m¥oi;kui mSuiTa;Bi' ka;lm\;mÂk^;f A®Ka;ts\Bk\m˙ Aim\m¥a;t∑c\pc\
Ev\.qv\m¥a;kui lk\KMenÂkreq;qv\" It didn’t stop at houses like this one.
They were also taking guests in the houses on the other side of the motor
road.
• l¨ts\Pk\qa;kui Ak¥oi;yut\A‰˙k\k´∑ ®Ps\Bui≥kui mSuiTa;n´≥eta.'
naÂkv\;eAac\etac\ e®patt\t´.l¨ts\eyak\ mhut\påB¨;‰˙c\" Let alone causing
injury or embarrassment to another person, this man would not even so
much as say a harsh word.
• Apët∑Âka;T´m˙a Alup\lup\rn\ mSuiN˙c\. e®Kl˙m\;pc\ ml˙m\;K¥c\eAac\ N∑m\;ny\K´.P¨;
qv\" In the heat we became so weak that we could barely bring ourselves
to take another step, let alone do our work.
mSuiTa;Bi see under mSuiTa;n´≥ not just
mSuin´≥ see under mSuiTa;n´≥ not just
mK¥c\; (m-V~) for as long as sth has not V-ed, not been V-ed, until V; sub
cls mkr, CB+FB; cf V-qv\.ATi;
183
• q¨¨≥kb¥a m“p^;mK¥c\; enram˙ mThu qN~~i™an\ K¥“p^;" Having made a resolution that
he would not rise from his seat until his poem was completed.
• m®pn\mK¥c\; kÁn\eta\tiu≥S^m˙a t´påla;" Why not stay with us until you go
back?
• Aip\mep¥a\mK¥c\; Akun\luM; sU\;sa;Ta;ty\" I thought it all out before I fell
asleep.
• Aim\eTac\qv\Bw merak\mK¥c\; Ap¥oirv\l¨p¥oirv\ mp¥k\ ‰˙iAp\ty\" Until such
time as they achieve married state, they should preserve their chastity
unimpaired.
mtt\ (V~) almost V, up to the brink of V-ing; sub cls mkr, FB; also
common in combination lumtt\, for which see under lu;
• m¥k\rv\ T∑k\mtt\ m^;kiu kun\;mOt\enS´m˙a" While she was bending over and
blowing on the fire so hard that her eyes were almost watering.
• namv\rc\;m¥a;m˙a ep¥ak\q∑a;mtt\ l¨qinv\;q∑a;qv\" The real names (of some
authors using pen names) were so little known that they virtually
disappeared.
• biul\K¥op\eZ;f Aly\bhuitv\.tv\.m˙a lm\;kiu pit\Siu≥mtt\ rp\en' Tiuc\enÂkeqa
l¨cy\el;et∑kiu e‰˙ac\‰˙a;®p^; RMuT´ wc\K´.rf" We went to the office in Bogyok
Market, skirting round the young people who were standing and sitting
right in the middle so as almost to block the way.
• q¨tiu≥N˙c\. pålaeqa l¨r∑y\qv\lv\; elyaU\p¥MRMu;qiu≥ e®Ktiumtt\
q∑a;enrelqv\" The youth they brought with them had to keep going to
the airline office till he was almost worn out.
• Âkk\q^;em∑;vc\;Tmtt\ Âkv\N¨;luik\mif" We were so moved that we almost
broke out in goose pimples.
mn´≥ see under epm´. although
mnv\; see under Tk\mnv\; not less than
meR∑; (N~) any N whatsoever, irrespective of N; truncated sub cls, from
meR∑;B´, CB+FB;
• eS;Kn\;kiu AK¥in\meR∑; lalui≥ rty\" One can come to the clinic at any time.
• Niuc\cMer; Ae®KAenmeR∑;" Irrespective of the political conditions.
• k¥a;mmeR∑;" Irrespective of sex, both male and female (short for
eyak¥\a;min\;mmeR∑;).
mh¨ see under mSiu unspecified, any
mi- 1 (V~-) to V inadvertently, unintentionally, by mistake; to be
unable to help feeling (emotion); vb mod, CB+FB;
• q¨≥e®KeTak\ q∑a;nc\;mity\" He accidentally trod on her foot.
184
• kÁn\m T^; m˙a;®p^; y¨q∑a;mity\" She inadvertently walked off with my

umbrella.
• q¨≥kiuy\q¨ m˙n\T´ Âkv\.miqv\" He found himself looking at himself in the
mirror.
• q¨tiu≥kl´p´ Kum˙ (ska; Riuc\;Riuc\; e®parrc\) er m‰˙it´. etaT´m˙a K¥^;kiuc\miqliu
®Ps\entapépå." As for them, they are now — to quote a crude proverb —
like someone who has got shit on his hand in the jungle where there isn’t
any water (to wash it off).
• qti rmiqv\" It came to mind.
• q¨≥kiu s K¥s\mitun\;k" When I first fell in love with her.
• ‰˙amet∑>eta. sit\tuimity\" He gets irritated when he can’t find them.
• ‘pM;miqv\" I couldn’t help smiling.
In the pattern V-mi V-ra V to V wildly, incoherently:
• e®pami e®para e®paliuk\qv\" He rambled on (saying whatever he happened to
say).
• S∑´mi S∑´ra S∑´qv\" To grab wildly at anything (clutch what one happens to
clutch).
mi 2 (V~) catch, be caught; comm elem cpd vb, usually indicating an
achieved or completed process; CB+FB;
• su- to collect together, save: sumi- to save; Pm\;- = Pm\;mi- to catch, apprehend;
ka- to shield; kami- to cover (expenses); m˙t\- to mark, note; m˙t\mi- to
remember; rip\- to intimate, hint; rip\mi- to suss out, twig, discover; cuM- to
enclose, envelop; cuMmi- grasp (idea), cover (all aspects).
mimi oneself, one’s own; noun, mainly FB, = CB kiuy\' kiuy\.; in object position
often mimikiuy\; for a discussion of reflexives see Bradley 1995;
• l˙ødån\;qëra mimipå kuqiul\reAac\ rv\r∑y\l¥k\ mimikiuy\tiuc\ mqMu;eSac\eta.p´
Bura;qui≥ … kp\l˙øliuk\eleta.qv\" With the intention of gaining merit
both for the donor (of the food) and for himself, he didn’t eat it himself,
but made an offering of it to the Buddha image.
• mimiAmO mimikiu pt\eta.mv\hu qieqa U^;qëta\" U TD realised that he was
about to be trapped in his own scheme.
• mimikiuy\kiu på;np\q¨hu Tc\“p^;" Thinking that he (himself) was a smart fellow.
• mv\qv\.eyak¥\a;kiumY es.es.sp\sp\mÂkv\.ep" mimikiuy\kiulv\; AÂkv\.mKMep" She
didn’t look for long at any man, and she didn’t allow herself to be looked
at.
• q¨tiu≥k Usßa‰˙c\Siueta. mimik N˙e®maenPiu≥ mqc\." Since they were the owners (she
appreciated that) there was no need for her to feel regret.
185
• q¨k mimi tt\kÁm\;qv\. pva®Pc\. e®Pac\.mt\s∑a lup\kiuc\sa;K¥c\qv\" She wanted

to make an honest living with the skills that she (herself) had acquired.
m^ see under Kc\ before V-ing
Am^ (N~) in time for N; nn mkr, CB+FB; pron /Am˙^/;
• Krsßmt\Am^ lamy\ Tc\ty\ena\" I suppose they’ll come in time for
Christmas, won’t they?
• e®KeTak\N˙s\eK¥ac\;kui AK¥in\Am^ ®pn\lv\S∑és.Ta;luik\på“p^" She pulled her legs
back together in time.
m¨ 1 (Phr~) as for Phr, however, on the other hand, but; stc med phr ptcl,
FB, = CB eta.; cf FB m¨ka;'
• cpl^km\;e®Kqiu≥ Ev\.qv\m¥a; tP´∑P´∑ erak\las ‘p®p^" eA;®cim\;tiu≥Aim\qiu≥m¨ ts\U^;mY
merak\eq;" Visitors had started trickling in to Ngapali, but AN’s house
had not had a single one.
• Aemqv\ AeP.nv\;t¨ ska;e®palYc\ rKuic\qMw´j eneta.qv\" qMt´∑‘mi>epÅt∑c\
em∑;eqa eA;®cim\;tiu≥km¨ ska; qip\mwéta." ®mn\maqM®Pc\.pc\ e®paÂkSiuÂkelqv\"
Her mother’s speech was like her father’s: she had an Arakanese accent.
But AN and her sisters, who were born in Sandoway, didn’t have much of
an accent any more. They spoke standard Burmese.
• Kp\ew;ew;t∑c\ l¨ ts\eyak\ evac\pc\S^qiu≥ Kp\qut\qut\ laenqv\kiu ®mc\rf"
liuc\;ka;kium¨ m®mc\r" Some way off she could see someone walking quickly
towards the banyan tree. But of the bus there was no sign.
m¨ 2 or more frequently påm¨ (V~) if; sub cls mkr, FB, old-style, = FB lYc\, CB
rc\;
• qns\qna' Sc\®Kc\påm¨" If you consider the circumstances.
• luM≥lw^riykui pc\sv\pc\mA®Ps\®Pc\. Arc\;tv\påm¨ pvatv\;hëqa AKk\‰˙v\tui≥
epÅT∑k\Âklim\.mv\" If you start out with diligence as the trunk of your tree,
then the branches that are wisdom will surely sprout forth.
• Aky\j ®pv\.‰˙c\mc\;”k^;qv\ tra;esac\.påm¨ka; e®m”k^;fAN˙s\qv\
ArqaAS^Âqzatui≥ tui;tk\Âklim\.mv\" If the king of the country is righteous,
then the fertility of the land will increase.
• &c\;Aut\K´m˙a emac\sM‰˙a;fË;eKåc\;epÅqiu≥ k¥K´.påm¨ Ekn\muK¥ p´∑K¥c\;“p^; eqSMu;rmv\
®Ps\epqv\" If that brick had landed on Maung SS’s head, he would
certainly have died instantly.
• At∑c\;m˙ esac\.Siuc\;enm¨ Tiuq¨kiu miNiuc\mv\" If we wait inside we shall be able to
catch that person.
• ABy\.eÂkac\.h¨m¨" If we ask Why ….
m¨ 3 see under eskam¨ however
m¨ 4 see under eta\ sacred, royal or official status
186
m¨ka; (Phr~) as for Phr, however, on the other hand, but; more strongly
contrastive than m¨; stc med phr ptcl, FB, = CB eta.; cf FB ka; and rare
variant tm¨ka;"
• AK¥oi>m˙a e®p;p´∑Kun\p´∑m¥a;kiupc\ ep¥a\ep¥a\rWc\rWc\ k¥c\;pl¥k\‰˙ij AK¥oi>m˙am¨ka; q¨tiu≥f
SM‰˙v\m¥a;kiu eÂka.eneAac\ ®P^;l¥k\ ‰˙iÂkeqaeÂkac\.pc\tv\;" (Of brave soldiers
on the eve of battle) some were happily holding athletics events, while
others were combing their long hair till it shone.
• kiuc\;m¨ka; eK¥ac\;Riu;m¥a;epÅt∑c\ tv\‰˙ielrka;' ‘mi>R∑atiuc\;Ò kiuc\;m¥a; m‰˙ieK¥" As
for kaing (farmland), since it is situated in river beds, not all towns and
villages have it.
• SraÂk^;qv\ … p¥io>' kb¥a' lkça' razwc\tiu≥kiu el.laK´.qv\" mN †el;
T^;k¥io;sv\epåk\ razwc\kium¨ka; m¥k\wå;Tc\Tc\ ®mc\K.r´ q¨ ®Ps\qv\" Sayagyi
studied pyo, kabya, linga and the chronicles. The history of the fall of
Mandalay, however, was something he had witnessed with his own eyes.
• yKueqa\tm¨ka;" Now however, ….
m¨j (m-V~) not V-ing, without V-ing; sub cls, mainly FB; regular equivalent
of Pali gerund of verbs with negative prefix a- in nissaya translation (Okell
1965 p 213):
• elYa.Ta;qv\. NOn\;Atiuc\;pc\ mep;m¨j" Without even giving (prizes) in
accordance with the reduced rate.
• qes' Aky\j" påt˜' K∑k\kui" AeDawit∑a' meS;m¨j" htÊeDawnM'
lk\eS;erkui" Adt∑a' mep;m¨j" dœti' ep;lt†>M " If she gives me the bowl
without washing it, and without offering water to wash my hands
(nissaya).
m´. 1 (N~) lacking N, not having N, without N, N-less; truncated vb atrb,
short for m´.eqa' m´.t´. etc, CB+FB;
• miBm´. kel; orphan, child without parents; tra;m´. lawlessly, illegal;
Aui;m´.Aim\m´. homeless; eÂkac\.Âkm´. untroubled, without making any effort;
AeÂkac\;m´. without cause, without reason; AeÂkac\;m´.tuM≥®pn\mO automatic
reflex; ‰˙isum´.su all (the little) there was; AKm´. without charge, for free;
Alup\lk\m´. without work, unemployed.
m´. 2 or my\. (V~ N) N that will V, that is to V, that would have V-ed; vb
atrb mkr with future reference, CB, = FB mv\;. used with negated and non-
negated verbs; from suffix my\ with induced creaky tone (see English entries
sv);
• mnk\Pn\ lam´. Ev\.qv\" The visitor coming tomorrow, who is to come
tomorrow.
187
• d^Âka;T´ liuAp\my\. saAup\satn\;et∑ ‰˙aTa;Ë;" In the meantime look around

for the books and documents you’re going to need.
• lc\ By\eta.m˙ mrm´. min\;Kel;" A girl who is never going to get a husband.
• K¥k\ep;my\.l¨ ‰˙irc\eta. liuK¥c\qa;k∑y\" If there’s someone who would cook for
us I’d be delighted to have him.
• mK¥imSn\≥ KMsa;rmy\. ewdnak kc\;l∑t\K´.påepå." I have escaped the suffering
that would have afflicted me.
m´. 3 CB = FB mv\. (V~ V) really V-s, finally V-s, it comes to the crunch
and the serious V-ing begins; usually in “if” or “when” clauses; sub cls
mkr; mv\. pron /m¥i/;
• sa;m´. sa;" Al˙ msa;n´≥" Awqa sa;på" If you’re really going to have
something to eat, don’t toy with your food: have enough to fill yourself up.
• q¨≥S^k ec∑ pui≥mla; emYa\enta mlamlan´≥' Âka;m´. Âka;reta. Amy\el;
mK¥ipåla;k∑y\ena\" I’ve been waiting and waiting for him to send money and
it never comes and now that I do hear from him — ah what unbearable
news!
• ska; me®pame®paN˙c\. e®pamv\. e®paeta.lv\; g∑etaluik\qv\" Having failed to
speak on several occasions, when he did get around to it at last he threw
a spanner in the works
• ka; ms^;rrc\ enpåest´." s^;m´. s^;rc\ enak\SuM;epÅp´ s^;K¥c\qt´." ka;sut\n´≥m¥a;
ek¥ac\;larrc\ ‰˙k\lui≥ eqmy\t´." If she can’t come by car, no matter, she
says. If she’s going to go by car at all, it must be the latest model. If she
had to come in some worn out old car she says she’d die of shame.
• pui≥m´. pui≥" k¨;tui≥ erak\eAac\ pui≥" If you’re going to take someone along (don’t
take them only part of the way), take them all the way to the ferry
(Proverb).
m´.qa or my\.qa (V~ V) V for form’s sake only, only because one is
expected to, not with any sincerity or commitment; sub cls mkr, CB+FB;
• Am¥oi;qm^;kuil´ eqnp\n´≥ K¥in\Ta;req;ty\" K¥in\m´.qa K¥in\Ta;tapå" Am¥oi;qm^;k
nv\;nv\;m˙ lOp\r´ta mhut\påB¨;" Sn\n^≥kui qip\eÂkak\eneÂkac\; qiqal˙på
ty\" He kept the woman covered with his gun. It was only because he
felt he ought to. The woman wouldn’t have dared move. It was obvious
she was terrified of Sonny.
• q¨≥Bk\m˙pc\ kak∑y\®p^; e®paK´.rqv\" e®pamy\.qa e®pareqa\lv\; qip\®p^;
Aa;‰˙il˙qv\eta. mhut\ep" He spoke up on her behalf. It was only from a
sense of duty. She didn’t seem to be much heartened.
188
• AKuhak er;my\.qa er;' e®pamy\.qa e®paenrta" me®paB´ enrc\ kuiy\på qsßa

ePak\ra k¥msui;lu≥i " I’m only writing and saying this because I feel I ought
to. It’s because if I left it unsaid it might look as if I were being disloyal.
mui≥' mui≥lui≥' mOi>lui≥ (N~, VA~) because, as Stc, on account of Stc; sub stc mkr,
mainly CB, used with noun sentences, and with verb sentences ending in
V-®p^' V-ta' V-m˙a' V-qv\; cf N-eÂkac\.;
• zat\Tup\k budÎwc\mui≥ kalqa;et∑ ty\m’kik\ÂkpåB¨;" The young men weren’t
very keen on the play as it was about the life of the Buddha.
• b^d^yui Ruik\t´.l¨k ema\eta\ka;K st´. kun\k¥t´.srit\elak\kuiqa y¨tamui≥
dêlak\TieAac\ qk\qaq∑a;tapåp´" It’s because the person who made the
video film only charged for the expenses of the car and so on that (the
cost) was so reduced.
• Kr^;qv\miqa;suk wå;N˙s\Ruik\quM;Ruik\ k¥n\rs\K´.qv\mui≥ e®p;jluik\laenÂkqv\"
Because the family that wanted to board (the taxi) had been left several
yards behind, they came running up after it.
• mnk\Pn\ Ev\.qv\et∑ lam˙amui≥ kÁn\m Alup\ qip\ROp\ty\" I’m very busy as some
visitors are coming tomorrow.
• kuiwc\;tui≥eta. kel;et∑n´≥mOi>lui≥ d^Kr^;q∑a;lui≥ mrB¨;" As Ko Win and his wife
have children they can’t undertake this journey.
• dåeÂkac\.mui≥lui≥ …" For that reason, therefore ….
• mN †el;etac\ Suitak … ‘mi>kui s^;Ta;qluimui≥ ss\er;ss\raAt∑k\
Aer;påt´.A®pc\" Mandalay Hill is important for military strategy because it
is as if it overhangs the town.
• kÁn\mkui Pun\;n´≥ K¥in\;“p^;mui≥ sit\eA; enluik\påty\" Because they had earlier
made an appointment with me by phone, I had no worries.
• k¥c\;plata d^N˙s\ N˙s\epåc\; 100 ‰˙i“p^mui≥ ra®pv\.p∑´qBc\ Sc\yc\ta ®Ps\påty\"
Because this year is the 100th anniversary of its celebration, we are
holding a centenary festival.
• Sut\kp\Âk^;mui≥ Aqk\tuilaty\' eragået∑ Të®palaty\" Because (this age)
is an age of deterioration, lifespans are shorter, disease is rife.
• eA;qmui≥" Because it was cold.
Sometimes mui≥ is suffixed to V-lui≥ “because”:
• sit\Sui;lui≥mui≥ e®pata mhut\B¨;' emt†a ‰˙ilui≥qa e®patapå" I didn’t say it
because I was angry, but only because I am fond of you.
mui≥la; contraction of mhut\B¨;la; isn’t that so?
mv\ 1 (V~) will V, is going to V, would V, must V; marks statement of
future, intended action, or assumptions; stc mkr, FB, = CB my\ qv; pron /m¥^/;
see also AM.' lt†M> elevated equivalents of Vmv\; attributive form mv\. qv;
189
• nk\®Pn\ ®pn\lamv\ (= CB ®pn\lamy\)" He will come back tomorrow.

• er eqak\påmv\la;hu yU\ek¥;s∑a em;®p^;lYc\" After he had asked politely
“Would you like a drink of water?”
• ®mn\maAm¥oi;qm^;m¥a;pc\ ®Ps\mv\hu Kn\≥m˙n\;rf" He assumed they must be
Burmese women.
Frequent in sentences embedded before the verb ®Ps\- “to be the case that”
(cf CB V-m˙a ®Ps\-):
• Asv\;Aew; k¥c\.pmv\ ®Ps\f" (It is the case that) a meeting will be held.
• File ts\KulMu;kiu ‰˙amv\ Siupåk AK¥in\Âkn\≥Âkamv\ ®Ps\påqv\" If you had to
search through the whole file it would be time-consuming.
• l¨≥eBac\qs\”k^;qv\ ml´∑meq∑ epÅepåk\larmv\ ®Ps\qv\" A great new society
would undoubtedly emerge.
• evac\pc\rip\Ò rp\l¥k\ eS;RMuBk\m˙ lamv\ ®Ps\eqa liuc\;ka;kiu
esac\.emYa\enÂkelqv\" They stood in the shade of the banyan tree and
waited for the bus that was to come from the hospital.
• dået∑kiu KMsa;P¨;m˙ na;lv\mv\ ®Ps\f" She would only understand those
things when she had had experience of them herself.
• q¨≥kiu ATc\Âk^; Aa;k¥sit\ ‰˙iK´.eÂkac\; wn\KMrmv\ ®Ps\påqv\" I have to admit
that I admired him.
In the pattern V-mv\ mhut\- will not V (“will V is not so”): a way of making
negative statements relating to the future, since the alternative m-V etc may
also refer to present and past:
• ePePf ®pt\qa;eqa AmÄrakiu ®mc\r®p^;qv\.enak\ BamYTp\e®paj reta.mv\
mhut\qv\kiu qiliuk\elqv\" Once she had seen her father’s determined
behaviour she realized that there would be no purpose in saying anything
more.
• B^pÂiuc\m˙a Alup\rlYc\eta. Aim\N˙c\. mew;l˙q®Pc\. yKc\Alup\elak\
q∑a;er;laer; Kk\eta.mv\ mhut\ep" If she could get a job at BPI, since it
was not far from her home, travelling would not be as difficult as at her
previous job.
• kÁn\eta\.pvakiu kÁn\eta\ By\eta.mY s∑n\≥K∑amv\ mhut\" I shall never abandon
my learning.
• Al∑n\AkÁM ®Ps\lalYc\ka; BÂk^;emac\k K∑c\.‘plim\.mv\ mhut\" If things got out
of hand BGM would not forgive them.
The form mv\ with negated verbs is rare, but does occur, in contexts similar
to those described for m˙a under (c) sv:
190
• NOt\q^;kui … ®Pt\ep;rmv\" … qui≥m˙qa tekac\n´≥ tekac\ mSip\mv\" eq∑;f

Arqakui mqimv\" You have to trim the beaks (of the chickens): only then
will they not peck each other and learn the taste of blood.
mv\ 2 (V~) V-ing, that sth will V; converts a verb clause with future
reference to a “nominalized clause”, a noun-like entity that can be used as a
noun in a larger sentence; sp hd nn, FB; = CB V-m˙a; cf V-qv\; pron /m¥^/;
common in sentences embedded before appropriate verbs:
• N¥økl^ya;ss\p´∑”k^; ®Ps\mv\ m®Ps\mv\kui By\q¨ e®paNuic\påmv\l´" Who would be
be able to say whether there would be a nuclear war or not?
• kÁNu\p\fqa; ®Ps\q¨ erWtui;klv\; vsU\pc\ enak\en≥t∑c\ mv\q¨ lamv\'
BaAeÂkac\;em;mv\' By\m˙a‰˙imv\kui laje®paeqaeÂkac\." Because my son ST
used to come every evening and tell me who would come the next day,
what they would ask about, and where they would be.
• mv\mY duk KMK´.rmv\kiulv\; et∑;®p^; sanaenmi®p^" She thought about the
troubles they would encounter and felt sympathy for them.
• nMnk\cå;nar^Kn\≥ ‰˙imv\kiu Aliuliu m˙n\;miq®Pc\. Aip\ram˙ T®p^; Tmc\;K¥k\Piu≥ ®pc\qv\"
Estimating that it must be about 5 a.m. she got up and started cooking
the rice.
• qti‘prmv\m˙a Trn\ssßta Am¥oi;Asa;pc\ ®Ps\qv\" Something we have to pay
attention to is the type of transistor.
• qn\; ‰˙imv\m˙alv\; Am˙n\®Ps\f" That there will be lice is true.
• kt\®pa;N˙c\. y˙U\“p^; el.lapåk piuj qeBaepåk\mv\m˙a eqK¥aqv\" If you
compare (the circuit) with the card, you will certainly understand it better.
mv\ka or mv\kamY and mv\kamt† (N~) N in name only, not a true N; nn
mod, FB; pron /m¥^gå/;
• m¥a;s∑aeqa ‘mi≥tiu≥qv\ ‘mi>mv\kamYqa ®Ps\Âkqv\" Many towns are towns in
name only.
mv\k´.qui≥ see under mv\qui≥ how?
mv\k´.qui≥eqa see under mv\qui≥eqa what sort of?
mv\puMmv\nv\; (~ or ~sfx) in what way? how?; selective noun, FB, = CB
By\puMBy\nv\;' pron /m¥^bun\m¥^n^;/;
• psßv\;tn\Piu;kiu mYts∑a qt\m˙t\j mv\puMmnv\;®Pc\. K´∑ewrmv\" In what manner
they should make a fair assessment of the value of the goods and
apportion them.
mv\mY sts mv\eR∑>mv\mY how much? to what extent?; selective noun, FB, =
CB By\elak\; pron /m¥êy∑>m¥^mY/;
• qiu≥eqa\ mv\mYpc\ Kk\Késkam¨" Nonetheless, however difficult it may be (= CB
dåepm´. By\elak\p´ Kk\Kk\").
191
• m¥oi;K¥s\sit\Dat\tiu≥qv\ mv\mY ®pc\;Tn\l¥k\‰˙iqnv\; Siueqa\" To show how fervent

their nationalist spirit was.
• P∑a;eqsarc\;t∑c\på‰˙it´. Aqk\ mv\er∑>mv\mY" mv\qv\. rp\k∑k\en emac\T∑n\;zMf
Aelac\;kiu t¨;ePa\Âkv\.ROK∑c\. ep;liuk\qv\hëqa Amin\≥kiu k¥op\rqb¥" I
obtained (a copy of) the order authorizing the exhumation of Maung TZ,
showing how old he was in the Register of Births and Deaths, and the
neighbourhood in which he lived.
• mv\mY ROp\eT∑;ep∑lêseqa lYoikelac\Amv\k∑´ kisßpånv\;" What a lot of
complications this matter of multiple secret pen names brings about!
• mv\mY g u%\y¨sra ekac\;luik\påqnv\;" What a great source of pride!
mv\eR∑>mv\mY see under mv\mY how much
mv\q¨ (~ or ~sfx) who?; selective noun, FB, = CB By\q¨; pron /m¥^qØ/;
• mv\q¨ lamv\nv\;" (= CB By\q¨ laml´) Who will come?
• mv\q¨ er;qv\ Siuqv\kiulv\; cåtiu≥ mqi" And we don’t know who wrote it.
• mv\q¨f Aer;Aqa; ®Ps\qv\kui e®pa®pNuic\f" You can say whose writing it is.
With suffix -mY and a negated verb (not) anyone;
• mv\q¨mY Tiutiuk\Aim\”k^;qiu≥ mq∑a;wM.qv\.®pc\" Besides the fact that no one dared
go to that house.
• mv\q¨≥kiumY gRum‘pÂkB´" Paying no attention to anyone.
mv\q¨mSui anyone at all vsv mSui
mv\qui≥ or mv\k´.qui≥ or mv\qui≥mv\puM in what way? how?; selective noun, FB, =
CB By\l;ui pron /m¥^(g´.)qui≥/;
• mv\k´.qiu≥ ®polup\rmv\nv\;" (= CB By\liu lup\rml´") How are we to act? What
are we to do?
• tk˚qiul\wc\K∑c\. er;e®Psaem;p´∑m¥a; mv\qiu≥mv\pMu e®PSiurmv\nv\;" How one should
answer the written exams for university entrance.
• AK∑c\.Aer; mv\qiu≥pc\ ‰˙ieskam¨" Whatever rights they may have.
• AeÂkac\; mv\qiu≥ qiliut´. m¥k\N˙a®Pc\." With an expression that showed that he
wanted to know how things stood.
• kÁn\eta\f sit\kiu mv\k´.qiu≥ qielqv\kiu AM.Âql¥k\" Astonished at the way
he read my mind. With suffix -mY and a negated verb (not) in any
way;
•mv\qiu≥mY mÂkMtt\eta." Being unable to make any further plans.
mv\qui≥Suies (~ Stc) anyway, however that may be (“let it be said in any
way, in whatever way it may be said”); sub cls, FB, = CB By\luip´ e®pae®pa;
pron /m¥^qOi≥Suiez/;
• mv\qui≥Suies l∑n\wm\N˙c\. q¨≥zn^;keta. ÈAt∑k\ wm\;mnv\;eK¥" Anyway LW and
his wife were not upset about this matter.
192
•mv\qiu≥pc\Siueskam¨" However that may be.

mv\qui≥(eqa) or mv\k´.qui≥(eqa) (~N) what sort of N?; selective noun, FB, = CB
By\l;ui pron /m¥^(g´.)qui≥eqa/;
• mv\qiu≥eqa Alup\m¥a;kiu lup\j psßv\; ‰˙aÂkrpåmv\nv\;" What sort of work
should they engage in in order to earn a living?
• q¨tiu≥N˙c\.At¨ mv\qiu≥eqa ®pœnam¥a; pålaÂkmv\ mqi" She didn’t know what
sort of problems they would bring along with them.
• mv\k´.qiu≥eqa eB;rn\m¥oi;qv\ mv\qv\.Arp\m˙ epÅepåk\j lamv\ mqiq®Pc\." As
we didn’t know what sort of threat might spring from what quarter.
• Tiuek¥ac\;qKçm\;qv\ mv\k´.qiu≥eqa ek¥ac\;qKçm\;epnv\;" What kind of
monastery was this monastery?
• mv\k´.qiu≥eqaq¨qv\ mv\k´.qiu≥A”kMAsv\n˙c\. mv\qv\.lk\nk\m¥oi;®Pc\.
ps\Kt\qt\®Pt\jq∑a;qv\kiu" (To discover) what kind of person, with what
kind of motive, with what kind of weapon, had fired the fatal shot. With
suffix -mY and a negated verb (not) any N;
• qui≥®Pc\. mv\qui≥eqa AeÂkac\;eÂkac\;N˙c\.mY pn\;eta\Sk\wt†ra;
mp¥k\mk∑k\releAac\ q¨ qtiwiriy ”k^;s∑aTa;K´.qv\" And so it was that he
took great care not to fail for any reason at all in his duties as supplier of
flowers to the court.
mv\qv\ (N~) that which is called N, the entity known as N; nominalized
clause, FB, = CB Suita, cf FB h¨qv\; pron /m¥^q˙^/; translation of Pali na–ma,
that which is named;
• l¨≥sit\ mv\qv\ Aeta\ T¨;Sn\;f" The mind of man (“that which is called
the mind of man”) is a strange thing.
• kMf Ak¥oi; mv\qv\kiu ts\suMts\eyak\eqaq¨qv\ ta;®ms\®Kc\;c˙a mtt\Niuc\" No
one at all has the power to obstruct (this thing we call) the results, the
workings of karma.
• qalMnam" zrp\mv\qv\kui" The object known as zayat (nissaya).
mv\qv\. (~N) which?; selective noun, FB, = CB By\; pron /m¥^q˙i/;
• mv\qv\. Aa;ksa;kiu qc\ AN˙s\qk\SuM; ®Ps\qnv\;" Which is your favourite
sport? (= CB By\ Aa;ksa;kiu qc\ AN˙s\qk\SuM; ®Ps\ql´").
• mv\qv\.AKåt∑c\ mv\qiu≥ ®Ps\mv\hu kuqiul\kMk Kn\≥t∑k\Ta;eqaAKå" When
one’s karma decrees at what time and in what manner it will happen.
With suffix -mY and a negated verb (not) any N;
•mv\qv\.nv\;N˙c\.mY mlup\Niuc\" It can’t be done by any means at all (= CB
By\nv\;n´≥m˙ mlup\Niuc\B¨;").
mv\. (V~ N) N that will V, that is to V, that would have V-ed; vb atrb mkr
with future reference, FB, cf FB AM.eqa; = CB m´./my\;. used with negated and
193
non-negated verbs; from suffix mv\ with Induced creaky tone (see English
entries sv); pron /m¥i/;
• Tiuen≥ q∑a;mv\. Kr^;sU\" Our itinerary for that day.
• lm\;t∑c\ Sc\;mv\. Kr^;qv\m¥a;kiu em;j" (The bus conductor) asked which
passengers were going to alight on the way.
• ÈenraÒ cå≥kiu Pis^;mv\.Ara m¥a;s∑am‰˙i" In this place there was not much that
would oppress me.
• ts\epn^;n^; ‰˙v\mv\. wå;tut\eK¥ac\;kel;m¥a; ®Ps\qv\" They were short lengths
of bamboo that must have been nearly a foot long.
• ep¥a.v∑t\eK∑k¥eta.mv\.N˙y\ m˙t\Tc\rqv\" It looked as if it was going to soften
and bend.
mv\.S´S´- see under S´S´ on the point of
my\ 1 and variants m' m˙a (V~) will V, is going to V, would V, must V;
marks statement of future, intended action, or assumptions; stc mkr, CB, =
FB mv\ qv; attributive form m´. or my\. qv;
• nk\®Pn\ bma®pv\ ®pn\q∑a;my\" Tomorrow I go back to Burma.
• q∑a;påAuM;my\" Goodbye (“I’ll be going”).
• d^liu lup\rc\ ekac\;my\ Tc\ty\" I think you should do it like this.
• A´d^tun\;k hqçtha k¥reta.my\" At that time Henzada was going to fall,
its fall was inevitable.
• mn\k¥v\;q^; sa;P¨;my\ Tc\ty\" I think he must have eaten tamarinds
before.
• m˙n\lim\.my\" That may be true.
• ss\ m®Ps\Kc\k Siurc\ q¨k AN˙s\ N˙s\Sy\elak\p´ ‰˙iAuM;my\" Before the war, he
would only have been about 20.
• By\eta. ®p^;ml´" When will it finish?
• Arv\ ep¥a\melak\ ®Ps\enty\" It was on the point of melting.
• ts\KuKu wy\ep;rmla;" Should I buy you something?
• dên≥v Âkv\.mliu≥ ÂkMTa;ty\" I had thought of seeing (the film) this evening.
• lamla; mlamla; mqiP¨;" I don’t know whether he will come or not.
• q∑a;K∑c\. mrmliuliu" As if he weren’t going to get permission to go.
• m˙t\mimla;p´" (I thought) you might remember?
• Sra l˙eB qimla; mqiB¨;" I don’t know if Saya Hla Pe would know?
The form m˙a is mainly used in the contexts described below. Note the
contrasting ordering of my\ and m˙a with suffix på-: V-påmy\ but V-m˙apå"
(a) for emphasis, or when correcting the hearer’s mistaken view:
• qtiTa;" ePeP sit\Sui;m˙a" Take care! Father will be angry.
194
• Am¥a;Âk^; y¨m˙apå BÂk^;r´.' nv\;nv\; mhut\påB¨;" ®p^;eta. en≥tiuc\; y¨m˙a" They’re

going to take loads, Uncle! Not just a bit. And they’re going to take some
every day!
• q¨≥ saAup\kiu puMN˙ip\m˙a" Ahut\kiu e®pata" They are going to print his book! I
really mean it.
(b) as the preferred form before the phrase particles epå.' p´' på' kui; —
• dån´≥ bma®pv\ erak\P¨;m˙aepå." And so I suppose you’ve been to Burma?
• Sn\®pot\lv\; k¥k\eta.m˙apå" The rice gruel will be cooked in a minute.
• Agçln\m˙a KuAK¥in\Siu eta\eta\ eA;m˙ap´" It should be pretty cold in England at
this time (I imagine).
• lWc\.ps\liuk\RuMp´ ‰˙im˙aepå." All we shall be able to do then is throw them away.
V-m˙apå is common in sentences where English would use “I hope”:
• AK¥in\m˙^ rm˙apå" (I’m sure) you will, (I hope) you will, get it in time.
• ®mn\®mn\ qk\qam˙apå" (I hope) you will get better quickly.
• eK¥aeK¥aemaema erak\q∑a;m˙apå" (I’m sure) you’ll get there safely, have a safe
journey.
(c) when the information conveyed by the verb is already known to the
listener and the new information in the sentence is in one of the noun
phrases preceding the verb; compare English “cleft sentences”: It was be-
cause X that Y:
• d^®pn\erak\m˙p´ sa;rm˙a" It’s not till I get back home that I’ll be able to eat.
• enak\p∑´m˙a kium¥oi;v∑n\≥ esac\;mt^;B¨; Siu" Baliu≥ mt^;m˙al´" I hear you, Ko MN,
are not playing the harp at the next show. Why won’t you play?
• K%p´ Âkam˙apå" It’ll only take a moment.
(d) in pattern V-m˙a ®Ps\- “to be the case that sth will V”:
• tK¥oi>ha k¥eta. tk˚qiul\kiup´ Aa;kiu;rm˙a ®Ps\påty\" For some items we
shall have to depend on the university.
• kÁn\mtui≥ha ’ki;sa;m˙ Kr^;erak\m˙a ®Ps\påty\" We shall make progress only if
we work at it.
• A´dêta. l¨Tur´. s∑m\;Aa;n´≥Av^ lup\t´≥ s^mMkin\;m¥a;m˙ eAac\®mc\m˙a ®Ps\påty\"
Therefore, only those projects that are consistent with the the resources of
the people will succeed.
• qëqrc\ q¨≥mya;kiu q¨m¥a; y¨m˙a ®Ps\ty\" When he died, someone else would
take his wife.
(e) in pattern V-m˙a mhut\- will not V (“will V is not so”): a way of making
negative statements relating to the future, since the alternative m-V-B¨; etc
may also refer to present and past;
195
• Alup\tKukui lup\t´.enram˙a m˙n\m˙n\kn\kn\ mlup\lui≥‰˙irc\eta. eAac\®mc\Nuic\m˙a

mhut\B¨;" When you do a job, if you don’t do it honestly you will not
succeed.
• d^kiueta. liuk\lar´m˙a mhut\B¨;" They wouldn’t dare to come along here.
• qv\Atiuc\; AT^;k¥n\Ta;rc\ By\lium˙ l˙m˙a mhut\" If you leave it all on its
own like this it won’t look nice at all.
• mc\;tiu≥eka d^ka;n´≥ liuk\m˙a mhut\B¨;la;" Are you not going to take this bus?
my\ 2 see under _m˙a in, on, at
my\. see under m´. which will V, vb atrb mkr
m¥a; 1 (N~) Ns, indicates plural; nn mod, FB, = CB et∑, FB tiu≥;
• ek¥ac\;qëk¥ac\;qa;m¥a; SN∂®pÂkqv\" The students held a demonstration.
• emac\tc\l˙qv\ ek¥ac\;pit\rk\m¥a;t∑c\ lup\Aa;ep;sKn\;Ò ‰˙ilim\.mv\" During
school holidays Maung TH will be at the volunteer work camp.
• eKåc\;rc\;Bk\AKn\;m¥a;‰˙i AeSac\qël;m¥a; m¥a;eqaAa;®Pc\. A®pc\T∑k\Âkqv\"
The girls in the rooms down the hostel corridor had mostly gone out.
Note that Burmese may use m¥a; with words that are mass nouns in English,
e.g.
• ec∑m¥a; money; AmOik\m¥a; rubbish; priqt\m¥a; the audience; q¨m¥a; other people
(compare q¨tiu≥ they).
CB uses FB m¥a; in names and titles such as:
• tk˚qiul\Sram¥a;rip\qa University Staff Quarters; Alup\qma;m¥a;eka\m^t^
Workers’ Committee.
m¥a; 2 (Phr~) or something; serves to make phrase reference less precise,
less specific, particularly when speculating or suggesting; stc med phr ptcl,
mainly CB;
• dÂT´T´m˙am¥a; vHp\enmla;" Could it have slipped inside here or somewhere
(I wonder)?
• By\lium¥a; t¨;liu≥ rpålim\." However can they have dug it?
• bmats\eyak\eyak\n´≥m¥a; Kr^;q∑a;rc\ piuekac\;my\" It would be better if you
were to travel with some Burman.
• mp∑a;p∑a;r´. AeP Suitam¥a;la;‰˙c\" Are you Ma Pwa Pwa’s father?
• enak\ts\eyak\m¥a;la;lui≥" (I was wondering if) it might be another (baby on
the way)?
• Aip\m¥a; Aip\enmla; mqiB¨;" I wonder if he might be asleep or something.
• R¨;ty\m¥a; Tc\mla; mqiB¨;" I don’t know whether they would think me mad
or something.
Am¥a; see under m¥a;s∑a many
196
m¥a;s∑a or Am¥a; (N~) many Ns, most Ns; also m¥a;s∑aeqa-N; nn mod, mainly
FB, cf CB Am¥a;Âk^;' m¥a;m¥a;'
• ek¥ac\;qa;Am¥a; many students, most students (compare the simple plural
ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a; “the students”); N˙s\epåc\;m¥a;s∑a many years;
m¥a;s∑aeqaq¨tiu≥qv\ many people.
• ®pv\eTac\Bk\K¥c\; mc\;Am¥a;kiu Pit\Âka;f" He invited many kings of
neighbouring countries.
Note that in the extended FB form Ae®mak\A®ma; the spelling is unexpectedly
different:
• ®mn\maNiuc\cMAt∑c\; ly\k∑c\;”k^;m¥a;kiu Ae®mak\A®ma; et∑>rf" One can see very
many large paddy fields within Burma.
®m´ 1 or s®m´ (V~) always, V, habitually, V; stc mkr, CB+FB;
• nv\;nv\; m¨;®p^ SiulYc\ U^;el;k A®ps\‰˙as®m´" When he got a bit drunk, Uncle
always found fault.
• l¨Siuta enak\SMu;eta. kiuy\.lm\;kiuy\elYak\Âkrs®m´p´" It is the lot of man that
each of us must always find his own way.
• miKc\ kmıalip\m”k^;klv\; qm^; my\eT∑; erak\Alakiu emYa\enel.‰˙i®m´" Her
mother the great turtle would always watch out for the arrival of her
daughter Me Htway.
• Tui≥eÂkac\. rp\T´r∑aT´´k l¨tiu≥qv\ Piu;qëta\kiu q¨ëta\sc\A®Ps\®Pc\. yMum˙t\Ruik¥oi;
®mt\Nui;Âk®m´´ ®Ps\qv\" And that is why ordinary people always have respect
for a po-thudaw and regard him as a virtuous person.
• tpiu≥t´∑lraq^t∑c\ k¥c\;p®m´ ®Ps\eqa rTa;p´∑" The feast of the chariots, that is
always held in the month of Tabodwe.
®m´ 2 (V~ V) to V as before, to continue V-ing; stc med phr ptcl with re-
stricted distribution, CB+FB;
• ek¥ac\;As\m”k^:ka; By\q¨ tra;®pjm˙ tra;mk¥' ciu®m´ ciu' priedwm^; etak\®m´
etak\jqa enelqv\" Whoever it was that preached the doctrine to her,
the devoted lady could not see the truth. She wept as before, she was as
anguished as ever.
• ®pn\lv\e®paSiu®Kc\; m®poep" put^;sip\®m´´ sip\enelqv\" He made no response, but
continued to tell his beads without breaking off.
• Tiuqui≥ erWtiu;hu m˙v\.eKÅ“p^;eqa\lv\; … kÁN\up\qv\ mv\qui≥mY mT¨;®Ka;B´
laB\pit\®m´ pit\eneqaeÂkac\." Although I was called Shway To (“gold
increases”) things continued in the same way and good fortune was
denied me as before.
• Tp\mM AqM®poÂkv\.qv\" tit\Sit\®m´ tit\Sit\enqv\" They tried making a
noise again. Everything remained silent.
197
e®mak\ 1 (N~, Nº+N~, Nº+N~eqa) -th, indicates ordinal number; verb

attribute, truncated and full, CB+FB;
• pUßme®mak\ eg¥a.Burc\mc\;®mt\ King George V; dutiye®mak\ qa; second son; 36
”kim\e®mak\ ®pv\ny\n´≥tiuc\;p∑´ the 36th States and Divisions Festival;
qMu;rk\e®mak\ Tiu;liuk\t´.AKå when he injected (the drug) on the third day;
cå;rk\e®mak\eqa en> the fifth day; N˙s\Tp\e®mak\eqa nt\®pv\ the second
(level) deva heaven.
• rc\eq∑;el;Ë; ‰˙it´.AT´m˙a dutiye®mak\ ®Ps\påty\" He was the second of their
four children.
e®mak\- 2 (V~-) to achieve V-ing; comm elem cpd vb, CB+FB;
• ®p^;(e®mak\)qv\ to complete; ®Ps$e®mak$qv\ to take place; l∑t$e®mak$qv\ to
escape; e®pac$e®mak$qv\ to excel; tt$e®mak$qv\ to master (a skill).
m˙ 1 (N~) (a) from (place or time); sts m˙qv\; nn mkr, FB, = CB k; equiva-
lent of Pali ablative case in nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p 200);
• ts\enram˙ ts\enraqiu≥ (= CB ts\enrak ts\enra)" From one place to
another.
• tepåc\;l®pv\\.ek¥a\ ts\rk\en≥m˙ wåSiul®pv\.en≥ATiqv\ eN∑kal ®Ps\qv\" The
hot season is from the first of the waning moon of Tabaung to the full
moon day of Wazo.
• ek¥ac\; P∑c\.qv\m˙ sj ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a; sa’ki;sa;qv\" The pupils worked hard
from the day school began.
• Am˙n\tra;Bk\m˙ Sk\lk\ tiuk\p∑´ wc\Âkrmv\. kÁNu\p\tiu≥" We who must continue
to fight on the side of right.
• raT¨;m˙ K¥qv\" They dismissed him from his post.
• rn\q¨tiu≥qv\ tk\sin\ KMtp\m˙ KuKMÂkqv\" The enemy resisted from the TS
stronghold, held out in the TS fortress.
• BÂk^;f t¨mwm\;k´∑ ts\eyak\m˙ em∑;eqa As\kiuwm\;k´∑ ts\eyak\ ®Ps\qv\" He
was a cousin born of one of her uncle’s nieces.
• Ruk eta' qs\pc\m˙" Âqtrit∑a' qk\j" Descending from the tree (nissaya).
Variant form m˙qv\ is used in formal styles, especially in chronicles:
• ‘mi>kel;m˙qv\ esaew‰˙ira r∑k\pun\;q^;‘mi>kel;qui≥ m¥U\;e®Pac\.ts\eÂkac\;
S´∑Âkv\.luik\qv\" He drew a straight line from the little town to the town of
YPT where SW now was.
• rn\kun\m˙qv\ ts\Niuc\cMlMu;qiu≥ p¥M>N˙M≥q∑a;qv\" It spread from Yangon to the whole
country.
• etac\;pn\eqa m¥k\lMu;m¥a;m˙qv\ Aa;kiu;eqa m¥k\lMu;m¥a; Aq∑c\qui≥
e®pac\;q∑a;elqv\" Her eyes, that had been suppliant, now looked
confident of his support.
198
(b) in pattern N-m˙enj from (place or time); sub cls, FB, = CB ken®p^;'
the main difference between m˙enj and simple m˙ seems to be that the former
is clearer and less ambiguous than the latter;
• AP∑a;”k^;k qMskak∑y\m˙enj k´Âkv\.qv\" The old woman eyed me from
behind the iron grille.
• Tiudutiy sKn\;m˙enj Âkv\.eqa\" When we looked on it from that second
camp.
• pui;hp\qv\ saAup\sc\m˙enj sa;p´∑epÅqui≥ k¨;e®pac\;er∑>l¥a;laK´.qv\" The
cockroach crawled across from the bookshelf to the table.
(c) in pattern N1-m˙ N2 the N2 from the N1, by the N1, near the N1; =
CB N1-k N2;
• s^mMKn\≥K∑ér;piuc\;m˙ saR∑k\satm\;m¥a;' As^rc\KMsam¥a;" Documents and reports from
the administration.
• kun\;lm\;qy\y¨piu≥eSac\er;AP∑´>m˙ yaU\emac\;lup\qa;tiu≥f Bwkiu el.laK´.påqv\"
I studied the way of life of vehicle drivers from the Road Transport Board.
• spå;K∑Mkiu Py\‰˙a;ps\liuk\lYc\ At∑c\;m˙ spå;es.kiu et∑>Niuc\qv\" If you remove the
paddy husk you can see the paddy seed inside.
• påt^y¨ns\RuM;m˙ Ara‰˙im¥a; Ev\.KMqv\" Officials from the Party Unit Office
entertained them.
(d) marks N as subject of sentence, when the subject is a personal agent,
or an inanimate noun standing for a personal agent. In this usage, FB m˙ is
equivalent to FB k, but in CB k has more contrastive force; e.g. vWn\Âka;er;
mØ;k SuK¥^;®mHc\.påeta.mv\ or vWn\Âka;er;mØ;m˙ SuK¥^;®mHc\.påeta.mv\ or CB vWn\Âka;er;
mØ;k SuK¥^;®mHc\.påeta.my\" “The director will now present the prizes”. This use
of m˙ is frequent in modern formal style, but purists regard it as erroneous.
• Atk\ASc\;tMKå;kui Kr^;qv\m¥a;m˙ mP∑c\.rpåB¨;" Passengers are not to open the
entry-exit door.
• S¨p¨q¨m¥a;Aa; luMK¥oMer;m˙ Pm\;S^;rmi®p^; ss\em;rat∑c\" When the Security forces
arrested the rioters and questioned them.
• yKu AK¥in\AKåÒ tp\meta\m˙ Niuc\cMeta\Aa%a Arp\rp\kiu tawn\y¨K´.®p^;" At the
present time the Army has taken over responsibility for (exercising)
various state powers.
m˙ 2 sts m˙qa or påm˙ (V~) only if, only when V; sub cls mkr, CB+FB; often
translatable as “not V until V, unless V”;
• Dåt\puMet∑Baet∑ påm˙ Pt\Âkpåty\" They read them only if they have
pictures, won’t read unless they have pictures in.
199
• saer;Alup\kl´ lk\N˙ip\sk\ 55-60-70 ts\mins\kiu Riuik\Niuc\m˙' k∑n\®pøta

tt\påm˙ rm˙a" And as for a secretarial job, only if you can type 55-60-70
words a minute, only if you know how to use a computer, will you get one.
• rv\;sa; luM;w m‰˙im˙ qeBak¥Âkty\" They only like it if (a girl) has no
boyfriends at all.
• Tmc\; sa;®p^;m˙ ®pn\ena\" Don’t go home till you have had something to eat.
• N˙s\rk\quM;rk\elak\ Âkam˙ sarty\" It was only after two or three days had
passed that she got a letter.
• Aup\K¥op\q¨ eql∑n\m˙ AraKMqa;e®m; Sk\KMrqv\" Only when the ruling person
died could the next descendant in line take over (the position).
• N˙c\;S^tp∑c\.kui puik\SM ep;wy\m˙qa rtt\takui lk\KMepmy\." Though I knew
that I could only get a rose if I paid for it.
Also common in CB in incomplete sentences:
• lk\eSac\el; Bael; ep;m˙ (supply ®Ps\my\)" Only if we give him a little
present or something (will it be OK). We’d better give ….
• ekac\;ekac\; qti Ta;m˙ (eta\my\)" (We had better) be very careful.
• A®pc\ T∑k\m˙ (®Ps\my\) Tc\ty\" I think we’d better go outside (e.g. when the
building is about to be closed).
• hiuk\ m^;p∑ioc\. nêta.my\ Tc\ty\" ®mn\®mn\l∑t\eAac\ nc\;m˙p´" Oh oh. The traffic
lights are just going to turn red, I think. Better pedal fast so I’m not
caught.
In pattern V-K¥c\m˙ V, or V-m˙ V probably will not V; see also sv K¥c\m˙;
• Sra dên≥ ek¥ac\; laK¥c\m˙ lamy\" Saya probably won’t come to school
today.
• qeBaekac\;tiuc\;l´ Ak¥c\.sarit†k ekac\;K¥c\m˙ ekac\;tael" It’s not likely
that everyone who is kind also has an upright character.
• me®pac\;l´B´ enK¥c\m˙ enm˙a" They are not likely to remain unchanged.
m˙ 3 sts m˙qa (Phr~) only Phr, not other than Phr; stc med phr ptcl,
CB+FB; often translatable as “not V till Phr, not V except Phr”;
• mnk\m˙ lup\påmy\" Only in the morning will I do it. I won’t do it till the
morning (cf also mnk\ k¥m˙ with m˙ = only when).
• AKum˙ qity\" I didn’t know till now.
• etac\epÅm˙am˙ epåk\ty\" It only grows in the hills.
• Aqk\ ”k^;t´. lët∑m˙ q∑a;naÂkta" Only the old people go and listen.
• Aim\ m®pn\Kc\kel;m˙am˙ erak\laty\" She didn’t arrive till just before I left
for home.
• Nuic\cM®Ka;qa;m˙ erac\;my\t´." They say they are only selling to foreigners.
200
• Aqa;mat´. Tc\;ha t®Pv\;®Pv\;m˙ m^;etak\ty\" Firewood of hard wood

takes time to catch fire (“only catches slowly”).
m˙ 4 CB = FB mY (Phr~) (a) even, so much as Phr, in the pattern ts\-N-m˙/mY
“even one N”, or nń´m˙/mY (and similar) “even a little”, followed by a negated
verb; stc med phr ptcl, CB+FB;
• piuk\SM ts\®pa;m˙ mpåK´.B¨;" I didn’t have a penny (“not even one”) on me.
• Aim\m˙al´ Ev\.qv\ts\eyak\m˙ m‰˙iB¨;" There isn’t any visitor (“not even one”)
in the house.
• qMRMu;T´qui≥ kÁn\eta\ ts\eKåk\mY merak\eq;på" I have never (“even once”) been
inside an embassy.
• q¨tiu≥kiu ts\eyak\mY l˙m\;mÂkv\.Âk" No one looked at them.
• Anv\;cy\mY m’kik\ (= CB nń´m˙ m’kik\B¨;)" I don’t like it in the least, at all.
• ts\eyak\n´≥m˙ met∑>P¨;B¨;" We have never met any of them.
(b) any Phr, when suffixed to an interrogative phrase and followed by a
negated verb;
• BaADipπåy\m˙ mrB¨;" It hasn’t any meaning, has no meaning at all.
• By\eqaAKåkmY myuMÂkv\K´.på" I didn’t at any time believe it, I never believed
it.
• By\Srawn\N˙c\.mY mkuqliu" I don’t want any doctor at all to treat me.
• By\puMN˙ip\sk\m˙ mAa;ÂkB¨;" Not a single printing press was free.
• mv\q¨kmY rn\swM.mv\ mhut\" No one will dare to provoke a fight.
• mv\q¨≥TMmY AK∑c\.mpn\metac\;K´.p´" Without asking anyone.
• qv\psßv\;eta. Kc\b¥a; By\nv\;n´≥m˙ ®pn\mrNiuc\B¨;" There is no way in which you
can recover this property.
Sts in the pattern interrogative + ts\-N-m˙/mY, giving more force to the
expression;
• mv\q¨ts\Ë;ts\eyak\At∑k\mY mhut\eqa kÁn\eta\.f kb¥asaAup\" My book of
verse, which was not (written) for anyone at all.
• Ae®P Bats\Kum˙ mm˙n\B¨;" Not a single answer was right.
• Ba ska;ts\K∑n\;n´≥m˙ mta;®ms\Nuic\K´.rt´. min\;kel;ts\eyak\" A young woman
who was not to be held back by any single word.
m˙ 5 (Phr~) emphatic, used in a range of patterns and combinations usually
with some forceful or vivid effect; stc med phr ptcl, mainly CB;
(a) In pattern V-m˙ m-V-B´ and similar without V-ing (how could …
?!), often in incomplete sentences:
• lip\sam˙ mqiB´ By\ er;liu≥ ®Ps\ml´" How could he possibly write without
knowing her address?
201
• piuk\SMm˙ mpåB´" I didn’t even have any money on me (so how could I possibly
have bought some?)
• lk\pedåm˙a qr%gM utc\sra Bun\;Âk^;m˙ m‰˙itakui;" After all, it wasn’t as if
there were a monk in L who could conduct the merit-sharing ceremony.
• q¨k AK¥in\kiu el;sa;AqMu;K¥tt\t´.l¨m˙ mhut\B´kiu" After all, without his being
a person who understands how to use his time (how could you expect him
to have done it efficiently?).
(b) In pattern V1-lui≥m˙ m-V2 not to V2 even if V1, even when V1:
• kisß ®p^;lui≥ eÂk∑Aui;e‰˙>k K∑aluik\rc\eta. eBac\;B^ zs\S∑´tc\lui≥m˙ m®p^;eq;Kc\
Sp\®paeremW;ts\m¥oi; T∑k\k¥la®p^; eS;eÂkaqn\≥sc\ps\luik\påty\" After you
have concluded your business (in a public lavatory) and have stood up
from the bowl, you have barely zipped up your trousers before some
fragrant cleansing fluid gushes out and cleans the pan.
• TuiAt∑k\ AK¥in\N˙s\pt\ ep;Ta;qv\" 2pt\ ek¥a\lui≥m˙ d%\ec∑ erak\mlalYc\ …
tra;RuM;qui≥ Sc\.sa Tut\qv\" For this (payment of parking fine) they give you
two weeks. If two weeks pass and the fine is not received they issue a
summons to court.
• lk\wå;kui eTac\Âkv\.lui≥m˙ lk\Âka; m®mc\r" (It was so dark) you couldn’t see
between your fingers even if you held your hand open in front of your
face.
• cå;k¥p\tn\el; ts\R∑k\m˙ eyac\lui≥m˙ T∑k\mlaÂkpåB¨;" They didn’t come
forward to offer even a measly five kyat note (to the performer), not even
by mistake.
• Aer;AKc\; ‰˙ilui≥m˙ eKÅrc\etac\ ml∑y\l˙påla;" If there were some emergency
it wouldn’t be easy to call them (because their names are so long).
(c) In pattern Phr-m˙ V-på≥mla; Would it really V? Could it possibly
V?; often with the verb repeated: V-m˙ V-på≥mla;"
• q¨¨kti tv\m˙ tv\på≥mla;" Can I rely on him keeping his promise?
• m^^;rTa; m˙^m˙ m˙^på≥AuM;mla;" Shall we be in time for the train?
• bmasakium˙ ekac\;ekac\; Pt\Niuc\påAuM;mla;" Will she still be able even to read
Burmese properly ?
• eR∑;ekak\p∑´m˙ ®Ps\på.mla;l´ mqiB¨;" And I wonder if there will even be an
election.
• cåetac\ Aim\m˙ erak\m˙ erak\påAuM;mla;lui≥ eAak\em.enta" I wondered if I’d
ever get home.
(d) In pattern Phr-m˙ mVrc\ if not V with Phr, with the suggestion that
Phr ought to work, that it’s the last resort:
• A´d^lium˙ mrrc\" If we can’t manage (even) that way.
202
• dåelak\m˙ myMuÂkv\rrc\l´ Baliu≥ ts\eyak\n´≥ ts\eyak\

Aim\eTac\‘pÂkeq;ql´" If they don’t even trust each other to that extent,
then why did they marry each other?
• t^b∑^ts\luM; wy\K´.på ePeP' dåm˙ mhut\rc\ b^d^yiu®psk\ts\luM;" Buy a TV set (in
Japan), Daddy! Or failing that a video player.
(e) In pattern N-m˙ … mhut\ it is not N, with the suggestion that N is
impressive enough, but the truth is even more remarkable:
• d^luirp\k∑k\kel;T´kuipc\ q¨k t^b∑^ wy\laK´.miqv\" t^b∑^m˙ eq;eq;el; mhut\"
lk\m 20 t^b∑^ ®Ps\qv\" It was into a neighbourhood of this sort that he
introduced a TV set. And this TV was no small thing. It was a 20" TV.
• Kc\b¥a;. ek¥ac\;Sraha … q¨¨pun\Âk^^;teyak\ ®Ps\en®p^^b¥ hut\la;" q¨¨pun\m˙
N˙y\N˙y\rr mhut\P¨;ena\" … EramADipti q¨¨pun\Âk^^;" Now your school teacher
has become a rebel. Do you understand? And he’s not just any small-
time rebel, he’s a powerful rebel leader!
(f) In pattern ts\-N-m˙ per N, distributive, with a suggestion of “even for
a whole N, only …”:
• pietak\pn\;elak\ Ap¥c\;Âk^;t´.pn\; m‰˙iB¨;" ts\N˙s\m˙ ts\Kå' ts\Kåm˙ ts\rk\'
dåetac\ mui;R∑am˙ _ h∑n\;" The padauk is the laziest of all the flowers. In the
whole year (it flowers) only once. And that once is only for a day. And
even then it’s only if there’s rain. Humph!
• lk\e®K∑p∑c\.et∑ ts\p∑c\.m˙ ts\mt\T´" Hand picked flowers! Only 25 pya a
blossom.
• buiekkÁn\;k l∑n\era kÁMera ts\N˙s\m˙ 3000-elak\p´ k¥n\epm´." Even when
(their plot on) BK island was at its most prolific, in a whole year they only
had about K3000 left over.
(g) In pattern N-m˙ N only N is N, i.e. N is one of a kind, unmatched:
• kÁn\mk neBSn\≥k¥c\er;qma; mhut\qlui neBm˙ neBqma;lv\; m®Ps\påresn´≥"
While I am not against rhyme chains, I hope that I will (“may I”) not be a
writer who must have rhyme chains at all costs.
• k¥p\es.n´≥ m®Ps\B¨;k∑" mt\es.m˙ mt\es." It doesn’t work with a K1 coin. It must
be a 25 pya coin.
(h) In pattern V-m˙ V V really, immensely, tremendously, strongly
emphatic; a usage at first associated with Moulmein, but now widespread:
• ekac\;m˙ ekac\;" It’s really good.
• sp\m˙ sp\" It’s as hot/spicy as can be.
• dêlak\ eta\t.´l¨kui ‰˙a;m˙ ‰˙a;m˙n\; qity\" I know it’s really hard to find sn
as talented as he is.
(i) In pattern V-m˙p´ they have already V-ed, etc;
203
• m˙n\;' By\elak\m¥a; Âkaq∑a;ql´" AN˙s\qMu;eTac\etac\ ek¥a\m˙p´" Now let’s see:

How long did it last? It must be over 3000 years!
• m∑n\;l∑élak\ erak\my\ Tc\ty\" _ m∑n\;l∑énm˙p´" I imagine they’ll be here a
little after noon. — It is after noon already.
• qÂka; Tv\.ep;luik\rmla;" _ Sra Tv\.luik\m˙p´" Should I put in some
sugar for you? — I’ve put some in already.
• ek¥ak\m^;eq∑; qy\enrta qna;ty\b¥a" Aqk\Âk^;enm˙p´" I was sorry for them
having to carry coal around. They were old by then.
(j) In combination with Ac\mtn\ and Al∑n\˙ “very” very very, ex-
tremely:
• James Last Suit´. namv\ha ®mn\maNuic\cMqa;et∑At∑k\ Al∑n\ rc\;N˙^;enK´.®p^;
Ac\mtn\m˙lv\; ’kik\K´.Âkpåty\" The name of JL is well known to Burmese
people and he is extremely popular.
• Al∑n\m˙ rk\sk\tap´" They were very cruel.
(k) In combination V-m˙®Pc\. if V, when V:
• lët∑k q¨¨tui≥ luiK¥c\takui mrpla; Suim˙®Pc\. rn\lup\tt\Âkty\" People become
hostile when they don’t get what they want.
• eS∑ry\m¥oi;ry\ m‰˙im˙®Pc\. l¨¨tuic\;k ATc\eq;K¥c\ty\" If you have no relatives
everyone looks down on you.
• qKc\et∑ tra;p∑´ lup\pla; Suim˙®Pc\. q¨¨k ‘mi>T´´R∑aT´´ elYak\®p^^; eAa\rhs\rty\"
When the Thakhins were to hold a political meeting it was his job to go
round the streets shouting out the news.
(l) In combination V-m˙®Pc\. What if V? Suppose V, in incomplete
sentences:
• qa;ry\' meta\tS l´‘p®p^; k¥oi;p´.q∑a;m˙®Pc\." My son: suppose you fell by
accident and broke an arm or a leg?
• meta\tS ps\Kt\q∑a;m˙®Pc\.b¥a" Suppose they were to open fire?
(m) In other patterns and combinations so far not fully understood, but
all suggesting some extra emphasis:
• [eZ;wy\] lt\eta. lt\påty\ena\" _ [eZ;erac\;] eAa\' sit\K¥" mlt\m˙aeta.
mp¨n´≥" … lt\qm˙ Arv\kui trWm\;rWm\;n´≥" (Shopper:) They are fresh aren’t
they? (Shopkeeper:) Oh, have no fear! Don’t have any concern about
their not being fresh. As for freshness, they are positively bursting with
juice.
• d^haTk\ Am¥a;Âk^; pui®p^; N∑m\;ny\t´. k¥p\tn\kel;et∑m˙ Am¥a;Âk^;p´" There were
after all many other K1 notes that were much more shabby than this one.
204
• kÁn\eta\ Bam˙ m®Ps\påla; ePeP" k¥n\;matam˙ edåc\edåc\ mv\entap´" There’s

nothing wrong with me, Father! As for being healthy I positively resound
with health!
• q¨lv\; Rut\trk\ ep¥a\q∑a;ty\" AM.lv\; AM.Âqq∑a;mity\" AM.Âqtam˙ Aeta\kui
AM.Âqq∑a;ta" He too suddenly felt happy. He was also astonished. He was
very astonished.
• lKTut\rk\ mhut\eq;eqa\lv\; Aim\‰˙c\.S^k ’kitc\etac\;laK´.Piu≥ qtim˙
rpå.mla;" Though it wasn’t yet payday for the month, (she wondered) if he
would really remember to ask for the money in advance from their
landlord.
• Acy\mel;k vv ekac\;ekac\;m˙ Aip\r´.la; mqi" She didn’t even know
whether her younger daughter was sleeping well at night.
• t´Áim\cy\Tk\t∑c\ em∑;kc\;skel;cy\N˙c\.m˙ lël;eyak\qa ‰˙iqv\" There were
only four people in the little hut, even including the newborn baby.
m˙ts\Sc\.' m˙tSc\. see under ts\Sc\. through, via
m˙ts\på;' m˙tpå; 2 see under ts\på; apart from
m˙enj see under m˙ from
m˙Ap see under (A)p outside of
m˙qv\ see under m˙ from
m˙a 1 sts my\ (N~) in, at, on; per (with units of measure); nn mkr, FB+CB,
= FB t∑c\' Ò' wy\; the variant my\ is associated with rural areas and Upper
Burma;
• q¨≥miBet∑ mN †el;m˙a enpåty\ (= FB q¨f miBm¥a; mN †el;m˙a enpå
qv\)" Her parents live in Mandalay.
• satiuk\ By\na;m˙al´" Whereabouts is the post-office?
• UÂqt∑n\qMkiu eN∑U^;m˙a Âka;rqv\" The call of the cuckoo is heard at the
beginning of summer.
• ts\lm˙a eTac\.cå;ra rty\" She gets 1500 a month.
• ts\N˙s\m˙a ts\Kå AÂk^;Ak¥y\ erlYMt´. ®ms\" A river that floods heavily once a
year.
• U^;pin\;tMta;my\ esac\.enmy\" I’ll be waiting at U Pein’s bridge.
m˙a “in, at” is subject to the same rule as k' m˙ “from” and kui' qui≥ “to” in not
being suffixed directly to personal referents: instead these suffixes are
preceded by CB S^ or FB TM “place”:
• kÁn\eta\tiu≥S^m˙a latŃiuc\påty\" You can come and stay with us, at our
place.
• cå.qm^;TMm˙a dÂiu;kiu Ta;K´´.påres" May I leave this pot with you, in your place?
205
• g^tSramts\eyak\TMm˙a ASiuqc\tn\; tk\esK´.f" He had her attend a

singing class with a music teacher.
There is one common exception to the above rule. m˙a is suffixed directly to a
personal referent in the pattern N1-m˙a N2 ‰˙i- “N1 has an N2” (“there is an N2
at/with N1”):
• kÁn\eta\tiu≥m˙a piuk\SM qip\ m‰˙iB¨;" We haven’t got much money.
• emac\l˙m˙a t¨N˙c\. lW ‰˙iqv\" Maung Hla has a hammer and a saw.
m˙a 2 (N~, Phr~) indicates topic of sentence, usually the subject; nn mkr or
stc med phr ptcl, FB, sts CB; cf CB ha “topic”, FB qv\' ka; “topic”; common
in defining or equational sentences; sts contrasting with a preceding topic;
• kM wiBt\m˙a {kiu} ®Ps\qv\" The object suffix is ko.
• emac\sM‰˙a;m˙a Alup\m“p^;k AAip\Asa;kiu Kc\mc\q¨ts\eyak\ mhut\q®Pc\." As
Maung SS was a man who had no care for eating or sleeping if his work
was unfinished.
• ss\tn\; ekak\rqv\. AeÂkac\;m˙a … qirn\ ®Ps\påqv\" The reason for keeping
sit-tan records was to know ….
• hut\qv\' m˙n\qv\" U^;Br^ e®paqv\m˙a m˙n\qv\" True. Correct. What U BY
said was correct.
• qti‘prmv\m˙a Trn\ssßta Am¥oi;Asa;pc\ ®Ps\qv\" Something we have to pay
attention to is the type of transistor.
• zatiK¥k\eÂk∑ em∑;rp\e®m' rm\;®b´kÁn\; kc\;r∑aqiu≥ qtireÂkac\; P∑´>SiuTa;qv\m˙a …"
His words in remembrance of his birthplace Kin Village on Ramree were
….
• sp¥s\q^;AK¥oi>qv\ K¥U\qv\" AK¥oi>m˙a K¥oiqv\" Some grapes are sour, and some
are sweet.
• wk\qa;ha tRut\n´≥ bmaet∑APiu≥ Asa;ekac\; ®Ps\epmy\. pq^kula;et∑APiu≥m˙aeta.
r∑MsP∑y\lili ®Ps\enqliuepå." For the Chinese and Burmese pork is
(considered) a good foodstuff, but for the Muslim Indians it is as if it were
disgusting.
• qëp;liuk\t´. ska;ha k¥op\At∑k\m˙aeta. Ac\mtn\ qiqaTc\‰˙a;taB´" For me
at least the message he has sent is extremely clear.
• È‘mi>kiu qim\;y¨rn\m˙a nv\;ts\nv\;qa ‰˙ielqv\" To take this town there was
only one way.
Common in the pattern V-qv\m˙a Âka- “V-ing has been long” and similar (cf
CB V-ta):
• rn\kun\qiu≥ erak\enqv\m˙a quM;rk\Kn\≥ ‰˙i®p^" I have been in Yangon about three
days.
• AemN˙c\. met∑≥rqv\m˙a Âkal˙®p^" She hadn’t met her mother for a long time.
206
• saqc\qMGa (60) ek¥a\tiu≥Aa; saepk¥m\;gn\m¥a; piu≥K¥laK´.qv\m˙a yen≥tiuc\eAac\

®Ps\påqv\" He has been teaching sacred texts to a group of over 60 student
monks right up to the present time.
Common in the combination N h¨qv\m˙a or N Suiqv\m˙a (= CB Siuta) specially
when followed by a definition:
• qutsaep h¨qv\m˙a Aky\ ®Ps\eqa AeÂkac\;ts\rp\rp\kiu er;qa;eqa saep
®Ps\påqv\" General knowledge literature is literature written on a subject
that really exists, really happened (i.e. not imagined).
• yU\ek¥;mO Siuqv\m˙a l¨m¥oi;ts\m¥oi;f pc\mereqak\®ms\ ®Ps\ra" Culture is the
main source of (the identity of) a race.
• KMuRMu; Siuqv\m˙a A®Ka;mhut\" 3 påt^ KMuRMu;®Ps\qv\" What this tribunal was, was
a three-party tribunal.
m˙a 3 (V~) that which will be V-ed, thing that is to be V-ed, V-ing; con-
verts a verb clause with future reference to a “nominalized clause”, a noun-
like entity that can be used as a noun in a larger sentence; sp hd nn, CB; =
FB V-mv\' V-mv\m˙a; cf V-ta; formed from my\+ha“thing”;
(a) the verbal noun behaves like an ordinary noun and combines with
noun modifiers (such as et∑) and noun markers (such as n´≥' eÂkac\.):
• eZ;wy\rm˙aet∑kiu sU\;sa;enty\" I was thinking over the things I have to buy.
• erd^yiu' Rup\®mc\qMÂka;ken®p^; lWc\.K∑c\. ep;påty\" dåepm´. q¨tiu≥ e®pam˙aet∑kiu
’kitc\®p^; tc\®prpåty\" They are allowed to make radio and television
broadcasts, but they have to submit what they are going to say (to the
censor) beforehand.
• Ev\.qv\et∑ mnk\Pn\ lam˙amiu≥ kÁn\m qip\ Alup\m¥a;enpåty\" I am very busy
because visitors are coming tomorrow.
• mnk\Pn\At∑k\ er;rm˙a ‰˙ieq;qla;" Have you still got something to write for
tomorrow?
• qkçn\;wt\m˙an´≥ BamY mSuic\B¨;" It’s nothing to do with the fact that you’re
going to don the robe of a monk.
(b) in sentences embedded before appropriate verbs:
• emac\eta\ larc\ eragåk¨;m˙a sui;lui≥ Kului puwån´≥ PuM;Ta;rtapå" I was concerned
that if you (Maungdaw) came you might catch the infection, so I covered it
with a cloth.
• Aem sit\mekac\;m˙a siu;liu≥ me®pata" I didn’t mention it because I was afraid
it might make Mother unhappy.
• d^ha mlup\rB¨;lui≥ e®parm˙a kÁn\eta\.Aenn´≥ Ac\mtn\m˙ wn\el;påty\" For my
part, I am extremely reluctant to have to say we mustn’t do this.
207
• Aip\mk\Ar Siurc\ Burc\®Ps\m˙a eqK¥aen®p^" According to the dream, it is certain

that he will be king.
• pn\; nv\;eta. esaesakun\m˙a eqK¥aqv\" As she had few flowers (to sell) it
was certain that she would run out early.
• k∑n\p¥øtar´. A®pn\Al˙n\tMu≥®pn\Niuc\mO (Interactivity) ha ek¥ac\;qa;et∑r´. qiliusit\'
s¨;sm\;liusit\et∑kiu ®Pv\.Sv\;ep;Niuc\m˙aeÂkac\. ek¥ac\;qa;et∑ha qc\Kn\;saet∑kiu
sit\wc\sa;mO piu®p^;‰˙ilam˙aketa. Tc\‰˙a;påty\" Since the interactivity of a
computer can satisfy the curiosity of the students, it is clear that they will
take a greater interest in their lessons.
• A®pt\Aqt\ eK¥mOn\;KMrm˙akui kak∑y\Pui≥" To take precautions against being
overwhelmingly defeated.
• Alv\®pn\m˙akiu e®patala;" Did he say that he was coming back for a visit?
m˙a 4 see under my\ will V, stc mkr
m˙^ see under Kc\ before V-ing
mO (V~, N~) (a) legal case of N, of V-ing; comm elem cpd nn, CB+FB;
• ®ps\mO crime, charge; mudim\;mO rape case; Kiu;mO theft.
(b) act, deed of V-ing, used to form abstract nouns from verbs and sts
nouns; sp hd nn; cf V-K¥k\' V-®Kc\;' V-er;' V-qv\' V-ta;
• l∑t\e®mak\er; lOp\‰˙a;mO liberation movement; kuqiul\ekac\;mO a work of merit;
suepåc\;lup\kiuc\mO cooperative activity; l¨mO Sk\SMer; social relations; l¨mOer;
mYtmO social justice; eK¥ac\;e®mac\;tiuk\Kiuk\mO sniping; N˙s\Pk\sluM;kl´
na;lv\mOn´≥ Sk\SMrmy\" And both sides must treat each other with
understanding.
mØ; (N~) chief N, head N, leader of Ns; comm elem cpd nn, CB+FB;
• saÂkv\.tuik\mØ; librarian; V∑n\Âka;er;mØ; director; @anmØ; head of department;
AeSac\mØ; warden (of a hostel); Ak¥oi;eSac\At∑c\;er;mØ; Honorary Secretary;
kc\;mØ; leader of a patrol; sPuimØ; chef, head cook; buil\mØ; major, lieutenant
commander
mOi>' mOi>lui≥ see under miu≥ because
mOt\la; contraction of mhut\B¨;la; isn’t that so?
m˙n\lYc\ FB = CB m˙n\rc\ (N~) if sth is a true N, if sth qualifies as N, any
genuine N; sub cls, FB+CB; cf CB ®Ps\rc\' Suirc\;
• budÎBaqa®mn\mal¨¨cy\ m˙n\lYc\ Bun\;”k^;ek¥ac\;qa;A®Ps\' kiurc\kel;A®Ps\®Pc\.
Bun\;”k^;ek¥ac\;t∑c\ enP¨¨;Âkqv\" Any young Burmese male has lived in a
monastery as a monastery boy or as a novice monk.
• l¨”k^;lëkac\; m˙n\rc\ tui≥Ae®KAenm˙n\kui na;lv\m˙ap´" If they are genuinely
responsible people they will understand our circumstances.
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• eyak¥\a;m˙n\rc\ ‰˙c\m®poB¨;t´.q¨ … ry\liu≥ m‰˙ieAac\ ‰˙a;påty\" Among those

who are male, there are so few who have not worn the robe as to be non-
existent.
m˙n\qmY all that are truly N: see under mY as much as
m˙n\qeR∑>' m˙n\qj all that are truly N: see under eR∑> as much as
m˙n\; (V~, Stc~) that Stc, the fact that Stc; sub cls mkr and sub stc mkr,
CB+FB; usually with verb qi- but occasionally found with other verbs;
suffixed to noun sentences, and to sentences ending in verbs and in V-my\;
• dÛsßa Bam˙n\; mqiB¨;" I don’t know what this thing is.
• q¨ eqq∑a;m˙n\; mqiliu≥" Because I didn’t know he had died.
• By\liu lup\rmy\m˙n\; mqiB¨;" I didn’t know what I ought to do.
• lk\m˙t\wy\liu≥ dêlak\ Kk\my\m˙n\; qirc\ mlapåB¨;" If I’d known it was going
to be so difficult to buy a ticket I wouldn’t have come.
• Aip\emak¥enm˙n\; sit\K¥lk\K¥ ‰˙im˙" Not until it was certain that they were fast
asleep.
• qÄet∑>et∑m˙a mÂkv\lc\eq;m˙n\; m¥k\N˙a Auien®Kc\;qv\ ®penepqv\" Her sad
expression showed that her mind had not yet cleared.
• g u%\mcy\m˙n\; sit\eA;q∑a;qv\" She felt relieved that he was not socially
inferior.
• q¨¨tui≥m˙n\; mTc\B¨:" I don’t think that (these people) are the ones (we want).
Common in pattern V-m˙n\;mqi V to V without one’s being aware of it:
• AK¥in\ kun\m˙n\;mqi kun\q∑a;tap´" The time has passed without my being aware
of it.
• mnk\Tut\qtc\;saha venTut\qtc\;sa ®Ps\m˙n\;mqi ®Ps\q∑a;‰˙aty\" The
morning papers became evening papers without their realising what was
happening.
m˙n\;mqi without one’s being aware of it: see under m˙n\; that
mY 1 (N~, VA~) as much as, as many as, equivalent quantity; as much
as V, all that is V; nn mkr and sub stc mkr, FB, = CB elak\; common with
selective nouns, and VA in the form V-qmY; sts used attributively in the form
V-qmYeqa;
• TuimYelak\ kÁNu\p\ s∑´lm\;K¥s\’kik\en®p^ ®Ps\eqaq¨kel;" That young person to
whom I was so attached.
• TuimY ew;lMeqa Kr^:" Such a long journey.
• ÈmY ®pn\K¥c\eza Âk^;en®Kc\;m˙a" My wanting to go home so greatly.
• ÈmY T¨Tp\s∑a k¥eneqa mui;N˙c\;m¥a;" The snowflakes that fell so thickly.
• kÁNu\p\ Kun\enqv\ka: mv\mY Âkaqv\kui mqiNuic\" I don’t know how long I was
jumping for.
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• eRWec∑Usßa mv\mY påq∑a;qnv\;" How much gold, silver and valuables went (in
the robbery)?
• wtÊoeSac\;på;tui≥ka; mv\mYpc\ ekac\;eqa\lv\;" However good the articles
might have been.
• erac\;rqmYN˙c\.pc\ kÁNu\p\tui≥kui Aqk\em∑;K.´relqv\" Supported us (children)
with whatever she could earn by selling.
• e®paSuiluiqmY B∑c\;B∑c\;Âk^; er;qa;K´.elqv\" I set down openly everything (“as
much as”) I wanted to say.
• mimilup\cn\;K∑c\m˙a ePak\l˙éPak\®pn\et∑ mlup\miqmY Alup\‘pt\q∑a;m˙a msui;rim\rB¨;"
One has no worries over losing one’s job as long as one does not happen
to do anything unacceptable.
• liuqmY Kr^;qv\kiuqa tc\eSac\qv\" (The bus) takes on only as many
passengers as there is room for.
• qa;”k^;cå;”k^; tt\Niuc\qmY e‰˙ac\qv\" He avoids meat as much as he can.
Common in a set of similar phrases: N ‰˙iqmY or ‰˙i‰˙iqmY all Ns there are, N
m˙n\qmY all that are truly N, N h¨qmY' N SuiqmY all that can be said to
be N, i.e. all Ns; subordinate clauses, often used attributively before or
after head noun, CB+FB; cf FB ‰˙iqj' m˙n\qj' h¨qj, and CB ‰˙iqelak\;
• e®pasra‰˙iqmYha dåpåB´" All that I have to say (“things to be said, all that
exist”) is just that.
• ‰˙iqmYpiuk\SMel; As\mkiu ep;K´.rq®Pc\. kun\®p^" All the money she had she had
had to give to her sister, and there was none left.
• ‰˙i‰˙iqmY evac\pc\”k^;et∑" All the large Bodhi trees there were.
• Niuc\cM®Ka;qa; m˙n\qmY emac\;Tut\K¥c\ty\" He wants to expel all foreigners (“as
many as are true foreigners”).
• Alup\ h¨qmYkiu es.es.sp\sp\ lup\kiuc\tt\q¨ ®Ps\qv\" He was someone who
used to do all his work (“as much as is called work”) precisely and
thoroughly.
• Riu;tMl˙l˙ AcMuAP¨;m˙n\qmY er∑;j K¨;ep;liuk\elqv\" She sought out and picked
every bud that had a pretty stem.
• laqmYeqa rn\q¨ h¨qmYkiu ‘PiP¥k\eK¥mOn\;ps\mv\ hëqa qN~i™an\®Pc\." Having
made a resolution that they would destroy all of the enemy who came.
• ts\tuic\;®pv\lMu;m˙a ‰˙iqmY tn\Kui;”k^; Bura;' est^m¥a;n´≥ Bun\;”k^;ek¥ac\; m˙n\qmY
l˙v\.lv\P¨;e®ma\rc\; lØK´.tn\;K´.ta" I have made pilgrimage to all the great
and famous pagodas in the whole country and every monastery and made
offering to them.
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• ts\Nuic\cMlMu;‰˙i tn\Kui;”k^;qv\ SuiqmY rhn\;' pug©iol\m˙n\qmY l˙v\.lv\Sv\;kp\K´.“p^;“p^"

He had been all over the country to visit every monk and layman who was
said to have influence.
mY 2 (Phr~) in extent, in quantity; stc med phr ptcl, FB; usually suggesting
that the quantity specified is either more or less than you would expect;
(a) more than you would expect (cf CB etac\):
• 9-lÂkamY A®cc\;p∑a;ent´. kisß" A matter that had been argued over for (as
long as) nine months.
• 2-eTac\mY mk" More (even) than 2,000 (kyat).
• kÁn\eta\ m˙t\miqelak\ 4-tn\;‰˙ira ek¥ac\;qa;epåc\; 150ek¥a\mY ‰˙ipåqv\" As
far as I can remember, there were altogether as many as 150 pupils in the
fourth form.
• TiusU\k qtc\;sam¥a;m˙a … sam¥k\N˙a puMm˙n\ 24-m¥k\N˙am˙ 28-m¥k\N˙amY
påelqv\" The newspapers of those days regularly had from 24 to as
much as 28 pages.
(b) less than you would expect, sts mYqa (cf CB qa' p´):
• ApÄpc\ m‰˙iqv\. kel;mYqa ®Ps\elqv\" I was only a carefree little child.
• K%mY Aema e®Penreta.f" I rested for a brief moment.
• kÁNu\p\ r‰˙ieqa lKm˙a tl 40imYqa ®Ps\eqa\lv\:" Although the pay I got was
a mere K40 a month.
• q¨riyaqtc\;sam˙a TuiAKåk rk\®Ka;qtc\;samYqa ®Ps\elqv\" At that time
the Sun newspaper was only published every other day.
• sk\®pc\ Siuepmv\. ASc\. 3mYqa ®Ps\qv\" Although he was (called) a
mechanic, he was only qualified to Grade 3.
• Nui≥yaguet∑ mkun\RuMmY mhut\eq;påB¨;" It wasn’t just that her rice gruel didn’t
run out (it also had miraculous curative powers).
mY 3 see under m˙ (not) even, AmY as much as, qmYkalpt\luM; so long as sv
kal
AmY sts tmY (N-N˙c~\. FB = CB N-n´≥~) equivalent to N, as much as N, the
same as N; nn mkr, CB+FB; cf elak\;
• SraN˙c\.AmY (SraN˙c\.tmY) tt\qv\" To know as much as one’s teacher.
• rn\kun\‘mi>ts\‘mi>luM;r´. lÜ^;ern´≥AmY eqq∑a;ty\" As many people died as the
population of all Yangon.
• spå;AT∑k\ piuqv\N˙c\.AmY ®pv\eTac\suf wc\ec∑m¥a;lv\; tiu;tk\laf" The
Union’s income increases to the extent that rice production goes up.
• mit\eS∑Aqs\et∑ mins\n´≥AmY tiu;enty\" I was gaining a new friend almost
every minute (“as much as there were minutes”).
• Aqk\n´≥AmY esac\.e‰˙ak\q∑a;my\" I will look after you as I would my life.
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• yKueta. Ar∑y\et∑ Âk^;rc\.laqv\N˙c\.AmY Ae®KAenet∑lv\; e®pac\;l´K´.rel®p^"

But now they are all older and their circumstances are correspondingly
altered.
• en≥sU\N˙c\.AmY qtirqv\" We remember you practically every day.
• AqM”k^;qv\ miu;K¥on\;qMtmY ‰˙iqv\" The great noise was as loud as thunder.
• PKc\rc\;tmY q¨ Al∑n\ K¥s\Kc\Âkv\Vuieqa Bun\;Bura;" The monk whom he loved
and respected as much as if he were his own father.
• TiuAKå p∑éta\”k^;tmY sv\ka;l˙epqv\" In those days it used to be as
crowded as a grand festival.
y¨- (V~-)
• (a) V and take, V for oneself; vb mod, CB+FB;
• kÁn\eta\ kiuBun\;®mc\.kiu interview lup\y¨Ta;ty\' epP¨;lWamg©zc\;m˙a
pålapålim\.my\" I have interviewed (taken down an interview) with Ko Hpon
Myint. It will probably appear in Pe-bu-hlwa Magazine.
• k¥ø;l∑n\mieqa A®ps\ts\suMts\raAt∑k\ A”k^;Ak´k ep;eqad%\kiu KMy¨rqv\"
One has to endure the punishment given by a superior for some crime
one has committed.
Regular companion verb for wy\- to buy:
• nMpåt\ 8 ereS;sut\tM buil\K¥op\eZ;Ò q∑a;erak\wy\y¨rË;mv\" I must go and
buy a nº 8 watercolour brush in Bogyoke Market.
(b) V strenuously, exert oneself, make an effort to V;
• ADipπåy\ nk\n´l∑n\;liu≥ Ac\mtn\ et∑;y¨rty\" it was so profound that one had
to think extremely hard (to get the meaning).
• kula;etac\m˙ eAa\yëAac\ sp\ty\" (The chillie) is so hot that even an
Indian cries out.
• eK¥ac\;T´ ps\mK¥rn\ ta;®ms\y¨rpåqv\" They had to be forbidden to throw away
(the jute stems) in the river.
eyak\ (Nº~) and Aeyak\ (~Nº) person, comm nmtv for people; CB+FB; less
respectful than Ë;' cf på;'
• m¥k\sim®mc\t´.q¨ts\eyak\ a blind man; ASuieta\quM;eyak\ three singers;
dui≥N˙s\eyak\ you and I (“we two persons”). A´´d^N˙s\k kÁn\eta\liu Biuc\Aiuk¥t´´.l¨
eA-tn\; era B^-tn\;på Aa;lMu; 19 eyak\' Aeyak\ 20 elak\ ‰˙imy\" In
that year there must been 19 or 20 people who were allocated to biology
like me.
yc\ see under lYc\ if, when
yc\; 1 (~ or ~N) this, that, the above-mentioned, the latter; selective
noun, FB, mainly in older or more formal texts: the less formal option is FB
Tiu qv; = CB A´d^;
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• AN¨mkn\f e®mak\Bk\t∑c\ AN¨m‘mi>Riu; ‰˙iqv\" yc\;‘mi>Riu;f Ae‰˙>Bk\ …" North

of the A Lake is the A city wall. East of this wall ….
• q¨N˙c\. q¨≥zn^;t∑c\ sit\luiB m®pv\.srats\Kup´ ‰˙iqv\" yc\;m˙a q¨tui≥t∑c\ qa;qm^;
ts\Ë;m˙ mr‰˙ieq;®Kc\;pc\ ®Ps\qv\" There was one thing that made him and
his wife less than fully content. And that thing was that they had no
children.
• SraU^;Piu;KÁn\;ey' rm\;®bÚ^;sMtc\ sqv\. … kwiAek¥a\ saSiueta\m¥a; epÅT∑n\;
K´.påqv\" yc\;tiu≥Ank\ kc\;Sralv\; ApåAwc\®Ps\qv\" Saya U PCY, Yanbye
U ST and similar learned poets flourished. One of their number was the
Kin Saya.
• yc\;qui≥ ®Ps\r®Kc\;m˙a" The fact that it was like this.
• yc\;eqaAKå" Thereupon, and then (= CB A´dêta.).
• yc\;Tk\" More than this.
yc\; 2 see under rc\; while
eyac\- 1 (V~-) to seem to V, to V in one’s mind; vb mod, CB+FB; only
with ®mc\- “to see” and Âka;- “to hear”;
• ymn\en≥k q¨tui≥ kÂkqv\kui ®mc\eyac\enqv\" In my mind’s eye I saw them
dancing as they did the other day.
• e®paSuiq∑a;qv\kui yKuTk\tuic\ Âka;eyac\enelqv\" Even today I can still
hear (in memory) what he told me.
• q¨≥qm^; saAup\epÅm˙a mc\n^m¥a; ®mc\eyac\miqv\" He saw in his mind’s eye the red
ink (correction marks) in his daughter’s schoolbook.
eyac\ 2 and Aeyac\' eyac\eyac\ (N~, V~, VA~) appearance, semblance,
pretence of; as if, like; nn mkr, sub cls mkr and sub stc mkr; CB+FB; cf
hn\;
• ‘pM;eyac\eyac\ m¥k\N˙an´≥ Âkv\.enty\" He was watching with a slight smile on
his face.
• S^®pn\eyac\eyac\ K¥k\rc\ piusa;ekac\;ty\" It tastes better if it is cooked like a
braised dish (“so that the oil returns to view”).
• na;lv\qeyac\eyac\ Tiuc\Âkv\.enty\" I was sitting and looking on pre-
tending I understood.
• pëlac\qeyac\ e®paÂkSuiÂkf" They spoke as if it were really hot.
• l¨fAnM≥N˙c\. Sc\t¨qeyac\ ‰˙iqv\" It was something like the smell of a
person.
• p^mui;nc\;hu Agçlip\namv\eyac\eyac\ er;Tui;Kå" Writing my name “P Monin” as
if it were an English name.
• kiuy\.K¥s\që‰˙>k¥rc\ tky\. qëta\ekac\;el;et∑Aeyac\' mKut\tt\t´.
eÂkac\kel;m¥a;liu hn\lup\®p^; enel.‰˙itt\Âkty\" When they are in the
213
presence of the loved one, they often put on a show, making out they are
really well behaved little people, like the (proverbial) “cats that never
pounce”.
• kb¥aSraeyac\eyac\' saer;Sraeyac\eyac\' Niuc\cMer;qma;eyac\eyac\miu≥
®meA;Âkv\fsit\T´m˙ eyac\e®Kak\Sy\emac\emac\hu k¥it\“p^;
Amv\ep;Ta;miqv\" Because he was making himself out to be something
like a poet, or a writer, or a politician, in her mind MAK had secretly given
him the name Maung Maung The Good-for-nothing (“Maung Maung with
60 guises”).
In the patterns V-K¥c\eyac\ eSac\-' V-eyac\ ‘p- “to pretend to V”:
• m¨;K¥c\eyac\ eSac\enty\" He was pretending to be drunk.
• kÁn\m e®pata mÂka;K¥c\eyac\eSac\ty\" He pretended not to hear what I
said.
• eAac\Niuc\U^;lk\T´m˙ em‘mi>pn\;Ap∑c\.l˙l˙Âk^;ts\sv\;kiu m®mc\eyac\‘pka
eAac\Niuc\U^;kiu NOt\Sk\rqv\" She greeted ANU, pretending not to see the
bunch of lovely big asters in his hand.
In the pattern N eyac\ eSac\- “to disguise oneself as N”:
•my\eT∑;eyac\eSac\“p^;" Disguising herself as Meh Htway.
eyac\- 3 (~V-) to V absently, without thinking, in error, in sleep; comm
pre-vb, CB+FB;
• A´' hut\epåc\" eyac\e®patapå" Oh. No. I didn’t mean to say that.
• dål´´ purs\kel;et∑ Aip\enrc\; eyac\eAa\t´. AqMp´ ®Ps\m˙apå" And that too
must no doubt be the sound of the little crickets calling out in their sleep.
r- 1 (V~-) (a) have to V, must V, be obliged to V; (b) be able to V, have
opportunity to V, can V, get round to V-ing; vb mod, CB+FB; cf tt\'
qa' Nuic\; the common component of the two sets of translations is “non-voli-
tional” action, i.e. the subject or agent of the verb is not actively willing or
initiating the action or state; rather he is a passive actor, “obliged” to do or
“given the possibility” of doing something. The following sentence illustrates
both poles of meaning: kÁn\eta\qv\ 4tn\;eAac\“p^;enak\ 5tn\;m˙a menrp´
6tn\;qiu≥ Kun\tk\q∑a;rqv\" After I had passed the 4th standard (exam) I
didn’t have to stay in the 5th standard but jumped (was allowed to jump) up
to the 6th standard. And an ambiguous example: 6tn\; erak\eta.
4tn\;sekala;‰˙s\ saem;p∑´ e®PSiurf" When I reached the 6th standard I had
to sit (was allowed to sit) the 4th standard scholarship examination. See
also V-lui≥ r- and V-j r- below.
Examples of (a):
• mnk\Pn\ Atn\; tk\rmy\" You have got to go to lessons tomorrow.
214
• Ba wy\\ep;rml´" What should I buy for you?

• sU\;sa;rU^;my\" I shall have to think it over.
• mN †el; q∑a;K¥c\rc\ A®mn\rTa; lk\m˙t\ rrmy\" If he wants to go to
Mandalay he must get an express train ticket.
• q¨ meqtn\p´ eqrty\" He died (had to die) before his proper time, before
he deserved to die.
• ts\en≥ k¥ena\l´p´ eKåc\;®Pø”k^;n´≥ ®Ps\rm˙apåp´" One day I too shall (have to)
become a white-haired old man.
• A´d^tun\;k hqçat k¥reta.my\" At that time Henzada was on the point of
falling, it had to fall.
• yaU\ mwc\r" Vehicles must not enter, no entry for vehicles.
• eragå mep¥ak\mK¥c\; cå; msa;rB¨;" You mustn’t eat fish till your illness is
cured.
• U^;Kc\emac\ pål^mn\Amt\ AeR∑; KMrqv\" U Khin Maung was elected a member
of Parliament.
Examples of (b):
• Tmc\; msa;req;påB¨;" I haven’t eaten yet, haven’t yet had a chance to eat
(in answer to question Tmc\; sa;®p^;®p^la; Have you eaten yet?).
• 3-N˙s\eAak\ kel;m¥a;qa m^;rTa;kiu AKm´. s^;rqv\" Only children under
three years can travel free.
• SramÂk^;n´≥ ska;e®paK´.rqla;" Did you manage to speak to Sayamagyi?
• B”k^;kiu l∑m\;t´´.AKå Âkv\.reAac\ Aim\y¨q∑a;m˙B´" I’d better take (this portrait
of my uncle) home so that I can look at it when I’m missing him.
• lk\et∑> sm\;Âkv\.reAac\ mc\;tiu≥eS; cå.kiu ts\Sup\elak\ ep;Âksm\;" Give me a
handful of your medicine so that I can try it out.
r- is notably frequent after verbs of hearing, seeing, finding, meeting, be-
coming etc, where it carries so light a load as to require no English trans-
lation:
• et∑>rta Ac\mtn\ wm\;qapåty\" I am very pleased to meet you.
• kiuy\.kiuy\kiu ®pn\sU\;sa;Âkv\.eqaAKå cy\kliu mhut\eta.qv\kiu et∑>rqv\"
When I thought about myself again, I found that I was no longer like when
young.
• eRWdgun\Bura; d^ken m®mc\rB¨;" You can’t see the SDP from here, it’s not
visible from here.
• TiuTiueqaska;m¥oi;kiu Âka;reqaAKå kÁn\eta\ g u%\y¨påqv\" I felt proud when
I heard those kinds of words.
215
• eSac\;på;Pt\A®p^;m˙a eRWBuMqalm\;k eS;Kn\;et∑n´≥ pt\qk\®p^; … e®pa®pluisit\

®Ps\rpåty\" After I had read that article I was seized with a desire to
describe the clinics in SBT Road.
• r´l∑c\k Aun\;eRW e®paqlui mhut\rpåB¨;lui≥ ®cc\;påty\" YL said “It cannot be as
OS says”.
• d^m˙a enrta By\lui enql´" What’s it like living here?
r- 2 (V(lui≥) ~- CB = FB V(j) ~-) to succeed in V-ing, to manage, to be
able to V, to be permitted, be all right to V; vb mod, CB+FB; sts without
lui≥ or j;
• men≥vk Aip\j mr" Last night I was unable to sleep, couldn’t manage to
sleep.
• bma®pv\m˙a eZ;Ss\rty\ena\" Agçln\m˙aeta. eZ;Ss\liu≥ mrB¨;" In Burma it is
all right to bargain, isn’t it? In England you can’t bargain.
• d^m˙a Pinp\ s^;(liu≥) rqla;" Is it all right, is it permitted, to wear sandals
here?
• tky\eta. b¥a' zrar´.d%\kiu K%t‘Pt\ eRW>Ta;liu≥ rty\" e‰˙ac\k∑c\;liu≥ mrB¨;"
But in reality, my friend, one can put off (the the advance of) old age for a
short while. One cannot avoid it.
r 3 (V-r-rhyme) -ish, infix used to convert verb to adverb or attribute, with
poetic effect; sub cls mkr, CB+FB;
• ‘Pø- to be white: ‘PørR¨ whitish;
• s^- to set in line: s^rr^ in line;
• pu- to be short, squat: purRu squat. dwarfish;
• t∑n\≥- to be wrinkled: t∑n\≥rR∑n\≥ gathered, puckered.
r 4 see under ra appellative suffix
Ar (N~, VA~) (a) according to, in accordance with; nn mkr and sub stc
mkr, CB+FB; cf Av^' Aluik\' Aa;el¥a\s∑a' Ael¥ak\' Atiuc\;'
• pud\m cå;Ar Aer; y¨Ta;qv\" Proceedings have been taken under Section 5
(of the Criminal Code, i.e. the person has been arrested).
• wn\”k^;K¥op\ e®paÂka;qv\.Ar" As the Prime Minister said.
• Tiupc\luMsaK¥op\Ar ®mn\maNiuc\cM l∑t\lp\er; r‰˙ieqaAKå" When Burma attained
independence in accordance with the Panlong agreement.
• TiuAqc\;m¥io;kiu P¥k\S^;rn\ Am¥io;m¥io; ”kio;sa;Aa;Tut\K´.qv\Ar
Te®mak\eAac\®mc\K´.qv\ ®Ps\j" As they had succeeded in their various plans
to destroy such associations.
• ASiupå®pc\Sc\‘p®pc\Ta;qv\≥Ar ADipπåy\ qk\erak\esrmv\" The interpretation
must be in accord with the amendments described above.
(b) on the level of, -ly;
216
• q¨≥kiu pug©iol\er;Ar qeBamk¥sraAeÂkac\; m‰˙ipåB¨;' Kuhaketa. Alup\n´≥

Siuc\ty\ qm^;" On a personal level I have nothing against him. The
present issue is to do with work, my daughter.
• Alup\qeBaAr q¨≥kiu t´∑tap´" I associate with him in the course of my
work, professionally.
• s^;p∑a;er;Ar eAac\®mc\qv\hu Siurpåmv\" We have to admit that economically
it has been a success.
rka; (V~) because, since V; sub cls mkr, FB; sts V-elrka;' pron /ya.gå;/;
cf m¨' eta.' eqaeÂkac\.' q®Pc\.' qv\.At∑k\' tan´≥ etc;
• tp\qa;m¥a;f Ac\Aa;m˙a mNOic\;y˙U\Niuc\elak\eAac\ Âk^;ma;l˙rka;
rn\q¨tp\qa;m¥a;qv\ AtMu;ARun\; eqÂkrelf" As our forces were
immeasurably greater, the enemy troops fell in great numbers.
• d^zy\rTa;qv\ B¨tam˙ AT∑k\t∑c\ m^;rTa;k´.qiu≥ t®Pv\;®Pv\; A‰˙in\y¨j
T∑k\qv\ mhut\rka; Aeta\ l¥c\®mn\s∑a T∑k\elqv\" When a diesel draws
out of the station, being unlike a train which gathers momentum slowly, it
leaves rather rapidly.
• Tiuqiu≥ ®Ps\rka;" That being so, that being the way it was.
rk¥oi; in pattern V-r~ np\- to be worth V-ing: see under k¥oi;
reAac\ 1 and reAac\la; (V~) Shall we V? How about V-ing? Let’s V; stc
mkr, CB+FB; cf V-siu≥;
• K% na;ÂkreAac\" Shall we rest a moment?
• lk\Pk\rv\ q∑a; eqak\reAac\" Let’s go and have some tea.
• Âkv\.reAac\" Let’s have a look, let me have a look.
• sakiu tiutiup´ er;ÂkreAac\hu tiuc\pc\e®paSiuÂk“p^;" Agreed after discussion,
saying “Let’s just write a short note”.
•Ac\g¥k\‰˙c\; lup\Âkv\.reAac\la; Sra" Let’s try the injection, Doctor.
reAac\ 2 see under r- to be able to V, eAac\ so as to V
ra 1 (V~) thing, matter, item that V-s, in certain combinations; sp hd nn,
CB+FB;
(a) in combination V-ra k¥- or V-ra erak\- to amount to V-ing:
• Èqiu≥ lup\qv\m˙a Riuc\;ra k¥qv\" So doing amounted to rudeness, being
rude.
• q¨tiu≥wåd eTak\KMra erak\m˙aepå." That would be equivalent to supporting
their policy.
(b) in combination V-ra r- to achieve V-ing:
• q¨ sit\ qk\qara reAac\" So as to ease her mind.
• cå.eKåB%^tp\Âk^;kui ®mc\kamY®Pc\. By\rn\q¨m˙ eSak\tv\ra rty\lui≥
cåkuiy\eta\®mt\ Âka;eta\mm¨B¨;eq;B¨;" I have never yet heard of a case
217
where any enemy was able to stand firm even when he simply caught
sight of my troops.
(c) in form V_ra or V_rara or V_elra thing or place that V-s, what-
ever is V-ed, wherever is V-ed; cf CB V-t´.ha;
• ’kik\ra y¨på" Take whatever you like!
• ’kik\ra em;" Ask what you like.
• e®paK¥c\ra e®paNiuc\påty\" You can say whatever you want to say.
• Tc\ra lup\rc\ duk erak\my\" If you do just as you think, you’ll be in
trouble.
• q∑a;K¥c\ra q∑a;epes' mT¨;påB¨;" Let him go where he wants. It makes no
difference.
• erak\elra Arp\t∑c\" Every place he reached, each place he was in.
• ®mn\maNiuc\cMAt∑c\; q∑a;elrara edqAN˙M≥A®pa;t∑c\" Whatever region you go to
all over, throughout the length and breadth of, Burma.
• etac\q¨ly\qma;m¥a; rram˙ ec∑eK¥;Âkrqv\" The peasants had to borrow
money wherever they could get it from.
ra 2 (V~ sts N~) place of V or N, site, mark left by V or N; loc nn, CB+FB;
• Aim\ra site of a house (“house-place”); enra place, position, location (“stay-
place”); Aip\ra sleeping place, bed; em∑>ra mattress (“go-to-sleep place”);
d%\ra wound, injury (“blow-place”); ®Ks\raT∑c\ra scratch marks; téta\ra
the place where (the king) stayed (where a pagoda was built).
• P∑c\.p∑´‘plup\ra Pit\Âka;Ta;q¨m¥a; tk\erak\Âkqv\" The invited guests arrived
at the place of the opening ceremony.
• ep¥a\ram˙a menN˙c\.' eta\ram˙a en" Don’t stay where life is easy, stay where you
ought to be.
• pun\;k∑y\ram˙ e®p;T∑k\laK´.f" He came running out from where he was
hiding.
• saer;rak l˙m\;e®paliuk\ty\" He called out from where he was writing.
ra 3 (V~) when, while V-ing; sub cls mkr, FB, cf ka' ®p^;' l¥k\' j;
• yiu;dya;tiu≥N˙c\. tiuk\ra' tp\eta\m¥a; Sut\K´.rf" In fighting with the Siamese,
the royal (Burmese) troops had to retreat.
• TiuAK¥in\t∑c\pc\ ®mn\maN˙c\. kqv\;esa\B∑a;tiu≥ ss\®Ps\ra' emac\rs\qv\ ss\k´”k^;A®Ps\
K¥^tk\rqv\" At that point, war having broken out between the Burmese
and the Manipur Sawbwa, Maung Yit (Bandula) advanced into battle as a
commander (of a unit).
• BaAqMl´liu≥ q∑a;Âkv\.ra c˙k\kel;ts\ekac\ et∑>ty\" Going to see what the
sound was, I found a little bird.
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In combinations V-ram˙a' V-rat∑c\ etc in the place of, time of V,

while V-ing, in V-ing:
• haqpåt´´. ska;m¥io;kiu e®pael.r˙ity\" Alup\lup\ram˙alv\;e®paty\"
Aa;enrc\lv\; e®paty\" He used to say amusing things. He would say
them while he was working, and he would say them when he was at
leisure.
• w˙k\Ta;eqaec∑ts\k¥p\kiu qtirj q∑a;y¨¨®pn\rat∑c\ ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a;k
et∑>N˙c\.eqaeÂkac\. … met∑>reta.ep" When he remembered the kyat that he
had hidden and went to fetch it, he couldn’t find it any more because the
monastery boys had beat him to it.
• ek¥ac\;qa;kel;qv\ A®Ka;ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a;Tk\ pvaqc\rat∑c\lv\;
”kio;sa;qc\y¨qv\" The young pupil made greater efforts than the others in
his studies.
• erKp\q∑a;rat∑c\ erKp\q∑a;ralm\;m˙ … m˙n\wiuc\;el;ts\K¥p\kiu ekak\relf"
When he was fetching water he found a little round mirror on the path he
took to fetch the water.
• ksa;raÒ meta\tS TiKiuk\d%\rarq¨m¥a;kiu yuyuyy ‘psuqv\" He would tend
with loving care those who were accidentally injured when playing games.
In combinations V-rak' V-ram˙ etc from V-ing, stop V-ing and V:
• Siuk\ka; nc\;ram˙ Aim\qiu≥ ®pn\f" He returned home from pedalling his side-
car.
• ec;enrak ema.Âkv\.ty\" He broke off his reverie and looked up.
• Tiuc\rak Tty\" She got up from where she was sitting, she stopped sitting
and stood up.
ra 4 (V~ N) N which V-s, which is V-ed, which is for V-ing; vb atrb mkr,
mostly FB; cf CB V-sra-N, V-Piu≥ra-N, V-t´.-N;
• q¨tiu≥ enTiuc\raR∑a (= q¨tiu≥ ent´.R∑a)" The village they lived in.
• tv\;KiuraAim\ (= t´Piu≥ Aim\)" House to stay in.
• A®pv\®pv\ Siuc\ralup\cn\;" An international enterprise.
• m¥k\N˙a m¨raTrMt∑c\" On the facing wall.
• Tiuk\tn\ra AeSac\AR∑k\" Suitable insignia.
• Siuc\raAra‰˙im¥a;" The authorities concerned, the responsible authorities.
• mimitiu≥ Aa;qn\ra wåqnaAliuk\" In accordance with one’s own inclinations,
interests.
• merac\;req;t´.haet∑ el˙ac\Ta;raAKn\;" The room for storing the things that
haven’t been sold yet.
•N∑a; tc\rarTa;" Train for transporting cattle.
ra 5 (V-ra V-eÂkac\;) a means to V, a path to V-ing; sub cls mkr, CB+FB;
219
• spå;qv\ ®mn\maNiuc\cMf s^;p∑a;er; P∑M>‘Pi;ra P∑M>‘Pi;eÂkac\; Ae®KKM ®Ps\qv\" Rice is

the foundation of Burma’s path to economic development.
• qt†wåAm¥a; K¥m\;qara K¥m\;qaeÂkac\;" For the good of, the advancement, of
all living creatures.
• l¨”k^;miBm¥a;qv\ q¨≥Aa; ekac\;raekac\;eÂkac\; SuM;mep;qv\" His parents and
elders instructed him in the ways of good conduct.
• eA;raeA;eÂkac\; wc\P¥n\e®Pty\" He intervened to find a way to reconcile (the
parties).
• eAac\raeAac\eÂkac\; biul\ek¥ac\; piu≥m˙ piuSiu;ty\" After having sent him to a
European school to ensure his success, things were worse.
ra- 6 (V~-) should V, ought to V, must be V-ing; vb mod, FB, rather for-
mal and old-fashioned; V-ra is the regular equivalent of Pali optative and
future passive participles in nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p 203); cf V-
Ap\-' V-qc\.-' V-Tuik\-' V-tn\-' V-Pui≥ ekac\;-;
• kiuy\.Aa;kiu kiuy\kiu;j Aa;Tut\raf" One ought to exert oneself and rely on
one’s own strength.
• “moi>t∑c\;“moi>pN˙s\på;t∑c\ ‘plup\raf" It should be done both within and without
the city.
• lc\N˙c\.mya; Suiqv\.Aram˙a lYoi>w˙k\raeqa ska; m‰˙iraqv\" In relations
between husband and wife there should be no words that have to be kept
secret.
• emac\rc\emac\N˙c\. et∑>SuMreAac\ mPa;UAim\qui≥ q∑a;raqv\hu et∑;Tc\f" He
thought she must be going to Ma PU’s house so as to meet MYM.
• mehaqDp‹ieta' mehaqDquKmin\qv\" zaeny¥' qiraf" The wise man M is
likely to (“should”) know (nissaya).
• Imina' Ècå.qa;N˙c\." qdÎ˜' tk∑" zatdårekhi' B∑a;eqaqtui≥qa;tui≥qv\"
Bwitb∫M' ®Ps\raf" There must be other children born at the same time as
(“together with”) my son (nissaya).
• Èq¨cy\ka; ewœN †ramc\;”k^;fqa; ®Ps\raf" This child must be (is surely)
the son of King Vessantara.
ra 7 and variant ra. also written r (N~) appellative suffix, suffixed to a
addressing sn, often pleading or remonstrating; the creaky tone version is
more emphatic or peremptory; CB; occurs in various forms: the full set is: er'
er>' ry\' ry\.' r´.' cy\' cy\.' c´.' ra' ra.; for other examples see under er and
ry\ and cy\;
• mmra' ®mn\®mn\ lup\sm\;på" Look here, MaMa! Do hurry up!
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• eAa\' eAac\®mc\m˙aepå≥ kuiy\.l¨ra." sit\qaK¥på" Oh, of course they’ll win, my

good fellow. You can bet on it.
• dêKt\T´m˙a mc\;qm^;lup\tam¥a; Sn\;la; mmra" Are you claiming that it’s
uncoventional to be a dancer these days, my dear girl?
Ara (VA~, N~) thing, matter, item that V-s; mainly FB, = CB ha; noun
used as nominalizer;
• lc\N˙c\.mya; Suiqv\.Aram˙a lYoi>w˙k\raeqa ska; m‰˙iraqv\" In relations
between (“in the matter of”) husband and wife there should be no words
that must be kept secret.
• vv\;esa\nM“p^; AN˙s\m‰˙it´. Araet∑klv\; elakm˙a Am¥a;qa;kla;" Things
that smell bad and have no value — what a lot of them there are in the
world!
• By\AramYmekac\;" Nothing was any good.
• ÈenraÒ cå≥kiu Pis^;mv\.Ara m¥a;s∑am‰˙i" In this place there was not much that
was likely to trouble me.
ra. see under ra appellative suffix
er and variant er> (N~) appellative suffix, suffixed to a personal referent
(e.g. a name or term of address) and used when calling or addressing sn,
often pleading or remonstrating; the creaky tone version is more emphatic or
peremptory; CB; occurs in various forms: the full set is: er' er>' ry\' ry\.'
r´.' cy\' cy\.' c´.' ra' ra.; for other examples see under ra and ry\ and cy\;
• qm^;er" Da-a-aughte-er (calling).
• emÂkv\wc\;er" My dear May Kyi Wynn (beginning an informal letter).
• enpåes misMer" Oh, never mind, Mi San.
• dên≥ pn\;et∑ qip\l˙ty\ As\mer' ts\sv\;elak\y¨q∑a;påU^;" The flowers are
very beautiful today, Auntie. Take a bunch with you.
er> see under er appellative suffix
er; (V~, N~) V-ing, affair, matter of V-ing, N affairs; used to form nouns
from verbs; sp hd nn and comm elem cpd nn, CB+FB; cf V-mO' V-K¥k\' V-®Kc\;'
V-qv\' V-ta;
(a) in established abstract nouns, common in names of institutions, suffixed
to both verbs and nouns;
• siuk\p¥oier; agriculture; k¥n\;maer; health; Nuic\cMer; politics; l¨mOer; social duties;
eta\l˙n\er; resistance, revolution; Aim\eTac\er; marital affairs; Am¥oi;qa;er;
the nationalist cause; sa;wt\ener; everyday needs, food, clothing and
shelter; pvaer; wn\”k^; Minister of Education; qaqnaer; wn\Âk^;@an
Department of Religious Affairs; l¨wc\mO ”k^;Âkp\er;@an Department of
Immigration; l∑t\lp\er;en≥ Independence Day; ®pv\t∑c\;ereÂkac\;
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qy\y¨piu≥eSac\er;AP∑´> Inland Water Transport Board; kak∑y\er; U^;s^;K¥op\

Chief of Defence Staff: ®pv\Tér; wn\Âk^; Minister of Internal Affairs, Home
Minister; saepsiss\er;AP∑´> Press Scrutiny Board, PSB, censorship board;
Niuc\cMeta\ ®cim\wp\pi®pa;mO tv\eSak\er;AP∑´> The State Law and Order
Restoration Council (formed in 1988, abbreviated SLORC = nwt); Nuic\cMeta\
ÂkM.Kuic\er;N˙c\. P∑M>‘Pi;er;Aqc\; Union Solidarity and Development Association,
USDA (formed in 1993); Nuic\cMeta\eA;K¥m\;qayaer;N˙c\. P∑M>‘Pi;er;AP∑´>" State
Peace and Development Council (inaugurated Nov 1997, abbreviated
SPDC = nAP).
(b) to make a nominal phrase from a verb clause:
• Alup\qma; AK¥c\;K¥c\; ASc\e®per;At∑k\" For the sake of harmonious
relations between workers.
• ttiylup\cn\;”k^;m˙a Ae‰˙>puic\;ny\sp\kui Atv\‘per;' dn\;zs\N˙c\. puiln\sÂkCkui
g¥amn^qui≥ ®pn\ep;er;' ATk\puic\; Suik\el;‰˙a;ny\sp\kui Atv\‘per;tui≥ ®Ps\påqv\"
The third important task was ratifying the eastern border, returning the
Danzig and Poland corridor to Germany, and ratifying the border of Upper
Silesia.
• yaU\ mTiKiuk\ mp¥k\s^;er;At∑k\ AsU\ qti‰˙ir®Kc\;" Having to be constantly
vigilant against crashing or damaging the vehicle.
• qv\AT´m˙a 45k¥p\®pv\. rer;klv\; Aa;Tut\rpåqv\" In addition one had to
struggle to make the full 45 kyats (a day when working as a taxi driver).
• pit\ka;eP¥a\e®Per;qmuic\;" The history of screen entertainment.
• Nuic\cMq¨Nuic\cMqa;m¥a; rqc\.rTuik\t´. AK∑c\.Aer;m¥a; r‰˙ier;kui Sk\lk\
Tm\;eSac\my\" We will continue to work to win the rights which all citizens
should have.
er;K¥ (m-V~) definitely, absolutely not V; unclassified suffix, CB;
• mep;er;K¥m˙ mep;på" I won’t give it to you, definitely not!
• qy\y¨srit\ tui;etac\;r®p^" metac\;lui≥k m®Ps\er;K¥ mr" He was asking for an
increase in transport costs. Not to ask for more was impossible, was out
of the question.
r´- (V~-) to dare, be brave enough to V; vb mod, CB+FB; cf wM.;
• q¨≥kiu Am˙n\kiu By\q¨m˙ me®par´B¨;" No one dares to tell him the truth.
• zat\KuMepÅ T∑k\ kr´mla;" Would you have the nerve to get up on the stage
and dance?
• Aim\kiulv\; m®pn\r´" And she dared not go home.
• K¥s\q¨ ‰˙iK´.r´®p^" She had been bold enough to accept an admirer.
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• Ala;t¨s∑p\s∑´K¥k\m¥a;®Pc\. q¨tui≥kuilv\; Asui;rk ®ps\mOs^rc\K¥k\ K¥m˙t\r´mv\elahu"

(Wondering) whether the government would have the nerve to make
similar accusations against them too and pass a guilty verdict.
• BÂk^;emac\kiu ta;liueqa\lv\; mta;r´" He wanted to hold back BGM, but
hadn’t the courage.
r´. 1 or k´. (V~) V-s, V-ed; marks a statement; stc mkr, CB; the form k´. occurs
after stop tones; cognate with FB f and presumably once used in precisely
the same way; over time it has been replaced by CB V-ty\ (= FB V-qv\)
and now survives in only a limited range of functions, as follows:
(a) in the phrase hut\k´. yes: perhaps its most frequent use: either an
affirmative answer to a question, or signifying assent to a request, or a sign
that the listener is following what is being said.
(b) in the phrase hut\k´.på yes: a variant of (a), more polite. It would be
more usual to find the polite particle på preceding k´. but this expression has
become so widely used as an automatic response that it is no longer felt to
be a verbal sentence, hence the addition of the polite particle in final
position.
(c) in the phrase Tc\r´.' Tc\pår´. I think, I suppose:
• kiusiu;Niuc\eta. mAip\eq;B¨; Tc\pår´." I suppose Ko SN hasn’t gone to bed yet.
• enak\N˙s\m˙p´ e®Prlim\.my\ Tc\pår´." I expect she’ll have to put off taking (the
exam) till next year.
• senen≥miu≥ Tc\r´>" tMta;epÅm˙a ®Pt\q∑a;®Pt\la qip\met∑>rB¨¨;" I suppose it was
because it was a Saturday. I didn’t see many people crossing the bridge.
(d) in the phrase eta\eq;r´.' eta\påeq;r´. Just as well, what a good
thing, how fortunate that:
• eta\påeq;r´. mmry\' ePeP S¨m¥a; S¨mla;liu≥ ln\≥enta" What a relief, Ma Ma.
I was afraid that Daddy might scold us.
• eta\eq;r´.' Tmc\;k lYp\ss\Tmc\;Aiu;miu≥ t¨;m˙a ewk¥m˙a mp¨r" It was just as well
that I didn’t have to worry about the rice burning or boiling over: it was in
an electric rice cooker.
• Suic\ts\Suic\kiu et∑>eta. Aa;tk\qera wc\Âkra Tmc\;eÂka\' eKåk\S∑éÂka\
rqv\t´." eta\påeq;r´." We found a shop and went inside. Thank
goodness: they said we could have some fried rice and fried noodles.
(e) in the phrase AM.pår´. and similar I am astonished, I am shocked; (cf
AM.era sv era):
• dêza\g¥^keta. AM.pår´." q∑a;pMulapMuk Aqk\m‰˙iqliu eN˙;eN˙;ek∑;ek∑;n´≥
hn\mrliuk\ta" This zawgyi amazes me. He droops along as if he had no
life in him: what an undistinguished performance!
223
• mc\;kiueta. cåk AM.pår´.k∑a" You astonish me, my boy.

• kiuy\.K¥s\q¨ ts\eyak\etac\ Ta;ps\K´.ta AM.Âqpår´." He just drops his girlfriend
and runs off! I’m disgusted.
(f) in combinations with V-ekac\;- will probably V, adding a feeling
of Who knows? to predictions:
• lk\T´ dåm¥oi; eSac\Ta;rc\ g u%\tk\ekac\;r´. Siut´.ATc\n´≥
wy\Ta;tt\Âktapå" People just buy them because they believe that if they
own that sort of thing they’ll probably gain more respect.
• q∑a; em;Âkv\.rc\ ®pn\rekac\;pår´." You’ll probably get it back if you go and ask
about it.
• saem;p´∑ ®p^;rc\eta. l∑t\lp\K∑c\. rekac\;pår´." After the exams I’ll probably have
more freedom.
(g) in combinations with V-es may I V, adding emphasis, solemnity to
oaths and prayers:
• Bura;”k^; s¨;rpåesr´." May the great Lord strike me down (if I am not telling
the truth).
• miu;”koi;”k^; ps\resr´." May I be struck by a thunderbolt.
(h) in combinations with V-sui≥ let us V, adding mild insistence to
suggestions and exhortations:
• tui≥ Bura;qKc\kuiy\eta\®mt\”k^;e‰˙>m˙a wt\®po Suetac\;luik\ÂkË;sui≥r´." Let us
worship and pray before Almighty God.
• k´' Ac\spit\eta\mc\;" k¥op\tiu≥®pn\N˙c\.Âksiu≥r´." Kc\b¥a;n´≥ tiuc\pc\srakel; ts\KuN˙s\Ku
‰˙ieq;ty\" Well, Inspector. Let us return before the others. There are one
or two more questions I should like to discuss with you.
• k´k∑a' tl´∑ ‰˙v\T∑k\la®pn\®p^" liurc\; ekak\Âksiu≥r´." Well now. We’ve come a
long way off the point. Let’s pick up the threads again.
(i) in conventional exchanges about each other’s health:
• enekac\;r´.la;" _ enekac\;påty\ or enekac\;pår´." Are you well? How are
you? — Fine, thank you.
• mar´.la;" _ mapåty\ or mapår´." (As preceding, but old-fashioned).
• eAac\miu;ts\eyak\ qk\qar´.la;" Has AM recovered (from his illness)?
(j) in questions, indicating disbelief, expecting the answer No:
• hut\r´.la; or hut\k´.la;" Is that really true? (sc I can’t believe it).
• qeBa k¥r´.la;" Do you really like it? (sc I suspect you don’t).
• Kelak\Niu≥k pMue®paekac\;t´. lët∑ T∑k\ty\liu≥ Âka;P¨;ty\" mc\;
pMue®patt\r´.la;" I’ve heard that there are good story tellers among the
Khalauk-no people. Can you tell a story?
• Biu;Biu;kiu K¥s\r´.la;" Do you really love your grandpa?
224
• ek¥ac\;eka tk\®Ps\r´.la; qm^;ry\" Did you really go to school, my

daughter?
• A´dåel; Âkv\.ep;sm\;på' Sy\.cå;t´." tn\r´.la;liu≥" Just have a look at this (for
me). She says it’ll cost K15. Is it really worth that, I’m asking myself.
• mc\;enekac\;r´.la;" Kutela mc\;Âkv\.rta NMu;eK∑eK∑n´≥ m¥k\N˙aet∑lv\; Am\;en
qliup´" Are you really well? Recently you’ve been looking listless and
sheepish.
Sometimes used reprovingly or threateningly:
• kiuy\ e®pata Âka;r´.la;" Do you hear what I’m saying?
• ehae®paK¥k\kui Âka;Âkr´. mhut\la;" You heard what he said in his speeech
didn’t you?
• cå mnk\AesaÂk^; Siuc\q∑a;rm˙a qir´.la;" I’m going to have to go to the shop
early in the morning, do you realise that?
Sometimes the r´. in the question is repeated in the answer:
• Kc\b¥a' m˙t\â%\ eta\eta\ ekac\;r´.la; _ hut\k´.' eta\eta\ekac\;pår´.Kc\b¥a"
Do you have a good memory? — Yes, it’s pretty good.
• ekak\p´q^;N˙M epåk\eZ;NOn\;m¥a; By\liu ‰˙ienty\ Siuta Kc\b¥a; sMusm\;mieq;r´.la;"
_ hut\k´.' en≥sU\B´ qtc\;sa Âkv\.miliu≥ qipåeq;r´.b¥a" Do you happen to
have investigated the current price of vegetables? — Yes: I read the
newspapers every day and I do know that.
(k) in statements, indicating some reservation:
• ABm˙a qa;Âk^;qm^;Âk^;et∑eta. ‰˙ipår´." Niu≥epmy\. Aa;mkiu;påB¨;" It’s true I do
have children. But I don’t depend on them.
• kÁn\m B^pÂiuc\m˙a Alup\reta.my\ As\m _ eh hut\la;' nc\.At∑k\eta.
wm\;qapår´.' cå enak\ts\eyak\‰˙arU^;m˙a'" I’m going to take a job at the BPI.
— Oh are you? Well, I’m happy for you. But I’ll have to find someone to
come in your place.
• q¨tiu≥ Balup\sa;m˙n\; qikiu mqiB¨;' A´ sim\; lup\tt\tael;et∑eta.
nv\;nv\;på;på; qipår´." I’ve no idea what they do for a living — though it’s
true that I know a bit about what Sein can do.
• dået∑ ®mc\®pn\eta.lv\; Aa;k¥mipår´." cå.N˙y\ d^Bw tiuk\el;ka;el;n´≥m˙
enNiuc\på.mla;" When I saw all that I have to admit I was envious. I
wondered if someone like me could ever acquire a nice house and a car in
this lifetime.
(l) in statements, with a certain exclamatory force, sts translatable as
“certainly, definitely, indeed”:
225
• eret∑>rc\ NOt\q^;n´≥ Tui;mla; Tui;r´." erk¨;mla; k¨;r´." When (ducks) find

water, do they dip their beaks in it? They certainly do. Do they swim in
it? They certainly do.
• Atui;n´≥ eK¥;la; eK¥;rr´." na;kp\el; epåc\la; epåc\rr´." Did she borrow money
at interest? She certainly had to. Did she pawn her earrings? She
certainly had to.
• eA;" cålv\; miu;p¥Mt´. eza\g¥êt∑kiu K%K% et∑>pår´. d^ts\Kået∑>rc\ mc\;kiu
cåk¨v^Niuc\eAac\ q¨tiu≥n´≥cå ts\KuKu ’ki;sa;Âkv\.påmy\" Sure: I certainly do often
see flying zawgyis. Next time I see some I’ll try and fix up something with
them that will be a help to you.
• dên≥ pn\;et∑ qip\l˙ty\ As\mer' ts\sv\;elak\ y¨q∑a;påU^;" _ hut\pår´."
l˙liuk\ta" The flowers are very pretty today. Why not take a bunch? —
They certainly are. They’re lovely.
• d^liupMum¥oi;n´≥ eAac\pålim\.my\ Aa;Âk^;' Aa;Aa;‰˙i kk\Sk\el; tkiuc\kiuc\n´≥'
PeAkl´ Aliuliuk\påepr´.' KuÂkv\. t^b^∑ wy\U^;mliu≥t´.' lup\lup\" d^N˙s\
Sk\mk¥rc\ cå.e®pa" On his current showing there’s a fat chance of his
passing (the exam). As soon as he has a minute free he goes off with his
cassette player in his hand. And his father spoils him too. Here’s the
latest: he says he’s going to buy him a TV! Go on, buy it. If he doesn’t fail
again this year, let me know.
• Siuker;t^;keta. eA;eA;påp´" ASiuts\Kuetac\m˙ ‘pliuk\påeq;r´." As for
Socrates, he remained quite calm. He even produced a quotable saying.
• kÁn\mketa. T¨;®Ka;t´.q¨m¥a;r´. N˙lMu;qa;ha A´qliup´ na;lv\r Kk\qelak\
N˙s\liuP∑y\lv\; ekac\;r´.' sit\wc\sa;P∑y\lv\; ekac\;r´.liu≥qa Siuliuk\K¥c\
påeta.ty\" As for me, all I want to say is that, though it is hard to see
into the hearts of such remarkable persons, they certainly are admirable
and fascinating.
(m) in combination l˙K¥v\r´. see under l˙K¥v\r´. exclamatory
r´. 2 or k´. (N1~ N2) N1’s
N2, the N2 of, belonging to N1; nn atrb mkr, CB, =
FB f; the form k´. is used after stop tones. The use of r´./k´. is optional:
AP∑a;r´. Aim\ = AP∑a; Aim\ (= FB AP∑a;f Aim\' AP∑a; Aim\) “Grandmother’s
house”. So not every English “’s” corresponds to a possessive in Burmese:
kel;saep children’s literature, kel;saAup\m¥a; children’s books, tk˚qiul\
Sram¥a;rip\qa University Staff Quarters. When N1 ends in a low tone, the
final syllable may take induced creaky tone: AePr´. Aim\ = AeP.r´. Aim\ =
AeP. Aim\ “Father’s house”. A few high tone words can take induced
creaky tone, e.g. mc\; “you”, mc\;. “your”. See further the entry “Induced
creaky tone” in the English entries.
226
• q¨tiu≥r´.AedÅ their aunt; kiult\k´.AKn\; Ko Lat’s room; eS;r´.AnM≥ the smell of

the medicine; kel;r´.saAup\ the child’s book; kiuy\.r´. ngi ulup\cn\; one’s own
primary work.
• An\t^.r´. tpv\. kiuBun\;®mc\.lv\; wc\;matiu≥Aim\kiu lalv\ty\" And your
(Aunty’s) student, Ko Hpon Myint, came round to our house (Win Mar
speaking).
• An\t^.ek¥;z¨;kiu eAak\em.påty\" We remember your generosity, what you
have done for us, Aunty.
• mwc\.(®ms\cy\)r´. q¨r´. wn\Tm\;qv\Bw qRup\et∑" Ma Wint (Myit-ngeh)’s por-
trayals of her life as a civil servant.
r´. 3 see under ry\ appellative suffix
era 1 or kera sts era. (V~) V-s, V-ed; marks a statement, referring to pre-
sent or past time, similar to V-ty\ but mainly used in narrating a series of
events vividly, sts suggesting “as you would expect”, sts “what do you make
of that!”, sts “and that was that”; the form kera occurs after a stop tone; stc
mkr, CB;
• p∑ékac\;entun\; miu;R∑apåelera" While the show was still in full swing it went
and rained.
• luMK¥v\ léntun\; Ev\.qv\et∑ erak\kera" While I was changing my longyi
the visitors suddenly arrived.
• Aim\ ®pn\erak\erak\K¥c\; Tmc\; msa;p´ Aip\påera" As soon as she came home
she went straight to bed without eating anything.
• q¨≥kiu ka;wc\tiuk\mity\" eqera" A car ran into him, and he died.
• Bura;P¨; liuk\Âkt´. l¨tn\;”k^;k ts\eyak\s^ tn\;“p^; q¨≥enak\k
liuk\q∑a;Âkera" Off went the whole crowd of pilgrims, following after him in
single file.
• esac\;tn\;wk ®Keqç.”k^; l∑n\tan´≥ pn\;qv\et∑k T∑k\S∑´my\.Atiuc\; q¨tui≥Suic\k
pn\;wy\q∑a;Piu≥' T^;tiu≥ Pinp\tiu≥ Ta;K´.Piu≥ eKÅÂkeAa\Âkn´≥ S¨S¨vMvM lup\Âkera" No
sooner had they passed beyond the chinthe statues at the entrance of the
covered way than the flower-sellers made a great hubbub, all but taking
hold of them as each urged them vociferously to buy flowers from her
shop, to leave their sandals and umbrellas behind with her.
• tky\ K¥s\tala;lui≥ em;eta." k¥op\m¥k\N˙ana; kp\®p^; ¯tky\e®pataepå.˘lui≥
tui;tui;el; e®paty\" ®p^;lv\;®p^;era k¥op\på;el;kui rWt\Kn´ nm\;®p^;
T∑k\e®p;q∑a;erab¥a" When I asked her if she really loved me, she put her
face close to mine and said quietly “Of course I mean it”, then she planted
a resounding kiss on my cheek and off she ran!
227
• d^liu wiuc\;e®paÂketa. kiuy\sa;l˙y\N˙s\eyak\lv\; ®pn\q∑a;erat´." After they had

all spoken to them in these terms the two delegates went off home, so I
heard.
• At¨sa; Atënpåm¥a;eta. vis∑n\;kun\Âkpåerala;" They’d eat together and
spend time together, and in no time they’d find they were hooked on each
other!
• Sk\“p^; cå;mYa;en®pn\ty\" dåepmy\. AK¥in\qakun\q∑a;era enak\Tp\
cå;mreta.B¨;" He carried on fishing. But he was wasting his time: he
didn’t catch any more fish.
In certain set phrases:
AM.era I am astonished, (cfAM.pår´. sv r´.):
• q¨tiu≥ Âkv\.rta pc\pc\pn\;pn\; Alup\lup\rt´. pMum¥oi;lv\; mhut\påB¨;"
Sc\;Sc\;r´rét∑lv\; hut\hn\ mt¨påB¨;" dån´≥m¥a; ts\N˙s\ts\Kå la®p^;
Apn\;e®PÂkrqt´." AM.era" They don’t look as if they have particularly
strenuous jobs. And they don’t seem to be poor. But in spite of that they
come here once a year to relax, they say. It’s beyond me!
• qa;qm^;et∑kiu d^liu erac\;erac\;sa;enÂkt´. miBet∑ha By\elak\ Siu;ql´"
®p^;eta. q¨tiu≥k A´d^ {lërac\;p´∑Âk^;}kium¥a; mgçlaeSac\t´.' AM.era AM.era" What
a dreadful thing it is that these parents actually sell their sons and
daughters. Then they call this human sale a wedding! Can you believe it!
l∑n\era it is extreme:
• sv\;km\;k¥eta.lv\; m‰˙iluik\ta l∑n\era" When it comes to discipline,
they’re totally lacking. It’s extreme!
®p^;era that’s the end of that, that’s all that’s needed:
• mlup\K¥c\B¨;liu≥ e®paliuk\" ®p^;era" Just say you don’t want to do it, and that’ll
be the end of the matter.
• qm^; saem;p´∑k¥ta d^ts\N˙s\p´ ‰˙ieq;ty\' enak\N˙s\eAac\rc\ ®p^;era mhut\la;"
I’ve only failed my exams this once. If I pass next year that’s all that
matters, isn’t it?
• Variant form era." ts\en≥eta. ®bon\;Siu B”k^;k ®mn\ma®pv\ ®pn\la“p^; Ac\;sin\‘mi>'
r∑amT´m˙a e®myawy\' Aim\”k^;eSak\“p^; ts\eyak\T´ en®pn\påera.Kc\b¥a;" One
day BG suddenly came back to Burma, bought land in YM in Insein, built
a large house, and lived there by himself.
In pattern V-eraepå≥ must have V-ed by now, will surely have V-ed
by now; marking an assumption or deduction;
• AKuelak\ Siurc\ bma®pv\ erak\eraepå." They must have reached Burma by
now.
228
• Kc\b¥a; Aip\cuik\enelak\eraepå." No doubt you are about ready for sleep by

now.
• 3 _ 4 rk\enrc\ eta\eraepå." If we stay for two or three days that will
surely be enough.
• dået∑kiu Akun\qit´. l¨ts\eyak\ ‰˙ieq;ty\' q¨lapålim\.my\" A´dêta. Aa;lMu;
‰˙c\;eraepå." There is one other person who knows all about this. He will be
here soon. Then no doubt everything will become clear.
era 2 sts kera (V~) just as V, as soon as V; sub cls mkr, CB, cf VV-K¥c\;'
normally in the pattern N-lv\; (l´) V-era, and often combined with
sentence marker era “vivid narrative” in the second clause;
• eyak met∑lv\; Aim\e‰˙> erak\era' q¨lv\; enak\k T∑k\q∑a;era" Just as
his in-laws arrived at the front of the house, he went out at the back.
• talv\; lWt\luik\era ka;kel;et∑ emac\;T∑k\q∑a;luik\Âkta elak\saAim\k
elak\sa lWt\luik\qluim¥oi;" As soon as the signal was given the little cars
hurtled out like pellets slung from a catapult.
• eS;lip\lv\; m^;s∑éra m^;“Ks\kiu Aqa pi\t\“p^; eS;lip\kiu Aa;på;tr P∑aenmity\"
As soon as his cheroot had caught, he carefully extinguished the match
and drew deeply on the cheroot.
• q^K¥c\;lv\; SuM;era B”k^;eSac\lv\; eta\eta\ emaq∑a;ty\" At the
conclusion of the song BGS was exhausted.
• eS;lip\m^;Kiu;et∑lv\; ®py\q∑a;era ®Kc\et∑k vaqMep;“p^; ®pn\erak\laÂk®pn\era"
No sooner had the cheroot smoke cleared than back came the whining
mosquitoes again.
• emac\Bwc\;l´ Ana;erak\kera ts\eyak\l´ lMu;rak l´q∑a;“p^;
k¥n\ts\eyak\l´ T∑k\e®p;påerat´. Srar´." At Maung BW’s approach one of
the pair who had been struggling fell to the ground and the other ran off,
Sir.
• dåepmy\. ss\Âk^;lv\; ®p^;påera q¨tiu≥r´. elqMlv\; e®pac\;q∑a;påelera"
However, no sooner was the war over than they changed their tune.
era 3 or eka (Phr1~ Phr2~) both Phr1 and Phr2; coord mkr, CB, cf FB
Phr1-lv\;ekac\; Phr2-lv\;ekac\;' also in pattern Phr1-era Phr2-på, and
with more than two Phr; the form eka occurs after a stop tone;
• N˙m\;Ait\era cRut\Ait\era Âkk\q∑n\Ait\era Sn\Ait\era Akun\tc\" Sacks of
sesamum, sacks of chillie, sacks of onions, sacks of rice — he loaded
them all on.
• ApëÂkac\.era AeA;eÂkac\.era ePak\®pn\rpåty\" It can be spoiled by both
heat and cold.
229
• dMu;AP∑´>et∑ “poic\kt´. enram˙aera' eAa\p∑´m˙aera' el˙“poic\p∑´m˙aera' ska;ANiuc\

luÂkram˙aera “poic\Bk\et∑ ®Ps\K´.Âkpåty\" In the don dance event, and in the
shouting event, and in the boat race, and in the debate, they became
rivals.
•en≥era vpå" By day and by night.
•sit\era kiuy\på" With mind and body, with heart and soul.
•bma®pv\kera yiu;dya;kera AiN∂iykpå" From Burma, Siam and India.
era 4 (Phr~) Phr as well, Phr too; stc med phr ptcl, CB; cf lv\; also; cf
eka and how about;
• kuieT∑;era A´d^lui mm˙a;mieAac\ qtiTa;epå≥ena\" And you too Ko Htway, make
sure you don’t make the same mistake.
• edÅedÅera luik\K¥c\ty\t´." Auntie says she’d like to come too.
era 5 and eraeN˙a (~V-) to join and V, to V with; comm pre-vb, CB+FB;
from verb era- to mix;
• d^saAit\T´ eraTv\.luik\my\ena\" I’ll put them both in this same envelope,
OK?
• Bura;P¨;q∑a;my\. kalqa;et∑n´≥ eraeN˙aliuk\q∑a;Âkty\" They (“joined up and”)
went along with the youngsters who were visiting the pagoda.
era 6 see under eka how about
era. see under era stc mkr, elera.qla; rhetorical question, and eta. at last
era.my\ (V~) must have V-ed, will have V-ed by now; stc mkr, CB+FB; cf
V-eraepå≥ sv era;
• A´då tngçeN∑N˙s\pt\elak\ ‰˙iera.my\" It must be about two weeks ago by now.
• Kc\b¥a;l´ Aip\K¥c\era.my\" Aip\epË;eta." You must need sleep. Go to bed now.
• ernMS^ AKu wy\liuk\AuM;m˙' nk\®Pn\ Siurc\ kun\era.my\" I’d better buy some more
kerosene now. (This lot) is bound to be used up by tomorrow.
• q¨tui≥f Ak¥Çwt\sMuet∑ pui;m¥a; kuik\enera.mv\" I expect the moths will have
been at their clothes (after so long a period of neglect).
Rui; (V~) marks end of sentence; stc mkr, perhaps sp hd nn, CB+FB;
restricted to two specific contexts:
(a) in combination Rui;la; marks a question posed as challenge, cf
CB V-på≥mla;'
• cåN˙c\. cå.qa; lk\RuM;N˙s\på; ‘pic\Suic\j Nuic\cMtkakui lup\ÂkMlYc\ KMNuic\Rui;la;" When
I and my son combine forces and attack other countries, will they be able
to withstand us?
• U^:Kc\ek¥a\ha t®Ka;l¨ hut\Riu;la;' An\t^tiu≥n´≥ ®pv\‘mi>m˙a ts\rp\tv\;
enlaK´.qët∑epå.' Who else could U KK be but one of the people who lived
in the same quarter as you in Prome?
230
• hut\Riu;la; kiuqin\;emac\r´." Can this really be true, Ko TM?

(b) in pattern Stc-Rui; m˙n\- to be true that Stc;
• q¨Kiu;ha eK∑;tiu;epåk\k T∑k\“p^; e®p;Riu; m˙n\K´.rc\" If it were true that the thief
escaped through the back door.
• sui;ek¥a\qv\ Aim\kuieta. qMeyaz√\ m‰˙iRui; Am˙n\pc\" It was certainly true that SK
had no affection for the house.
• k¥op\®Pc\. q¨r´' qBk\ Tc\tapåB´" l¨hut\Riu; m˙n\lYc\ Ekn\ qv\liu lup\Niuc\my\
mTc\påB¨;" Personally, I think it was a ghost. If it were true that it was a
human, then I don’t think he would have been able to do this.
• Tuis√\keta. qv\ska;f ADipπay\kui sui;ek¥a\ na;mlv\K´.Rui; Am˙n\pc\" At that
time it was true that SK didn’t understand the meaning of these words.
rk\- 1 (V~-) to bring oneself to V, be heartless enough, inconsiderate
enough, to V; vb mod, CB+FB;
• mimi miBkiu ÈmY Riuc\;siuc\;eqa ska;kiu e®park\mla;" Would I bring myself to
utter such offensive, such rude words to my parents?
• q¨qv\ ek¥;z¨;‰˙c\kiu ®ps\m˙a;rk\qv\" He was heartless enough to commit an
offence against his benefactor.
• eA;misM eZ;erac\;®p^; suTa;qv\. piuk\SMel; pålaqv\m˙apc\ As\m duk kiu
mÂkv\.rk\j Tut\ep;liuk\rq®Pc\." AMS couldn’t bear to see her sister in such
distress, so she gave her the little cash that she had saved up from her
sales.
• elakm˙a l¨¨ts\eyak\ha miuk\m´ty\' â%\pvam‰˙i' Am˙a;kiu ®pork\ty\"
(Suppose there is) in the world a man who is stupid and lacking in
intelligence, who doesn’t mind doing wrong.
• ®cim\;K¥m\;k saAit\kiu mePak\rk\" tRiuteq kp\Ta;eqa eka\kiu K∑aliuk\qv\"
NG couldn’t bring himself to tear open the envelope: he carefully peeled it
open where it was stuck down.
rk\ 2 and rk$k)n´≥' rk\qa;(n´≥) see under l¥k\ -ing, while, despite, etc
erak\- (V~-) to arrive; comm elem cpd vb for verbs of movement:
• q∑a;(erak$qv\ to go; la(erak\)qv\ to come; k¥(erak\)qv\ to arrive,
befall; wc$erak$qv\ to enter, join in; tk$erak$qv\ to attend.
rc\ see under lYc\ if, when
rc\lv\; see under lYc\lv\; either … or …
rc\; 1 sts yc\; (V~) while V-ing, at the same time as, from V-ing, arising
out of V-ing; sub cls mkr, CB+FB;
• emac\l˙qv\ eKåk\S∑´Tup\kiu e®Prc\; zn^;Aa; eKÅliuk\qv\" Maung Hla called
out to his wife as he undid the package of noodles.
231
• … kiu tc\®prc\; nigM u;K¥op\liuk\påqv\" Making this point, I conclude (my

speech).
• Èqiu≥ Alup\ROp\rc\;N˙c\.pc\ qeBçaSip\qiu≥ Sc\;rn\AK¥in\qiu≥ erak\K´.f" As we busied
ourselves with all this activity the time came to go down to the jetty.
• q∑a;rc\;larc\; sU\;sa;ty\" I think it over as I come and go.
• qc\rc\;qc\rc\;n´≥ t®Pv\;®Pv\; tt\lamy\" By dint of studying you will
gradually come to learn it.
• ek¥ac\;quM;saAup\ qc\Âka;rc\;m˙ kalepÅwtÊom¥a;qiu≥ erak\q∑a;tt\elqv\" From
teaching us the school readers (our teacher) would get on to teaching us
about modern novels.
• Tmc\; sa;enrc\;m˙a Kr^;sU\ eS∑;eN∑;ÂkreAac\" Let’s discuss our route while we
are having our meal.
• hMqawt^Bk\kiu ss\T∑k\rc\; k¥SMu;q∑a;®p^;t´.AK¥in\m˙a" After he had fallen on
campaign in H.
rc\; 2 (V~) essence of V-ing; sp hd nn, CB+FB;
• k´' liurc\; Sk\e®pamy\" Now: I will go on to tell you what is really needful,
the essence of the situation.
• tv\;KuiKn\; lup\cn\;‰˙c\et∑r´. Tmc\;lup\kui put\K¥Pui≥ rv\R∑y\rc\;lv\; m‰˙ipå" I have
no intention of disparaging the means of livelihood of hoteliers.
rc\; 3 or rc\;s∑´ (V~ N) original, N that was V-ed previously; vb atrb mkr,
CB+FB;
• ‰˙irc\; Ak¥c\.Siu;kel;" A bad habit that he had always had.
• Suiluirc\; ADipπåy\" The basic meaning.
• ‰˙irc\;s∑´sit\" The attitude that they already had.
• ngiu ‰˙irc\;s∑´ s∑m\;rv\tn\Piu;Tk\ nv\;q∑a;mv\" It will be less than the value of the
previously available power.
rc\; 4 (N~) original, genuine, true N; comm elem cpd nn, FB+CB;
• tRut\et∑ t¨n´≥ Tmc\;sa;r®Kc\;AeÂkac\;rc\;" The real reason why the Chinese
eat with chopsticks.
• Srarc\;qma;rc\;" Their own teachers.
• Amv\rc\;" Original name (as against pen name etc).
• Akuirc\;" A true brother (as against cousin so called).
• tuic\;rc\;qa;" Original inhabitant, indigenous people.
• emac\Kuic\mar´. m¨rc\;kb¥aet∑" Maung KM’s original poems.
rc\; 5 see under ®p^;rc\; more than before
rs\- (V~-) to remain behind and V, V back there; vb mod, CB+FB; often
used with K´. qv;
232
• eA;®cim\;qv\ q¨ tiu≥kiu Ta;rs\ka Aim\Bk\qiu≥ ®pn\j e®p;laelqv\" AN left

them where they were and ran towards the house.
• l¨”k^;m¥a; AlØ q∑a;Âkq®Pc\. kÁn\mqv\ Aim\esac\.A®Ps\ k¥n\rs\qv\" I stayed
behind to mind the house as the grown-ups had gone to an alms-giving
celebration.
• l∑y\Ait\ Siuc\m˙a em.k¥n\rs\K´.ty\" I forgot and left my shoulder bag behind in
the shop.
rn\ or pårn\ (V~, V~ N) to V, in order to, with the intention of V-ing; sub
cls mkr and vb atrb mkr, FB, = CB Piu≥; variant forms rn\At∑k\ and (more
formal and old-fashioned) rn\Alui≥c˙a; cf also Piu≥rn\;
• m^;eB;kiu kak∑y\rn\ R∑aqa;tiuc\; kc\;esac\.Âkqv\" Every villager serves as a
lookout to prevent fire disasters.
• Aip\ep¥a\rn\ ’ki;sa;enrelqv\" She tried to sleep.
• ®mc\;p´∑t∑c\ Tiu;rn\ SuM;®Pt\liuk\qv\" He decided to wager the money at the
horse races.
• lMuK¥v\l´rn\ Aim\cy\el;epÅqiu≥ tk\K´.qv\" He went up into the hut to change
his longyi.
• min\;m enak\Tp\y¨rn\ tiuk\t∑n\;Âkelf" They urged him to marry again.
• Rup\p∑a;eta\”k^;kui lØdån\;pëza\rn\ Peyac\;tuic\" Candles for offering to the
image.
• kÁn\eta\ BaeÂkac\. en≥tuic\;erak\enqv\kui e®parn\ Kk\påqv\" It was hard to
say why I came every day.
• q¨tiu≥Apå;m˙ T∑k\K∑arn\ hn\®pc\liuk\qv\" She made as if to leave them.
• m^;etac\qv\ epåk\k´∑rn\At∑k\ N˙s\epåc\;m¥a;s∑a “cim\qk\K´.rqv\" In order to
erupt, the volcano had lain dormant for many years.
• kÁn\eta\ Ark\®pc\;®pc\;ts\K∑k\ eqak\K¥c\qv\" qtirentaet∑ Aa;lMu;kui
em.ep¥ak\ps\rn\At∑k\ mhut\B´ em.ep¥ak\entaet∑ Aa;lMu;kui
®pn\lv\qtirlaesrn\At∑k\ ®Ps\qv\" I wanted to drink a glass of strong
liquor. This was not so as to forget everything I remembered, but so as to
remember everything I had forgotten.
• Niuc\cMf s^;p∑a;er; tiu;tk\rn\Aliu≥c˙a kun\m¥a;kiu ASc\.m^m^ Tut\lup\Âkrmv\" For
the country’s economy to prosper we must produce goods that are up to
standard.
Also used in incomplete sentences, especially on public notices and official
forms:
• c˙a;rn\" For hire.
• lk\m˙t\®prn\" Tickets are to be shown.
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• puMsM‰˙i sam¥k\N˙atuic\; eAak\eTac\.Bk\t∑c\ lk\m˙t\er;Tui;rn\" Every page of this

form is to be signed at the lower corner.
rn\eka (V~) How V! marks exclamatory statement expressing indignation or
annoyance; stc mkr, CB; cf luik\ta;
• Aeta\el; kel; Sn\t´.l¨' kp\q^;kp\qp\ eSa.enrn\eka Tc\mla;p´"
Perhaps you will think what a childish fellow! Playing around like that!
(re writer playing at riding the escalators at Bangkok airport).
• d^kel; ty\ eSa.rn\eka" How naughty this child is!
• mÂkamÂka e®parn\eka' mimitawn\ qipåty\" I know what my duty is; do you
have to keep on telling me?
rn\At∑k\ see under rn\ in order to
rn\Alui≥c˙a see under rn\ in order to
rp\ (Nº~) or Arp\ (~Nº) item; comm nmtv for ideas, subjects of study, ab-
stract items; CB+FB;
• Baqa By\.N˙s\rp\ y¨ml´" How many subjects will you take?
• eS∑;eN∑;p∑´ ts\rp\ k¥c\;pmv\ ®Ps\f A discussion will be held.
• eÂk∑;®m^ tc\rn\ AeÂkac\;”k^; ts\rp\m˙a" One major cause of indebtedness
was….
• eAak\ePa\®ppå lup\cn\; 4-rp\" The four tasks listed below.
• ®pœnats\rp\" A problem.
• l¨Tu ts\rp\luM;" The entire people, the masses.
Also in repeated form Arp\rp\ various items, various places:
• pvaArp\rp\" Various branches of learning.
• tp\meta\m˙ Niuc\cMeta\Aa%a Arp\rp\kiu tawn\ y¨K´.®p^;" The Tatmadaw (Army)
assumed the various powers of the state.
• ®mn\ma®pv\ Arp\rp\qiu≥ p¥M>N˙M≥q∑a;K´.qv\" (The news) spread all over Burma, to all
places.
RuM (V~) mere act of V-ing, only, merely V-ing; sp hd nn, CB+FB; frequent-
ly in combinations V-RuMqa' V-RuMmY' V-RuMp´ “only V-RuM”;
• k¨;RuMp´ liueta.ty\" It merely needs copying out now, all I have to do now is
copy it out.
• lWc\.ps\liuk\RuMp´ ‰˙im˙aepå." All we shall be able to do is throw them away.
• mA¨pc\t∑c\ 12nar^mY et∑>rRuMN˙c\. mek¥np\Niuc\eqaeÂkac\." Because he couldn’t be
satisfied with merely meeting (his wife) for 12 hours at Maubin.
• ts\nar^kiu 9-k¥p\Kn\≥ wc\m˙ eta\RuM k¥mv\" He would have to earn about 9
kyats an hour to get by, for it to be merely adequate.
• c˙a;RuM c˙a;ty\" Apiuc\ mep;B¨;" I only lent it. I didn’t give it for good.
234
• tK¥oi>Siuc\ tMKå; P∑c\.RuMp´ P∑c\.®p^; Siuc\ mKc\;p´ Tiuc\enÂkty\" Some stall (owners)
merely opened their shutters and sat there but didn’t lay out their wares
(after civil disturbance).
• Bt\ska;qv\ l¨ ®pv\.RuMqa tc\påqv\" The bus took on only enough people
to fill it.
• Nui≥yag uet∑ mkun\RuMmY mhut\eq;påB¨;" Not only did her miraculous pot of
yagu not get used up (however many people ate from it, but it cured the
eaters of their ailments as well).
Often in combination with mk “not so little as, not only”:
• tlm\;luM; PuMteTac\eTac\N˙c\. larRuMmYmk pÄiuk\l˙eqa AK¥in\lv\; ®Ps\qv\"
Not only did we have to come the whole way through clouds of dust but it
was at a very hot time of day.
• g¥pn\tiu≥qv\ ss\m˙n\eqa l∑t\lp\er;kiu mep;RuMqamk ®pv\q¨l¨Tukiulv\;
vHc\;pn\;Âkeq;f" The Japanese not only did not grant true independence
but they also ill-treated the population.
ry\ 1 and variant ry\. also written r´. (N~) appellative suffix, suffixed to a
addressing sn, often pleading or remonstrating; the creaky tone version is
more emphatic or peremptory; CB; occurs in various forms: the full set is: er'
er>' ry\' ry\.' r´.' cy\' cy\.' c´.' ra' ra.; for other examples see under er and
ra and cy\;
• qa;el;ry\' qip\meSa.n´≥' lim.\k¥lim\.my\" Son, don’t mess about: you’ll fall off.
• kÁn\mkiu erac\;på BÂk^;ry\" kÁn\m ventiuc\; lay¨på.my\" Please sell them to
me, Uncle. I’ll come and collect them every evening.
• pn\;K¥c\; mt¨påB¨; An\t^ry\" dåk Niuc\cM®Ka;N˙c\;S^' N˙c\;S^nk\liu≥eKÅta An\t^r´."
My flowers are not the same, Auntie. Theirs are foreign roses. They’re
called black roses, Auntie.
ry\ 2 or ky\ (Phr~) and Phr, Phr for one, when listing nouns or phrases;
coord mkr, CB; variant ky\\ is used after stop tones;
• Sramry\ Kc\l˙l˙ry\ laesK¥c\ty\" I want you and Khin Hla Hla to come.
• ek¥ac\; mtk\Kc\ry\ ek¥ac\; tk\tun\;ry\" Both before I went to school and
while I was there.
• kiuKc\emac\lt\ky\ q¨≥Am¥oi;qm^;ry\ kÁn\eta\ry\n´≥" Ko Maung Maung Lat, his
wife, and I.
• eSac\;på;Pt\A®p^;m˙a eRWBuMqalm\;k eS;Kn\;et∑ry\' AT¨;ku Srawn\et∑ry\'
eS;Kn\;puic\‰˙c\et∑ry\' eS;erac\;qët∑ry\' l¨naet∑ry\n´≥ pt\qk\®p^; …
e®pa®pluisit\ ®Ps\rpåty\" After I had read that article, I had an urge to tell
235
people about the clinics of SBT Street, its specialist doctors, the clinic
owners, the drug salesmen, and the patients.
ry\ 3 (Stc~) really, only, as little as; used when remonstrating or trying to
convince the listener; stc fin phr ptcl, CB;
• eZ;kl´ m¥a;liuk\ta' hiuTip\m˙am˙ ts\p∑c\. ts\mt\ry\" Your prices are very
high. At the end of the road they are only 25 pya for a bloom.
• suik\srit\ eTac\.cå;ra N˙s\eTac\ry\' dåel;påp´" All you needed as down
payment was K1500 or 2000. That was all.
• cåeta. ApuMÂk^; eAak\em.enta" lk\sqt\eta. nńél;ry\" I thought there
was plenty. Now we get here there’s only a little bit.
• d^luil´ mhut\B¨;ry\" No, that’s not right either.
• q¨≥Aim\kl´ Ak¥y\Âk^;ry\" And his house is huge.
• km\;na;k Aew;Âk^;ry\" And it’s miles from docks.
• kÁn\mtui≥Aim\n´≥ n^;n^;ry\" It was no distance from our house.
• q¨≥ Aekac\kl´ m∑´K¥aK¥ary\" Her boyfriend is a mere pauper.
• A´d^tun\;k k¥mk Aly\tn\;ek¥ac\;qël;ry\på" in those days I was just a
Middle School schoolgirl.
• {k¥k\sa;K´.rty\} Suiram˙a mimir´.wn\Tm\;lKn´≥ melak\lui≥ AK¥in\puilup\ eS;Kn\;
Tuic\®p^; Run\;kn\lOp\‰˙a;‰˙aeP∑sa;eqak\K´.rtakui Suiluitary\på" When I say “I
frequented those places” I mean that I used to slog away in my spare time
trying to earn a living by running a clinic, as my regular salary was too
low.
ry\ 4 or ry\lui≥ CB = FB h¨j (N~) N as such, so called, such a thing as,
“N”; nn mkr; usually with a negated verb;
• Kutc\ry\liu≥ meKÅNiuc\B¨;" One can’t really call it a bedstead.
• pn\;eta\Sk\qPui≥ p¥k\k∑k\K´.qv\. en≥h¨j m‰˙isP¨;" There wasn’t a single day
when he failed to present flowers to the court.
• lOic\;mm¨;q¨h¨j m‰˙i" There wasn’t anyone who was not seasick.
• gu%\T¨;tn\;ry\liu≥ ‰˙ir´.la;" Do they have such a thing as an Honours Class?
• BaeÂkac\.ry\ mqi" He didn’t really know why.
• Bary\ mhut\t´. kisßn´≥ q¨sit\Siu;tt\ty\" He gets angry for no reason at all.
• ÈsKn\;qiu≥ erak\sk qs\pc\wå;pc\tiu≥t∑c\ AR∑k\h¨j m‰˙i' e®Kak\eq∑>eq∑>”k^;
enf" When we first reached this camp there was not so much as a leaf on
the trees, they were quite parched and bare.
•By\q¨ry\liu≥ Am˙t\mTa;påB¨;" I didn’t notice who it was.
ry\lui≥ see under ry\ as such, so called
ry\. see under ry\ appellative suffix
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eR∑> 1 or j (VA~) as much as V, so long as V; sub stc mkr, mainly FB, = CB

elak\, cf FB mY;
• qdÎåqeR∑> ep;på" Give me as much as your charity dictates, as much as you
feel kind enough to give.
• kuiy\.g u%\qik an´≥ kuiy\.l¨m¥oi;r´. g u%\qik akui mTiKuik\qeR∑>eta.
qv\;KMrm˙aepå." One should tolerate it so long as (to the extent that) it
doesn’t impinge on one’s own honour or the honour of one’s people.
• tt\Niuc\qer∑> ’ki;sa;esac\mBiu≥kiul´ q¨k qM’ki;®pn\liuk\ty\" He replied with a
telegram asking me to do everything I could to help her.
• Aqk\‰˙c\enqj tuic\;rc\;qa;sv\;luM;v^V∑t\mOkisß Suita kÁn\eta\tui≥ Sk\“p^;eta.
lup\enrm˙a ®Ps\påty\" We must continue to serve the cause of national
unity for as long as life is left to us.
Common in a set of similar phrases: N ‰˙iqj all Ns there are, N m˙n\qj
all that are truly N, N h¨qj or h¨h¨qj all that can be said to be N,
i.e. all Ns; subordinate clauses, also used as attributes, mainly FB; cf FB
‰˙iqmY' m˙n\qmY' h¨qmY, and CB ‰˙iqelak\;
• AK¥in\‰˙iqj Ark\eqak\' P´´Riuk\N˙c\. p¥k\s^;K¥c\tiuc\; p¥k\s^;eneta.qv\" All the
time he had he spent drinking and gambling, and was well on the road to
ruin.
• qt†wåm˙n\qeR∑>' tra;et∑>' K¥m\;qaqaya ‰˙ipåes" May all living creatures
know the dharma and have peace and happiness.
• Aer;kisßh¨h¨qer∑>kui … mem.mel¥a. esac\.e‰˙ak\Âkraqv\" One should attend
to all duties conscientiously.
eR∑> 2 see under j and, -ing, after (listed at end of Burmese entries)
eR∑; see under meR∑; any whatsoever
‰˙a- (V~-) expresses sympathy or pity, usually referring to a third person,
i.e. not used of speaker or hearer; vb mod, CB+FB;
• U^;Ut†mqv\ qk\eta\ 60®pv\.qv\. 1939 KuN˙s\t∑c\ p¥Ml∑n\eta\m¨‰˙aqtv\;" U
Ottama, sad to say, passed away at the age of 60 in 1939.
• APm\; KMrq∑a;‰˙aty\" He was caught, poor fellow.
• Aqk\ m‰˙v\‰˙aB¨;" Unfortunately, he did not live long.
• Aem”k^;klv\; qti r‰˙apåty\" My dear old mother remembers you.
• biul\mØ; raT¨; rPiu≥ tn\epm´. mr‰˙apåB¨;" He should have been made a major,
but sadly he wasn’t.
‰˙i 1 (V~-) to exist, to have; common element in a range of compound verbs,
mainly FB; e.g.
237
• qi(‰˙i)qv\ to know; k¥n\(‰˙i)qv\ to remain, be left over; r(‰˙i)qv\ to obtain,

receive; på(‰˙i)qv\ to be included; tv\(‰˙i)qv\ to be situated, established;
et∑>(‰˙i)qv\ to meet, find; erak\(‰˙i)qv\ to reach, arrive.
‰˙i 2 (N1~ N2) N2 located in, situated in N1; truncated verb attribute, short
for FB N1-t∑c\ ‰˙ieqa N2, CB N1-m˙a ‰˙it´. N2; mainly FB;
• R∑a‰˙i m¨ltn\;ek¥ac\;" The primary school in the village.
• ka;epÅ‰˙i lÄerAt∑k\" The number of people on the bus.
• ek¥ac\;e‰˙>‰˙i m˙t\tiuc\" The bus stop in front of the school.
• ®mn\maNuic\cM ts\w˙m\;luM;‰˙i ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a;" Students all over Burma.
‰˙iqmY all Ns there are: see under mY as much as
‰˙iqeR∑>' ‰˙iqj all Ns there are: see under eR∑> as much as
e‰˙> (N~) in front of, before N; loc nn, CB+FB; opp enak\ behind; purists
distinguish e‰˙> “front” from Ae‰˙> “east”, but some younger writers also use
the form Ae‰˙> for “front”;
• ka;e‰˙>t∑c\pc\ rp\qv\" He stopped just in front of the bus.
• ek¥ac\;e‰˙>‰˙i m˙t\tiuc\" The bus stop in front of the school.
• që‰˙>m˙a Tiuc\ent´.l¨" The person sitting in front of him.
• ek¥ac\;e‰˙>Bk\ q∑a;ty\" He went towards the front of the school.
• mimienram˙ AqaTj Srame‰˙>qui≥ q∑a;qv\" She calmly got up from her place
and went in front of the teacher.
• Aim\e‰˙>mc\;qa;" The crown prince (who occupied the palace in front of the
king’s palace which faced east).
e‰˙ak\ see under elYak\ go along
‰˙c\ and ‰˙c\. (mostly Stc~) Sir, Madam, polite term of address, used in
addressing people or compelling their attention; appended appellative, CB;
used by women speakers, to other women or to men; the short, creaky-tone
form is more emphatic and peremptory;
• AKuliu k¨vêp;t´.At∑k\ ek¥;z¨;tc\påty\‰˙c\" Thank you for helping me like
this, Sir/Madam.
Also used alone with a rising intonation as a polite response meaning “I beg
your pardon, What did you say?”:
• K∑k\ts\luM; y¨K´.AuM;b¥a" _ ‰˙c\?" Bring me another cup. — I beg your pardon?
Excuse me?
Also as an answer to hearing oneself called:
•sMsMer" _ ‰˙c\" San San! — Yes?
la- 1 or laerak\- (~V-) come and V; comm pre-vb, CB+FB; from verb
la- to come;
• By\q¨m¥a; lalup\ep;Ta;tapålim\." whoever came and did this for you?
238
• Aip\rak l¨;l´T“p^; laeKÅt´.l¨ enak\kiu liuk\q∑a;ty\" He struggled out of

bed and went off with the men who had come to fetch him.
• pulc\;kel; ts\lMu;kiu laj ®peta.qv\" They came and showed him a small
bottle.
• tiu≥ny\k eS;r∑k\”k^;kiu Asiu;rketac\ la“p^; el.larty\ Siueta.
gu%\y¨sraepå.k∑a" Even the government had to come and study the tobacco
plants in our district — well, that’s something to be proud of.
• rn\kun\erak\tuic\; kÁN\up\Aim\qui≥ laerak\lv\pt\f" Every time he’s in Yangon
he comes and visits me at home.
• lëpåc\;e®mak\®ma;s∑aqv\ wm\;qaAa;r laerak\Aa;ep;sU\" While a large crowd
of people had come along and were happily encouraging him.
la- 2 (V~-) V and come; begin to V; become V; vb mod, CB+FB; sts V-lui≥
la- (CB) or V-ka la- (FB); negative form usually V-m~, sts m-V~; for
further discussion see Soe 1994;
• Sra ek¥ac\; erak\mlaeq;B¨;la;" Hasn’t Teacher reached school yet?
• d^na; nń´ tiu;lasm\;" Come a little closer to here.
• miu; ts\epåk\N˙s\epåk\ k¥laeta." As a drop or two of rain began to fall.
• q¨≥Am¥oi;qm^; eKÅmlaB¨;la;" Won’t he bring his wife?
• mqN †ar´. eSac\;på;keta. d^zc\Ba qiu≥mhut\ zN~wårêlak\m˙a pålapålim\.my\"
Ma T’s article will be included (in the magazine) sometime in December or
January.
• qc\rc\;qc\rc\;n´≥ t®Pv\;®Pv\; tt\lam˙ap´" As you continue studying you will
slowly learn.
• A´d^liukiu slata" That was how it began.
• q¨N˙c\. qilaqv\m˙a Sy\N˙s\etac\ ‰˙iq∑a;®p^" It is 10 years since I came to know
him.
• Aim\eTac\ k¥eta. wlaty\" She got fat when she married.
• ts\tn\;luM; tit\Sit\latan´≥" When the whole class had become silent.
• 1998KuN˙s\T´kui T´T´wc\wc\ erak\lui≥ la®p^" By now we were well into 1998.
• kÁNu\p\m˙a cy\R∑y\s√\k sj el˙tk\N˙c\.pc\ erT´Ò Âk^;®pc\;ka larqv\" I have
grown up in the water with a paddle in my hands since early childhood.
la; 1 (Stc~) indicates a yes-or-no question; stc fin phr ptcl, mainly CB,
but increasingly used in FB where the standard equivalent FB ela now
sounds old-fashioned; for the combinations V-påla; “why don’t you V?”, N
Suila; “was it called N?”, V-reAac\la; “how about we V?”, V-l˙K¥v\la;
“exclamatory”, see under the first syllable; for yes-or-no questions without
la; see Rising intonation in the English entries;
• mc\;miBm¥a; enTiuc\ekac\;Âkr´.la;" Are your parents well?
239
• Tmc\; sa;®p^;®p^la;" Have you eaten yet?

• p∑´ mq∑a;eta.B¨;la;" Aren’t you going to the festival after all?
• A´då Aem.hala;" Is that mother’s?
• hut\qla; or hut\la;" Is that so?
• mhut\B¨;la; often shortened to mhut\la; or mOt\la; or mOi>la; or mla;" Isn’t
that so?
Used in pairs to indicate alternatives:
• mN †el; q∑a;m˙a elyaU\p¥Mn´≥la;' rTa;n´≥la;" Are you going to Mandalay by
plane or by train?
• m¥a;qla;' mm¥a;B¨;la;" Is that too much or not?
• y¨mla; my¨mla; em;Âkv\.sm\;på" Do please ask if he’ll take it or not.
• mc\; “mio>Aup\ ®Ps\eAac\ lup\m˙ala;' mlup\B¨;la;" Are you going to take steps to
become a Township Officer or aren’t you?
• d^m˙aeta. Âkk\q∑n\et∑la; Bala; lénty\" Ba ®Ps\ql´" But here the
onions or whatever they are are lying flat. What went wrong?
Before verbs of saying, thinking etc if Stc, whether Stc:
• evac\r∑k\m¥a;kiu ert∑k\enqv\la; mSiuNiuc\" I couldn’t tell if he was trying to
count the banyan leaves.
• dåkiu pn\;kn\®pa;p¥Mla;' Bala;' vala; sU\;sa;enta" I was pondering
whether it was a flying saucer or something like that.
Also common with verb of saying, thinking etc omitted:
• eh.l¨' By\tun\;b¥" _ AeSac\mØ;S^ q∑a;mla;liu≥b¥a" Hey, you! Where are you
off to? — (I was wondering) if I should go to the hostel warden.
• ts\kiuy\lMu; p¨T¨‰˙in\;Pin\;“p^; epå.på;latap´" eS;eÂkac\.p´la;" I felt hot and
flushed all over and light headed. (I thought it might be) because of the
medicine.
• AtiAk¥ mqireta. Kk\enty\' Sratiu≥eta. qimla;p´" We were in
difficulties because we didn’t know for sure. (We thought) you might
know?
• mn\;n^;mit\ka;liu≥ e®parc\ rmla;B´" (I wondered) whether it would be accurate
to call him a “money-maker”.
• s^;p∑a;er;lup\cn\;ts\KuKu lup\mliu≥n´≥ t¨ty\" tv\;KiuKn\;la;' sa;eqak\Siuc\la;" It
seemed as if he was planning to start some business or other. (I can’t
remember) if it was a guest house or a restaurant.
la; 2 (V1~ V2~) V again and again, in various ways; sub cls mkr, CB+FB;
used with pairs of verbs, usually disyllabic compound verbs, but sometimes
also verbs with short complements; frequently before the verb lup\-, with the
meaning “do many times in quick succession”, often from several directions
240
or in several different ways, with the effect of flustering or intimidating the

patient; occasionally before other verbs: see examples below; cf K¥v\…K¥v\'
tuM…tuM' luik\…luik\' hy\…hy\;
• em;la;®mn\;la; lup\AuM;m˙ala;" ss\la;eS;la; lup\AuM;m˙ala;" Will they give us
more of these long and flustering interrogations?
• ta;la;S^;la; lup\rmla;" Should we attempt to intercept him?
• kuic\la;Tila; mlup\n´≥" Don’t go grabbing and snatching.
• m¥k\luM;kui P∑p\la;qp\la; lup\laÂkqv\" They started desperately rubbing
their eyes.
• ps\la;Kt\la; lup\rc\ duk " If they shower us with bullets we shall be in
trouble.
• g¥pn\kuiy\tuic\ la®p^; q¨Âk^;kui Âkim\;la;emac\;la;n´≥ lup\eq;ty\" The Japanese
came in person and bullied and threatened the headman.
Examples of use before verbs other than lup\-:
• S¨la;p¨la; ®Ps\lapåty\" Uncontrolled disturbances broke out.
• q¨tui≥kui ss\la;eS;la; em;®mn\;suMsm\;®Kc\; m‰˙ieta.m˙ qk\mÂk^; k¥q∑a;qv\" It
wasn’t until they stopped hurling questions at them that he breathed a
sigh of relief.
• A´d^lui Aa;Tut\rc\;k Tui;la;Âkit\la; ®Ps\lalui≥ kuiK¥s\Kc\ha … e®p;K´.rpåty\"
The struggle (to wrest the camera from him) turned into a flurry of flailing
fists, and Ko Chit Khin had to run for it.
• eT∑;la;luM;la; epÅenelf" A scene of brawling was revealed.
Used with verbs with short complements: Kń´≥ epåk\la; dut\n´≥ ps\la; qs\pc\
saS∑´la; lup\m˙®Pc\." If they were to throw stones or sticks, or nail notices to
trees.
• ska; A®cc\;p∑a;la; rn\m¥a;la; ®Ps\mv\kuilv\; mluila;" He didn’t want them
to have a furious argument.
Ala; (N~, VA~) like N, in the manner of N, as if V; nn mkr and sub stc
mkr, FB, = CB Atuic\;' lu;i
• miu;k¥my\.Ala;qiu≥" As if it were going to rain.
• m˙k\kiuk\liuk\lYc\ pr∑k\Sit\K´liuk\qv\.Ala; l¨≥kiu t∑n\≥Kn´ ®Ps\q∑a;qv\" When
the midges bit you they made you flinch as if you had been stung by an
ant.
• q¨≥m¥k\lMu;m¥a;kiu lk\Pwå;AsMuN˙c\. p∑t\Âkv\.miqv\" Rup\‰˙c\®pk∑k\ts\KuAla;
wc\erak\laeqa ®mc\k∑c\;kiu q¨ myMuÂkv\Niuc\eta." She couldn’t believe the
sight that met her eyes: it was like a scene in a film.
• Am¥oi;qa;er;sit\Dåt\ A‰˙in\Ahun\qv\ dêrAla; tui;p∑a;®mc\.ma;laeta.qv\" The
impetus of the nationalist spirit swelled like a tide.
241
• Kr^;qv\Aa;lMu;m˙a miu;erT´t∑c\ ksa;enÂkqv\.Ala; rW´rW´siuenÂkqv\" All the

passengers were soaked to the skin, as if they had been out playing in the
rain.
lili (Phr~) utterly, completely; stc med phr ptcl, mainly FB; in pattern V-
(s)P∑y\lili and the combination eÂkak\Kmn\;lili “terrifying”;
• R∑MsP∑y\lili ®Ps\enqv\" It is totally disgusting.
• ‰˙k\P∑y\lili m¥k\N˙acy\repera.mv\" It would be utterly shameful and
humiliating.
• kuiK¥s\vio ”kio;sa;Aa;Tut\pMuklv\; eÂkak\Kmn\;lilip´" Ko CN’s efforts were
terrifying (to behold).
• eÂkak\Kmn\;lili S¨qMp¨qM eAa\hs\qMm¥a;kiu Âka;rq®Pc\." As they could hear
terrifying cries and shouts.
lu- and lun^;- (V~-) almost V, on the point of V; after stop tone sts pron
and written lO; vb mod, CB+FB; mainly occurs with sentence marker ®p^ and
in certain set phrases used attributively: see examples below;
• q¨tiu≥N˙c\. n^;sp\qmY Aqimit\eS∑et∑lv\; kun\lu®p^" They were on the point of
running out of close friends (who could be used as blood donors).
• m^;rTa; Siuk\lO®p^" The train is on the point of arriving.
In combination lun^; or lun^;n^; or lun^;på;"
• pn\;erac\;rqv\. ts\pt\At∑c\;m˙a eA;misM ec∑N˙s\Sy\Kn\≥ sumij lMuK¥v\ts\k∑c\;pc\
wy\Niuc\lun^;®p^" In a week of selling flowers AMS had saved about K20 and
was almost able to afford a longyi.
• Sy\nar^ Tui;lun^;era.my\" It must be nearly ten o’clock.
• ska;e®parc\; Tmc\;sa;Âkqv\m˙a ska;wiuc\; ®p^;SMu;K¥in\t∑c\ el;lMu;K¥k\Tmc\;Aiu;pc\
e®pac\lun^;el®p^" They ate as they talked, and when they stopped talking the
four-can ricepot was almost wiped clean.
• tMta;kiu As∑m\;kun\ wiuc\;j P¥k\Âkra tMta;lv\; p¥k\lun^;n^; ‰˙iq∑a;elf" They
had put all their effort into destroying the bridge, and it was on the point
of collapse.
• Kuliue®pa“p^; kmn\;ktn\; T∑k\q∑a;eta. q¨≥enak\k ek¥alMu;®pv\.lun^; ‰˙it´.
ep∑;k∑k\”k^;kiu Am¥a;k et∑>liuk\Âktan´≥ ts\RMu;lMu; wiuc\;ry\Âkpåqt´." When he
finished speaking he got up in a hurry and went out. When people saw
the ringworm marks that almost completely covered his back the whole
office burst out laughing.
• Siuc\kel;et∑ha p∑´Kc\;pt\pt\lv\m˙a ts\Siuc\n´≥ts\Suic\ Tilun^;på; tv\
Kc\;erac\;K¥enÂkty\" All around the festival grounds little stalls were set
up, so close as to be almost touching.
In combination lulu"
242
• g¥pn\et∑ bma®pv\qiu≥ wc\lalulu AK¥in\Ò" When the Japanese were on the

point of entering Burma.
• ln\≥eAa\lulu ®Ps\q∑a;t´. kÁn\eta\ha kiuy\.kiuy\kiu mnv\;”k^;
Tin\;qim\;liuk\rty\" I was on the point of letting out a scream of fear and
had difficulty keeping myself under control.
• elYak¥lulu ®Ps\eneqa TBÂTk\Sc\na;m˙" From the waistband of her
longyi, which was on the point of slipping off.
• Act\eB;Âk^; Suik\luluN˙c\. mwersa sa;eqak\reqa A®Ps\m¥oi;" A situation
where people were rationing themselves on the eve of a famine.
• eSac\;raq^m˙alv\; t®Pv\;®Pv\;N˙c\. kun\lun^;laelqv\" eSac\;kun\lulut∑c\ …"
The cold season was nearly over at last. Near the end of the cold season
….
In combination lumtt\"
• q¨≥pyc\;Riu;m˙a Âkv\.sm\;" kiuk\Ta;liuk\ta ARiu;kiu epÅlumtt\ ®Ps\entaB´" Just
look at his cheek-bone: he’s been so badly bitten that the bone is almost
showing.
• Tiuq¨tiu≥f qa;qm^;m¥a;kiu ts\eyak\mk¥n\ liuk\lMqt\®Pt\enÂkqv\m˙a
eq∑;eK¥ac\;s^;lumtt\ ‰˙if" They hunted out the sons and daughters of
those people and killed every last one of them so that there was
practically a river of blood.
luKmn\; see under Kmn\; almost V-ed
luS´S´- see under S´S´ on the point of
lun^;- see under lu- almost
lumtt\- see under lu- almost
lulu- see under lu- almost
el- 1 (V~-) euphonic, cf ep' eK¥; vb mod, FB+CB; in CB restricted to cer-
tain fixed patterns, but in FB used widely to give desired rhythm to the
phrase; it is more favoured by some writers than others: modern writers
suggest that it is an affectation which should be dropped. Note: Taking into
account the range of functions (see following entries) of this morpheme el it
seems probable that all are derived from the same original. For the shift in
position between V-el-sfx and Stc-el compare the similar shift in på po-
lite: hut\pår´. “it is true” vs hut\k´.på “Yes, I agree”, and då cå.hapå “That’s
mine”. Examples from FB:
• q¨rqv\.ec∑m˙a qëqak\taN˙c\.pc\ kun\elqv\" The money he earned was spent
on drink.
• ek¥ac\;qa;N˙s\eyak\qv\ dn\p¨ sa;Âkeleta.qv\" The two monastery boys
finally brushed their teeth.
243
• q∑a;erak\et∑>SMuelqv\" et∑>ellYc\ Sraeta\k U^:p√ßc\;Aa; enrp\zatim¥a;kiu

em;elf" (The abbot) went off to find the monk. When he found him he
asked the monk his residence and birthplace.
• yKueta. eA;misMN˙c\. BÂk^;qv\ rc\;N˙^;Kc\mc\j enel®p^" But now AMS and BG
were on good terms.
• q¨tiu≥t∑c\ A®Ka;®pœnaet∑ m‰˙iÂkelera.qla;" Did they have no other
problems than these?
• mv\qui≥eqaAsa;Asa ®Ps\elmv\nv\;h¨¨j et∑;etarc\;" Wondering what kind of
food it might be.
• Ae®paASiu mKMreleAac\' sv\;km\;Atiuc\;lv\; ®Ps\releAac\ p¥k\k∑k\rk\
N˙s\rk\At∑k\ lup\Kec∑kiu ®Pt\Kiuc\;liuk\qv\" So that there should be no
criticism, and so as to keep the rules unbroken, he told her to deduct
their salary for the two working days lost.
• Kr^;qv\m¥a;N˙c\.tk∑ qeBçaqa;m¥a;på ts\eyak\ mk¥n\ ns\®mop\p¥k\s^;j
kun\eleqaeÂkac\.eptv\;" The reason was (that ship) with all its
passengers and crew had been lost at sea.
• Bun\;eta\”k^; ®mc\eleqa\ {By\l´dka”k^;} huem;f" When the monk saw him
he asked “Where are you off to, Benefactor?”
• Âkk\√®pot\m¥a;kiu et∑>relra menNiuc\eta.q®Pc\. Aa;lMu;sa;“p^:" Coming upon the
boiled eggs he could not restrain himself and ate up the lot.
• TiuA®Kc\;Arakiu Bun\;eta\”k^; ®mc\ellYc\ dkadkamm¥a;At∑k\ siu;rim\p¨pn\mielf"
When the monk saw it he became anxious for his benefactors.
• Èqc\®Pø;epÅt∑c\pc\ … Aip\elË;ela." Sleep on this mat.
Fixed patterns in CB:
(a) V-elty\ adds a touch of mild irony:
• d^liu≥®Pc\. enrak¥liuk\elty\b¥" If that’s the way it is, then that’s fine.
(b) V-elqla; and V-elmla; (also FB V-elmv\la; etc) Could it be
that V?, wondering question:
• Arp\T´k l¨ts\eyak\eyak\k Ap¥c\;e®p Âkv\.K¥c\liu≥ lam¥a;P∑c\.elqla;b¥a"
Could it be that someone from roundabout came and opened it just to
amuse himself?
• qv\At∑k\pc\ Kc\l∑m\;qv\ Srawn\ ®Ps\K¥c\K´.elqla; me®patt\" There was
no knowing whether it was for this reason that KL wanted to be a doctor.
• q¨¨Kiu;m¥a; … An^;Ana;m˙ap´ ‰˙ielAMu;mla;lui≥ zrp\r´>Ae‰˙>Bk\
K¥m\;qartMta;ts\elYak\ l˙m\;e®ma\Âkv\.mity\" Wondering if the thieves
might still be nearby he looked far down the Chanthaya Bridge east of the
zayat.
244
• N∑y\N∑y\U^;k´.qiu≥pc\ q^taqv\ kÁn\eta\.kiu s∑n\≥K∑aq∑a;elmv\la; kÁn\eta\ mqipå"

I didn’t know if Thida would drop me just as NNU had done.
(c) V-elera.qla; (also FB) adds a note of exasperation,
desperation, to the question:
• Aim\T´m˙a Ba®Ps\enÂktal´" ts\eyak\eyak\m¥a; P¥a;naenelera.qla;" What
could be going on indoors? Could it be that someone was ill?
• Èqv\kiu emem mqiera.elqla;" Didn’t Mother know this already?
(d) V-elera for graphic narrative:
• B´∑>l´ rera eha min\;ml´ y¨q∑a;påelera" No sooner had he got his degree
than he went and got married!
(e) V-elr´. V-ed but …, adds a hint of reservation:
• erK´´®Ks\qv\k AK¥oirv\ Sm\;“p^;lui≥ ®pn\ep;takiu myëq;B´´ B”k^;eSac\r´>
Dat\pMu;kiu Âkv\.enelr´´>" (The children were distracted:) without taking the
ice-lolly that the vendor had bathed in syrup and was holding out to
them, they certainly looked in the direction of BGS’s datpon (but it was
not yet certain that they would pay to watch).
(f) m-V-eln´≥ (also FB m-V-elN˙c)\. = m-V-n´≥ do not V, with perhaps a
slight softening of the imperative:
• Kc\b¥a;k kÁn\eta\.kui lk\Kup\t^;“p^; Aa;ep;gu%\®poPui≥ mem.påeln´≥" Don’t forget to
give me the support of your applause.
• rn\Bk\®Ps\eqa Tuil¨Sui;tui≥kui mV˙aelN˙c\.mc\;" Do not spare those evil men, for
they are your enemies.
(g) V-påeles = V-påes let it V; often spoken and written peles;
• rWéneqa eKÁ;tui≥k qut\mNuic\eta." T∑k\peleseta.hu Ta;luik\qv\" He
couldn’t wipe away the sweat that covered him. He left it as it was, think-
ing “Let it flow”.
(h) V-eleta. (also FB) = V-eta. since, as, given that V:
• qv\Alup\m¥oi;kl´ Aqk\tP¥a; lup\kuic\rta ®Ps\eleta. lup\my\.l¨l´ ‰˙a;ty\"
This kind of work carries a high risk of accidental death, so there are not
many who are prepared to do it.
• qv\tun\;k meN∑klv\; ska;kiu titik¥k¥ me®patt\eq;eleta.
Ba®pn\e®parmv\m˙n\;mqi ®Ps\elqv\" At this time Ma N still couldn’t talk very
coherently, so she was left not knowing what to say.
(i) V-el®Kc\; (also FB) How V!, exclamatory:
• AePra lup\rk\liuk\el®Kc\;b¥a'" Oh Father! How could you be so cruel?
• ts\U^:tv\;eqaqm^;…qv\ Èqui≥ k∑y\l∑n\rel®Kc\;hu By\lium˙ e®PmSv\Niuc\B´
‰˙ielqv\" She was inconsolable, crying out “Oh that my only daughter
245
should have died like this!”

(j) V-elra N (also FB) whatever N is V-ed:
• enac\ ®Ps\elraBwÒ" In every rebirth in the future.
• q∑a;elraKr^; e®Pac\.®Pø;påes" May every journey you undertake be smooth.
(k) in set phrases (also FB):
• q∑a;elq¨¨" The deceased, the departed.
• k∑y\l∑n\el“p^;eqaq¨" One who has passed away, the deceased.
•liueleq;(qv\) m‰˙i(eAac\)" So that nothing is lacking, complete sufficiency.
•(®Ps\m˙) ®Ps\rel" How sad! What a terrible thing to happen!
el 2 (Stc~) you see, as you know, I mean, don’t you remember?;
softens imperatives, making an order sound more like a request or
suggestion; stc fin phr ptcl, CB; much used in intimate, friendly conversa-
tion;
• A´dÂK¥in\m˙a em˙ac\en®pêl" By that time it was dark, you see.
• q¨≥Aem ts\Kult\el" His mother is divorced, you know.
• mnk\S∑m\; ekÁ;enmy\el" I shall be giving (the monks) their morning meal,
remember?
• lk\et∑>pvap´ ‰˙iK´.B¨;taepå.el" You mean that you have only ever had
practical knowledge, then?
• Ueraptiuk\kiu q∑a;lv\Piu≥l´ (tt\Niuc\rc\epå.el) ekac\;ty\" It is also a good
idea (if you can afford it, that is) to go and visit the Continent.
• Aip\ep¥a\q∑a;ty\ _ kel;el" He went off to sleep — the child, I mean.
• cå.namv\el; er;ep;på" _ rty\el' er;ep;på.my\" Could you please write
down my name? — No problem. I’ll do that.
• eA;el" Yes indeed.
• kÁn\mkiu erac\;på BÂk^;ry\" _ yël" Please sell it to me, Uncle. — Have it
then.
• mm emarc\ enK´.el' kÁn\m q∑a;Tv\.liuk\på.my\" If you’re tired, Ma Ma, you can
stay behind. I’ll go and post them.
• lapåel" Tiuc\påË;" Come along in. Sit yourself down.
• piuk\SM Am\;U^;el' piuk\SM" Give me my change then. Change please.
• sa;K¥c\rc\ sa;el" Do eat it if you want to.
el 3 or elel (V1~ V2~) the more V1, the more V2; stc mkr, CB+FB, only
in parallel main clauses;
• Aim\na; erak\Kån^;el rc\Kun\NOn\;k ®mn\lael" The closer he came to the
house the faster his heart beat.
• q¨tiu≥k e‰˙>m˙ kn\≥ln\≥®Pt\erac\;enelel wy\qët∑k Al∑y\tk¨ rta
wy\q∑a;q®Pc\. Tiuc\erac\;enqët∑m˙a ns\naelel" The more they (the itinerant
246
flower sellers) walked around selling their wares, as that made it easier for
customers to buy, the worse it was for the sellers who sold sitting down.
• tK¥oi>keta. samtt\el ekac\;el" satt\lYc\ rv\;sa;sa er;tt\qv\"
sit\mK¥r" Some (think that) the less literate (girls are) the better. If they
can write then they may write love letters. You can’t trust them.
• qeBçaeS;AnM≥kiu KMjmr" qeBçaeS;nM≥kiu rel m¨;elpc\" I couldn’t stand the
smell of the paint (on board the ship). The more I smelt it, the sicker I
felt.
• esaesa erak\Niuc\elel' ÂkaÂka At¨ enrelel' Kc\m m¥k\N˙akel;kiu
Âkv\.enK∑c\. relel" The sooner he arrived, the longer they could be
together, the more chance he would have to be looking at Khin Ma’s sweet
face.
• By\eta.m˙ mlael' ekac\;elp´" If he were never to come again the happier
I would be (“The more he never comes, the better”).
• sa;el lup\Niuc\el ®Ps\qv\" It’s a case of the more you eat the more you can
do.
• et∑;elet∑;el ROp\elel" The more he thought about it, the more confused
he became.
elrka; see under rka; since
elera.qla; sts era.elqla; (V~) could it be that V? I wonder if per-
haps V? marks rhetorical question; stc mkr, mainly FB;
• Aim\T´m˙a Ba®Ps\enÂktal´" ts\eyak\eyak\m¥a; P¥a;naenelera.qla;" What
was happening inside the house? Was someone ill (I wondered).
• q¨tiu≥ts\et∑t∑c\ miBAup\Tin\;q¨ m‰˙ielera.qla;" Could it be that they all had
no parent or guardian?
• meN∑klv\; ek¥a\q¨≥S^kiu q∑a;®Kc\;qa ®Ps\f" Èqv\kiu emem mqiera.elqla;"
It was only that Ma N had gone to KT’s. Didn’t Mother know this?
el. (V~) and V-el.-V-T habit, custom; sp hd nn, CB+FB; normally in
pattern V-el.-(V-T) ‰˙i- “to be in the habit of V-ing, to V usually, used to
V”; T is not normally voiced;
• lm\;k Siu;q®Pc\. ka;kiu lm\;Tip\m˙a rp\Ta;K´.el. ‰˙iqv\" As it was a bad road
we used to leave the car at the top of the road.
• kÁn\eta\tui≥ Tuic\el.Tuic\T ‰˙it´. {wuic\;}lk\Pk\rv\Suic\ pit\Ta;t´.At∑k\" Since
the Waing café where we usually met was closed.
• raz“goih\®pv\f TuM;tm\;sU\laAr K¥m˙t\el. ‰˙ieqa ®ps\d%\quM;m¥oi;Ank\m˙" Of the
three types of penalty normally imposed according to the custom of
Rajagraha.
247
el; 1 (Stc1~ Stc2~) indicates quotation, reported speech; sub stc mkr,
used with parallel sentences, CB; sts followed by n´≥; indicates not only that
the sentence is quoted, but also that the original speaker has delivered it
emphatically, portentously, for many to hear, has made much of the state-
ment, made a great fuss about it;
• q¨≥qmk\k pvawn\Âk^;el;' q¨≥qa;k tuic\mc\;Âk^;el;n´≥ elYak\Âk∑a;enty\" She
went around boasting that her son-in-law was Minister for Education,
and her son was Divisional Commissioner.
• pul´kui {ek¥ac\; lapåAuM;el;' emac\pzc\;k em;qel; ®mn\;qel;}n´≥
elak∑t\et∑ puienluik\ta" He goes over the top with his attentions to Pale:
“Do come round to the monastery — the monk is asking after you” and all
that stuff.
• min\;kel;tn\m´. Ap¥oitn\m´. Aak¥y\qel; lYak¥y\qel;n´≥" (Complaining that)
she behaves outrageously, a young girl like that yelling at the top her
voice (to sell her wares).
Frequently followed by Bael;(n´≥) “and more in the same vein”:
• Asketa. cå≥kui vÂk^;mc\;Âk^; m®pn\wM.B¨;el; Bael;n´≥' AKueta. ls\q∑a;®p^" At
first (she told me) she dared not go home late at night and all that; and
now she’s scarpered!
• ®bitiqY ®pn\laqel; Bael;N˙c\. cB na;ROp\eAac\ e®paeq;qv\" They said the
British were back and more on the same lines till NgaBa got thoroughly
muddled.
• Aeta\Âka lët∑k k¥op\kui k´.r´.enpå≥my\" mya;teyak\ weAac\
mekÁ;Nuic\B¨;el; Bael;vael;n´≥" People would laugh at me, saying that I
couldn’t afford to keep a wife and all that sort of thing.
• d^kisßkui cån´≥ qaPn\ suMsm\;qel; Bael;n´≥ By\q¨≥m˙ me®pan´≥ena\" Don’t tell
anyone that TP and I were asking about this or anything.
el; 2 see under kel; small, little
l´ 1 (Stc~) indicates an open question, hence always preceded by a
question word such as Ba “what?”, By\tun\;k “when?”, etc; stc fin phr ptcl,
mainly CB, but increasingly used in FB where the standard equivalent FB
nv\; now sounds old-fashioned; cf CB tuM;' before l´ sentence markers ty\
and my\ weaken to q and m, and in rapid speech q is often omitted; for
open questions without l´ see Rising intonation in the English entries;
• då Bal´" What’s that?
• By\N˙s\nar^ ‰˙i®p^l´" What time is it?
• By\hak pui“p^;eta. ®mc\.®mt\påql´" Which is the more noble?
• By\enra q∑a;Tiu;Tv\.liuk\ql´ mqiB¨;" I’ve no idea where she tidied it away.
248
• cpl^kiu mv\qët∑ laÂkmv\l´" mv\qiu≥eqaq¨m¥oi;et∑k cpl^f Al˙kiu

laerak\ KMsa;Âkqv\l´" “Who would come to Ngapali? What sort of
people would come and savour the delights of Ngapali?” (she wondered).
• Ba®Ps\liu≥ mlup\rB¨;l´ or Ba®Ps\liu≥ mlup\rql´" Why aren’t you allowed to do
it?
• As\kiutiu≥kiu Bam¥a; mek¥np\ta ‰˙ilui≥l´hc\" What do you have against Ako
and his friends?
• mc\;tiu≥k Baet∑ lup\Âkrml´ Siueta. m^;PiueK¥ac\k s®p^; ASc\A®pc\
ts\m¥oi;e®pac\;Âkrmy\" What you have to do is to change the arrangement of
the kitchen and everything else.
l´ 2 see under lv\; also
ela (Stc~) indicates yes-or-no questions; stc fin phr ptcl, used mostly in
older style FB, especially Pali-influenced texts, but yielding widely to CB+FB
la; in contemporary FB;
• qc\tiu≥qv\ q¨ts\på; ”k^;p∑a;K¥m\;qaqv\kiu wm\;e®mak\wm\;qa ‰˙iÂkpåfela" Are
you pleased that others prosper?
• eqak\er ‰˙ieK¥AM.ela" Will there be drinking water there?
• qiu≥At∑k\ Èek¥a\siu;kiu Aazanv\hu eKÅrmv\ela" Are we on these grounds to
call this KS a hero?
• BamY msU\;sa; mSc\®Kc\ÂkB´ miuk\R¨;r´Tj lup\Âk®Kc\;epela" Did they do it out
of sheer foolhardiness, with any forethought?
• q¨≥kiu Aim\m˙ N˙c\Tut\liuk\P¨;®p^ mhut\ela" He had driven him out of his house
before, had he not?
ela. (V~) V!; indicates command, request; stc mkr, used in very formal FB
and in verse; regular equivalent of Pali imperative in nissaya translation
(Okell 1965 p 202);
• k¥m\;saqi®mc\' tt\eAac\qc\ela." Study till you have a knowledge of the
scriptures (verse).
• SuM;mep;eT∑' na;wc\esela." Let my admonition enter your ears, listen to my
instruction (verse).
• eq∑;sv\;v^v∑t\Âkela." Be united (slogan in newspaper).
• qc\tiu≥qv\ ÈAim\m˙ yKu K¥k\K¥c\; T∑k\q∑a;ela." You all leave this house
immediately!
• eN∑AKåÒ erkiu eKÁeKÁtata quM;s∑´Âkela." Use water sparingly in
summertime.
• cå;Piu;kiu liuqelak\ etac\;ela.hu min\≥eta\m¨f" “Ask as much as you want for
the fish,” said (the king).
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• t∑M' qc\qv\" quw pådukM' eRWe®Knc\;kui" Aahr' eSac\ela." You bring the
golden sandals (nissaya).
lui- 1 (V~-) to wish to, desire to V; be inclined to, likely to V; vb mod,
FB = CB V-K¥c\-;
• l∑t\lp\er; rliueqa ®pc\;®pqv\. SN∂" A fervent desire to gain independence.
• ny\ts\ny\f qmiuc\; el.laliulYc\" If you wish to study the history of a
region.
• U^;K¥s\emac\ mk∑y\l∑n\m^k er;qa;K´.qv\. en≥sU\m˙t\tm\;kiu Tut\ewliueqa estna
epÅepåk\lamiqv\" I was seized by the feeling that I wanted to publish the
diary that U Chit Maung had written before he died.
lui 2 (N~, N~N, VA~) > like N, as, in the way of N, in (a language), as if V-
ing, in the same way as, just as V, not only V; nn mkr and nn atrb mkr
and sub stc mkr, CB, = FB qiu≥' k´.qiu≥; may induce creaky tone (see English
entries sv) in a personal referent;
• cålv\; qc\.luipåp´" I am like you.
• q¨liu l¨" A Man like Him (title of a book).
• e®mak\liu kty\" He dances like a monkey.
• Kåtiuc\;liu bmaliu wt\q∑a;ty\" She went wearing Burmese clothes as usual.
• q¨≥kui bmaliu e®paNuic\påty\" You can talk to him in Burmese.
• A´d^liu mhut\B¨;" It’s not like that.
• mN †el;m˙alui l∑y\l∑y\k¨k¨n´≥ rm˙a mhut\B¨;" You won’t get it easily, as (you
would) in Mandalay.
• lup\K¥c\qliu lup\tap´" They do just what they like.
• ska;e®paqliu er;rmv\ hëqa lOp\‰˙a;mO" The “write as you speak”
movement.
• Èkisßqv\ ly\®pc\m˙a Sc\q∑a;qliu Tc\‰˙a;qv\" The matter is as plain as a
pikestaff (“as conspicuous as an elephant in a paddy field”).
• Tit\ln\≥qliu KMsa;rty\" He felt in a state of near panic (“as if panicked”).
Used with ‰˙i- and ®Ps\- “somewhat V”:
• zat\lm\;ek¥aRui;k ekac\;K¥c\qlui ‰˙ipåty\" The story-line is not too bad (“is
as if it wants to be good”).
• wiuc\Am\BêA l¨cy\suf Niuc\cMer;e®Kl˙m\;qv\ Al˙m\;mv^K¥c\qlui ®Ps\laqv\" The
younger members of the YMBA became somewhat (“as if they wanted to
be”) out of step.
• enak\puic\;rk\m¥a;t∑c\ q¨qv\ … Aep¥a\m¥a; kun\SMu;q∑a;qlui ®Ps\la®pn\qv\" In
later life he seemed to lose (“it was as if he lost”) his capacity for
enjoyment.
In the sense “not only …”:
250
• k∑n\p¥øta puik\k∑n\ha ekac\;k¥oi; ‰˙iqlui Sui;k¥oi;lv\; ‰˙ity\" A computer

network does not have benefits only: it also has liabilities.
• lÄc\Aa;kui Alhœ ‘Pn\;t^;ra erak\enqlui priqt\At∑k\lv\; m¥k\si
ROp\påty\" Not only does this waste manpower: it is also upsetting for the
audience.
• &c\;Nuic\cM®Ka;qa;®Ps\q¨f sit\tuimO' Ruic\;p¥s∑a Sk\SMmO' eAa\hs\Âkim\;emac\;mOm¥a;kui
mÂkaK% ’kMet∑>rqlui RuM;Kn\;tMKå;m¥a;kui e®K®Pc\. eSac\.kn\®Kc\;'
ty\l^Pun\;m¥a;kui kuic\epåk\®Kc\;' k∑n\p¥øtam¥a;kui Ruik\K∑´P¥k\S^;®Kc\; sqv\.
A‘pAm¨m¥a;kuilv\\; wn\Tm\m¥a; et∑>’kMK´.rqv\" The employees of this foreigner
were not only exposed to his short-temperedness, rudeness and
aggression, but also saw him kicking the doors, flinging telephones about,
smashing computers and so on.
lui 3 (V~ V) to V as one wishes, capriciously, at whim; sub cls mkr, CB; a
contraction of V-K¥c\qlu;i
• AK¥oi>lv\; ms∑Mp´ k¥n\rs\ ®Ps\q¨ ®Ps\' A®Ka;q¨n´≥ Aim\eTac\ ‘plui ‘p
®Ps\kun\Âkelqv\" Some of those who failed to marry were left on the shelf;
others married someone else as took their fancy.
• P¥apuM‘mi>r´. sv\pc\we®pamOkui P¥k\luiP¥k\S^; ‘plup\lam´. By\q¨kui mSui Tawr
rn\qÄ®Ps\ qt\m˙t\®p^; tuM≥®pn\Âkm˙a ®Ps\påty\" Anyone whoever who comes
with the intention of destroying the prosperity of Pyabon will be treated as
an eternal enemy and will be retaliated against.
• sk\B^;epåk\PåK cå;k¥p\m˙ 10 k¥p\ y¨K¥c\qlui y¨' SMpc\VHp\K ts\eKåc\; 20
k¥p\m˙ 30 k¥p\ y¨luiy"¨ For a puncture repair some charged from K5 to
K10 as they pleased. For a haircut they took from K20 to K30 a head.
lui…®ca; see under ®ca; in the hope of V-ing, in case V
luilui (N~, N~N, VA~) rather like, rather as if, almost, on the point of; nn
mkr and nn atrb mkr and sub stc mkr, CB+FB; cf markers N˙y\' nv\;'
eyac\eyac\;
• culiuliu qs\pc\" A tree rather like a laburnum.
• l¨l¨K¥c\; ‰˙iKui;NOt\Sk\enta en≥sU\luilui et∑≥enrpåty\" We can see people
greeting each other with joined palms almost every day.
• saer;tiuc\;liuliupåp´´ SraË;eAac\Vuikiu qtirt´´.AeÂkac\; A®m´´Tv\.er;enk¥"
Almost every time I wrote I used to send my regards to Saya U AN.
• Aer;T´´m˙ k∑m\;sa;K¥c\qliuliu' eS;lip\eqak\K¥c\qliuliu" KMt∑c\;K¥√\laty\" On
top of all this he felt a sour taste in his mouth, rather as if he needed to
chew betel or have a smoke.
• Rut\trk\ Âkv\.rc\eta. hut\qluiluipåp´" At a cursory glance it seemed to be
more or less all right.
251
• l¨¨ts\eyak\eyak\ sk\B^;p´´ ®Pt\s^;q∑a;qliuliu' zrp\k qim\.Kn´´ qim\.Kn´´

lOp\q∑a;qliuliu' B”k^;eSac\r´> sit\T´m˙a zewzwån´´≥" Bagyi Hsaung became
uneasy: it was as if someone was riding past on a bicycle, or as if his
zayat (where he lived) had moved a little.
• m¥k\lMu;kel;tui≥k ts\KuKukui AK¥in\esac\.ka ha;tuik\ ry\emaeta.mluiluim¥oi;" His
eyes looked as if he was just biding his time before bursting out laughing.
• mc\;kui qkçn\;sv\;ep;luik\tan´≥ q¨≥m˙a tky\.kMT¨;‰˙c\”k^;p´ ®Ps\q∑a;eta.mluilui
Tc\enty\" He gave the impression that once he (your father) had clothed
you in a monk’s robe he would immediately become a man of great good
fortune.
lui≥ 1 (Phr~, Stc~) that Stc; Phr as such, such a thing as Phr; marks end
of quotation, reported speech; nn mkr and sub stc mkr, CB, = FB hu' h¨j;
• sU\;sa;AuM;my\liu≥ e®paty\" He said he would think it over.
• d^ha bmaliu zataliu≥ eKÅty\" This is called “zata” (horoscope) in Burmese.
• em®mc\.U^;liu≥ m˙v\.Ta;ty\" She was named MMU.
• dået∑ha tky\p´la;lui≥ kÁn\eta\ et∑;Âkv\.qv\" I wondered if those things
were true.
• Ak\enqla;liu≥ eKåk\Âkv\.ty\" He tapped it to see if it was cracked.
• tiuk\p∑´ Sc\rty\liu≥eta. m‰˙ieq;B¨;" It was not as if we had actually been in
action yet (“there was not such a thing as”).
• Aim\kui kp\ty\lui≥kui m‰˙iB¨;" He never ever stays at home.
Used in incomplete sentences, after questions with an unstated verb mean-
ing “I wonder” etc:
• RuM;m˙aeta. m‰˙iB¨;' Aim\kiu Pun\;Sk\Âkv\.rmla;liu≥" He’s not at the office. (I
wonder) whether I should try ringing his home.
• enak\ts\pt\k¥rc\ Âkk\Uet∑ qy\mla;liu≥" I was wondering if I should carry
(and sell) eggs next week.
Frequent in sentences ending in mlui≥ or my\lui≥ followed by a verb meaning “I
was thinking of”, “I intend to”, etc:
• cå.v^mkiu erelac\;mliu≥ ÂkMTa;tak∑a" P¥a;enty\Siueta. melac\;reta.B¨;" I
meant to pour water on you (sister), but as you’re not well I mustn’t.
• N˙s\eyak\sluM; Dat\puM Ruik\mlui≥ sit\k¨;Ta;ta mRuik\luik\rB¨:" I meant to take a
photograph of the two of us but didn’t manage it.
Also common in such sentences with the verb left unstated:
• q¨tiu≥n´≥ erq∑a;k¨;mliu≥" I was planning to go swimming with them.
• By\q∑a;mlui≥l´" Where are you off to? (conventional greeting to acquaintance
met in the street).
• Kc\b¥a;k pår^m˙a Balup\mlui≥l´" What are you thinking of doing in Paris?
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• mmUmμatiu≥ lm\;elYak\T∑k\mliu≥la;" Are you (Ma Ma Onma) going out for a

walk?
• Dat\pMuel;et∑ pålar´.la;' ep;sm\;påU^;" d^m˙a Umμatiu≥kiu ®pmliu≥" Did you bring
the photographs with you? Hand them over. I’ve been wanting to show
them to Onma and the others.
lui≥ 2 (V~) because, as a result of, V and so; sub cls mkr, CB, = FB j'
eqaeÂkac.\' q®Pc\.; see also eAac\liu≥; occasional variant lui≥mui≥;
• SMpc\®Pølui≥ eS;Sui;rta" He had to dye his hair because it was white.
• lc\k enak\min\;m y¨lui≥ cui“p^; ®pn\q∑a;r‰˙aqv\. min\;met∑" Wives who had to go
back home in tears because their husband took a second wife.
• enmekac\;liu≥ Aim\m˙a enrs\K´.ty\" He stayed at home because he was unwell.
• Bae®paK¥c\lui≥ latal´" What was it he came to say?
• sit\Sui;lui≥mui≥ e®pata mhut\B¨;' emt†a ‰˙ilui≥qa e®patapå" I didn’t say it
because I was angry, but only because I am fond of you.
lui≥ 3 (V~) V-ing; used to join two verbs in a range of different contexts,
optional in some, obligatory in others; sub cls mkr, CB, = FB j;
(a) V-lui≥ r- to be allowed, possible, manageable, to V; lui≥ sts omitted:
• enak\eP;m˙a K¥k\sa;liu≥ rpåty\" You can do your cooking at the back of the
house.
• d^m˙a Pinp\ s^;(liu≥) rqla;" Is it all right, is it permitted, to wear sandals
here? There is some overlap between wc\(liu≥) mrB¨; and mwc\rB¨;" Both
mean “You can’t go in”, but depending on context the first suggests that the
way is physically blocked, and the second that going in is forbidden.
(b) V-lui≥ ekac\;- to be good, enjoyable, to V; lui≥ sts omitted:
• men≥vk eta\eta\ ska; e®pa(liu≥) ekac\;ty\" We had a good talk yesterday
evening (“the talking was good”).
• Agçlip\sa Siueta. qip\ sa;(liu≥) mekac\;B¨;" As it was English food it wasn’t
very good to eat — not very tasty.
• en ekac\;r´.la;" _ ty\ enliu≥ mekac\;B¨;" Are you well? — I am not very
well.
Note the difference between sa;(liu≥) mekac\;B¨; and msa;ekac\;B¨;" The first
means the food is not enjoyable, not tasty, and the second that it is not
edible, not healthy.
(c) V-lui≥ ®Ps\- to be possible, workable, acceptable, to V:
• kel;cy\et∑ Ta;K´.liu≥ ®Ps\på.mla;" Is it really all right to leave the little
children behind?
• eBapc\n´≥ er;lui≥ m®Ps\B¨;" You can’t (it’s not acceptable to) write it with a ball
point pen.
253
• d^liu enliu≥ m®Ps\B¨;" We can’t go on like this. Note the difference between e.g.
pel∑ mOt\lui≥ ®Ps\ty\ “It was possible to play the flute (the flute was just
about playable)”, and pel∑ mOt\®Ps\ty\ “He managed to play the flute (after
being held back by some problem)”.
(d) V-(lui≥)®p^;- to finish V-ing; lui≥ often omitted:
• qtc\;sa Pt\liu≥ m®p^;eq;B¨;la;" Haven’t you finished reading the paper yet?
(e) V-(lui≥) l∑y\- to be easy to V; lui≥ optional:
• dêm;K∑n\; e®P(lui≥) l∑y\ty\lui≥ Tc\qla;" Do you think this is an easy
question to answer?
• pus∑n\ st´. k¥k\(lui≥) l∑y\t´. Asa" Food that is easily cooked, such as
prawns.
en- to be V-ing; lui≥ used infrequently:
(f) V-(lui≥)
• AKuSuirc\ A®Ka;‘gh\et∑ el.laer;kuil´ lup\eSac\lui≥ enpåty\" They are now
conducting studies of other planets.
• Ru‰˙a;liu ekac\;ekac\; tt\ty\" mWt\liu≥ entap´" They knew Russian very
well: they were very fluent.
Sts with en omitted, with exclamatory effect:
• nMluik\ta' ehac\lui≥" What a smell! It’s revolting!
• mN †el; tk˚qil u \m˙a q¨cy\K¥c\;et∑ suMlui≥epå≥" He has a wide range of friends
in M University.
• qs\qa;eK¥ac\;et∑ ts\ep∑>Âk^;n´≥ erak\enty\" mq^k eS;epå≥lip\ eqak\lui≥"
Acy\SuM;mn´≥ Nui≥V˙amk ec∑ekac\tam˙a Tuic\lui≥" He turned up with an armful of
timber. Ma Thi was there smoking a cheroot. His youngest daughter and
the baby were happily sitting at the cash desk.
• AMmy\' l¨wå;wliu≥" Heavens above! What impertinence!
• kel;et∑ eSa.liuk\ta" RØp\liu≥" How naughty the children are! The place is a
mess!
• wliuk\ta" P^;liu≥" How fat he is! Positively bloated.
• pR∑k\Sit\et∑ Am¥a;”k^;p´" p∑liu≥" What a lot of ants! (The place is) crawling
(with them)
(g) V-(lui≥) la- to come V-ing, to become V; lui≥ used infrequently:
• Kr^;qv\tc\ya√\ha Kr^;qv\ ts\Ë;tv\;n´≥ erak\lui≥ laK´.påty\" The
passenger transport arrived bearing only one passenger.
• A´dÂK¥in\k s®p^; USSRn´≥ USAk AakaqquetqnAt∑k\ y˙√\‘pic\eSac\R∑k\lui≥
laK´.påty\" From that time on the USSR and the USA started competing
in space research.
(h) V-(lui≥) q∑a;- to get V, become V; lui≥ used infrequently:
254
• q¨K¥s\t´. ANupva elakÂk^;kui s∑n\≥K∑alui≥ q∑a;K´.på®p^" He has abandoned the

world of art that he loved.
‰˙irc\ if V, a lengthened variant of V-rc\, sts V-lui≥ ‰˙ilui≥ ‰˙irc\;
(i) V-lui≥
• Nuic\cMer;ha tuitui e®paluik\lui≥‰˙irc\ Am¥oi;qa;er;påp´" Politics, if we are to put it
briefly, is the affairs of the nation.
• l¨cy\m¥a; mpålalui≥‰˙irc\ k¥ena\tui≥r´. Aer;ha eAac\®mc\ty\lui≥ k¥ena\tui≥
mSuiNuic\påB¨;" If we don’t carry the youth with us, then we cannot say that
our cause is succeeding.
(j) V-lui≥ w- to be sated, satisfied with V-ing:
• Âkv\.lui≥ mwB¨;" I am not satisfied with looking, I could look at it indefinitely.
• sa;lui≥ wr´.la;" have you really had enough to eat?
• ROmw" Shumawa (name of monthly magazine: “gazing not sated”).
(k) V-lui≥ mSuM;- V-ing is unending, immense; lui≥ sts omitted:
• qna;lui≥ mSuM;påB¨;" I felt so sorry for them.
• ek¥;z¨;tc\(lui≥) mSuM; ®Ps\enty\" I was immensely grateful.
(l) V-lui≥ Âka- time passes since V:
• Aem eq®p^;lui≥ N˙s\N˙s\ Âkam˙" Not for two years after his mother’s death.
• Sy\tn\; e®Plui≥ mÂkaeq;B¨;" It’s not long since he took the Tenth Standard
exam.
(m) between certain set pairs of verbs, mainly optional, (= FB j):
• ‰˙alui≥ et∑>qv\ to seek and find, to succeed in finding;
• Aip\lui≥ ep¥a\qv\ to succeed in sleeping, to fall asleep;
• Pm\;lui≥ miqv\ to succeed in catching, to catch;
• sa;lui≥ ®min\qv\ to be tasty to eat.
(n) V-lui≥ V V and V, in verse and poetic prose, = CB ®p^;"
• g¥øBlêhat∑c\m˙' t¨v^t´.qeBaet∑N˙c\.' l¨sv\liu≥ epåliuk\puMk" At Jubilee Hall
the crowds of people were huge, all of like mind.
• k¥n\;Kn\≥qaliu≥' mapåels" Are you fit and well?
• l¨ts\eyak\ … yamha Suic\ky\Âk^; AKn\≥qa; s^;lui≥ erak\laty\"
Someone came along riding a Yamaha motorbike in great style.
(o) N-k l∑´lui≥ except N, with the exception of N; = CB N-k l∑´®p^;' FB
N-k l∑´j;
• d^N˙s\eyak\k l∑´liu≥ k¥n\t´.lët∑k kula;K¥v\;p´" Apart from these two, the
rest were all Indians.
(p) N-n´≥ pt\qk\lui≥ concerning N, in relation to N; = CB N-n´≥
pt\qk\®p^;' FB N-N˙c\. pt\qk\j;
• d^kisßn´≥ pt\qk\liu≥ qtc\;saT´m˙a Bam˙ mpåB¨;" There is nothing about that
affair in the papers.
255
(q) used optionally in the word tky\(lui≥) really, if; = FB Aky\j;

(r) used optionally in the suffixes mui≥(lui≥)' epm´.(lui≥)' Pui≥(lui≥)' eAac\(lui≥)" See
under the separate suffixes.
Alui≥c˙a see under c˙a for
lui≥ ‰˙iyc\ and lui≥ ‰˙irc\ see under lYc\ if, when
lk\s (V~ N) N for which V-ing has started but is not yet finished, N
that is halfway through V-ing; vb atrb mkr, CB+FB;
• eqak\lk\s eS;lip\kiu N˙s\P∑aquM;P∑a P∑aÂkv\.liuk\eta. m^;eqenpå“p^" He took
two or three puffs at the cheroot he had been smoking and found it had
gone out.
• sa;lk\s Tmc\;pugMkiu K¥Ta;liuk\ty\" He set down the plateful of rice he had
started eating from.
• eÂkac\Aim\epÅk Bisks\mun\≥puM; Aqs\N˙s\Ku y¨q∑a;" ePak\lk\sB¨;n´≥
m˙a;y¨q∑a;Ë;my\ena\' qtiTa;Ë;" Take the two new tins of biscuits from on
top of the kitchen cupboard. Take care you don’t take the already opened
box by mistake.
elak\- 1 (V~-) to be enough to V, enough to warrant V-ing; sts in pattern
V-Pui≥ elak\-; vb mod, CB+FB;
• AKulsan´≥ msa;elak\B¨; or sa;Piu≥ melak\B¨;" My present salary is not
enough to live on.
• pt\wn\;k¥c\ Al˙ha AeA;d%\kiu em.q∑a;eselak\påty\" The beauty round
about was enough to make one forget the severe cold.
• AKn\;Ket∑ha Aeta\ ®mc\.enty\lui≥ SuiNuic\elak\epm´. … ASc\e®pelak\t´.
eZ;NOn\;et∑på" Although the room charges (in the hotel) are (high) enough to
be described as high, they are nonetheless (low) enough rates to be
acceptable.
• ePa\®pTa;eqa zya;Ar ®mn\maqrqMm¥a;f qeBa Tc\‰˙a;elak\påqv\" The
charts presented are enough to make clear the nature of the vowel sounds
of Burmese.
• l¨puMketa. Tc\elak\sra m‰˙ipåB¨;" The looks of the person don’t suggest
(that he could be the right one to arrest).
• Tuimit\kui Sk\SMÂkpuMm˙a eAa.eÂka ln\elak\påqv\" The way they treated that
maid was enough to make you sick.
• Pinp\ Arv\ep¥a\elak\®p^" Our sandals were (so sodden that they were) almost
liquid (after prolonged walking in the rain).
• m¥k\rv\ k¥elak\ty\" It was (sad) enough to make one cry.
• ®mn\maska;t∑c\ {yuiq¨m‰˙k\ ®mc\q¨‰˙k\} Suiqv\. ska;m˙a Aeta\el;
tasa;enqv\hu SuiNuic\elak\qv\" It is (shocking) enough to enable one to
256
say that the Burmese proverb “It is not the defecator who is embarrassed
but the observer” has come into its own (re petting in public parks).
• tui≥ pk\tuic\ erak\elak\“p^" We must be nearly at PT by now.
In combination elak\eAac\ to the extent that it is enough to V:
• mn\k¥v\;pc\ ts\pc\ siuk\elak\eAac\ e®m ‰˙ir´.la;" Have you enough land to
plant a tamarind tree?
• e®papelak\eAac\ mekac\;B¨;" It’s not good enough to be worth mentioning.
• kb¥a tpud\ eKÅelak\eAac\ mP∑´>påB¨;" They didn’t compose anything that is
(good) enough to be called verse.
• Al∑y\tk¨ K∑´®Ka;qi‰˙iNuic\elak\eAac\ qiqiqaqa k∑´®pa;mO m‰˙iÂkeleta." (The
two varieties of rice) don’t have enough perceptible difference for one to be
able to tell them apart easily.
• mÂka;relak\eAac\ ®Ps\q∑a;påty\" It has become almost unheard of.
Sts in incomplete sentences: k¥mtiu≥ duk erak\K¥k\keta. ®pn\etac\ me®paK¥c\
elak\eAac\påp´" As for the disaster that happened to us (having our
money stolen), I don’t even want to talk about it any more (“it was bad
enough that”).
• ts\‘mi>luM;m˙a ss\qa;et∑K¥v\;p´ Siurelak\eAac\påp´" The whole town was
practically full of soldiers (“it was full enough to say that”).
elak\ 2 (N~, VA~) as, as much as, equivalent to, as good as N, as
much as V, as long as V; all that V; nn mkr and sub stc mkr, CB+FB; =
FB mY' eR∑>;
• Sc\ts\ekac\elak\ ”k^;ty\" It is as big as an elephant.
• Bura;elak\ gu%\ek¥;z¨; ek¥a\eza®Kc\; m‰˙ira" There cannot be (anyone of) such
renowned virtue as the Buddha.
• kÁn\melak\eta. q¨ mrpåB¨;" She doesn’t get as much as I (do), cf kÁn\m
rqelak\eta. q¨ mrpåB¨;" She doesn’t get as much as I get.
• Sn\ By\elak\ y¨ml´" How much rice will you take?
• dåelak\p´ liuK¥c\påty\" That’s as much as I want, all I want.
• A´dêlak\kiu rk\sk\ta" He was as cruel as that!
• Tc\taelak\ (or Tc\qelak\) l¨ mlaB¨;" Not as many people came as
expected.
• kÁNu\p\f Aim\t∑c\ enK¥c\qelak\ qc\ enNiuc\påqv\" You may stay in my house
as long as you wish.
• ep;K¥c\qelak\ ep;epå." Of course give as much as you want to!
• m˙n\qelak\l´ m˙n\taepå." Of course that is true as far as it goes.
• qiqelak\ e®pa®psm\;på" Just tell us as much as you know, all you know.
• tt\Niuc\qelak\ k¨v^påmy\" I will help you as much as I can.
257
• piuk\SM påqelak\ kun\®p^;m˙" Not till we have used up all the money we have
with us.
• R¨;melak\ ®Ps\®p^" She is on the verge of madness (“as much as about to be
mad”).
• eqreta.melak\ pëS∑;påqv\" I am so heartbroken that I am on the verge
of death.
elak\ 3 (N~, Nº+N~) approximately, about, more or less, something
like N; nn mod, CB+FB; = FB N-Kn\≥;
• l¨ Sy\eyak\elak\ sulaty\" About ten people collected together.
• Aim\lK ts\raelak\ ep;rpålim\.my\" You’ll probably have to pay about K100
a month rent.
• e®Kak\ln^;n^;elak\" For nearly six months.
• quM;narêlak\ laK´.på" Come at around 3.
• senen≥elak\ktv\;k" Since about Saturday.
• 1891-elak\m˙ sj" Starting from about 1891.
• Sa;nv\;nv\;elak\n´≥ ®Ps\ty\" It works with just a little salt.
• At¨tëlak\p´" They are about the same, more or less identical.
• kÁn\eta\tiu≥k mnk\‰˙s\nar^k Sy\narÂTi Aim\m˙aSiueta. mun\≥hc\;Kå;elak\eta.
ekÁ;my\ Tc\ta" We thought they would at least serve something like
monhinga since (the wedding) was from 8.00 to 10.00 in the morning at
their house.
After By\ and d^ noun modifier elak\ “about” follows the marker elak\ “as
much as”:
• By\elak\elak\l´ CB = FB mv\mYKn\≥nv\;" About how much?
• dêlak\elak\p´" Approximately this much.
luik\- 1 (V~-) (a) to V away, out, thoroughly, decisively; to just V, to V
lightly, briefly, simply, minimizing the time and effort involved in the
action; a high frequency suffix used with a range of meanings not yet fully
understood; for discussion see Allott 1965, Soe 1994; vb mod, CB+FB;
• mN †el;‘mi>kiu qim\;piuk\liuk\f" They captured the town of Mandalay.
• k¥op\tiu≥ sa;liuk\t´. Âkk\U" The hen’s egg we ate down.
• kiuBun\;®mc\.kiu Ac\tab¥ø; lup\y¨Ta;liuk\ty\" I have just done an interview
with Ko Hpon Myint.
• q¨tiu≥S^ ka;ts\s^; AeKÅ lWt\liuk\påla;" Why not send a car to fetch them?
• Aip\mk\rt´.enram˙a t¨;luike\ ta. erWpn\;Kiuc\rty\" When they dug in the place
he had dreamed about, they found a golden posy.
• dåk eS;tk˚quil\ek¥ac\;qa;tË;k er;luik\tapå" This (poem) is one written
by a student at the Institute of Medicine.
258
• Ba e®paliuk\påql´ ‰˙c\" Excuse me, what did you just say?

• kÁN\up\qv\ m˙n\qv\.Atiuc\; e®pa®pliuk\qv\" I explained things as they really
were, told him the truth.
• Aem erak\liu≥‰˙irc\ me®paliuk\pån´≥ena\" If (your) mother comes you won’t tell
her, will you?
• Ev\.qv\ lamy\ Siurc\ Ev\.Kn\; K% ‰˙c\;liuk\AuM;my\" If visitors are coming I’ll
just give the front room a quick tidy-up.
• ska; m¥a;enrt´.Asa; saAup\ Âkv\.liuk\" ®p^;tap´" Instead of going on arguing
about it, just take a look at the book, and there’s an end of it, that will
settle the matter.
• kiutc\tiu≥S^ K%p´ wc\liuk\rty\" We could only drop into Ko Tin’s place for a
moment.
• erWq^;m¥a;kui S∑t\K¨;rn\ lk\r∑y\luik\RuMN˙c\.pc\ erWpc\epÅt∑c\ ‰˙ienqmY erWq^;Aa;luM;
AluiAel¥ak\ eÂk∑k¥laqv\" All she did was to stretch out her hand to
pluck the golden fruit, and all the golden fruit that were on the golden
tree fell off of their own accord.
• lk\Aup\kel; K¥^“p^; huiBk\qv\Bk\ l˙v\.luik\rc\' Aa;luM;kui NOt\Sk\“p^;qa;
®Ps\q∑a;era" You just press your palms together and turn this way and
that, and you’ve given a greeting to everyone.
• k¥øRiu;el˙kium¥a; ATc\meq;luik\pån´≥" qmud∂rakiuetac\ k¥øRiu;el˙n´≥ ®Pt\Niuc\påty\"
Don’t lightly dismiss boats made of reeds. You can even go out to sea in a
reed boat.
• qtiu;mc\;P¥a;k Rut\trk\ lk\T´k qMl¥k\kiu tc\;tc\;Sup\®p^; Tluik\påty\"
Thadominbya suddenly stood up, tightly grasping the sword in his hand.
• qv\AT´t∑c\ lm\;klv\; Âkm\;luik\eq;qv\" On top of all this (intense heat)
the road surface was appalling.
• eK¥ac\;erT´ em¥apåq∑a;liuk\t´. Usßa" I was carried off by the river.
• cM®parv\N˙c\. cRut\q^;mOn\≥m¥a;kiu m¥a;m¥a;sa;sa; Tv\.y¨liuk\qv\.At∑k\
mun\≥hc\;Kå;qv\k m¥k\esac\;Tiu;qv\kiu mqihn\ eSac\enliuk\qv\" The
monhinga seller gave her a dirty look for taking a lot of fish sauce and
chillie, but she pretended not to see.
(b) to V momentarily, fleetingly, to happen to V;
• ka;epÅk ®mc\liuk\qv\" He caught a glimpse of it from the bus.
• nMmv\eta. mqiliuk\B¨;" I just don’t happen to know her name.
• kuiKc\.kui e®paluik\qla; mqiB¨;" I don’t know if you happened to mention it
to Ko K?
259
• rn\q¨ på‰˙n\ss\qa;m¥a;kiu et∑>luik\tan´≥ l^yiun^;dp\s\kiu q∑a;e®papåty\" As soon

as they caught sight of the enemy Persian troops, they went and told
Leonidas.
• Burc\mc\;eKåc\Km¥am˙alv\; NOt\mesac\.sv\;miluik\liu≥ qa;Arc\;qP∑y\
Aa;kiu;t∑y\tarq¨lv\; SM;u rty\" Poor King Mingaung, for simply having
failed to keep his mouth shut, lost someone he loved as dearly as his own
son.
(c) to V greatly, tremendously, astonishingly, exclamatory; most often
in the sequence V-liuk\ta “How V!”;
• l˙luik\ta k∑a" cåNucy\At∑k\ K¨;U^;my\k∑a" How lovely the flowers are! I’ll
pick some for Nu Nge.
• nMluik\ta _ ehac\lui≥" What a nasty smell — it’s revolting!
• qm^;”k^;kui l∑m\;luik\taeta.\" I do so miss my daughter!
• dÊv\.qv\n´≥ ska;e®paekac\;enliuk\ta" It was really enjoyable talking to the
visitors!
• Amin\≥ k¥kui mk¥Nuic\luik\ta" The authorization is taking such a long time
coming.
• buM;wc\wc\Âk´lui≥ eqluik\t´. lët∑ mnv\;K´." The bombing raids came again and
again and the numbers of the dead (labourers on the death railway) were
huge.
• Aui limμaluik\t´. b¥oic\;®Pømkel;påla;" Oh what a very clever little egret!
• AÂkv\.r Siu;liuk\t´. ®Ps\®Kc\;Kc\b¥a" It was a terrible sight.
• q¨klv\; Aim\eTac\qv\' kuiy\klv\; Aim\eTac\qv\ Kk\luik\pMum¥a;" She was a
married woman and I was a married man: what a muddle we got
ourselves into.
luik\- 2 or luik\lM- (~V-) to follow and V, to accompany, join in V-ing;
comm pre-vb, CB+FB; from verb luik\- to follow;
• luik\pui≥qv\ to accompany, escort; luik\®pqv\ to show round.
• AePN˙c\. ek¥ak\®Pøqiu≥ liuk\q∑a;ka" She accompanied her father to Ngapali.
• på;k∑k\kiu q∑a;p∑t\tM®Pc\. liuk\P¥k\qv\" She went over the thanakha markings
on her cheeks and rubbed them off with a toothbrush.
• kiueza\qv\ ermk¨;tt\q®Pc\. eA;®cim\;enak\qiu≥ liuk\mk¨;wM." eA;®cim\;
m¥k\N˙ael;epÅlamv\. enrakiu liuk\j ‰˙aqv\" Ko Zaw couldn’t swim, so he
dared not join Aye Nyein in the water. He trained his eyes on the spot
where she was likely to surface.
• ®mNuk q¨tiu≥lk\T´m˙ put^;m¥a;f tn\Piu;kiu liuk\jt∑k\®pliuk\qv\" Mya Nu
counted up the value of the beads in their hands.
• eA;®cim\;Âkv\.raqiu≥ liuk\Âkv\.rc\;" She looked to where Aye Nyein was looking.
260
• q¨tiu≥Aa;lMu;f m¥k\N˙am¥a;kiu kÁn\eta\ eAak\em.tm\;ts∑a liuk\lMÂkv\.ROenmif" I

looked round longingly at the faces of every one of them.
luik\ 3 (V1~ V2~) doing now V1, now V2, alternating between V1 and V2;
sub cls mkr, CB+FB; used with pairs, or longer strings, of verbs of opposed
or complementary meaning, sometimes with short complements; frequently
with marker CB n´≥' FB N˙c\. or ®Pc\,. or followed by verb ®Ps\-; evidently from
verb modifier luik\-; cf tuM…tuM' K¥v\…K¥v\' la;…la;' hy\…hy\;
• etac\eÂkaet∑k mSk\eta. pc\pn\;ty\k∑a' tk\luik\Sc\;luik\n´≥" It’s tiring,
with the mountain ridges not joining up. We have to trudge uphill and
downhill, uphill and downhill.
• my\Kqv\ biuk\ pin\liuk\' ePac\;liuk\®Pc\. kel; ‰˙iluik\ m‰˙iliuk\ ®Ps\enf" Me
Kha’s belly now shrank, now swelled. Now she carried a baby, now she
didn’t.
• An\t^Âk^;qv\ lk\pt\nar^kiu cMu≥Âkv\.liuk\ lm\;mS^qiu≥ emYa\Âkv\.liuk\ ®Ps\enqv\"
Auntie alternated between consulting her watch and looking down the
road.
• eS;et∑Pitiuk\liuk\ eS;q∑c\;liuk\n´≥ l¨na‰˙c\ek¥np\eAac\ elYak\lup\entaepå.k∑a"
I’m just going around keeping the patients happy, alternating between
stuffing medicine into them and giving them injections.
• ®Kc\;kiu m,liuk\' … lm\;qla;liuk\' wy\q¨‰˙ilalYc\ Aqael; Tiuc\erac\;liuk\N˙c\.
pn\;ts\wk\Kn\≥ kunq
\ ∑a;elqv\" (The flower seller) now hoisting her basket,
now wandering along the road, now squatting quietly to sell flowers when
a buyer appeared, got rid of about half her flowers.
luik\ 4 (N~) according to, by the N; nn mkr; CB+FB; from luik\- to follow;
• Aekac\liuk\ wy\på" Buy the whole (fish), i.e. by the body, not in portions.
• AsuMliuk\ erac\;ty\" They are sold in sets.
• Asim\;liuk\ sa;ty\" They eat them raw.
• A‰˙c\liuk\ Pm\;ty\" They catch them alive.
• Al¥a;liuk\ l˙v\.sm\;" Lie down lengthways.
• g¥ø;l¨m¥oi;m¥a;kui Asuluik\ A®pMoluik\ rk\rk\sk\sk\ qt\®Pt\K´.q¨" The people
who massacred the Jews in huge numbers (“by the crowd, in large
groups”).
• miqa;suluik\ Âkv\.my\ Suirc\etac\ qip\m¥k\N˙a p¨sram¥oi; mhut\påB¨;" Even if you
see (the film) as a family it’s not the sort of thing that would cause
embarrassment.
luik\ in V-liuk\qv\.®Ps\®Kc\; see under ®Ps\®Kc\; exclamatory
Aluik\ (N~) according to, depending on; nn mkr; CB+FB; cf Ar' Av^'
Aa;el¥a\s∑a' Ael¥ak\' Atiuc\;'
261
• ers^;Aliuk\ q∑a;®Kc\;kiu ersun\hu eKÅqv\" Going according to the current is

called “downstream”.
• kiuy\.BaqaAliuk\ Aq^;q^; ‰˙iKiu;Âkty\" Each worshipped in accordance with
his own religion.
• edqsRiuk\Aliuk\ quM;t´.ewåharet∑" Phrases used according to the custom of
the place, regional dialect terms.
• raqÂliuk\ e®pac\;l´l˙pÂkkun\eqa elakf ROKc\;erac\sMu" The colourful
spectacle of the world around us as its beauty changes in accord with the
season.
• Cf Âk^;sU\cy\liuk\ in order of size or age.
lc\. (m-V~) don’t V; indicates negative command, prohibition; stc mkr; found
mainly in older texts as in later writings it has been almost entirely replaced
by FB N˙c\. = CB n´≥; regular equivalent of Pali aorist used as negative
imperative in nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p 202);
• mc\;®mt\' sit\mSui;pålc\." … mc\;tkatui≥fA‰˙c\' Am¥k\mT∑k\pålc\." Your
Majesty, be not angry. … O king among kings, contain your wrath.
• mÂkMlc\.kun\ or mÂkMkun\lc\." Think ye not (plural).
• EwR¨pM' Èqui≥qeBa ‰˙ieqa Kui;mOkui" maAkaqi' m‘plc\." Do not commit thefts
like this (nissaya).
lc\.ksa; (V~) although V, despite, V; sub cls mkr, FB, more old-fashioned
than FB eqa\lv\;' = CB epm´;.
• U^;®mt\qaqv\ erlup\qa;pc\ ®Ps\lc\.ksa; er mk¨;tt\ep" Although U MT is a
fisherman he cannot swim.
• Aim\‰˙c\mf m¥k\N˙a®pc\t∑c\ eSac\;t∑c\;pc\ ®Ps\lc\.ksa; eKÁ;q^;m¥a; q^;l¥k\"
Though it was winter the housewife’s face was beaded with sweat.
• qm^;”k^;m˙a min\;mqa;pc\ ®Ps\lc\.ksa; qip\ep¥a.ep¥ac\;puM mr" Despite being a
woman, the eldest daughter showed no lack of strength.
lv\; 1 or l´ (Phr~) also, as well, too, in addition; in parallel clauses:
both Phr1 and Phr2, neither Phr1 nor Phr2; stc med phr ptcl, CB+FB; the
spelling l´ is often used in CB, but lv\; is regarded as correct; in the exam-
ples in this work we use either spelling, preferring to retain the form used in
the original text, where appropriate; pron /l^;/ in formal reading, /l´/ in
colloquial speech;
• Sra”k^;qv\ ek¥ac\;Aup\K¥op\er;A®pc\ qc\Âka;er;kiulv\; tawn\ y¨rqv\" The
head teacher had to be responsible for the teaching as well as for the
school administration.
• tp\meta\Ò Am¥oi;qa;m¥a;qamk Am¥oi;qm^;m¥a;lv\; tawn\ Tm\;eSac\Âkqv\"
Not only men serve in the Burmese army but also women.
262
• pt\wn\;k¥c\ ®møet∑ Siuc\;enty\" K¥m\;kl´ K¥m\;ty\" It was misty all around,

and cold as well.
• kaP^l´ ’kik\ty\" lk\Pk\rv\l´ ’kik\ty\" I like both tea and coffee.
• emac\T¨;qv\ salv\; mk¥k\' At∑k\lv\; mt∑k\" Maung Htu neither learned
his lessons nor did his sums.
• Ark\ By\eta.m˙ meqak\B¨;" P´l´ mksa;B¨;" He never drinks. Nor does he
play cards.
• rn\kun\m˙al´ mrB¨;' mN †el;m˙al´ mrB¨;" We couldn’t get any either in
Yangon or in Mandalay.
lv\; 2 or l´ short for rc\lv\; or rc\l´ see under rc\ when
lv\;ekac\; 1 or &c\; (Phr1~ Phr2~) both Phr1 and Phr2, Phr1 and Phr2;
coord mkr, FB, = CB Phr1-era Phr2-på; pron /legåc\;/, sts /l^;egåc\;/; cf
eqa\lv\;ekac\; either … or …;
• tRut\pMu®pc\m¥a;t∑c\&c\;' Aenak\tuic\;pMu®pc\m¥a;t∑c\&c\; … Sc\t¨Rui;m˙a;
pMu®pc\m¥a;‰˙iÂkqv\" There are very similar folk tales both among Chinese and
Western tales.
• hiN∂^Baqa' qk˚tBaqam¥a;kiu SraÂk^;U^;v∑n\≥emac\TMt∑c\lv\;ekac\;'
ABiDmμaBaqakiu … SraÂk^;U^;ek¥a\TMt∑c\lv\;ekac\; AT¨;®poj
el.laSv\;p¨;K´.påqv\" He specialized in the study of Hindi and Sanskrit
under Saya U NM, and Abhidhamma under Saya U Kyaw.
• rMKå qeBaTa;Âkm\;tm\;Kk\Tn\s∑a®Pc\.lv\;ekac\;' rMKå qeBaTa;
N¨;vM.ep¥a.ep¥ac\;s∑a®Pc\.lv\;ekac\; SMu;mel.‰˙iq®Pc\." Since he used to admonish
us sometimes fiercely and sometimes gently.
• Sraf saeplkçam¥a;m˙alv\; &c\;f m¥oi;Sk\m¥a;N˙c\. saep®mt\Niu;q¨m¥a;TMt∑c\
lk\er;mÄa;®Pc\.lv\;ekac\;' epmÄa;®Pc\.lv\;ekac\; ‰˙ienÂkpåqv\" The poet’s
writings and poems are in the possession of his descendants and literary
scholars, both in handwriting and on palm-leaf.
• Èe‰˙;Aem∑AN˙s\ts\rp\ ®Ps\eqa tMKå;m¥a;m˙a mqmaq¨tiu≥f
lk\K¥k\eÂkac\.lv\;ekac\;' qmiuc\;tn\Piu;mqina;mlv\q¨tiu≥f peyageÂkac\.
lv\;ekac\;' qBaweB;d%\eÂkac\.lv\;ekac\;' p¥k\‘pilél¥ac\;ka enraAN˙M≥
e®KSn\≥l¥k\‰˙iÂkqv\" These gates, which form part of our ancient heritage
have been torn down and lie scattered around by the activities of vandals,
by people who fail to understand the value of history, and by the damage
caused by nature.
• TuiqëÂkac\.lv\;ekac\;' Sraeta\eÂkac\.lv\;ekac\;'
ek¥ac\;Ò‰˙ikun\eqa qame%' ek¥ac\;qa;tui≥eÂkac\.lv\;ekac\; Tuiqtc\;qv\
r∑aT´m˙ts\Sc\. r∑an^;K¥op\sp\qui≥ K¥k\K¥c\;pc\ p¥M>N˙M≥q∑a;ka" Thanks to this man, to
263
the abbott, and to the novices and students at the monastery, the news
spread rapidly from the village to neighbouring areas.
• pit\ka;epÅm˙a ®mwt\rv\f Al˙qv\lv\;ekac\;' namv\qv\lv\;ekac\;
em˙;m˙in\l˙s∑a P¥t\Kn´qa Tc\RMu‰˙iqv\" Both MWY’s good looks and her name
appeared only briefly and unclearly on the screen.
• Ta;qv\lv\;ekac\;' kiusiu;Niuc\qv\lv\;ekac\;' q´q´qv\lv\;ekac\; ®mwt\rv\kiu
m¥k\N˙aK¥c\; Siuc\Niuc\Piu≥ Aeta\.kiu ’ki;sa;enrqv\" T and Ko SN and TT tried
hard to get to face MWY.
lv\;ekac\; 2 written &c\; (~ or ~N) this, the same, the aforementioned;
selective noun, FB, = FB yc\;, CB A´d^; pron /legåc\;/;
• Aim\‰˙c\' &c\;fqm^;" The landlord, his daughter (characters in a play).
• Piu;qëta\”k^:ts\på; p¥Ml∑n\eta\m¨q®Pc\. &c\;f Aip\raenram¥a;kiu
‰˙c\;lc\;ÂkeqaAKå" When an elderly religious had passed away and they
were clearing out his sleeping place.
• e‰˙;AKåk r∑ats\r∑at∑c\ Aqk\ 60-ek¥a\‰˙i APiu;Aiu lc\mya; ‰˙if" &c\;tui≥m˙a
qa;qm^; 10-eyak\ ‰˙ira" Once upon a time, in a certain village, there lived
an elderly couple. They had ten children.
• At∑c\;m˙ spå;es.kiu et∑>Niuc\påqv\" &c\;Aes.kiu AVuierac\ Ae®mH;k PuM;Aup\qv\"
You can see the paddy grain in the inside. This grain is covered by a thin
brown film.
• &c\;enak\ after this, afterwards; &c\;®pc\ besides that, moreover; &c\;Atiuc\; as
above, ditto.
lv\;ekac\; 3 written &c\; ditto, as above; in columns and lists; sentence,
FB; pron /legåc\;/;
•emac\Su‰˙in\' 15/-" emac\tc\l˙' &c\;" Maung SS: K15. Maung TH: ditto.
lv\;ekac\; 4 see under eqa\lv\;ekac\; either … or …
lt\- (V~-) euphonic; vb mod, FB, used mostly in elevated styles, common
before subordinate clause markers meaning “when” or similar, sts with
others; used regularly in nissaya in combn lt\eqa\ to render a Pali present
participle or past participle in locative absolute (see Okell 1965 p 215); also
in combn lt†M> qv;
• nik eN †a' T∑k\lt\eqa\" Leaving, as he left (nissaya).
• weœ' miu;qv\" ptiet' k¥lt\eqa\" Rain having fallen (nissaya).
• Kuns\en≥lYc\' es.lt\eqaAKå" After seven days had passed.
• Atn\cy\Âkalt\eqa\ emac\sM‰˙a;lv\; tiuk\epÅqiu≥ tk\laelf" After a little
while Maung SS also went up into the building.
• yKu ek¥ak\®Pøetac\ ‰˙iraArp\qiu≥ erak\lt\eqaAKå eP∑;eP∑;®Pøqv\.
ek¥ak\®PøÂk^; N˙s\lMu;kiu et∑≥‰˙im˙t\qa;l¥k\" When he reached the spot where
264
Kyaukphyu Hill now stands he found two large rocks of dazzling

whiteness.
• eq∑;tk\eqaq¨' ®Ps\lt\m¨ka;' sa;y¨ÈK∑c\.' ep;liuk\qc\.qv\" But if (the
patient) has “rising blood”, then he should be allowed to eat.
•Èqiu≥ lup\Pn\m¥a;lt\q®Pc\." When they had done this many times.
lt†M> (V~) will V, is going to V; stc mkr, also used in attributes, usually in
combinationlt†M>eqa, FB, = FB AM.' mv\ and mv\. qv; fused from vb mod
lt\ + stc mkr AM.; common in prophecies and predictions; pron /ltn\≥/;
• 2000-®pv\.N˙s\t∑c\ kmıaÒ lÜ^;er qn\;epåc\;-6500 ‰˙ilt†M>" In the year 2000
the world population will be 6,500 million.
• ÈAim\mk\f Ak¥oi;qv\ … cåBura;lk\Tk\Ò m®Ps\lt†M>" The events foretold
by this dream will not take place during my lifetime.
• ”kiyaf ‘plt†M>' ®Ps\lt†M>' ‰˙ilt†M> kalkiu ®peqa wiBt\kiu Anagt\kal®p
”kiyahu eKÅqv\" The particle which shows the time (when something) will
be done, will happen, will be, is called the “future-time particle”.
• enac\ er;lt†M>eqa sa kb¥a' !^kak¥m\;m¥a;" The books, poems and
commentaries that he was to write later.
• Èqv\m˙a Upmaqa ®Ps\qv\" enac\ePa\®plt†M>eqa em;K∑n\;pusÍaqv\ Èliu
l∑y\mv\ mhut\på" This is just an example. The question that appears next
will not be as easy as this.
• enak\ ®Ps\epÅlt†M>eqa qa;kel;' qiu≥mhut\ qm^;kel;At∑k\" For the sake
of the son or daughter that you may have later on.
lup\- (~V-) to fabricate V-ing, V in a forced, unreal, artificial, insincere
way; comm pre-vb, CB; from verb lup\- to make;
• lup\ry\qv\ to force a laugh, pretend to be amused; lup\e®paqv\ to put on a
false voice; lup\em;qv\ to ask (pretending one doesn’t know). Cf lup\zat\ a
trumped up story.
lim\. or lim\.ml´ see under pålim\.(ml´) wondering question
lim\.mv\ see under lim\.my\ will probably
lim\.my\ CB = FB lim\.mv\ (V~) probably will V, possibly will V, will no
doubt V; will V imminently; sts apparently just adding a measure of
politeness to the statement; rare with first person in meaning “probably”; stc
mkr, CB+FB; mv\ pron /m¥^/; from verb modifier el fused with sentence
marker AM.; also used with Ë;/AuM; in combinations lim\.Ë;my\' lim\.AuM;my\'
lim\.Ë;mv\' lim\.AuM;mv\;
• U^;Kc\tiu≥l´ laÂkmla;" _ laÂkpålim\.my\" Will the Khin family come too? —
I expect so (“they will probably come”).
• hut\pålim\.my\" That may well be true.
265
• ®Ps\lim\.my\ mTc\B¨;" I don’t think that is very likely.

• mep;lYc\ Aqt\KMrlim\.mv\" If you don’t pay you will in all likelihood be
killed.
• mg©zc\;tiuc\;liuliup´ mT∑k\Niuc\ÂkB¨;" tK¥oi>Siurc\ 2-lelak\ l∑t\q∑a;Âkrlim\.my\"
Nearly every single magazine has been unable to appear. Some may well
have to miss two monthly issues.
• kÁn\eta\.saAup\kiulv\; dutiyA”kim\ ®pn\®p^; Riuk\på.my\" A´dÂt∑k\klv\; ec∑
15000i/-elak\eta. rpålim\.AuM;my\" And my book will be reprinted for a
second time; and for that I shall probably get about 15,000 kyats.
• By\qilim\.mtuM;" How on earth should he know?
• nńélak\ Py\ep;på" enak\Sut\lim\.my\" Would you move out of the way a
bit? I am going to reverse (my car).
• ek∑>lim\.my\" ek∑>lim\.my\" (Look out!) We’re going to turn! (bus conductor to
traffic behind bus).
• SraË;qin\;hn\k qBaptiA®Ps\ eSac\R∑k\pålim\.my\" Hsaya U TH will act as
chairman (speaker at meeting, introducing chairman standing next to
him).
• Dåt\puM et∑>pålim\.my\" You will see the photographs (speaker on stage, with
the photographs displayed beside him).
• K% esac\.enpåAuM;" q¨ lapålim\.my\" Just wait a minute. He’ll be back
before long (when the person you went to visit is out).
• Balup\ eAa\enrtatuM;" mc\.;kui cåRuik\lim\.my\" sit\m‰˙v\eta.B¨;" What are you
howling for? I’ll have to give you a smack. My patience is exhausted
(mother to small child).
lim\.Ë;my\ see under lim\.my\ will probably
lim\.AuM;mv\ see under lim\.my\ will probably
luM; 1 (Nº~) and AluM; (~Nº) item, comm nmtv for circular, spherical, cylindri-
cal or cubical objects, including letters of the alphabet, fruit, footballs,
drums, bamboo poles, furniture, machines, houses, etc; CB+FB;
• m^;q^; N˙s\luM; two electric light bulbs; B^ya ts\luM; a can of beer; wå;AluM; 30
thirty lengths of bamboo.
luM; 2 or sluM; (Nº+N~) all (of many); both (of two); the whole, entire (of
one); nn mod, CB+FB; the variant sluM; is used with numbers greater than
one;
• quM;‘mi>(s)luM;m˙a" In all three towns.
• Aim\quM;Ku(s)luM;" All three houses.
• miB N˙s\eyak\(s)luM;" Both parents.
• q¨ ts\kiuy\luM; tun\enqv\" His whole body was trembling.
266
• tqk\luM; l˙v\.®Pa;lui≥ rm˙a mhut\B¨;" They wouldn’t be able to deceive you all
your life.
• ts\pn\;kn\luM; kun\eAac\ sa;ps\luik\ty\" He ate up the whole plateful.
• ts\Aim\qa;luM; k¥n\;maK¥m\;qaÂkpåes" May your entire household, the whole
family, be well and happy.
luM; 3 (V~) forms noun from verb, in certain compounds; sp hd nn, CB+FB,
cf mO' K¥k\;
•mk\luM; incentive; valuuM; deceit, trick; Âk∑a;luuM; boast; T∑c\luM; fabrication;
eka\luM;kt\luM; caustic criticism; ®pk\luM; joke.
luM; 4 (N~) globe, sphere; comm elem cpd nn for items perceived as rounded;
CB+FB;
• pn\;kn\luM; bowl; pRut\luM; mothball; K´luM; stone; m¥k\luM; eyeball; enluM; the orb
of the sun; saluM; a letter, written character; ska;luM; word, syllable; kiuy\luM;
body, figure.
luM;kÁt\ (N~) the whole N, in its entirety; comm elem cpd nn, CB+FB;
• ®pv\luM;kÁt\ SN∂KMy¨p∑´" National referendum (“of the entire country”).
• qc\;luM;kÁt\ Asv\;Aew;" General meeting (of a society).
• pietak\pc\qv\ pc\luM;kÁt\ p∑c\.qv\" The padauk tree burst into flower all
over.
luM;luM; (Nº+N~) full, as much as; nn mod, CB+FB;
• nc\lv\; Srawn\et∑lui Kuns\N˙s\luM;luM; pvaqc\K´.qa;p´" You have studied, like
the doctors do, for a full seven years.
• q¨N˙c\. N˙s\N˙s\luM;luM; t∑´K´.eqa\lv\;" Though she had been going out with him
for a good two years.
• 12 N˙s\luM;luM; eAac\®mc\mO m‰˙it´. d%\" The damage of having had no success
for twelve whole years.
ly\ or Aly\ (N~, VA~) middle, centre, among; loc nn, CB+FB; sts
Aly\ekac\ or Aly\eKåc\, sts wrongly written lv\;
• en≥ly\sa" Midday meal.
• Sy.\kiu;rasuN˙s\Aly\" The middle of the nineteenth century.
• R∑aly\elak\m˙a ‰˙ity\" It is roughly in the centre of the village.
• N˙c\;S^pc\et∑ suik\Ta;t´.Aly\m˙a t®Ka;ha msuik\K¥c\B¨;" I don’t want to plant
anything else in between (where I have planted) the rose plants.
• sk\B^; s^;rc\ lm\;Aly\eKåc\k s^;tap´´" When I ride my bike I ride in the
middle of the road.
l¥k\ and rk\ (V~) (a) V-ing, V and, while V-ing; sub cls mkr, FB, cf ka'
®p^;' ra' j; as a rule the spelling l¥k\ is used in FB and rk\ in CB; l¥k\
pron /yk\ or lYk\/ and often wrongly written lYk\;
267
• muSiu;qv\ K¥oMkiu k∑y\l¥k\ qa;ekac\kiu eK¥ac\;enqv\" Hiding in the bushes,

the hunter was stalking the game.
• ska;Sk\j e®paenk enramk¥epB¨;hu eAak\em.l¥k\ NOt\Sk\Kå k¥op\
T∑k\K´.ty\" Thinking that it would be fruitless to continue talking (with
her), I said Goodbye and left.
• Ak¥U\;RuM;l¥k\ ®pn\lv\tc\®prmv\" You must shorten (the report) and
resubmit it.
• miu;qv\ tAun\;Aun\; ®mv\l¥k\ qv\;Tn\s∑a R∑aenqv\" The rain sounded noisily
as it fell in torrents.
• q¨≥ m¥k\N˙aTa;kiu Âkv\.l¥k\ ekak\siuk\mm¥a;qv\ twå;wå; p∑´k¥enÂkqv\" The
paddy planting girls roared with delighted laughter watching his
expression.
Regular equivalent for Pali present participle in nissaya translation (Okell
1965 p 216):
• teta' Tuien≥m˙" p™ay' sj" mhaqet†a' Bura;elac\; mehaqDaqv\" tay'
TuiAmredw^N˙c\." qdÎ˜' tk∑" qmg©wåqM' AvÂV∑t\eqa en®Kc\;kui" wqeN †a'
enl¥k\" reva' wiedhraz\mc\;Âk^;Aa;" … ANuœaqi' SuM;mf" From that day
onward, the Bodhisatta, living harmoniously with Amaradevi, advised the
king (nissaya).
• mata' q¨cy\fAmiqv\" … put†M' qa;kui" mu◊ßit∑a' lWt\j" eradmana' cuil¥k\"
A™aqi' rp\f" The mother of the boy, having sent her son away, stood
there weeping (nissaya).
(b) also variants pål¥k\' l¥k\N˙c\.' l¥k\n´≥' l¥k\qa;' l¥k\qa;n´≥' l¥k\kn´≥'
rk\n´≥' rk\qa;' rk\qa;n´≥' rk\kn´≥ in spite of V, although V; CB+FB, cf
CB epm´;.
• n^;l¥k\n´≥ ew;" So near yet so far (proverb).
• K∑c\.‘pK¥k\ r“p^; ®Ps\pål¥k\ saAup\ mTut\wM.ÂkB¨;" In spite of having obtained
permission to publish, they dare not.
• kel;m¥a;qv\ mimie®KeTak\epÅt∑c\ mimi rp\tv\enNuic\l¥k\qa;N˙c\.
kula;me®KeTak\”k^;m¥a;epÅt∑c\ mt\tt\rp\Pui≥ ’ki;sa;enÂkqv\" Although
children can stand (perfectly well) on their own two feet, they still find it
hard to stand upright on stilts.
• dåelak\ Tc\‰˙a;enrk\kn´≥ kÁn\eta\tiu≥ Ask m®mc\mita AM.Âqty\b¥a" I’m
astonished that we failed to spot it straightaway although it was so
obvious.
• ®Ps\rel®Kc\;b¥a" k¥op\S^kiu la‰˙al¥k\kn´≥ q¨≥Aqk\kiu k¥op\ mky\liuk\rB¨;b¥a"
What a tragedy. The poor fellow came to me (for help), but I was not able
to save his life.
268
• buic\;rp\ m‰˙ipål¥k\N˙c\. ‰˙ieÂkac\; AK¥k\ep;®Kc\;" (A computer) displaying a

warning that there is a virus when there is not.
Sts in incomplete sentences:
• ts\lm˙a ts\rk\tv\; na;K∑c\.rta qil¥k\qa;n´≥ Amiu;ry\" In spite of knowing
that you only get one day’s leave a month, Amo, (sc. why do you still ask
for more?).
(c) in patterns V-l¥k\ ‰˙i- and V-l¥k\ en- to be V-ing, to be in the
process of V-ing; to V; FB, = FB+CB en-;
• Nuic\cM®Ka;tuic\;®pv\m¥a;t∑c\ lk\‰˙i enTuic\l¥k\ ‰˙i“p^; Nuic\cM®Ka;Aup\sui;mOeAak\t∑c\
erak\‰˙ienqv\. g¥amn\l¨m¥oi;" Germans who are currently living in foreign
countries and have come under foreign rule.
• q¨tui≥ Tmc\;sa;®p^;K¥in\t∑c\ em˙ac\sp¥oi;l¥k\ ‰˙i®p^" pc\ly\®pc\qv\ Asim\;erac\m˙
A®parc\.erac\qiu≥ k¨;l¥k\ ‰˙iel®p^" After they had had their evening meal it
was beginning to get dark. The sea was changing from green to dark
blue.
• Niuc\cMeta\‰˙i AraTm\;' AmOTm\;m¥a;qv\ wn\Tm\;sv\;km\;N˙c\.Av^ tik¥s∑a
liuk\narn\ liuAp\l¥k\ ‰˙ienpåqv\" Government officials and government
servants in (Burma) are required to comply precisely with the public
service regulations.
• AVuierac\ Ae®mH;lWa PuM;Aup\l¥k\ ‰˙ieqa Sn\" The rice (grain) which is covered
with a thin film of a brown colour.
• SraÂk^;qv\ qc\®Pø;ts\K¥p\epÅt∑c\ wm\;l¥a;em˙ak\ka saer;l¥k\ enqv\"
Sayagyi was lying flat on a mat writing.
• sv\;wt\eqa puSiu;klv\; e®Km¥k\siPuM;l¥k\ enq®Pc\." As the paso he was
wearing covered his ankles.
• thut\k´.tv\; hut\k´.rc\;N˙c\. rp\l¥k\qa enelf" He just stayed standing
there saying Yes over and over again.
• Aim\”k^;m˙a m^;Aim\m^;K∑k\ sqv\®Pc\. T∑n\;lc\;l¥k\ m‰˙iqv\ ®Ps\eqaeÂkac\.
em˙ac\m´l¥k\ enqv\ ®Ps\ra" As there was no lamp or lantern alight in the
house, it was all dark, and ….
(d) in pattern V-l¥k\på' V-l¥k\p´' V-l¥k\påp´ etc still V-ing, to V as
before, without change; CB+FB;
• AsU\ qtirl¥k\" Always remembering you (common ending to a letter).
• AKu A´d^l¨ By\m˙al´" Aqk\‰˙c\rk\p´la;" qn\qn\mamap´la;" Where is that
man now? Is he still alive? Is he in good health?
• q¨tiu≥ wc\ec∑ m‰˙iliu≥ S¨p¨Âkmy\liu≥ Âka;tap´" dåepm´. KuTi ®cim\qk\l¥k\p´" I have
heard that there will be protests because they have no income, but so far
things are still quiet.
269
• mmaj mTNiuc\ta Kuns\rk\Kn\≥‰˙ipå“p^" Srawn\”k^; Tui;eS;N˙c\. kul¥k\påB´" He’s

been ill in bed for about seven days. The doctor is still treating him with
injections.
• mui;n´≥ elk By\elak\ Ap∑c\.e®K∑e®K∑ q¨tui≥keta. (sin\pn\;pc\) r´r´ n^rk\p´"
However much the rain and the wind blow off their flowers, they (the
seinban trees) still go on being covered in red.
(e) V-l¥k\qa; in a state of V-ing; already V-ed; CB+FB; cf V-®p^;qa;'
• ek¥a\q¨≥kiu saAup\Aehac\;Siuc\e‰˙>m˙a cut\tut\ Tiuc\l¥k\qa; et∑>rqv\" She
found KT already squatting in front of a second-hand book stall.
• l¨Âk^;qv\ kula;Tiuc\e‰˙>m˙ KMucy\el;epÅt∑c\ e®KeTak\ts\Bk\kiu tc\l¥k\qa;
‰˙ienram˙ kun\;Tliuk\qv\" The older man, whose foot was already resting on
the little stool in front of his chair, heaved himself upright.
• d^liu®pn\e®paeta. Sram nn\;®meA;k AM.Aa;”k^;qc\.q∑a;“p^; {eh _ mc\;k
Balup\Piu≥l´}liu≥ em;“p^;l¥k\qa; ®Ps\q∑a;era" when he gave this answer, the
teacher NMA was taken aback and blurted out “Hey! What is that for?”.
• kÁn\eta\k AaRMusiuk\“p^; piustae‰˙>tv\.tv\.m˙a e®KsMurp\mil¥k\qa; ®Ps\enty\" I
was standing firmly in front of the poster and had my mind fixed on it.
• ek¥ac\;tun\;keta. kuiy\ qeBamk¥ mN˙s\qk\q¨ SuilYc\ mepåc\;B´ enluik\RMup´"
lup\cn\;K∑c\Térak\eta. mÂkv\.K¥c\ ®mc\l¥k\qa;" When you are at school if
there’s someone you don’t get on with all you have to do is not mix with
them. But in the workplace even if you don’t want to see them there they
are in front of you.
• Aim\eTac\rk\qa; ‰˙iq¨" A person who is married.
• lk\vHio;kel; ek∑;l¥k\qa;®Pc\. Atn\cy\ “cim\qk\enram˙" After keeping still
for a while with his index finger bent over.
(f) used to form adverbs and attributes from certain verbs; CB+FB;
• luM;K¥c\; p¨;l¥k\ t^;t´.Ak∑k\" A phrase played with notes joined (in octaves).
• Suic\®Km\;kui e®Kak\luM;pt\n´≥ t∑´rk\ quM;ty\" They use the half drum circle in
conjunction with the six-drum set.
• kp\rk\AKn\;" The adjacent room.
• Al¥a; em˙ak\l¥k\ enelf" He lay flat on his face on the ground.
• e‰˙>t∑c\ pMul¥k\qa; pMul¥k\qa; k¥SMu;l¥k\‰˙ira" As (his comrades in battle) had
fallen and (their bodies) were piled up in front of him.
l¥k\ 2 in pattern m-V-B´l¥k\ see under B´ without V-ing
l¥k\(k)n´≥ see under l¥k\ -ing, while, despite, etc
l¥k\N˙c\. see under l¥k\ -ing, while, despite, etc
l¥k\qa;(n´≥) see under l¥k\ -ing, while, despite, etc
270
Ael¥ak\ (N~, N-N˙c~\. , VA~) in accordance with N, matching, as N, N to

the extent that V, as befits, as is proper; nn mkr and sub stc mkr,
CB+FB; pron /Ael¥ak\/; cf Ar' Av^' Aluik\' Aa;el¥a\s∑a' Atiuc\;'
• qk\”k^;r∑y\”k^;m¥a;kui K¥in\KåAel¥ak\ ‰˙iKui;kn\eta.påty\" We pay respects to
our elders at appropriate times (“according to the occasion”).
• U^;qa®mt\ qt\puMAel¥ak\ t,qt\n´≥ qt\liuk\ty\" I spelt it with a final T in
accordance with U Tha Myat’s spelling book.
• q¨≥kMAel¥ak\ ®Ps\K¥c\ta ®Ps\es Siut´. qeBaN˙c\." On the principle of “Let
happen what will, as his karma decrees”.
• dêc∑kui liuta wy\Piu≥ dkadkamet∑k estnaAel¥ak\ lØÂkty\" Her lay
supporters have donated the money, as much as they felt like, for her to
buy what she needs.
• nimit\cå;på;N˙c\.Ael¥ak\ Ak¥oi;lv\; v^V∑t\s∑a ®Ps\qtv\;" There was a
favourable outcome, as indicated by the Five Portents.
• AeTak\Ak¨ m¥a;s∑a ep;Ap\Niuc\mv\hu y¨Sqv\.Ael¥ak\ ÈsaAup\kiu er;qa;
‘psurepqv\" I have compiled this book in accordance with my conviction
that it will be very helpful.
• UpedT´m˙a påt´.Ael¥ak\ At∑c\;er;mØ; N˙s\eyak\ Kn\≥Ta;ty\" They appointed
two secretaries in accordance with (what was contained in) the
regulations.
• Bun\;eta\”k^;k l¨¨p¥oi”k^; kiuek¥ak\KÁa; mimiftpv\.®Ps\j
qna;Âkc\naqv\.Ael¥ak\ … mimiek¥ac\;qui≥ eKÅ“p^; kpπiy lup\enesqv\" The
monk, (in accordance with) having some affection for the old bachelor Ko
KK, who had been his pupil, invited him to (live in) the monastery and
appointed him his kappiya.
Al¥c\ or Arc\ (N~) preceding N, before N; loc nn, CB+FB; pron /Ayc\/; cf
e‰˙> in front, enak\ after;
• ramwtÊo … Ë;eAac\‘Pi;Al¥c\ ts\Kåts\eKt\k ‰˙iK´.eÂkac\;lv\; qiqapåqv\" It
is clear that the Rama story existed at some time before U Aung Hpyo.
• q¨tiu≥Arc\ zrp\epÅ erak\N˙c\.ent´. … ABiu;Aiu" The old man who had arrived
at the zayat before them.
• qiu≥eqa\ q¨≥Al¥c\ U^;N˙c\.q¨k ‰˙ienel®p^" However, there was someone who had
got there before him.
Sometimes in pattern N-Tk\ Al¥c\ — kiuqn\;Niuc\etac\ As\kiu≥Tk\Al¥c\
ek¥ac\;k Sc\;lata qMu;N˙s\elak\ ‰˙i®p^" Even Ko TN had finished studying
about three years ago, earlier than her brother.
l∑n\;- and l∑n\;Aa;Âk^;- (V~-) to V too much, excessively; exceedingly,
very V; vb mod, CB+FB; Âk^; not voiced;
271
• mcy\l∑n\;' m”k^;l∑n\;esr" It should not be too big or too small.

• U^;®mqv\ qa;qm^;m¥a;kiu Aliu liuk\l∑n\;qv\" U Mya gives in to, indulges his
children too much.
• n^;l∑n\;j m®mc\r®Kc\;epla;" Perhaps I never saw it because it was too close to
me.
• meq;l∑n\;B¨;la;" Aren’t they too small?
• ekac\;l∑n\;mk ekac\;l∑n\;m˙qalYc\ Atn\Aqc\. t∑c\k¥y\qv\. Ae®Kqiu≥
erak\latt\påqv\" Only if (the books) are exceptionally good (“more than
very good”) do they get to the stage of making some progress (on the
market).
• Ba®Ps\liu≥l´ hc\ hu na;mlv\s∑a em;eqaAKå m∑n\m∑n\≥kiu K¥s\l∑n\;liu≥
qna;l∑n\;liu≥epå.k∑y\" “Why is that?” she asked, not understanding.
“Because I love you (Mun Mun) so much and feel so sorry for you.”
• Tmc\;Aiu;qv\ k¥k\l∑n\;Aa;Âk^;enpuMkiu et∑>relf" He saw that the rice pot
had cooked too much.
• AeÂk∑;K%K%etac\;qv\" Siuc\;rl∑n\;Aa;Âk^;q®Pc\. q¨Âk^;kiu tiuc\tn\;ra" She
asked again and again for repayment of the debt. As he put her off too
long, she reported it to the headman.
• ‰˙c\. AmÄk¥c\.et∑ha yut\mal∑n\;Aa;Âk^;ty\" Your behaviour is totally
wicked.
l∑y\- (V~-) to be easy, not difficult to V; to V readily; vb mod, CB+FB;
• l¨®pin\;m¥a; na;lv\l∑y\eAac\" So that it was easy for laymen to understand.
• d^Pinp\m¥oi; qip\mrl∑y\B¨;" This kind of sandal is not very easy to obtain.
• pus∑n\st´. k¥k\l∑y\t´. Asa" Prawns and other easily cooked foods.
• sit\TiKiuk\l∑y\®Kc\;' eq∑;®mc\lYc\ m¨;tt\®Kc\;" Being easily upset, feeling faint at
the sight of blood.
• Ac\mtn\ sit\ekak\l∑y\tt\t´. min\;kel;" A girl who goes into a sulk at the
slightest provocation.
l∑y\- is also linked to a preceding verb in several other ways:
-rta l∑y\-" Tmc\;ts\lup\ ‰˙asa;rta ml∑y\B¨;h" It’s not easy to earn
enough to provide a mouthful of rice.
-rqv\ l∑y\-" q¨m¥a;enra kp\erac\;rqv\m˙alv\; ml∑y\" Getting in and
selling (flowers) where there were many people was not easy.
-r l∑y\-" qc\Kn\;saet∑kium¥a; tpv\.et∑ m˙t\rl∑y\eAac\" So as to make
their lessons easy for his pupils to memorise.
-Pui≥ l∑y\-" qeBçaqa;rPiu≥kl´ ml∑y\påB¨;k∑y\" It’s not easy to get a position
as a sailor.
-rn\ l∑y\-" sit\Tc\keta. qv\AmO sMueTak\rn\ ty\l∑y\my\ mTc\B¨;" My
272
view is that it will be no easy task to investigate this case.

-j l∑y\-" kÁt\tiu≥kiu tut\N˙c\. Al∑y\tk¨ put\K¥liu≥ rqv\" lk\N˙c\.ka; K∑aj
ml∑y\" With a stick you can dislodge leeches easily. To pick them off by
hand is not easy.
-lui≥ l∑y\-" dênram˙a qip\ m˙a;liu≥ l∑y\ty\" It is very easy to go wrong at
this point.
l˙- (V~-) to V very much, greatly, extremely; vb mod, CB+FB; from the
main verb l˙- “to be pretty”: cf the use of the English word “pretty” as an
intensifier in such phrases as “pretty good”, “pretty old”, though V-l˙- is
stronger than “pretty”;
• met∑>rta Âkal˙®p^" It is ages since we met.
• Aqk\ ”k^;l˙®p^" He is extremely old.
• qip\®p^; ®pœnam‰˙il˙ep" There was no great difficulty.
• eRWema\tc\est^qv\ Âkv\Vuisra ekac\;l˙qv\" The Shwe Maw-din Pagoda is a
very beautiful sight indeed.
• q^K¥c\;Siuram˙a Aaq^q m‰˙il˙qv\miu≥ pt†la;kiup´ Piqc\K´.qv\" He was not hugely
keen on singing so he concentrated on the bamboo xylophone.
Used with or without rc\ in phrases meaning “at the most” and similar:
• Aqk\la;" ‰˙il˙rc\ 16-N˙s\elak\p´ ‰˙iAuM;m˙a" His age? He can’t be more than
about 16.
• Âkal˙ ts\narêlak\epå≥b¥a" At the most it’ll take you about an hour.
• ts\en≥ts\en≥ emac\;rl˙ muic\ 40-50 p´ ‰˙imv\" They would only drive about
40 or 50 miles a day at the most.
• enak\ts\eyak\k q¨¨≥Tk\ cy\ty\" Al∑n\‰˙il˙ qM;u el;N˙s\p´" The other (child)
was younger than him. At the most she could only have been three or
four.
l˙eK¥r´. and variants: see under l˙K¥v\r´. exclamatory
l˙K¥v\r´. or l˙K¥v\. or l˙K¥v\eq;r´. or l˙K¥v\la; or l˙K¥v\kla; or l˙K¥v\tka; or
spelled l˙eK¥r´. etc (V~) How V!, What V!, exclamatory, indicating
surprise, amazement; stc mkr, CB; cf påkla;' pron /l˙g¥^y´./ etc;
• Kiuc\maetac\.tc\;l˙K¥v\r´. Siut´. cå.r´. ska;e®pKMtp\" The fortress of my prose,
which was supposed to be so strong and solid.
• mc\.Srak lapåË;mla;k∑y\" laK´l˙eK¥kla;k´∑>" Will your Saya ever come?
What a long time he’s taking!
• eh.ekac\ eK¥ac\;klv\; Siu;l˙K¥v\la;' mc\;enekac\;r´.la;" Hey you! That’s a
terrible cough you’ve got. Are you really well?
273
• Tiu≥eÂkac\.pc\ mc\;”k^;qv\ qumnf zn^;kiu miuk\m´l˙eK¥tka;hu

Sc\®Kc\mieleta.qv\" And that’s why the king thought “What a stupid
woman is this wife of Thumana”.
• ®mt\®mt\eT∑;APiu≥ pér∑;rqv\. Alup\elak\kiu pc\pn\;l˙K¥v\.hu saP´∑>rmv\. kisß
mhut\eta.ep" For MMT (work as a maid) was not a matter for writing a
piece on “How exhausting it is” as the job sorting beans was.
lO- see under lu- almost, nearly
l˙v\.- 1 (V~-) do V!, indicates encouragement or urging; used in positive
commands and requests; vb mod, CB; pron /l˙´≥/;
• la' emac\; eTac\;l˙v\." Come, pound the rice.
• ®mn\maet∑ tiu;tk\puM' AluM;suMkiu Akun\Âkv\.l˙v\.Âkpåla;" Come and see how the
Burmese have advanced!
• nc\.Aiu;kiu lay¨¨l˙v\." Come and pick up your pot.
• lWc\.ps\my\Siurc\ ehad^zrp\twiuk\ … laps\l˙v\.påemac\" If you are going to
throw it away then please throw it somewhere near this zayat.
• Nucy\A®Ps\kuil´ ®mc\lal˙v\.påU^;la;" Please come and see what has happened
to me (Nu Nge).
l˙v\.- 2 (~V-) to turn and V; comm pre-vb, CB+FB; from verb l˙v\.- to turn;
pron /l˙´≥/;
• l¨cy\S^qiu≥ kiul¨w P¥t\Kn´ l˙v\.Âkv\.liuk\f" Ko LW suddenly turned and
looked at the youngster.
• eARMuBk\kiu l˙v\.wc\qv\" He turned and went into A Block.
• AKn\;werak\m˙ Ta;S^qiu≥ l˙v\.ka e®paqv\" At the doorway he turned and
spoke to Hta.
l˙m\;- (~V-) to V from a distance, reaching out, across; comm pre-vb,
CB+FB; from verb l˙m\;- to reach out;
• A´d^Bk\ l˙m\;Âkv\.liuk\eta." When I cast a glance in that direction.
• q¨≥S^ sa l˙m\;er;liuk\my\" I’ll just drop him a line.
• kiuT∑n\;wc\;kiu l˙m\;eKÅliuk\på" Just give a call to Ko Htun Win (across the
way).
• kÁn\eta\ l˙m\;y¨mliu≥ Alup\m˙a" Just as I was going to reach out and take it.
• kel;et∑r´> Ae®KAenkiu l˙m\;Ak´´Kt\liuk\eta." When he looked over the
(audience of) children to see how they were reacting.
elYak\- or e‰˙ak\- (~V-) to go straight on V-ing, go along V-ing, go
around V-ing, to V without thinking, aimlessly; comm pre-vb, mainly
CB; pron /ey˙ak\/; from verb elYak\- to proceed;
• saAup\ ts\\Aup\luM; e‰˙ak\Pt\Âkv\.epm´. met∑≥B¨;" I couldn’t find it though I read
right through the whole book.
274
• eZ;Siuc\et∑ Baet∑ e‰˙ak\Âkv\.reAac\" Shall we wander around and look at

the shops and things?
• Kuic\;K¥c\ra elYak\Kuic\;eneta.' Upedn´≥l´ v^K¥c\m˙ v^m˙a" They go around telling
people to do what they want them to do, and often it’s not legal.
• ekac\met∑ena\' epåk\kr elYak\e®pamenÂkn´≥" Hey you girls! Stop talking
rubbish.
• vBk\”k^; kuirc\”k^;ts\på; Bura;’kiÂka; elYak\e®p;entakui
ts\eyak\eyak\eta. m®mc\et∑>tn\ekac\;påB¨;" It’s highly unlikely that no-
one would have noticed an elderly novice running around the pagoda
grounds at dead of night.
elYak\ see under ts\elYak\ all along
lYc\ 1 FB = CB rc\ sts written yc\ (V~) if, when (in the future); sub cls
mkr; form lYc\ pron /lYc\/; cf FB k' eqa\;
• qa;qm^; limμalYc\ miB sit\K¥m\;qamv\" Parents will be happy if their children
are good.
• sa;sra mpålYc\ qa; nêT∑; sit\ekak\qv\" His son Ni Htway used to be
cross if he didn’t bring home something to eat.
• Asiu;rk AK¥in\ tn\lYc\ eR∑;ekak\p∑´ ‘plup\mv\hu AtiAlc\; eÂkvaTa;f"
The government has explicitly announced that they will hold an election
when the time is right.
• meAac\rc\ Tp\e®PrAuM;m˙aepå." If you don’t pass (the exam), you will have to
take it again of course.
• min\≥K∑n\; e®pa®p^;rc\ ls\my\" I’ll slip off after the speeches.
In expanded forms -lui≥‰˙irc\ and -lui≥‰˙ilui≥‰˙irc\'
• k∑ahmO ”k^;enlui≥r˙irc\ l¨mOer; tv\®cim\mO mr˙iB¨;" If the gap (between rich and
poor) is large, then there is no social stability.
• d^han´≥pt\qk\lui≥r˙irc\ Sraeta\Âk^;tpå; ehaB¨;påty\" On this point, a
Sayadaw once gave a sermon.
• tuituiel;n´≥ e®parlui≥r˙ilui≥r˙irc\' kÁn\eta\tui≥Aa;luM; ten≥ eqm´.qët∑K¥v\;p´" To put
it briefly, all of us will die one day.
The combinations K´.lYc\' K´.rc\' K´.liu≥‰˙irc\ are used to emphasise conditionality:
• Aky\j Kc\l∑m\;qa emem.SN∂m¥a;kiu liuk\el¥amiK´.lYc\ emem eqm˙a mhut\B¨;hu
A®m´ sit\s´∑enmiqv\" KL was always conscious of the fact that if only she
had followed her mother’s wishes her mother would not have died.
• sit\vs\eta. Tmc\;l´ ekac\;ekac\; msa;Niuc\' Aip\l´mep¥a\\n´≥ tra;qa mTiuc\K´.rc\
R¨;Niuc\ty\" Being so miserable I couldn’t eat properly or sleep enough. If I
hadn’t meditated I could have gone mad.
275
• qa;Bk\k wt†ra; mek¥p∑n\ta ‰˙iK´.rc\ … K∑c\.lWt\på" If I (your son) have failed

at all in my duties towards you please grant your forgiveness.
In CB rc\ is sts omitted before lv\;/l´ “also”:
• Aim\k salal´ ciutap´' Aim\kiu qtirl´ ciumi®pn\era' mmS^k saPt\®p^;l´ ciutap´"
I cried when a letter came from home, and I couldn’t help crying again
when I thought about home, and I cried after reading your letter.
• Aim\ ®pn\K¥c\rc\ ®pn\' m®pn\K¥c$rc$l´ enepå." Go home if you want to. If you
don’t want to, then don’t!
• hut\K¥c$rc$ hut\my\" That may be true (“will be true if it wants to be”).
CB rc\ is also sts omitted after the verbs k¥ “get to, come to” and Sui “say,
state, be the case”:
• enak\lk¥(rc\) et∑>Âkeq;taepå≥" Next month (“when we come to next
month”) we shall meet again.
• d^liuSiu(rc\) kÁn\m ventiuc\; lay¨my\" In that case (“if we say this way”) I’ll
come and get some each afternoon.
• Rup\‰˙c\T´m˙aSiu(rc\) qip\l˙m˙a" If (you had a part) in a film you’d look lovely.
lYc\ 2 (Nº+N~) per N, distributive; nn mkr, FB, = CB kiu; pron /lYc\/;
•l∑t\lp\er; ATim\;Am˙t\kiu ts\N˙s\lYc\ ts\”kim\ k¥c\;pqv\" Independence
celebrations are held once a year.
• Aim\lK ts\llYc\ edÅla N˙s\eTac\ ep;rmv\" You will have to pay two
thousand dollars a month rent.
• N˙s\lk\mlYc\ ts\eK¥ac\; Tiu;Ta;qv\" (A pin) was stuck in every two inches.
• wåt∑c\; Upuq\en≥m¥a;Ò Aqc\;wc\ts\U^;s^lYc\ lk\er;sam¨ ts\m¥k\N˙as^
ABiDmμaSiuc\ram¥a;kiu er;qa;esl¥k\" On Sabbath days in Lent he had each
member of the association write out a page of Abhidhamma text.
lYc\ 3 (Phr~) emphatic; stc med phr ptcl, FB, mainly in verse; pron /lYc\/;
sts merely filling a slot after a rhyme; found in prose in the combinations
pc\lYc\ and qalYc\ and occasionally elsewhere; regular equivalent of Pali
eva in nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p 217);
• wm\;TýuM≥yuM≥" yun\lYc\k¥oM>qiu≥" SiutuM≥mwM." Do not dare to answer back (but) hold
(your anger) in your belly as the hare shrinks (its body still through fear)
(verse).
• Rup\p∑a;N˙s\S¨ â%\eta\t¨ka' qpπåy\s∑alYc\' mhaepÅeta\m¨Bura;" The two
Buddha images, matching in height, look imposing at the Maha
Pawdawmu Pagoda (verse).
• Pk\Ss\Asiu;rm¥a;pc\lYc\ AelYa.ep;enreqa yKuAK¥in\m¥oi;Ò" At a time like the
present when even fascist governments are admitting defeat.
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• sv\;luM;mO®Pc\.qalYc\ humμR¨;kiu AryësK¥c\qv\" He wanted (Burma) to win

Home Rule by solidarity alone.
• ®pv\q¨≥Ac\Aa;su®Pc\.lYc\ ®pv\q¨≥rv\m˙n\;K¥k\Atiuc\; eAac\®mc\mO rNiuc\qv\" It is by
the power of the people that we can succeed in accordance with the
people’s objective.
• ABy\m˙alYc\ SraÂk^; wm\;me®mak\B´ ‰˙iAM.nv\;" How could Sayagyi fail to be
pleased?
• Èqui≥lYc\ erWpc\ epåk\laqv\.AeÂkac\; ‰˙c\;®pqv\" She explained how the
Gold Tree had grown up in this way.
• tMqb∫M' TuiAluM;suMeqa sv\;sim\K¥m\;qakui" Udum∫redwêyw' Udum∫redw^qv\lYc\"
s^rc\f" It was Udumbaradevi who managed all that wealth (nissaya).
• AezΩw' yen≥lYc\" Eœti' laAM.qela" Will you come even today? (nissaya).
lYc\ 4 in the pattern V-lYc\-V-K¥c\; as soon as V: see under K¥c\;
lYc\lv\; FB = CB rc\lv\; (Phr1~ Phr2~) either Phr1 or Phr2; stc med phr
ptcl; used in parallel main clauses; variant spellings rc\ or yc\ and lv\; or
l´; pron /lYc\l^;/ in formal reading, /lYc\l´/ in informal contexts; cf eqa\
lv\;ekac\; either … or …;
• yKuka; kuiBui;rc\qv\ tlut\‘mi>t∑c\lYc\lv\; ‰˙imv\" qui≥tv\;mhut\
etac\t∑c\;‘mi>t∑c\lYc\lv\; ‰˙imv\" At this time Ko PY will be either in Talok or
in Taungdwin.
• kuiBui;rc\ … m®pn\mlaqv\.Aram˙a naP¥a;mk¥n\;jlYc\lv\; ®Ps\mv\"
qui≥tv\;mhut\ T¨;®Ka;eqa kisß AÂk^;Ak¥y\lYc\lv\; ‰˙imv\" The fact the Ko
PY has not come back must be either because he is ill, or because there is
some emergency.
• kÁn\eta\.kui Pm\;S^;mik eTac\T´qui≥lYc\lv\; ®pn\jK¥Ta;lim\.mv\" qui≥tv\;mhut\
Aqk\kuilYc\lv\; Aeqqt\lim\.mv\" Should they apprehend me, they will
either throw me back in prison, or take my life.
• Awt\elYa\sk\rc\l´ ®Ps\my\" dåm˙mhut\ erKéqt†arc\l´ ®Ps\my\" It’s either a
washing machine or a refrigerator.
• k¥op\ ATc\eta. dc\;ha ts\eyak\eyak\n´≥m¥a; Aep¥a\k¥ø;rc\;k ®Ps\tarc\l´
®Ps\rmy\" Nui≥mhut\rc\ ec∑reÂk;rlui≥rc\l´ ®Ps\rmy\" My view is that it happened
either as a result of that girl’s pursuing her pleasure with a man, or be-
cause she was paid money.
• mc\;ha Am¥a;kui rn\sesa\ka;entarc\l´ ®Ps\rmy\" Am¥a;kui
eg¥ak\t∑n\;entarc\l´ ®Ps\rmy\" (If you did so,) you would either be
antagonizing people or getting them into trouble.
Cf variant form k¥c\lv\;ekac\; in Pagan period Burmese:
277
• cqa;ce®m;k¥c\lv\;ekac\; ®ml¨k¥c\lv\;ekac\; mqc\.es" Let it harm neither

my children and grandchildren, nor other persons.
lWt\- (~V-) to V very much, a lot; comm pre-vb, CB+FB; from verb lWt\- to
release; cf qip\-' ty\-' Pi-' nc\;-' t∑n\;-;
• ek¥ac\;qa;Bwtun\;k Biuc\Aiu Siurc\ lWt\ln\>mieÂkak\mitab¥" In my student
days, when I was faced with biology I used to be terrified.
• ven 4 nar^ 5 nar^Siut´.AK¥in\et∑k ek¥ac\;Sc\;K¥in\ RMu;Sc\;K¥in\ eZ;pit\K¥in\
lWt\sv\rmy\.AK¥in\epå." Four or five in the afternoon, being the time when
people leave their offices and schools and close their shops, is a time
when there are large numbers of people around.
wå (N1~ N2) N1 or N2, N1 also known as N2; nn atrb mkr, FB; more formal
than CB+FB N1 eKÅ N2; from Pali va–;
• B^pÂiuc\ wå ®mn\maNiuc\cMeS;wå;lup\cn\;@an" The Burma Pharmaceutical Industry,
also known as “BPI”.
• l∑t\lp\er;Âkio;pm\;mOlup\cn\;qv\ (wå) ®mn\matiu≥f wMqaNulup\cn\;qv\" The
campaign for independence, or the Burmese nationalist campaign.
wåd (N~) N-ism, teaching, theory of N; comm elem cpd nn; from Pali va–da;
• k∑n\®møns\wåd communism; Âka;ener;wåd neutrality; mc\;m´.wåd anarchy. Hence
N-wåd^ believer in, follower of N: Siu‰˙y\ls\wåd^ a socialist; budÎwåd^ a
Buddhist; As∑n\;erak\wåd^ an extremist; ®pv\pAa;kiu; puSin\Riu; ASiu;®mc\wåd^m¥a;
the pessimists, axe-handles, those who seek support from foreign coun-
tries.
wc\- 1 or wc\erak\- (~V-) enter and V; take part in V-ing, join in V-ing;
comm pre-vb, CB+FB; from verb wc\- to enter;
• AT´ wc\Âkv\.my\ena\" I’ll go in and have a look, OK?
• s∑n\”k^;ha … qs\pc\”k^;ts\pc\epÅ wc\na;ty\" The kite (bird) came to rest on
a tall tree.
• kula;Tuic\l∑t\ ts\Kut∑c\ q¨på wc\Tuic\qv\" She too (joining the others) took a
seat on a vacant chair.
• sui;ek¥a\At∑k\ Ta;rc\k wc\e®Pqv\. qeBa e®paqv\" Hta Yin broke in, as if
answering on behalf of So Kyaw.
• eyak¥\a;et∑Alup\m˙a wc\ROp\t´.min\;m" A woman who interferes with man’s work.
• eA;®cim\;k wc\erak\t´∑eKÅr®pn\qv\" AN had to go and help him (up the steps).
• g^twiuc\;ts\Kum˙a wc\erak\q^SiuNiuc\qv\ATi" Up to the point at which she could
join in and sing with a music group.
wc\ 2 (N~) member of N; comm elem cpd nn;
• Aqc\;wc\ member of the association; eka\m^t^wc\ committee member;
Asui;rAP∑´>wc\ member of the council of ministers.
278
wuic\;- or wuic\;wn\; (~V-) to gather round and V, V collectively, join in V-ing;

comm pre-vb, CB+FB; from verb wuic\;- to surround;
• miB SiuSMu;mt´.ska;kiu na;meTac\t´. qa;qm^;kiu r∑ak l¨ramq∑c\;ÂkB¨;'
wiuc\;py\Ta;el. ‰˙iÂkty\" Children who failed to obey their parents’
instructions were not accepted by the village: the custom was for everyone
to reject them.
• An\t^Âk^; eKåc\;m¨;q®Pc\. qa;APqMu;eyak\ wuic\;wn\;‘psuÂkr®pn\qv\" As Auntie
was feeling dizzy the father and the two children had to gather round and
tend her.
• pur∑k\Sit\et∑ wuic\;kiuk\lui≥ naliuk\tab¥a" The ants all came and bit me, and it
hurts badly.
• wiuc\;wn\;k¨vêp;Âkt´. ek¥a\rc\®mc\.' … Ë;ek¥a\zMl˙tui≥kiu AT¨; ek¥;z¨;tc\‰˙ipåty\" I
am particularly grateful to KYM, … and U KZH who all gave me their
assistance.
• ‰˙c\®pop◊ßc\;KMAl˙ø”k^; lup\eta. r∑aDel.Atiuc\; ts\r∑alMu;k lup\sra kiuc\sraet∑kiu
wiuc\;wn\;k¨v^lup\kiuc\Âkty\" When there is a major ceremony (such as) a
novitiate ritual or an ordination, the whole village, in accordance with
their custom, comes together and helps with what has to be done.
wn\;k¥c\ see under pt\wn\;k¥c\ around
wM.- (V~-) dare V, be bold enough to V; vb mod, CB+FB; cf V-r´;
• emac\K¥s\Vuiqv\ mr´rc\.på" qs\pc\Tip\P¥a;kiu mtk\wM." Maung Chit Nyo is not very
brave. He dare not climb to the top of the tree.
• q¨ r´rc\.s∑a tc\elYak\wM.epqv\" He boldly dared to inform me (king speaking).
• Kc\b¥a;®mc\rt´. m¥k\N˙a®Pø”k^;ha eyak\¥a;m¥k\N˙aB´liu≥ Kc\b¥a; Ekn\muK¥
SiuwM.på.mla;b¥a" Would you have the courage to say unequivocally that that
white face you saw was the face of a man?
• ernk\nk\T´ mq∑a;wM.påB¨;k∑y\' eÂkak\sraÂk^;" I dare not go into deep water.
It scares me.
• m¨;ys\“p^; m®mc\wM.mÂka;wM.eAac\ eAa\hs\S´Siu®polup\eleta." When he got drunk
and cursed and shouted horribly (“so that one would not dare to see or
hear it”).
wy\ (N~) upon, at, in; FB, nn mkr, more formal than FB t∑c\' Ò; = CB m˙a;
•kltk\ eKåk\qMkiu ARu%\tk\wy\ Âka;rqv\" The sound of the wooden
monastery gong (being struck) is heard at dawn.
• p¥a;m¥a;qv\ pn\;pc\Tk\wy\ p¥MwénÂkqv\" The bees were hovering above the
flowers.
• yen≥l¨cy\ enac\wy\eKåc\;eSac\" The young of today are the leaders of
tomorrow.
279
• ec∑m¥a;m˙a réBa\®Pøtiu≥ lk\wy\Òqa ‰˙ienK´.®p^;" The money was in the hands of

the White Flag communists.
q see under ty\ and qv\ stc mkrs, and under qv\. and t´. which V-s, vb atrb
mkrs
qk´.qui≥' qtv\;' qtt\' qTk\' q®Pc\.' qP∑y\' qmY' qeR∑>' qj' qlui'
qelak\' see under the second syllable
qeBa (VA~) intention, objective; idea of, sort of V, as it were V,
meaning, implication of V; noun “idea”, perhaps in process of becoming a
stc fin phr ptcl; CB+FB; cf pMu as if;
• ®pv\q¨l¨Tukui S¨p¨sraAeÂkac\; m®Ps\eAac\lui≥ kak∑y\t´. qeBam¥oi;n´≥ e®patapå"
I say this in a spirit of prevention, so that it doesn’t provoke the people to
unrest.
• Nuic\cMeta\k tuic\;®pv\t∑c\;‰˙i t®Ka;AP∑´>Asv\;m¥a;kui Ë;eSac\q∑a;t´. qeBa" It is
as if the state leads the other institutions within the country.
• d^luim˙n\m¥oi;ha Ap¨kui kaS^;nuic\t´. qeBa‰˙ity\" This kind of glass gives a kind
of protection against heat.
• ha… Kc\b¥a;haklv\; Kc\b¥a;k ml∑´me‰˙ac\qalui≥ lup\rmy\. qeBalui ®Ps\en
ty\' Kc\b¥a;k mK¥s\B´ m’kik\B´ y¨rm˙ala;' qeBak" Look here! You give
the impression that you’re only going ahead (with the marriage) because
you can’t get out of it. Are you going to marry her though you don’t love
her? Is that the idea?
• e®paÂkSuiÂktaet∑ ®mn\l∑n\;t´.At∑k\ Baqaska; AKk\AK´‰˙iq¨m¥a;At∑k\eta.
AK¥in\y¨Âkv\.rmy\. qeBa‰˙ipåty\" They speak very fast (in the film) which
means that people who have difficulty with the language would have to
take their time watching it.
• el;miuc\elak\Kr^;kui elYak\rc\; ASmtn\ pc\pn\;qlui ®Ps\“p^; emapn\;enmy\Suirc\
kuiy\KNÎaha luitaTk\ pui“p^; Aa;suik\enrt´.qeBa" If you walk for about four
miles and find you are unusually tired and exhausted the implication is
that your body has had to exert itself more than is necessary.
• sui;ek¥a\At∑k\ Ta;rc\k wc\e®Pqv\. qeBa e®paqv\" Hta Yin broke in, as if
answering on behalf of So Kyaw.
qma; (N~) one who deals in N, is skilled in, is involved with, attached
to N; comm elem cpd nn, CB+FB; from qma; physician;
• Alup\qma; worker; lk\qma; carpenter; tMcåqma; fisherman; ly\qma; rice
farmer; Aeka\d^yMqma; accordion player; eBaqma; footballer; Rup\‰˙c\qma;
person involved in the film industry; ANupvaqma; artist; Nuic\cMer;qma;
politician; N˙s\k¥p\K∑´qma; vendor (of longyis) at two and a half kyats;
m¨;ys\eS;wå;erac\;wy\qma; drug dealer; neBSn\≥k¥c\er;qma; opponent of
280
multiple rhymes; saepewPn\er;qma; literary critic; saepeta\l˙n\er;qma;

literary rebel; pkaqnqma; person who sets store by image and
appearance; eS;epå.lip\qma; person devoted to cheroots; Ark\qma;
habitual drinker, drunkard.
qm^; see under qa; member of
qa- 1 and qal∑n\- (~V-) to V more, be more V, Vadditionally; comm pre-
vb, CB+FB; from verb qa- to excel; cf piu- which is less formal;
• Bun\;”k^;et∑Tk\etac\ qatt\eq;ty\" He knows more than the monks
themselves.
• krc\namv\keta. ena\mélePat´." _ A´dåk qaetac\ eKÅrKk\eq;" My
Karen name is Naw Me-lay-hpaw. — That’s even more difficult to say.
• qv\en≥kiu Kc\l∑m\;tiu≥ ts\miqa;sulMu; mem.Niuc\Âk" Kc\l∑m\;k qaj mem." This day
was one that KL’s family could not forget. For KL it was even more
unforgettable.
• Riu;Riu;razwt\qa;tiu≥f Bwm˙a qajpc\ Siu;eq;qv\" The life of the ordinary
criminals (in Siberia) is even worse.
• emac\sM‰˙a;Tk\pc\ &c\;pvaÒ qal∑n\Tk\®mk\eÂkac\;"
He was even more
accomplished in that art than Maung SS himself.
qa- 2 (V~-) to be feasible, to manage to V; to V conveniently, easily;
vb mod, CB+FB; cf r' tt\' Nuic;\
• tMKå;mØ;lv\; m®cc\;mk∑y\qaj" As the gate-keeper could neither deny nor
conceal (his crime).
• min\;mÂk^;k eA;®cim\;kiu l˙m\;Âkv\.enj eA;®cim\;k menqaB´ Tq∑a;rqv\" AN
couldn’t stand (“couldn’t manage to stay with”) the woman watching her,
so she got up and left.
• kiuy\.A®ps\N˙c\.kiuy\miu≥ BamY me®paqaeta." As the problem was of his own
making there was nothing else he could say.
• eAac\®mc\qv\hulv\; mSiuqa" You couldn’t really claim that it had been a
success.
Common in some set combinations:
• qiqa- to be able to tell, to be evident:
sa;qa- to manage to eat, to be
profitable; tt\qa- to manage, to be in control; lW´qa- to contrive to
avoid, to escape.
Sentence examples:
• kel;et∑k krc\N˙c\. qip\mt¨l˙ep" em;Riu; nv\;nv\; ka;K¥c\eqa\lv\; qip\®p^;
mqiqal˙" The children didn’t look very Karen. Their jaws were perhaps a
little broad, but it didn’t show much (“was not easy to know”).
281
• d^m˙a eS;Kn\;laP∑c\.ta qip\sa;qaty\" He has done very well by coming and

opening a clinic here.
• l¨cy\m¥a;ha mtt\qalui≥ Am¥oi;qa;er;m¥a;' Nuic\cMer;m¥a;T´m˙a påwc\“p^;eta.
lOp\‰˙a;rta" The young people have had no other option but to take an
active part in nationalist affairs and politics.
• my\eT∑; mtt\qaeta.B´ … té‰˙>qui≥ T∑k\laK´.reta.qv\" Me Htway had no
other option but to come out in front of the hut.
• yen≥eta. mlW´me‰˙ac\qaj et∑>K´.r®p^" But today she had run into them with
no chance of avoiding them.
qa 3 (Phr~) only, merely, just Phr, Phr and no more; stc med phr ptcl,
CB+FB; used in conditional clauses with the effect of “if only”; in FB often
combined with a second particle, e.g. qalYc\' mYqa; cf p´' m˙;
• lk\U^;t∑c\ Sn\Aerac\;Awy\ Anv\;cy\mYqa ‰˙ielqv\" At first there was only
a little trade in rice.
• lKm˙a ts\l 40mYqa ®Ps\eqa\lv\;" Although my salary was only 40 kyats a
month.
• eAak\®pv\m˙aqa epåk\takiu;" It only grows in Lower Burma, you see.
• Ap∑c\.ka;ka;el;et∑qa k¥n\eta.qv\" Only the fully open flowers were left
(not the buds).
• pn\;K¥êr;S´∑®Kc\;qv\qalYc\ Am∑n\®mt\SMu;Alup\hu Suireta.mlui ®Ps\laqv\" We
got to a point of almost having to say that painting and only painting is
the most noble activity.
• kuiy\ekac\;Pui≥ mÂkv\.B´ q¨ts\på;Ak¥oi;kuiqa TawsU\ sU\;sa; lup\my\Suirc\" If
you are going to act indefinitely for the benefit of others only, disregarding
your own good.
• d^lui AK∑c\.Aer;et∑ ‰˙im˙qalYc\ kÁn\eta\tui≥ha tky\.kui l∑t\lp\ty\lui≥
e®paNuic\m˙a ®Ps\påty\" It is only if we have such rights that we shall be able
to say we are truly free.
• l¨nv\;j Aim\ts\wk\ ts\Kn\;kiuqa c˙a;liulYc\lv\; rqv\" ts\en≥ N˙s\Sy\
ep;RMuqa" If there are not many (in your party) and you want to rent just
half the house or a single room, that can be done. All you have to do is
pay K20 a day.
• ÈmYqa" That’s all for now (“Just this much”: used at end of each
instalment of serial stories etc).
• sU\;sa;qa Âkv\.påeta." Just think about it.
• e®paqa e®paty\" Bam˙eta. mlup\B¨;" It’s all talk with him. He doesn’t
actually do anything.
282
In combination Phr-qamk more than merely Phr, not only Phr (see
also under mk):
• q¨rqv\.ec∑m˙a qëqak\taN˙c\.pc\ kun\elqv\" eqak\RMuqamk m¨;lv\;m¨;eq;f"
m¨;RMuqamk rm\;lv\; rm\;eq;qv\" The money earned all went on drink. He
didn’t just drink, he also got drunk. And he didn’t just get drunk, he also
got violent.
• rn\kun\tk˚qiul\ ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a;qamk ny\‰˙i ATk\tn\;'
Aly\tn\;ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a;på … ek¥ac\;m¥a;kiu qpit\em˙ak\Âkqv\" It wasn’t
just the students at Rangoon University, but also the students at high
schools and middle schools in the districts who boycotted their schools.
In conditional clauses:
• tp\meta\qa Aa%a mqim\;p´ enK´.påk ®mn\ma®pv\ cå;på;em˙ak\Piu≥ lm\;‰˙ipåf" If
the army had not taken power Burma was headed for chaos.
• kiueAac\®mc\. ts\eyak\qa laNiuc\liu≥‰˙ilYc\" If only Ko Aung Myint were able to
come.
• h' cå.liul¨kiu By\q¨ ®cc\;ml´" _ kÁn\mqa Siu ®cc\;ty\ Akiu" Hah, who
would refuse someone like me? — If it were me, I’d have refused (to
marry) you.
• tra;qa mTiuc\K´.rc\ R¨;Niuc\ty\" If I hadn’t meditated I could have gone mad.
• q¨≥liu RuM;ka;el; s^;®p^; s^;krk\ K´rc\; larta mhut\B¨;' q¨≥liuqa larrc\
mnk\‰˙s\narêtac\ erak\eq;" I can’t come (to work) like he does, riding in
the office car, puffing on a cigarette. If I could come like him, I’d even be
here by eight in the morning.
Also used at end of sentence, but mostly in sentences left incomplete:
• Aqk\Aeq KMq∑a;qv\kuika; el;sa;rmv\qa" However, their sacrificing their
lives is something we have to respect.
• tky\.kui eKt\sa;lataketa. erac\;Âk®Kc\;N˙c\. wy\Âk®Kc\;m¥a;qa" What
became really popular was simply buying and selling.
• qiu≥eqa\ eA;misM sit\eta. mp¥k\på" kmıaepÅm˙a N˙c\;S^pn\;et∑ ‰˙ieneq;qer∑>
eA;misMBwm˙a emYa\lc\.K¥k\et∑ ‰˙ieneq;qv\qa" However, AMS was not
discouraged. As long as there were roses in the world, AMS’s life would
never be without hope.
• qv\AK¥in\m˙a el˙‰˙c\epÅeqa\lv\; kisßm‰˙ieta." etac\;pn\RMuqa"
eqac\AK¥io;ATieta. q¨≥el˙kel; eKÅy¨q∑a;Piu≥ K∑c\.®porn\qa ”koi;sa;Âkreta.mv\"
At this point the boat owner had not appeared, but it was not important.
They would just apologise. They would have to try and persuade him to
allow them to take his boat as far as the bend in the sandbank.
283
qaqa (Nº+N~) just over, a little over N; nn mod, CB+FB; from verb qa- to
be better; cf N-ek¥a\;
• ts\miuc\qaqaelak\ ew;lim\.my\" It’s probably a bit over a mile away.
• cå;N˙s\qaqa‰˙ieq;t´. kÁn\eta\qa;kel;" My young son, who is just over five
years old.
• l¨pMuq an\Atuic\; ‰˙ieneqa ts\muik\qaqa ARup\mv\;el;" A small black figure
in the shape of a man, a little over six inches (“one fist-width”) high.
• elyaU\pM¥qv\ ewhc\T´Ò 3nar^ qaqamY l˙v\.lv\pM¥qn\;‰˙aeP∑®p^;enak\" The
plane circled in the air and searched for over three hours.
qa; 1 (N~) (a) son of, resident of, member of N; either generic, including
male and female, or male only, and then opposed to N-q¨ qv or N-qm^;'
comm elem cpd nn, CB+FB; from qa; son;
• mc\;qa;' mc\;qm^; prince, princess, male and female dancer, singer, actor,
film star; nt\qa;' nt\qm^; nat spirit, god, goddess; ss\qa;' ss\qm^; soldier,
woman soldier; tp\meta\qa; member of the Burmese armed forces;
lup\qa; worker, workman, work person (note lup\q¨ is not the female
counterpart, but just means “person who did sth”); r´qa; policeman (with
exceptional female form rém); ek¥ac\;qa;' ek¥ac\;q¨ student, school
boy/girl; eAak\qa;' eAak\q¨ person from Lower Burma; rn\kun\qa;'
rn\kun\q¨ resident, native of Yangon; R∑aqa;' R∑aq¨ villager; Nuic\cMqa; citizen;
Nuic\cMqa;‘plup\®Kc\; naturalisation; Niuc\cM®Ka;qa;ts\Ë;qv\ Niuc\cMqa;N˙c\.
Aim\eTac\‘pkamY®Pc\. Niuc\cMqa;A®Ps\kiu AliuAel¥ak\ mr‰˙iesr" A foreigner shall
not automatically acquire citizenship by the mere fact of being married to
a citizen.
(b) following phrase expressing age: child of age N; feminine form qm^; or
q¨;
• lk\rn\;epÅt∑c\ lëK¥aeK¥a Sy\N˙s\qa;Ar∑y\ts\eyak\ Tiuc\enelf" A good-
looking lad of ten was sitting on the banisters.
• AÂk^;SuM;qv\ 12 N˙s\qa; ®Ps\j Acy\SuM;qv\ 11 lqm^; ®Ps\qv\" The oldest
was a boy of 12, and the youngest a girl of 11 months.
• A”k^;el;k kiu;N˙s\qa; Sy\N˙s\qa;elak\ ‰˙imy\" The older child must have
been about nine or ten.
• AÂk^;SuM; 12 N˙s\qa;kel;N˙c\. Alt\ 8 N˙s\q¨kel;tiu≥qv\ ek¥ac\;m˙n\m˙n\
tk\reta.f" The oldest, a boy of 12, and the middle child, a girl of 8, had
to attend school regularly.
• cå.AeP' cåSy\.e®Kak\N˙s\qa;k wk\wMkup\KMrta hut\ty\" It is true that my
father was mauled by a bear when I was 16.
284
• cy\cy\k (Sy\.cå;N˙s\qm^;Kn\≥k) q¨m¥a;Aim\m˙a ts\Kå lup\P¨;qv\" She had once

been employed in another person’s house when she was young — at the
age of about 15.
•Aqk\ 14 N˙s\qa;Ar∑y\kiu erak\t´.AKå" When he reached the age of 14.
qa; 2 (N~) flesh, material, substance of N; weight of N; comm elem cpd
nn, CB+FB; from Aqa; flesh;
•wk\qa; pork; Âkk\qa; chicken; Am´qa; beef; qs\qa; wood, wooden; saqa;
(written) text, the words (e.g. of a song); Asit\qa; a quarter of a viss;
cå;k¥p\qa; five kyats’ weight.
qa; 3 (Nº+N~) both, all the Ns; restricted to groups of people, with numer-
atives eyak\ and Ë;' suggests that all the group were involved; nn mod,
CB+FB;
• eAak\erak\eta. N˙s\eyak\qa; wm\;qaAa;rn´≥ … zrp\kiu q∑a;Âkty\" When
they got down (from the coconut palm) the pair of them set off happily for
the zayat.
• Aim\e‰˙>t∑c\m¨ TMu;sMAtiuc\; qMu;eyak\qa; wiuc\;®Ps\jenf" There in front of the
house the three of them had got together as usual.
• kÁN\up\tiu≥ 3 Ë;qa;tiu≥qv\ Ë;®pv\.sMu eqra erkn\An^;qiu≥ q∑a;Âkelf" All three
of us set off for the lake where U PZ had died.
• Al∑y\tk¨ P∑c\.j mrNiuc\B´ ‰˙irat∑c\ 4 Ë;qa;tiu≥qv\ tMKå;ts\Kukiu Atc\;
e®p;wc\tiuk\Kiuk\Âkra" As we couldn’t open (the doors) easily, all four of us
hurled ourselves at one of them.
qa; 4 (V~ N) N that V-s, which V-s, is V-ed; vb atrb mkr referring to past
or present, FB, mainly verse; cf FB qv\.' eqa' CB t´;.
• qk\”k^;miB' Srasqa;' siu;rqKc\' ek¥;z¨;‰˙c\tiu≥" Your masters in authority
(over you) and benefactors, starting with your elders, parents and
teachers (cf seqa “etc”).
• p´.®pc\nisß' k∑p\SuM;mqa;' miBska;' naj" Listening to the words of your parents
who guide and admonish, correcting you always.
• ®Pøqv\ASc\;' em∑;erac\wc\;qa;' lv\pc\;Kp\r˙v\' Tuic˙k\qv\ka;" That long-
necked bird (the egret), that has brilliant white plumage.
qa; 5 (AV~) V-ly, suggesting a contrast (“in spite of V”) or something strik-
ing, stylish; sub cls mkr, CB+FB; often (A)V-qa;n´≥;
• mc\; Alim\maqa;n´≥ mmuik\n´≥" You’re normally perfectly well behaved: don’t go
astray now.
• AKuic\qa;n´≥ l´®p^; k¥oi;ta" (The banisters) were perfectly strong but somehow
fell and broke.
285
• eka.sms\ts\AeÂka.qa; lim\;ka" Daubing herself in elegant style with

cosmetics.
• Bwkui Ak∑c\;qa; ®mc\enrq®Pc\." As I could see my life as clear as can be.
• AP∑a;Âk^;qv\ m¥k\luM;m¥a; A®pø;qa;N˙c\. ®Ps\qv\" The old lady was left staring.
• ek¥;kÁn\et∑kui Akun\qa; Da;n´≥ Kut\®p^;" He went round slashing at his
subjects with a dah — the lot of them.
qa; 6 (V~ or AV~) (a) V-s indeed, certainly, surely, after all, of course;
marks an emphatic statement, suggesting sudden realisation, agreement,
surprise, relish, obviousness; stc mkr, CB; often V-qa;p´;
• hut\qa;p´" So it is!
Of course that’s right (implying: I should have
remembered).
• ekac\;qa;p´" Yes, that’s fine (implying: I hadn’t thought of it).
• (A)Tc\qa;p´" Just as I thought!
• Ark\ meqak\B¨; Siuta mc\; (A)qiqa;p´" You know very well that he
doesn’t drink.
• ereN∑; m‰˙ieta.B¨;la;" _ ‰˙ieq;qa;p´" Isn’t there any plain tea left? — Yes,
there certainly is.
• kÁn\eta\k eS;®pc\;lip\qma;Kc\b¥a." ngå;nêS;®pc\;lip\kuieta. qtirmiqa;" I’m a
cigar smoker, you know. Ah, how I remember Nagani brand cigars!
• kuiy\.Bw et∑;mieta.l´ wm\;n´qa;" And when I thought back over my life I was
indeed sad.
• q¨tui≥ zat\lm\; By\puMBy\nv\; zat\qim\;Âkmy\ Suitakui Kn\≥m˙n\;rtaeta.
AKk\qa;" It was certainly not easy to predict how their story would end
(after discovering the marriage contract was fraudulent).
• kel;et∑At∑k\eta. sit\mekac\;sra ®Ps\miqa;" I certainly felt concerned for
the children (of a marriage with poor prospects of survival).
• qm^;keta. ePeP enak\min\;m y¨l´ mp¨påB¨;' ememTa; ‰˙iqa;p´' ®p^;eta. U^;U^;l´
‰˙iqa;p´" As for me I wouldn’t be worried if Father married again. After all I
have Mother Hta. And I have Uncle.
• eS;RMu mtk\påresn´≥ ePeP' qm^; qk\qaq∑a;m˙apå' Kul´ eS;Kn\;kiu m˙n\m˙n\
q∑a;enqa;p´" Please don’t make me go to hospital, Father. I’ll soon get
better. And after all I am going regularly to the clinic.
• gs\takel;kiueta. qeBak¥qa;" ememSk\q∑y\ep;eqa Srats\eyak\TMm˙a
… qc\rqv\kiulv\; qeBak¥qa;" qiu≥eqa\ ememk q¨fSN∂kiu Tut\e®paqv\.
en≥m˙aeta. Kc\l∑m\;k ts\sKn\;Tqv\" KL was certainly pleased with the
guitar. And she was pleased at having lessons with a teacher that Mother
found for her. But on the day Mother announced her goal (to make KL a
pop star) KL took a different line.
286
(b) in combination V-esqa; emphatic, adds solemnity to a wish or

prayer;
• mimi em∑;Tiuk\påk lk\vHoi;k Nui≥rv\T∑k\esqa;hu Di™an\ra Nui≥rv\m¥a; pn\;T∑k\qv\"
He made asseveration, saying “If it is right for me to bring up this child,
let milk flow from my finger”, and milk poured forth.
sa;eqae®m∑qv\ mÂkaKc\ AN †ray\ts\KuKun´≥ ÂkMo“p^; Aqk\ eqpåesqa;liu≥
qsßaSiuliuk\ty\" He gave his word, saying “We snakes will never eat a
mouse. If we should chance to eat one, then may the snake that ate the
mouse speedily meet with some danger and die.”
• Èm˙n\kn\eqa qsßaeÂkac\. ÈAe®KAenSiu;m˙ l∑t\e®mak\påesqa;hu Kiuc\maeqa
ADi™an\kiu K¥elqv\" He made a strong asseveration of truth, saying “As a
result of this true statement may I escape from this wretched situation”.
qa; 7 see under “p^;qa; already, rk\qa;(n´≥) in spite of; for pattern V-K¥k\qa;
ekac\;- to V surprisingly: see under K¥k\
q¨ 1 (V~) person who V-s, V-er; sp hd nn, CB+FB; cf FB V-eqaq¨' CB V-
t´.l¨' V-t´.q¨;
• saer;q¨ the (present) writer; k∑y\l∑n\q¨ the deceased; yaU\emac\;q¨ (sts
yaU\emac\;) driver; Kiu;q¨ a person who steals (cf q¨Kiu; thief); d%\rarq¨ injured
person, casualty.
• l¨Âkm\; lup\q¨r´. nMmv\ By\q¨l´" What is the name of the man who plays the
villain?
• ly\T∑n\q¨k T∑n\' p¥oi;siuk\q¨k siuk\N˙c\." Some were ploughing and some were
planting the paddy plants.
• kiuc\K¥c\q¨m˙ kiuc\taepå." Of course it’s not everyone that wants to take it on
(“handle it”).
•kiueAac\ Siuq¨" A man called Ko Aung.
•q¨≥qa; ®Ps\hn\t¨q¨" A person who appeared to be her son.
q¨ 2 (N~) female resident, inhabitant, member, of N; comm elem cpd nn,
CB+FB; opposed to qa; male resident etc qv; frequently paired N-q¨-N-qa;
residents (members etc) male and female; for the exceptional compounds
®pv\q¨ and ss\q¨Âk^; see note below;
• ema\l‘mic\q¨ a Mawlamyine woman; ‘mi>q¨ townswoman, ‘mi>q¨‘mi>qa;
townspeople male and female; ek¥ac\;q¨ girl student,
ek¥ac\;qëk¥ac\;qa;m¥a; students male and female; R∑aq¨ female villager,
R∑aq¨R∑aqa; villagers male and female; Aim\qÄim\qa;et∑ members of the
household, family; nn\;t∑c\;q¨ nn\;t∑c\;qa; inhabitants of the palace,
courtiers and royalty; ®mn\maNuic\cMq¨Nuic\cMqa; the citizens of Burma.
287
Exceptions:
(1) The word ss\q¨”k^; “general, military commander” is a compound of ss\
“war, army” + q¨”k^; “leader” (not ss\q¨ “war woman”).
(2) In FB q¨ is used with selective nouns to mean “person” = CB l¨" Tuiq¨
that person, Èq¨ this person, mv\q¨ which person.
(3) The word ®pv\q¨ does not mean “female inhabitant” but just “person of
the country”. It was adopted as the Burmese equivalent of “The People” in
political writing, hence:
•®pv\q¨l¨Tu the people, the masses; ®pv\q¨piuc\ ‘plup\qv\ to nationalize;
®pv\q¨piuc\psßv\; public property; ®pv\q¨≥tra;RuM; People’s Court;
lup\qa;®pv\q¨≥en≥sU\ The Working People’s Daily (newspaper). Cf
tiuc\;q¨®pv\qa; citizens of the country.
Aq¨ who? see under A prefix
eq;- (V~-) (a) to V still, yet; to V so far, up to now; vb mod, CB+FB; cf U^;
(AuM;), which carries a similar meaning to eq; for future statements and
imperatives; the suffix på generally follows eq; after negated verbs, but
precedes it otherwise; rare with mv\/my\ but used occasionally in the sense
of “still” or “not yet”; for a discussion of eq;' Ë;/AuM;' eta. see Okell 1979;
• esapåeq;ty\" It is/was still early.
• cå;mins\ liupåeq;ty\" There are still five minutes to go. Cf cå;mins\
liupåË;my\" There will still be five minutes left, and cå;mins\ liupåeta.ty\"
There are only five minutes left.
• pugMeKt\k nMrMeS;er; pn\;K¥^m¥a;qv\ yKutiuc\ ‰˙ieq;qv\" Wall paintings from
the Pagan period are still in existence to the present, have survived until
now.
• e‰˙;ek¥ac\;Âk^; ts\ek¥ac\;ha mN †el;ed;wn\;m˙a KuTk\Ti Aekac\;pkti
‰˙ieq;®p^; qMGaeta\m¥a;lv\; ASk\m®pt\ q^tc\;quM;S´ ‰˙ieq;t´. ek¥ac\;Âk^;
eRWAc\pc\påp´" One ancient monastery that is still in good condition in
Daywun Quarter in Mandalay, and is still in continued use by the sangha,
is the Shwe Inbin Monastery.
• Aqk\ quM;Sy\p´ ‰˙ipåeq;ty\" He is only thirty years old (“so far, as yet”).
• Tuis√\k kÁn\mm˙a 10-ek¥a\qm^;qa ‰˙ieq;qv\" At that time I was still only just
over ten.
(b) to V as well, additionally, even, to V more Ns, another N;
• eqak\RMuqamk m¨;lv\;m¨;eq;f" It wasn’t just that he drank. He also got
drunk.
288
• qiu≥rat∑c\ AK¥oi>R∑am¥a;Ò R∑aq¨”k^;Tk\ ASc\.Atn\; nim\.eqa e®mtiuc\ ‰˙ieq;f"

However in some villages there were also mye-daing (local officials), who
were lower in rank than village headmen.
• yiu;dya;liulv\; e®patt\eq;ty\" And she can speak Thai too (sc as well as
Japanese).
• tKuKu liuK¥c\eq;rc\ e®paena\" Tell me if you want something more, won’t you.
• Ba ®Ps\eq;l´" What else happened?
• enak\ts\en≥ quM;eyak\ epÅlaeq;ty\" Next day three more people turned
up (cf epÅlaË;my\ will turn up).
• ts\Kåelak\ et∑>K¥c\påeq;ty\" I would like to meet him again, another
time.
• et∑>Âkeq;taepå." See you again! Au revoir! (cf et∑>AuM;my\ we’ll meet again).
• q¨≥liuqa larrc\ mnk\‰˙s\narêtac\ erak\eq;" If I came (to work) like him (in
the office car) I’d be here as early as eight o’clock in the morning.
• sc\eya\c˙k\kel; ts\ekac\N˙c\.pc\ tëK¥eq;eta.qv\" She even looked like a
little seagull.
(c) with negated verbs: (not) yet V, (not) so far;
• yKuTk\Ti m“p^;eq;qv\. Alup\kiu Sk\j mlup\Niuc\eta.ep" Work which has not
been finished by now can no longer be carried on.
• Alup\ elYak\ta mk¥eq;lui≥ eyac\epep®Ps\enta" As I hadn’t yet had a
response to my application for a job I was at a loose end.
• kel;qv\ Aciumtit\eq;eqaeÂkac\. Niu≥mun\≥eK¥ac\;kel;kiu y¨®p^; kel;Aa;
ekÁ;relf" As the child had still not stopped crying, he had to give her
an ice cream.
• ®pn\K¥c\®p^la;" _ m®pn\K¥c\eq;påB¨;" Do you want to go home yet? — No, I
don’t want to go home yet.
• msa;eq;påB¨;" I’m not going to eat just yet.
eq; does co-occur with -mv\/-my\ but apparently only when relocated from
a main clause into an embedded clause:
• ts\Pk\km\; erak\lui≥ ®p^;eq;ta mhut\B¨;" He hadn’t yet reached the
opposite bank (= ®p^;ta mhut\eq;B¨;").
• qc\.el¥a\eq;mv\ mTc\på" I don’t think it will be appropriate yet.
• Aw‘mi>eta\f Aer;qv\ ®cim\wp\pi®paeq;mv\ mhut\på" The unrest at Ava will
not yet be calmed.
• eAak\‘mi>ek¥;R∑aqui≥ erak\eq;mv\ mhut\" He won’t yet have reached Lower
Burma.
• l˙eneq;my\ Tc\la;" Do you think (Burma) will still be beautiful?
(d) in certain set expressions:
289
• eta\eq;®p^" That will be enough (phrase used in bringing a letter to a close;

also eta\Ë;my\).
• eta$på)eq;ty\" Just as well! It could have been worse!
• eta\påeq;qv\" m^;k q¨tiu≥ lm\;Bk\qiu≥ mk¨;liuk\" At least the fire hadn’t
spread to their side of the road.
q´. see under tv\. vb mod
eqa 1 (N~ N) marks adjective status; nn atrb mkr, FB; used in formal,
elevated FB style, apparently originating in nissaya translations, where eqa
was used to show the adjectival status of numeral and other adjectives;
• ts\KueqanMnk\ one morning (= CB ts\mnk$;
• 69på;eqaeragåtui≥ the 69 diseases (= CB eragå 69-på;);
• 230-eqa@an 230 regions (= CB @an 230);
• tsuMteyak\eqa AlØKM a certain mendicant (nissaya);
• AluM;suMeqa AmOtiu≥kiu eSac\R∑k\j having carried out all her tasks (nissaya);
• Am¥oi;m¥oi;eqal¨ all sorts of people (= CB lÄm¥oi;m¥oi;);
• ®mn\maniuc\cMk´.qiu≥(eqa) siuk\p¥oi;er;niuc\cM an agricultural country like Burma.
eqa 2 (V~) indicates statement of realised or non-future state; stc
mkr, FB; restricted to old-style narrative, and always follwed by the verb h¨
“to say”; cf qv\' f;
• {nc\.Aim\®papMu ®Ps\epå. mhut\la;}hu e®paSiuerr∑t\eleqa h¨¨qtv\;" “Your
house would become a heap ashes, would it not?” he cried, so the story
goes.
• ‰˙c\Bui≥my\k kÁn\esa\nMqv\hu pmamKn\≥ e®paeqa h¨f" Shin BM spoke
disrespectfully, saying “This smells of slavery”, so it is said.
• {k”k^;kqt\kk\ ‰˙ieq;}hu ®pn\j min\>Âka;liuk\eqa h¨¨f" To which he
replied “There’s still the ket spelled ka-gyi ka-that”, so it is said.
eqa 3 (N1~ N2~, V1~ V2~) neither N1 nor N2; neither V1 nor V2; followed
by a negated verb, carries a suggestion of a confusingly wide range of
choices; coord mkr, CB+FB; cf eqa\lv\;ekac\; “either … or”;
• k¥op\eta. Nuic\cMer;eqa l¨m¥oi;er;eqa na;mlv\" As for me I haven’t the faintest
idea about politics or nationalism.
• By\m˙ k¨;eqa qn\;eqa q∑a;eqa laeqa mlup\N˙c\.eta." From now on don’t
go trading or travelling anywhere.
• l¨Âk^;eqa Baeqa na;mlv\B¨;" He didn’t care whether they were elders or
what they were.
• tRup\eqa kula;eqa krc\eqa bmaeqa By\q¨≥m˙ yuMNuic\sra ‰˙ieta.m˙a
mhut\B¨;" From now there would be no one he could trust, whether
Chinese or Indian or Karen or Burman.
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• ®pataAlup\eqa Baeqa eR∑;menrB¨;" You must not be choosy, rejecting

work as a peon or whatever.
• ewåeqa ya√\eqa Sc\eqa Bakuim˙ ms^;B¨;" He never rode on anything,
neither litter nor carriage nor elephant.
• Èmin\;mkui rlYc\ By\Kc\el;Âk^;eqa By\mmÂk^;eqa qtirmv\mTc\" If I win
this woman (as my wife) I don’t think I would ever call to mind any Khin
Lay Gyi or Ma Ma Gyi (names of previous wives).
•m˙a;eqa m˙n\eqa na;mlv\B¨;" He couldn’t tell whether it was true or false.
eqa 4 (V~ N) see under qv\. which V-s, vb atrb mkr
eqa 5 in pattern V-eseqa may you V: see under es to allow, cause
eqaeÂkac\. see under eÂkac\. because, on account of
eqaAKå see under Kå time, when
eqac˙a see under c˙a for, for the sake of
eqaAa;®Pc\. see under Aa;®Pc\. by dint of
eqa\ 1 (V~) when, if V; sub cls mkr, FB; = CB V-eta.' V-t´.AKå' V-rc\, cf FB
V-eqaAKå' V-lYc\;\ V-qv\‰˙ieqa\ is a variant used in nissaya translations;
• q¨qv\ Aim\qiu≥ ®pn\erak\eqa\ Aemkiu e®paelf" When he got home he told
his mother.
• AR∑y\ erak\eqa\ emac\rs\qv\ Alup\ q∑a;‰˙aqv\" When he came of age,
Maung Yit went in search of work.
• pva liueqa\ mp¥c\;N˙c\." If you desire wisdom, be not idle (i.e. work hard).
• Niuc\cMer;m¥k\si®Pc\. Âkv\.eqa\ TiuAsv\;Aew;qv\ wm\;e®mak\sra ®Ps\qv\" If you
look through politicians’ eyes, that meeting is a cause for rejoicing.
• Arc\;A®ms\ ®Ps\qv\hu yëqa\ rekac\;AM.qiu≥ ‰˙iqv\" If you take (his oeuvre) as
the foundation you are likely to be on the right track.
• ÈArp\Ò raqÛtu p¨®pc\;qv\" ABy\eÂkac\.Siueqa\ qs\pc\ nv\;på;eqaeÂkac\.
®Ps\qv\" The climate is very hot in this place. The reason is that there are
few trees (“if one says why, it is because”).
• A®pc\ erak\qv\‰˙ieqa\" When they got outside.
V-qv\‰˙ieqa\ is the regular equivalent for Pali present participles and locative
absolutes in nissaya translation (see Okell 1965 p 215):
• AyM' Èq¨cy\qv\" matusÍieta' Amiwm\;m˙" zaymaena' P∑a;qv\‰˙ieqa\" When
this child was born from his mother’s womb (nissaya).
• pwsßt¨ti' wc\esqtv\;hu" wuet†' Suiqv\‰˙ieqa\" When (the king) said “Let him
enter” (nissaya).
eqa\ 2 (Phr~) as for Phr, Phr however; stc med phr ptcl, FB; cf FB ka;' CB
keta.;
• Upmaeqa\ka;" To give an example ….
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• TiueKt\TiuAKåkeqa\" At that time ….

• ts\en≥eqa\ Sral∑n\;qv\ Tmc\;K¥k\enelf" One day, Saya L was cooking a
meal.
• sapuMN˙ip\tiuk\Ò Alup\rqv\" pTmeqa\ sasÂlup\kiu lup\rqv\" He was given a
job in a printing press. At first however he had to do typesetting.
• q^K¥c\;ts\pud\f Amv\m˙a enak\kui ®pn\l˙v\.mÂkv\.n´≥h¨j ®Ps\qv\" qui≥eqa\
kÁn\eta\ enak\kui ®pn\l˙v\.Âkv\.luik\miqv\" There’s a song called “Don’t look
back”. However, I did look back (cf qui≥eqa\lv\; “however”: see under
eqa\lv\; “although”).
eqa\ 3 in combination V-eseqa\ may you V: see under es to allow, cause
eqa\m˙ see under eqa\mY even
eqa\mY FB = CB eqa\m˙ (Phr~) even, even so much as Phr; stc med phr ptcl,
FB and sts CB; cf etac\m;˙
• qiu≥eqa\ Kc\l∑m\;qv\ q^K¥c\;ts\pud\telkiueqa\mY priqt\e‰˙>m˙a T∑k\mSiuK´.P¨;ep"
However, KL had never stood up and sung even so much as a single song
before an audience.
• lk\Aup\K¥^rn\kuieqa\mY ms∑m\;Nuic\‰˙aeta." (The frail old lady) was unable even to
raise her hands in respect (to the monk).
• Am¥oi;qm^;tui≥f Dmμtapn\; mp∑c\.ln\;qv\kuieqa\mY Am˙t\mTc\‰˙iK´.qv\" (She was so
preoccupied that) she didn’t even notice that her periods had stopped.
• eZ;wy\q¨qv\ m¥k\sie‰˙> erak\laeqa psßv\;kiu mwy\eqa\m˙ em;®Ps\qv\"
ASc\qc\.lYc\ wy\q∑a;tt\qv\" Even if the shoppers didn’t (mean to) buy
anything, when the goods were right in front of them they at least asked
about them. And if things went well, they sometimes did buy something.
eqa\lv\; also ®ca;eqa\lv\; and eqa\®ca;lv\; (V~) (a) although V, in spite
of V; sub cls mkr, FB, = CB epm´.' ept´;. pron /eq˙a\l^;/ in formal reading,
/eq˙a\l´/ in informal contexts;
• emac\l˙qv\ sa’ki;sa;eqa\lv\; gu%\T¨; mreK¥" Although Maung Hla worked
hard at his studies he did not get a distinction (in the examination).
• q¨tiu≥m˙a AK∑n\ meSac\reqa\lv\;" Although they didn’t have to pay taxes.
• sarc\; “p^;“p^ ®Ps\eqa\lv\; AeqAK¥a ®pn\j mss\req;" Although she had
finished the register (lists) she hadn’t checked them over yet.
• TuieS;wå;tui≥kui sa;eqa\®ca;lv\; Anaeragåm˙ l∑t\kc\;Pui≥rn\ KýU\;lim\.mv\" Even
though he takes the medicine, it will be hard for him to be cured of the
illness.
Also suffixed to selective in combination qiu≥eqa\lv\; “however”; cf qui≥eqa\
“however” sv eqa\ “as for”:
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• qm^;limμap^p^ q¨≥Aem s^s√\t´.Atiuc\; naKMliuk\påty\" qiu≥eqa\lv\; q¨≥r´.

mek¥np\takel;kiueta. q¨≥Aemkiu Tut\e®paliuk\ty\" She obeyed her
mother’s instructions as a good daughter should. However, she did
question her mother about one thing she was not content with.
(b) however sn may V, whoever may V, etc, following an interrogative; cf
interrogative followed by repeated verb sv Repetition, and CB epm´≥;
• q¨tiu≥qv\ qBawAl˙kiu mv\mYpc\ Âkv\N¨;N˙s\qk\påqv\ Siueqa\lv\; Âka‰˙v\
s´∑®m´menNiuc\Âk" However much they were enchanted by the natural beauties,
they were not able to stay there for long.
• Burc\k mv\qiu≥pc\ Amin\≥eta\ ®pn\Ta;eqa\lv\; Aazanv\tiu≥mv\qv\ ep;®p^;eqa
ktikiu py\qv\h¨j m‰˙ieK¥" However much a king may formally release (his
deceased subjects from their undertakings), no true hero ever breaks a
promise once given.
eqa\lv\;ekac\; or eqa\&c\; (Phr1~ Phr2~) either Phr1 or Phr2; coord mkr,
FB, = CB Phr1-®Ps\®Ps\ Phr2-®Ps\®Ps\; pron /eq˙a\legåc\;/; cf lv\;ekac\; both
…and…;
• qs\pc\eAak\m˙aeqa\lv\;ekac\;' ek¥ac\;’kiek¥ac\;Âka;' qim\’kiqim\
Âka;m¥a;m˙aeqa\lv\;ekac\; Aip\enel.‰˙i“p^;" He used to sleep either under a
tree, or in some corner in a monastery or a sima.
• ena\l¨;N˙c\. et∑>K¥c\enmiqv\" qiu≥eqa\ ena\l¨;kiueqa\lv\;ekac\;' q¨≥As\m
®mt\®mt\eA;kiueqa\lv\;ekac\; et∑>Niuc\rn\ emYa\lc\.K¥k\ mTa;eta." She wanted
to meet Nawlu, but she held out little hope of being able to meet either
Nawlu or her sister MMA.
• AK¥oi>‘mi>R∑at∑c\ eyak\¥a;Riu;K¥v\;eqa\&c\;' min\;mRiu;K¥v\;eqa\&c\; Aup\K¥op\Âkqv\"
Some townships were administered either wholly through the male line or
wholly through the female line.
• saem;p∑´ e®P®Ps\lYc\eqa\&c\;' me®P®Ps\lYc\eqa\&c\; saem;p∑´wc\eÂk;kium¨ ep;Âkrmv\"
You will have to pay the examination entrance fee whether you actually
sit for the exam or not (= CB saem;p∑´ e®Pe®P' me®Pe®P).
eqaw\ in combination V-eseqaw\ may you V: see under es to allow, cause
qui≥ 1 (N~) to, towards, into N; nn mkr, FB, = CB kiu or no suffix;
• Erawt^®ms\qv\ e®mak\Bk\m˙ etac\Bk\qiu≥ s^;Sc\;qv\" The Irrawaddy flows
from the north to the south.
• Aim\qiu≥ ®pn\q∑a;elf" He returned home.
• lk\T´qiu≥ Ap\qv\" I delivered it into his hands.
• saAup\m¥a; Aim\qiu≥ c˙a;K∑c\. m‘ppå" You are not allowed to take (library) books
home.
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• ®bitiqYtiu≥f lk\eAak\qiu≥ k¥erak\K´.qv\" Fell under the rule of (“under the

hand of”) the British.
• erT´qui≥ puik\K¥luik\tuic\;" Every time he threw the net into the water.
• qn\;eKåc\yMqiu≥ erak\®p^\" It is midnight now.
• Niuc\cM®Ka;Amv\ ‰˙ieqa lm\;m¥a;f Amv\kiu ®mn\maAmv\qiu≥ e®pac\;l´qt\m˙t\qv\"
The names of streets with foreign names are changed to Burmese names.
• mq∑a;K¥c\Âketa.B¨; hëqa ADipπåy\qiu≥ qk\erak\qv\" It amounts to meaning
that (it means that) they don’t want to go after all.
• mimiAl˙v\.qui≥ erak\eqaAKå … Sraf e‰˙>t∑c\ Tuic\luik\qv\" When one’s
turn came, one sat in front of the teacher.
•tuic\;®pv\qui≥ eÂkvaK¥k\" An announcement to the nation.
qui≥ 2 (~ or ~sfx) thus, in this way, this, that; used with suffixes to link
sentences in connected discourse; selective noun, FB and in some combin-
ations in CB; variant form Nui≥ in CB; cf CB d^lui' då;
• qiu≥eÂkac\.' qiu≥miu≥eÂkac\.' qiu≥At∑k\' qiu≥At∑k\eÂkac\.' qiu≥®Ps\eqaeÂkac\. also Niu≥eÂkac\.
etc: for this reason, and so, that is why; qiu≥N˙c\.' qiu≥®Pc\. also Niu≥®Pc\. etc: thus, in
this way; qiu≥®Ps\j' qiu≥®Ps\ra' qiu≥®Ps\rka; that being so, therefore, for this
reason; qiu≥m˙' qiu≥m˙qa' qiu≥m˙qalYc\ also Niu≥m˙ etc: only then, only in this way;
qiu≥eqa\' qiu≥rat∑c\' qiu≥eqa\lv\;' qui≥påeqa\lv\;' qiu≥epmy\.' qui≥ept´.' qiu≥tiuc\'
qiu≥tiuc\eAac\' qiu≥lc\.ksa;' qiu≥tes' qui≥eskam¨' qui≥®Ps\eskam¨'
qiu≥pc\®Ps\eqa\lv\;' qiu≥pål¥k\' qiu≥®Ps\pål¥k\ but, however, nevertheless (= CB
qiu≥epm´.' Niu≥epm´.' dåepm´). ; qiu≥mhut\' qiu≥mhut\k' qiu≥mhut\rc\' qiu≥mhut\lYc\'
qiu≥tv\;mhut\rc\ also Niu≥mhut$rc$ alternatively, otherwise, or, or else (“if not
so”); ny\ts\ny\f qmiuc\; qiu≥mhut\ Aup\K¥op\puM el.laliulYc\" If you want to
study the history or the administration of a region.
qui≥ 3 see under k´.qiu≥ like, as if
Aqui≥ how? see under A prefix
qc\.- (V~-) and qc\.-Tuik\ (V-qc\.-V-Tuik)\ to be appropriate, right to V;
should, ought to V; vb mod, CB+FB; cf V-Ap\-' V-Tuik\-' V-tn\-' V-ra-'
V-Pui≥ ekac\;-;
• erSn\kiu el˙a\qc\.eqaAKåm¥oi;lv\; ‰˙iqv\" And there are those times when it
is right to go against the current (“row upstream”).
• laB\ep;laB\y¨Suita By\q¨m˙ Aa;mep;qc\.B¨;" No one should encourage
corruption.
• ska;e®paqliu er;qc\.ty\ mer;qc\.B¨; ®cc\;Kun\Âk®p^;enak\" After disputing over
whether one ought to write in colloquial style or not.
• A´dêta. ‘p®pc\Piu≥ qc\.taet∑ ‘p®pc\' liuk\naPiu≥ qc\.taet∑ liuk\na®p^; s∑n\≥ps\Piu≥
qc\.taet∑ s∑n\≥ps\liuk\Âksiu≥" That being so, let us put right what needs to be
294
put right, observe (the principles) that we should observe, and discard
what should be discarded.
• rqc\.rTuik\t´. AK∑c\.Aer;m¥a;" Rights to which one is entitled.
• mlup\qc\.mlup\Tuik\t´. Akuuquil\Alup\”k^;ts\Ku" A major evil act, which should
not be committed.
• lup\qc\.lup\Tuik\lui≥ lup\luik\ty\" He did it because it was right to do it.
qv\ 1 (~N or ~sfx) this N, that N; this, that; selective noun, FB, less
formal than È, = CB d^; pron /q˙^' sts d^/;
• qv\Arp\t∑c\ menliupå" I do not wish to live in this neighbourhood.
• qv\min\≥K∑n\; this speech; qv\AN˙s\ 40 At∑c\;m˙a in these 40 years; qv\ken≥
this day, today; qv\k´.qiu≥ like this; qv\m˙a or qv\t∑c\ here; qv\A®pc\ or
qv\.®pc\ besides this.
qv\ 2 often written qy\ (N~) doer, possessor of N; person involved with
N; comm elem cpd nn, CB+FB; pron /qy\/ except in ss\qv\ /ss\q^/ “sol-
dier”;
•erqv\ water-seller; kun\qv\ merchant; eragqv\ invalid; m^;enqv\ woman
recovering from childbirth (“one undergoing heat treatment”); zn^;qv\ wife,
consort; kuiy\wn\qv\ pregnant woman; eZ;qv\ market-trader; Ev\.qv\
guest; Kr^;qv\ traveller, passenger; ss\eB;duk qv\ war refugee;
m^;eB;duk qv\ fire victim.
qv\ 3 (N~) marks N as subject or topic of sentence; nn mkr, FB only;
pron /q˙^/; cf CB+FB k which in CB has a more contrastive effect; regular
equivalent of Pali nominative case in nissaya translations (Okell 1965 p
199);
• spå;qv\ ®pv\eTac\suf Aqk\ ®Ps\f" Rice is the mainstay (“the life”) of the
Union (of Burma).
• SraÂk^;U^;l∑n\;qv\ 1237 KuN˙s\t∑c\ P∑a;®mc\qv\" Sayagyi U Lun was born in
1237 BE.
• Tuien≥qv\ka; q¨≥kui ‰˙c\®poep;mv\.en≥tv\;" That day was the day on which he
was to be made a novice monk.
• D^ta' qm^;qv\" ABir¨på' Al∑n\ASc\;l˙f" The daughter is very beautiful.
(nissaya).
qv\ 4 and weakened form q- (V~) V-s, V-ed; indicates general statement
of realised or non-future state; also habitual action; translatable by English
past or present tenses; stc mkr, FB, cf FB V-f; = CB V-ty\ and V-q-;
pron /q˙^/; a high frequency suffix; attributive form qv\. qv; the weakened
form q- occurs before phrase particles such as la;' ela' nv\;' tv\; qqv;
• raqÛtu qayaqv\" The weather is/was fine.
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• ernk\qv\" The water is/was deep.

• q¨≥kui en≥s√\ N∑a;Niu≥ tuik\påqv\" I give her milk to drink every day.
• yKulv\; Dat\pMuSra ts\eyak\qa ®Ps\påqv\" At present he is still just a
photographer.
• ABy\eÂkac\. e®pac\;q∑a;påqnv\;" Why did he change?
• lk\wÁNupvagui%\;f A®mc\m¥a;N˙c\.pt\qk\j qMqy‰˙iqla;" Do/did you have
any doubts about the views of the leftist art group?
• Aim\qiu≥ ®pn\erak\lYc\erak\K¥c\;lv\; SuM;q∑a;qtt\" “And”, it says, “as soon as
he reached home he died” (cf CB Aim\ ®pn\erak\erak\K¥c\; SuM;q∑a;qt´.).
A regular equivalent of Pali adjectives and past participles in nissaya trans-
lation (Okell 1965 p 212):
• nMgut†M' ®m^;T¨;qv\" tNukM' cy\qv\" ehati' ®Ps\f" The tail is small (nissaya).
• m¨lM' Arc\;qv\" BariyM' el;qv\" ehati' ®Ps\f" The lower part is heavy
(nissaya).
• eqneka' qin\;qv\" niqieN~a' enqv\" Aehaqi' ®Ps\f" Senaka was seated
(nissaya).
qv\ 5 (V~) (a) that which is V-ed, thing that was V-ed; sp hd nn, FB; =
CB V-ta; pron /q˙^/; cf V-mO' V-K¥k\' V-®Kc\;' V-er;' V-ta;
• sit\p¥k\qv\tiu≥kiu P∑c\.K¥liuk\K¥c\qv\" I just wanted to tell her all about the
things I was unhappy about.
• na;mlv\qv\ts\Ku em;påres" May I ask you one thing I don’t understand?
• qv\psßv\;m¥a;qv\ edÅl˙em Ta;K´.´qv\m¥a; ®Ps\påqv\" These things are the
things Daw Hla Me left behind (cf CB Ta;K´.taet∑).
• yc\;sar∑k\satm\;At∑c\; ‰˙iqv\m¥a;f m˙n\kn\mON˙c\.pt\qk\j" Concerning the
veracity of the points contained in those documents.
• mliuAp\qv\m¥a;kiu py\P¥k\rn\" Please delete that which is not required.
• Tmc\;hc\; sqv\tiu≥kiu N˙p\Piu≥At∑k\" So as to complete the cooking of rice,
curry and such items.
(b) V-ing; converts a verb clause to a “nominalized clause”, a noun-like
entity that can be used as a noun in a larger sentence; the more common
use; comparable to CB V-ta;
• elkiu m®mc\Niuc\på" eltiuk\eqaAKå qs\pc\m¥a; lOp\qv\kiu Âkv\.j\ el‰˙iqv\kiu
qiNiuc\påqv\" One cannot see wind; but one can know wind exists by
watching trees moving when the wind blows.
• rn\kun\qiu≥ erak\enqv\m˙a mÂkaeq;på" I haven’t been in Yangon very long yet
(cf CB rn\kun\ erak\enta mÂkaeq;påB¨;").
• m˙n\qv\ mm˙n\qv\kiu Ap Ta;' kÁn\eta\ mlup\K¥c\på" Setting aside whether it is
right or wrong, I don’t wish to do it.
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• eTac\ k¥qv\Tk\ Aim\eTac\ k¥qv\m˙a piuj Siu;elqv\" Being married is

worse than being imprisoned.
• vsaAt∑k\ ASc\qc\. ®Ps\qv\N˙c\. eA;®cim\;k ®mNuS^qiu≥ k¨;laK´.qv\" As
everything was now ready for their supper, AN went over to MN.
• spå;AT∑k\ piuqv\N˙c\.AmY ®pv\eTac\suf wc\ec∑m¥a;lv\; tiu;tk\laf" The
Union (of Burma)’s income increases in direct proportion to the
production of surplus rice.
• etac\ew˙;ts\eK¥ac\;kiu S´∑kuic\laqv\N˙c\. tëlqv\" It looked as if he was
bringing along a walking staff.
• b^d^yui®psk\m¥a; tp\Sc\Ta;qv\Aa; Èqui≥ et∑>‰˙irqv\" In this way one finds
that video players are connected.
• sit\nana‰˙iqv\N˙c\. eA;®cim\;k t^;tiu; err∑t\ps\liuk\qv\" AN, feeling hurt,
muttered under her breath.
qv\. and q and eqa (V~ N) N that V-s, which V-s, is V-ed; vb atrb mkr
referring to past or present, FB, = CB -t´./-ty\.; from suffix qv\ with in-
duced creaky tone; all forms occur with negated and non-negated verbs;
pron /q˙i/;
• q¨ e®paqv\. (or e®paeqa) ska;kiu kÁn\m na;mlv\eK¥" I did not understand
the words he spoke.
• yiu;dya;qiu≥ K¥êsqv\. (or K¥êseqa) tp\m¥a;" The troops which had been
ordered to advance to Ayuthaya.
• q¨tiu≥ merak\P¨;eq;qv\. Arp\" A place they have never been to before.
• Alc\;erac\N˙c\. elekac\;elqn\≥ ekac\;s∑areqa AKn\;kiu saÂkv\.tiuk\A®Ps\
P∑c\.Ta;®Kc\; ®Ps\påqv\" A room which got plenty of light and fresh air had
been opened as a library.
• Ë;l˙ePqv\ sam¥oi;suMkiu Pt\eqa Ael.ATlv\; ‰˙if" And U HP had the habit
of reading all sorts of written material.
Examples of qv\./eqa/q- with subordinate sentence markers:
• eqqv\.ATi K¥s\påmv\" I will love her till I die.
• AeTak\Ak¨ m¥a;s∑a ep;Niuc\mv\hu y¨Sqv\.Ael¥ak\ ÈsaAup\kiu er;qa;
‘psurepqv\" I have written this book as I am convinced (“in accordance
with my belief”) that it can be of great assistance.
• q¨kiuy\tiuc\ e®paqv\.tiuc\eAac\ myuMn´≥" Don’t believe it even if he tells you
himself.
• qc\ m˙aliuk\qv\.Atiuc\; kÁN\up\ lup\qv\" I did as you ordered, as you said.
• Aun\;eK¥ac\;m˙a pc\ly\weK¥ac\; ®Ps\eqaeÂkac\. Awt∑c\ ertim\qv\" As the Ohn-
chaung is a creek leading to the sea, the water is shallow at the mouth.
297
• Èqui≥lYc\ erWpc\ epåk\laqv\.AeÂkac\; ‰˙c\;®pqv\" She explained how the

Gold Tree had grown up in this way.
• ekac\;qTk\ ekac\;laqv\" It grew better and better.
The form q- is also used in the combinations qk´.qiu≥' qtv\;' qtt\'
q®Pc\.' qmY' qeR∑>' qj' qliu' qelak\" For examples see entries under the
second syllable.
qip\- (~V-) to V very much, a lot; comm pre-vb, mainly CB, = FB Al∑n\ etc;
cf ty\-' Pi-' nc\;-' t∑n\;-' lWt\-;
• qip\ek¥;z¨;tc\tap´" I am very grateful.
• qip\ Alup\ m¥a;ty\" He is very busy.
• l¨ qip\mlaÂkB¨;" Not many people came.
• qip\Aliumliuk\n´≥" Don’t give in to him to easily.
• qip\®p^; ®pœna m‰˙il˙ep" It wasn’t a serious problem.
• ®KMT´m˙a qip\kiu siue®plata" The orchard became very lush.
qM (V~) sound, noise of N, of V-ing; sp hd nn, CB+FB;
• Rut\trk\ l¨ts\suf ry\emaliuk\qMeÂkac\. eA;misM ln\≥q∑a;elqv\" AMS was
startled by the sound of a group of people laughing suddenly.
• enak\k∑y\m˙ rp\®p^; enak\liuk\qMeÂkac\. meN∑ ATit\tln\≥ l˙v\.Âkv\.liuk\qv\"
Ma Nwe was startled by his teasing voice coming from out of sight behind
her, so she turned to look.
• eltk\qMkiu ty\ gRumsiuk\ÂkpåB¨;" They don’t worry much about (“pay
much attention to”) the sound of belching.
• bmaska; qc\enty\liu≥ e®paqM Âka;rty\" I hear that you are learning
Burmese.
Also used as an element in compound nouns (N~):
• Aim\T´m˙ z∑n\;qM pn\;kn\qM Pn\K∑k\qMm¥a;kiupå Âka;rf" From indoors she could
hear the sound of spoons and plates and glasses.
qy\- see under ty\- very much, qv\ doer, possessor
q∑a;- 1 or q∑a;erak\- (~V-) go and V; comm pre-vb, CB+FB; from verb q∑a;-
to go;
• Ac\;sin\eZ;m˙a q∑a;erac\;f" She went and sold them in Insein Market.
• By\kium˙ q∑a;piu≥menpån´≥ena\" Don’t go and deliver them anywhere else, will
you?
• hiuBk\®KM pn\; q∑a;q∑a;y¨tap´‰˙c\." I always go to that garden and collect
flowers.
• ePeP Bura;q∑a; put^;sip\enty\Siurc\" When father has gone to the pagoda to
tell his beads.
298
• ek¥ac\;qa;Bwkui q∑a;qtirty\" My mind (“goes and”) remembers our

school days.
• Ak¥ÇsATup\kiu sk\K¥op\Siuc\tn\;Bk\qiu≥ q∑a;ka Ap\elqv\" She went to the
tailors’ area and handed over the bundle of blouse cloth.
• q∑a;erak\’kiSiurn\ sit\mk¨;eta." She gave up the idea of going to meet them.
• ek¥ac\;epÅÒ ewy¥awsß q∑a;erak\lup\kiuc\ep;elf" He went and did odd jobs
around the monastery.
q∑a;- 2 (V~-) V and go, V on the way there; V hence, thence; become V,
get V-ed; for discussion see Soe 1994; vb mod, CB+FB; sts V-lui≥ q∑a;- (CB)
or V-j q∑a;- (FB); negative form usually V-m~, sts m-V~; cf V-la “V and
come”;
• sk\B^; s^;q∑a;ty\" He rode off on his bicycle. Contrast: sk\B^; s^;laty\"
He rode up (to us) on his bicycle.
• Aim\®pn\q∑a;qv\" They went home. Contrast: Aim\®pn\laqv\" They came home.
• q¨tiu≥ rn\kun\kiu eK¥aeK¥aemaema erak\q∑a;ty\" They reached Yangon safely.
• ts\Kn\;tv\;At∑k\qa srn\ ep;q∑a;Âkqv\" They paid a deposit for one room
only (before they left).
• eqa. pit\mq∑a;eqa eA;®cim\;tiu≥AKn\;" AN’s room, which had been left
unlocked.
• m^;elac\t´.AT´m˙a Akun\ påq∑a;ty\" Everything was lost in the fire.
• ln\dn\m˙a mN˙s\k enq∑a;ty\" I stayed in London last year.
• men≥k laq∑a;liu≥ gen≥ mlaeta.B¨;" As he came yesterday, he won’t be
coming today.
• “bitiqYqMRuM;k saÂkv\.tiuk\AP∑´>wc\keta. k¥mq∑a;påB¨;" However the
membership (figures) of the British Embassy library have not gone down.
• By\m˙ T∑k\mq∑a;pån´≥eta.ena\" Don’t go out anywhere, will you?
• en ekac\;q∑a;®p^la;" Are you better now?
• K¥^;m∑m\;KMliuk\rj Anv\;cy\ ‰˙k\q∑a;elqv\" Being complimented made her
feel a little shy.
• m¥k\sik ts\K¥k\ts\K¥k\ ®paewliu≥ q∑a;qv\" His vision dimmed a couple of
times.
•lÄup\et∑Âka;m˙a ep¥ak\k∑y\liu≥q∑a;®p^" He had disappeared among the crowds.
•Âkm\;®pc\qv\ AqM®mv\j q∑a;elqv\" The floor creaked.
ha 1 (N~) marks the subject or topic of the sentence; nn mkr, CB, cf CB
k, FB m˙a; sts emphatic, suggesting “Now I want you to listen to this
carefully”, sts heralding a generalization, sts marking a pause while the
speaker finds the right words, sts simply marking topic after a long string of
words; Siuta is used in similar ways; from the noun ha “thing”;
299
• elyëlqim\; Siutaha Al∑n\tra Aer; ”k^;ty\" Intonation (now) is of

crucial importance.
• dêRWSiuc\;ha eta\eta\ APiu;tn\t´.psßv\;p´" This gold leaf (here) is an object of
considerable value.
• dên≥ha Am¥oi;qa;eAac\p∑én≥ ®Ps\påty\" This day is National Day.
• etac\qët∑halv\; tp\meta\ha ‰˙m\;pedqaraz\et∑n´≥ t∑´®p^; N˙im\my\liu≥
Tc\Âkty\" And as for the Taungthus, they thought that the army was
going to join up with the Shan rulers and oppress them.
• lët∑ha Sc\;r´pc\pn\;mOet∑eÂkac\. sit\p¥k\Aa;cy\enty\" It is because they
are impoverished and exhausted that people are depressed.
• min\;met∑ha dåm¥oi; wåqna påqkiu;" But then women are keen on that sort of
thing.
• Nuic\cMts\Nuic\cMha l∑t\lp\er; r“p^;t´.AKåm˙a ®cim\;K¥m\;qayaPui≥ luipåty\" A nation,
once it has achieved independence, must have peace.
• cå≥qa;" d^^tKåha®Pc\. dui≥ eAac\pn\; S∑t\K¨;Pui≥p´k∑" My boy. This time we shall
gain the victory.
• l∑t\lp\er;enak\puic\;kalm˙a epåk\P∑a;lat´. kÁn\eta\tui≥ts\et∑At∑k\eta.
tawn\ha m“p^;eq;påB¨;" For those of us who were born after the
attainment of independence, our duties are still not finished.
• mc\;ha kiuy\.kiuy\kiu V˙U\;Séntap´ Umμa" As for you, you are torturing your-
self, Ohnma.
• kÁn\eta\hak Ac\mtn\ AAip\”k^;t´. l¨ts\eyak\ ®Ps\eleta." As for me,
being a heavy sleeper.
• q¨tiu≥qa;APhak Biu;m˙^kiu By\At∑k\ qt\ps\liuk\ty\ Siuta Âkv\.r®pn\ty\"
We had to re-examine the question of why this father and son had killed
Po Hmi.
• q¨≥hak estna‰˙ilui≥m˙ mhut\p´b¥a" As for him, it’s not as if he a person with
any generosity at all.
• qv\l¨”k^;hak q¨ts\på;n´≥mt¨ eta\eta\ T¨;®Ka;t´. l¨”k^;ts\m¥oi;B´Kc\b¥" As for
this old man, he is unlike any other: he is a pretty remarkable individual.
ha 2 (N~N) each to his own N, each N independently, unaided, alone,
of their own accord; noun “thing”, the pattern meaning “N’s thing N Vs”,
CB and sts FB;
• cå.ha cåliuk\ta Ba®Ps\l´" cåk eyak¥\a;el;" If I chase after (girls), what of
it? I am a young man.
• e®m∑et∑ha q¨tiu≥haq¨tiu≥lv\; eqÂkpår´." Snakes do also die of their own
accord.
300
• TiuAepåk\”k^;qv\ q¨≥haq¨ ®pn\®pv\.la®Kc\; m‰˙ipå" That yawning gap does not

fill up again by itself.
• eqak\K¥c\rc\ kiuy\.hakiuy\ ts\eyak\eyak\ Awy\Kuic\;luik\epå≥" If he wants to
drink then he should take it upon himself to get someone to buy it for
him.
ha 3 (Stc~) indeed, for goodness’ sake, dammit; noun or interjection
perhaps in process of becoming a stc fin phr ptcl; CB, exclamatory and fam-
iliar, used when remonstrating or urging, or pointing out something the lis-
tener appears to overlook; perhaps from ha “hey!”, as in the group eh.' eh'
h´.' hy\' h' ha, or from ha “thing”; cf Usßa;
• ek¥ac\;mtk\B¨;la;hc\ _ tk\eta. tk\taepå.ha" Don’t you go to school?
— Yes of course I do.
• By\eta.laenÂkm˙al´ _ ts\en≥en≥epå.ha" When are they to come? — Oh
some day or other, for God’s sake.
• ASc\ me®pB¨; Siupåeta.ha" Let’s just say it didn’t work out (and that’s
that).
• nc\.AeP eqq∑a;epmy\. Aa;mcy\pån´≥ha" cåtiu≥‰˙iqa;p´" It’s true your father has
died, but please don’t lose heart. We are here (supporting you).
• Aim\kiu eKÅliuk\l´ rtap´ha' Baliu≥ tk¨;tk d^kiu K¥in\;tal´" You could take
me to the house, for goodness’ sake. Why do we have to come out of our
way to meet here?
• q¨k q¨m¥a;m˙ mhut\B´ ememTa;r´.' emem.Srap´ha' ®p^;eta. ePePn´≥l´
Kc\ty\t´." It’s not as if he were a stranger, Mother Hta! He’s your own
teacher, after all! Also he’s friendly with Father, I hear.
• el;k¥p\n´≥p´ y¨ As\mer" _ wy\enk¥ePak\qv\p´ha' qMu;k¥p\p´ Ta;" Take it for
four kyats, Sister. — For goodness’ sake, I’m a regular customer. Make it
three kyats.
• qiu≥epmy\. wy\Ta;t´. ‰˙y\raet∑keta. lk\T´m˙a Aeta\m¥a;m¥a;B´
A‰˙iqa;hakiu;Kc\b¥" However, he already had quite a few shares in his
possession, Sir!
For verb attribute + ha used with similar effect, compare:
• By\liulup\®p^; Ap¥oi hut\rm˙al´ Aemr´.' q¨≥eyak¥\a;n´≥ lat´.hakui Aemkl´"
How on earth could she be a spinster, Mother? She arrived here with her
husband and all! Really, Mother.
• BaeÂkak\sra‰˙il´hy\' K%el; erak\q∑a;t´.hakiu' cåeta. s^;P¨;K¥c\ty\" What
is there to be afraid of (in going by plane)? You arrive in no time! I’d
certainly like to have travelled in one.
301
hu or h¨j (Phr~, Stc~) that Stc, believing that Stc, on the grounds that
Stc, intending to Stc; known as Phr, Phr as such, such a thing as Phr;
marks end of quotation, reported speech; sub cls, truncated and full, FB, =
CB lui≥; from verb h¨- to say;
• ¯me®papån´≥eta.˘h¨jqa Siuliuk\‰˙aqv\" He merely said “Please don’t speak of it
any more”.
• ÈSn\m¥oi;kiu luM;t^;Sn\hu eKÅqv\" This kind of rice is called lon-di hsan
(brown rice, unpolished rice).
• TiuAK¥in\m˙ sj eAak\®mn\maNiuc\cMm˙a ®bitiqYBa;ma;h¨j t∑c\laK´.qv\" From that
time on Lower Burma became known as British Burma.
• R∑at∑c\ 1-lm\;' 2-lm\;' 3-lm\;' 4-lm\;h¨j lm\;‰˙v\ el;q∑y\
ePåk\lup\Ta;påqv\" In the village four long roads have been built called
First Road, Second Road, Third Road and Fourth Road.
• 1273KuN˙s\ (1911)t∑c\ q¨riyqtc\;sah¨j epÅlaqv\" In 1273 (AD 1911)
there appeared a newspaper named Thuriya.
• pvaer;@ank kn\≥k∑k\lim\.mv\hu ®pn\sakiu r‰˙ielqv\" We received a reply
saying that the Education Department would object (refuse his request).
• Aer; ”k^;qv\hu kÁn\eta\ myuMÂkv\K´.på" I didn’t believe that it was
important.
• SraÂk^;qv\ humμR¨; reta.mv\h¨j wm\;e®mak\qv\" (Believing that) we were
soon to be granted Home Rule, Sayagyi was delighted.
• ®pv\”k^; qim\;y¨mv\hu K¥^tk\f" He advanced (intending) to capture the
capital city.
• Ba;np\pi!kt\tiuk\t∑c\ SraÂk^; mPt\ROP¨;eqa eppurpiuk\h¨j m‰˙iqelak\pc\
®Ps\qv\hu e®paÂkqv\" They say that such a thing as a manuscript in the
Bernard Free Library that Sayagyi had not read is almost non-existent.
• AT¨;ASn\;h¨j luM;wmpå" There was nothing in it that could be called out of
the ordinary.
h¨ see under mSiu unspecified, any
h¨j see under hu quoted and ry\ or ry\liu≥ as such, so called
h¨lui (Stc~, N~) take as, read as, interpret as meaning Stc/N; truncated
main clause, short for h¨luiqv\ “it means”;
• ASuM;Amep;qv\ h¨lui" Read this as meaning “He admonished them”.
• dutiymc\;eKåc\t∑c\ … N˙meta\ ‰˙ieÂkac\;kuika; met∑>rpå" qui≥rat∑c\ …
miPura;cy\ ts\Ë;Ë;m˙ P∑a;®mc\eqa N˙meta\ ts\eyak\ SuilYc\
®Ps\Nuic\påeK¥eq;qv\ h¨lui" I have found no evidence for Mingaung II having
had a sister. However, a possible interpretation is that (the woman
referred to) was a younger sister born of one of the royal concubines.
302
h¨qmY all that can be said to be N: see under mY as much as

h¨qeR∑>' h¨qj all that can be said to be N: see under eR∑> as much as
hëqa or h¨qv\. (Stc ~ N, N1 ~ N2) N saying Stc, implying Stc, announc-
ing Stc; N2 called, known as N1, N2 namely N1, N1 which may be liken-
ed to N2; verb attribute, FB, = CB Stc/N Siut´. N;
• Srats\eyak\ Aliu ‰˙iqv\ hëqa eÂka\®ca" An advertisement saying that a
teacher was required.
• ¯emac\mOic\;kiue‰˙ac\' AiueAac\mSc\;r´˘ hëqa ska;puM" The proverb that runs
“Steer clear of Maung Hmaing, and you will never be poor”.
• Ak¥oi; ‘pNiuc\mv\ hëqa yuMÂkv\K¥k\®Pc\." In the belief that he could benefit (his
country).
• ska; e®paqliu er;rmv\ hëqa lOp\‰˙a;mO" The movement (that says) that one
should write as one speaks.
• eA;®cim\;k q¨ By\lium˙ AeN˙ac\.Ay˙k\mep;på h¨qv\. qeBa®Pc\. e®paliuk\qv\"
AN said this to indicate that she would not bother them.
• edÅ®mec∑k {k´ me®pala;} hëqa AmÄra®Pc\. em;ecå.qv\" Daw MN pointed
her chin at me in a gesture that said “There! Didn’t I tell you?”.
• A®pn\t∑c\ q¨tiu≥qv\ By\eyak¥\a;k By\qiu≥ h¨qv\. AeÂkac\;m¥a;kiu
eqaeqavMeAac\ e®paSiury\emaÂk®pn\qv\" On the way back they talked
noisily and happily about each of the men and what he was like.
• emac\ek¥a\ hëqa Amv\®Pc\. elYak\Ta;liuk\elqv\" He applied (for the job)
using the name Maung Kyaw.
• d^miukers^ hëqa ska;" The word “democracy”.
• Èek¥ac\;t∑c\ m¨ltn\;' Aly\tn\;' ASc\.®mc\.tn\; h¨qv\. Atn\;Aa;luM;kiu
qc\Âka;ep;enqv\" All standards are being taught in this school, namely
primary, middle and high school standards.
• lup\qa;®pv\q¨≥en≥sU\' eÂk;muM' ®mn\ma.Alc\;' biul\teTac\ hëqa ®mn\ma
qtc\;sam¥a;t∑c\ Suep;p∑´qtc\;kiu et∑>Niuc\påqv\" News about the prize-giving
can be found in the Burmese papers, namely in the Working People’s
Daily, the Mirror, the New Light of Burma and Botataung.
Note: hëqa “namely” is correctly used here, as the list given is exhaustive.
Writers sts use seqa “such as” in this position, which is an error, as seqa
is only appropriate when a selection of names of the set is given, not the full
set.
• yKuBw K¥m\;qas^;p∑a; enac\Bw K¥m\;qas^;p∑a;tv\; hëqa K¥m\;qas^;p∑a;N˙s\m¥oi;tui≥"
The two kinds of prosperity, namely prosperity in this life and prosperity
in future lives.
303
In the pattern N1-tv\; hëqa N2 “N2 named N1”, or “N2 which is known
as N1”, “N1 which may be likened to N2”, a formula for presenting a simile:
• TiueSac\;på;m¥a;qv\ SraÂk^;f saSiuBwtv\; hëqa biman\t∑c\ Aut\®ms\®Ps\
qv\" Those articles are the foundation of the edifice of (“edifice that is
called”) Sayagyi’s career as a writer.
• pva hëqa m¥k\si m‰˙ij m®mc\tt\eqaeÂkac\." Not having the eye of (“eye
known as”) wisdom, they are unable to see.
• Tiu≥enak\ AiN∂iy®pv\N˙c\. ®mn\ma®pv\ K´∑er;t´∑er;®pœnatv\; hëqa tim\n^
tk\laqv\" After that the red cloud of (the issue of) separation between
India and Burma arose.
h¨qv\ (N~) that which is called N, the entity referred to as N; common
when making a generalization or offering an explanation of N; nominalized
clause (vsv qv\), FB, cf CB Siuta; pron /h¨q˙^/;
• rqsaep h¨qv\m˙a sit\k¨;Ua%\®Pc\. er;eqasaep ®Ps\qv\" “Creative literature”
is literature written with the imagination.
• Aim\ h¨qv\ka; ec∑liuK¥c\tiuc\; ts\ss^ erac\;j rqv\. Ara mhut\" A house is
not a thing you can sell off bit by bit as you need the money.
•Niuc\cMer;elak h¨qv\ k¥y\wn\;l˙qv\" The world of politics is very extensive.
•Aenak\Nuic\cMh¨qv\ K¥m\;qaÂk∑y\wqv\" Western countries are wealthy.
h¨qv\. see under hëqa saying
eha in combinations CB ehad^' ehadå' ehahui and FB ehaqv\ this here,
that there; selective noun; more vivid and compelling than simple d^' då'
hui; evidently from eha “hey!”;
• ehadåk K¥U\rv\hc\;' d^hak hc\;K¥oip´" That there is sour soup, and this one
is (ordinary) soup.
• eha ehad^m˙a et∑≥®p^' d^m˙a d^m˙a" Hey look! I’ve found it here! Here you are.
• ek¥;z¨;tc\pår´. Kc\b¥a" era.' ehaqv\m˙a Kc\b¥a; ska;®pn\K ec∑ 10i" Thank you
Sir. Here. This is your fee for interpreting: ten kyats.
• Kc\b¥a; m®mc\B¨;la;b¥" ehahiuk wc\lat´. B^;raB´" ty\”k^; mTc\‰˙a;B¨;"
ehaqv\hak ®pn\q∑a;t´. B^;raB´" Can’t you see? Over there are the tyre
tracks coming in — not very clear — and this here is the tyre tracks going
out again.
• ehahiuna;m˙a erk¨;enq¨k el˙‰˙c\la;" That person swimming over there, is
he the owner of the boat?
• c˙k\ep¥apc\et∑ sim\;sim\;suisuiÂka;m˙pc\ ehahuim˙a kÁn\eta\. Aim\kel;kui ®mc\rpå“p^"
Between those lush green banana trees, over there, you can see my little
house.
304
hui (~N or ~sfx) that N; that place, there; usually at a distance from both
speaker and listener; selective noun, CB; = FB Tui N; variants A´hui and
ehahui qv; sts pron and written hui;, reflecting long drawn out intonation for
sth very far off;
• kiueAac\.kiu Âkv\.påU^;k∑y\' Aew;Âk^;p´ k¨;q∑a;liuk\ta' hiukÁn\;kel;kiu
erak\eta.my\" Just look at Ko A. He has swum a long way out. He’s
nearly reached that little island.
• kÁn\mtiu≥k hiueAak\k Aim\el;m˙a enpåty\" we live in that little house down
there.
• m^;p∑oic\.huiBk\m˙a et∑>my\" You’ll see it on the far side of the traffic lights.
• huitun\;kRup\n´≥ mtëta.påB¨;" He doesn’t look like he used to in the old days.
• hiul∑n\K´.t´.N˙s\epåc\; 100' qk˚raz\ 1258 KuN˙s\k" Way back, a hundred years
ago, in BE 1258.
• hiu;e‰˙;e‰˙;tun\;kliu≥ AsK¥^®p^;e®pat´. e‰˙;ska;" Old stories that begin “Long long
ago”.
• hiu; e‰˙>k rip\rip\ rip\rip\n´≥" l¨¨p´ Tc\pår´´>" There’s some vague shape a long
way in front of me. I think it’s a man.
Sts used when hesitating, like “er, um”:
• A´ q¨≥eyak¥\a;k hiu At∑c\;wn\RMu;m˙a lup\ty\ Tc\pår´." Um. Her husband
works in the … er … Office of the Ministers, I think.
• hiudc\; whatsaname, thingummy, and huil¨ whatsisname, whojamacallit
(when a word or name escapes the speaker).
Commonly paired hui…d^ to mean “here and there, this and that”:
• tRut\ss\e®p;et∑k q¨≥kiu mqt\påB¨;' Pm\;“p^; q¨≥kiu tp\T´m˙a hiuKiuc\;d^Kiuc\;n´≥
Ta;tap´" The Chinese refugees didn’t kill him. After they captured him
they kept him in their army doing odd jobs (“ordering this, ordering that”).
• q¨tiu≥N˙s\eyak\ha r∑aT´m˙a hiuelYak\dêlYak\n´≥ … AK¥in\kun\eAac\ enÂkty\"
The pair of them spent their time wandering here and there in the village.
• q¨≥lët∑kiu hiu‰˙a d^‰˙a ‰˙arc\;" Looking for his people all over the place.
• e®pak\k¥a;eKåc\;eSac\et∑ha hiupun\;dê‰˙ac\n´≥ enÂkrtun\;p´" The guerilla leaders
were still on the run (“hiding there, dodging here”).
hn\ (V~) (a) style, manner, way of V-ing; sp hd nn, CB+FB; cf puM;
•lk\S∑ŃOt\Sk\hn\ qti Ta;miqla;" Did you happen to notice the way they
greeted each other by shaking hands?
• sin\qin\;eAac\ Siuc\;t^;hn\ ®mc\B¨;m˙aepå." You must have seen the way Sein
Thein Aung plays the drum-circle.
(b) V-ing, in captions to illustrated mss;
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• naLg^riSc\kui Bura;‰˙c\ SuM;meta\m¨hn\" The Lord (Buddha) admonishing the

elephant Nalagiri.
• tMKå;esac\. q∑a;j NOi;hn\" Going and waking the gatekeeper.
(c) appearance, semblance, pretence of V-ing; commonly followed by
verbs t¨- “resemble, seem”, or eSac\- “bear, adopt”; cf V-puM epÅ-' V-puM r-'
V-K¥c\eyac\ eSac\-;
• Aim\‰˙c\ ®Ps\hn\ t¨t´. Am¥oi;qm^;ts\Ë;" A woman who appeared to be the house
owner.
• e®KeTak\ naenhn\ eSac\ty\" He pretended his foot was hurting.
• miBk K¥m\;qapuM mreqa\lv\; q¨qv\ piuk\SM wc\eqaAlup\kiu lup\rn\ sU\;sa;hn\
mtëK¥" Although his parents didn’t appear to be well off, he didn’t seem to
be thinking about working to earn some money.
• e®pa®p^; emaq∑a;hn\ ‰˙ity\" After speaking he appeared to be tired.
• q¨≥AqMk sit\p¥k\qM mhut\eqa\lv\; Aa;el¥a.vHoi;cy\hn\eta. mqimqa
epÅl∑c\enqv\" Though his voice was not desperate, it carried faint signs of
despondency.
Also suffixed to nouns:
• sc\ss\Kr^;qv\hn\ eSac\®p^; elyaU\epÅt∑c\ liuk\pålaÂkqv\. l¨Siu;" Criminals
who travelled on the plane posing as genuine passengers.
hy\ (V1~ V2~) V again and again, in various ways; sub cls mkr, CB+FB;
used with pairs of verbs, usually disyllabic compound verbs, before the
verbs lup\- or ®Ps\-, with the meaning “do many times in quick succession”,
often from several directions or in several different ways, with the effect of
flustering or intimidating the patient; probably from hy\ “hey!”; cf K¥v\
…K¥v\' tuM…tuM' luik\…luik\' la;…la;'
• em;hy\ ®mn\;hy\ lup\AuM;m˙ala;" Pm\;la; S^^;la; lup\AuM;m˙ala;" Whether they
(the Japanese soldiers) Master Saw would question us and interrogate us
again, whether they would arrest us and carry us off again.
• huihuid^d^ q∑a;hy\lahy\ lup\rc\" If they come and go now here now there.
• tË;k tË;kui qt\hy\®Pt\hy\ lup\enty\" luhy\yk\hy\
lim\hy\ekak\hy\ ®Ps\enty\" People were killing each other, robbing
each other and deceiving each other.
A (~V, ~N) prefix which occurs with both noun and verb bases; the derived
word (whether A-N or A-V) is a noun;
(a) Examples of words with prefix A- that are derived from nouns:
• ASut\ lung, AK∑M skin, rind, AP¥a; tip, end, Am¥oi; kind, type.
(b) A noun with prefix A- can be derived from any Burmese verb, e.g.
Alup\ work lup\- to do, make,
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Awc\ entrance wc\- to enter,

Aqi acquaintance, knowledge qi- to know,
AAip\ sleep Aip\- to sleep,
Atui shortness, a short one tui- to be short,
Aekac\; goodness, a good one ekac\;- to be good,
AN˙ip\sk\ oppression N˙ip\sk\ to oppress,
AÂkv\voi reverence Âkv\voi- to revere,
Ae®pac\;Al´ change e®pac\;l´- to change,
AT¨;ASn\; something unusual T¨;Sn\;- to be unusual.
(c) Nouns derived from verbs with prefix A- may also be used as adverbs
and attributes:
Ak¥ÇA®Pø a white shirt ®Pø- to be white;
piuk\lMu;A‰˙v\ a long pipe ‰˙v\- to be long;
A®mn\ ®pn\lapå come back quickly ®mn\- to be quick;
AT¨; qeBak¥qv\ he is particularly pleased T¨;- to be special.
(d) Words derived from verbs with prefix A- are common in location comple-
ments, often followed by a noun marker, with meanings like “on V-ing, when
V” etc:
• Tiuen≥k Aim\A®pn\t∑c\ qÂkçn\erAeA;mij eA;®cim\; P¥a;elqv\" That day AN got
soaked by Thingyan revellers on her way home, and caught a cold.
• nP¨; kn\mitan´≥ lÁq∑a; q¨≥lk\k Da;n´≥ q¨≥epåc\ Kiuk\mitakiu;" As he fell over
after receiving the kick to the forehead, he accidentally slashed his thigh
with the dagger in his hand.
• A´dåkiu AB∑a;Âk^;k AepÅken Âkm\;epåk\k cMu≥AÂkv\.m˙a ®mc\q∑a;ty\k∑" That’s
what the old lady saw when she peered down from above through the hole
in the floor.
• ka; eKt†rp\Aep;luik\Ò" While stopping the car for her for a moment.
(e) In older written texts in FB, prefix A- occasionally replaces contemporary
By\ or mv\ e.g.
Aqiu≥ = FB By\qiu≥ = CB By\liu how?
Aq¨ = FB mv\q¨ = CB By\q¨ who?
(f) In Old Burmese (Pagan period) prefix A- was occasionally used in place
of the negative prefix m-"
OB AP¨;res = FB mP¨;resN˙c\." May they not behold, let them not see.
OB qury\ Awc\siy\lt\piy\ = FB q¨r´ mwc\eslt\ep" I will not allow soldiers
to enter.
OB Ana v¥n\Sy\®Kc\ qiy\®Kc\ An\tr´´ka AP ¬s\rsiy\ = FB AnaV˙√\;S´®Kc\;
eq®Kc\;AN †ray\ka; m®Ps\resN˙c\." May they not suffer the danger of death
307
or disease.
(g) Prefix A- is added or omitted in various contexts:
(1) Prefix A- is mostly omitted when the prefixed word is used in a
compound:
Apc\ plant qs\pc\ tree,
Aq^; fruit c˙k\ep¥aq^; banana,
AKn\; room Aip\Kn\; bedroom,
Aerac\ colour Anêrac\ the colour red,
Aw opening Awc\w entrance,
AT´ interior ‘mi>T´ in town, inside the town,
Ak¥oi; outcome ekac\;k¥oi; good outcome, benefit.
(2) In a few cases there is a difference in meaning between forms with and
without prefix A-"
Ae‰˙> east ≠ e‰˙> front,
Aenak\ west ≠ enak\ behind (though modern usage is amalgamating the
two: see under enak\),
Amiu; roof ≠ miu; sky, rainwater,
AS^ fat, grease ≠ S^ oil.
(3) Prefix A- is added to one element of a personal name, especially of girls’
names, to make a more familiar, affectionate nickname, e.g.
Awc\; emÂkv\wc\;'
Av∑n\≥ v∑n\≥eRW'
Aqin\; l˙qin\;"
(4) Kin terms with prefix A- lose it when combined with personal names,
e.g.
Akiu (As\kiu) elder brother kiuesa Master Saw, Mr Saw,
Am (As\m) elder sister meK¥a Miss Chaw,
APiu; grandfather Piu;el‰˙v\ Grandpa Lay Shay (“Windbag”),
Amy\ lady, mother my\eA; Miss Aye (a prefix often used to female
servants).
(5) Words with prefix A- lose it when used in repeating compounds
(frequent in baby talk):
AeP father ePeP Daddy,
AP∑a; grandmother P∑a;P∑a; Granny,
Am sister mm Sister, Sis,
AK¥oi sweet, candy K¥oiK¥oi sweetie.
(6) Some nouns occur both with and without the prefix, and are perhaps in
the process of losing it, e.g.
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AKu or Ku (pron /gu or Ku/) now, present, at present (CB, = FB yKu),

AK∑c\. or K∑c\. permission, leave, opportunity.
(7) A small number of nouns normally occur without the prefix in CB today
but are found with the prefix in older texts in FB, e.g. emac\ earlier Aemac\
brother, kel; earlier Akel; child, By\ earlier ABy\ which? kÁNu\p\
earlier AkÁNu\p\ I (from kÁn\ servant + Nup\ insignificant).
(8) Some loanwords from Pali which begin with the syllable a- in Pali have
become naturalised as native Burmese words and lost the “prefix” in
Burmese; e.g.
Pali abhiseka ABieqk Burmese Biqik\ consecration,
Pali arahanta ArhN † Burmese rhn\; holy man, monk,
Pali ala∑ka–ra AlMkar Burmese lkça verse.
Conversely, some loanwords from Pali have acquired prefix A- in Burmese
though there is no initial a- in Pali, e.g.
Pali ru–pa R¨p Burmese ARup\ image, form, body,
Pali rasa rq Burmese Arqa taste, enjoyment,
Pali pada pd Burmese Apiud\ line of verse, paragraph.
In some Pali words an initial a- is the privative prefix meaning “un-” or “not”.
When these words are borrowed into Burmese they always keep the prefix
and many are pronounced with a full tonal syllable /á/= /Aa./ in place of
the usual short vowel /a/= /A/ as in /Aem/:
Pali akusala Akuql Burmese Akuqiul\ /Aa.kuqui/ demerit, guilt,
Pali aka–la Burmese Akal /Aa.kala./ inappropriate time,
Pali adhamma Burmese ADmμ /Aa.dma./ lawlessness, violent act.
However, words of this type that are well established in Burmese are
pronounced with the short vowel /a/, e.g.
Pali acinteyya Burmese AsieN †y¥ /Asin\edya./ beyond comprehension,
Pali aveya Burmese Aewra /Aewya/ freedom from danger.
(h) Prefix A- and dictionaries. Given the unpredictability of the presence or
absence of prefix A- in a word, users of dictionaries are advised to look
under the prefixed form if the unprefixed form is not found, and vice versa;
e.g. in the MED:
the element w “opening” in the compound ®ms\w “river mouth”, is listed not
under w but under Aw"
the element Apå; “person” in the phrase Apå;quM;Sy\ “thirty persons”, is
listed not under Apå; but under på;"
the element epÅ “on” in the phrase ek¥aepÅ “on his back”, is listed not under
epÅ but under AepÅ"
309
the word ATin\;qim\; “detention, conservation” is not listed in this noun form
but under the verb Tin\;qim\; “to detain, conserve” etc.
the element K¥in\ “time” in the phrase RuM;Sc\;K¥in\ “office closing time”, is listed
not under K¥in\ but under AK¥in\"
This difficulty for users has been addressed in the Wörterbuch Burmesisch-
Deutsch (Esche 1976): the compiler sorts her entries ignoring prefix A-, so,
for example, the entries t¨' At¨' t¨v^mO' At¨tk∑' t¨Tu are listed in that
order. We have adopted the same principle for this Dictionary, but so far no
other lexicographers have seen fit to take this path.
A (~NN) various Ns, manifold and diverse Ns; prefix, CB+FB; occurs with
nouns that are also numeratives; with disyllabic nouns only one syllable is
repeated;
• APk\Pk\m˙ from all sides, all directions; A®pv\®pv\ Siuc\ra international
(“concerning many countries”); sa;sra Am¥oi;m¥oi; various kinds of, all sorts
of food; ANiuc\Niuc\cM various states (from Niuc\cM state, country); Aenrara in
different places, all over (from enra place); Baqa Arp\rp\ various subjects
(Baqa ts\rp\ one subject); AkmıaBa various worlds, many worlds (kmıa
world). m^^;T∑n\;p∑ét∑ Ap∑´p∑´ NW´K.´P¨;elqv\" He had celebrated a wide range of
festivals of light. AerAlip\lip\N˙c\. k¥y\®pn\≥eqa nP¨¨:" A broad forehead,
covered with wrinkles. eq∑;Alim\;lim\; kp\eneqa Aelac\;m¥a;" Corpses
covered all over with smears of blood.
For words beginning with prefix A- look under the second syllable.
AK¥oi> for example, is located between eK¥ and K¥k\"
Aa;- 1 (V~-) (a) to be at leisure to V, be free to V; vb mod, CB+FB; sts V-

Piu≥ Aa;-;
• Ev\.qv\ts\eyak\n´≥ ska; e®paAa;qla;" Are you free to have a word with a
visitor?
• mnk\Pn\ mlaAa;eq;B¨;" Tomorrow I still won’t be free to come.
• A´dÂlup\ lup\Piu≥ mAa;påB¨;" I’m not free to do this work.
• men>k q¨≥el˙kiu … y¨“p^; ps\Ta;K´.ta qti mrAa;" ehaqv\ eqac\AK¥oi;m˙ap´
el˙kel; erak\laPiu≥ liurc\; ®Ps\f" I was too preoccupied to recall that I
had taken his boat yesterday and abandoned it. The vital thing was that
310
the little boat should get to this corner of the sandbank.

(b) to be callous enough to V, have the heart to V; FB and verse;
• my\.pÄc\kui' A®mc\qa;N˙c\.' enAa;ty\" Though you can see my distress, you
are callous enough to stand by (doing nothing to help).
Aa; 2 (N~) to N, marks indirect or direct object; nn mkr, FB, = CB kiu or
no suffix; regular equivalent of Pali dative case in nissaya translation (Okell
1965 p 199), and thus felt to be most properly used for indirect objects of
verbs of giving, saying, sending, but increasingly is coming to be used for
direct objects, both personal and inanimate — a development frowned on by
purists (see MLC 1993b p 61);
• cå;Piu;f Tk\wk\kiu q¨≥Aa; ep;mv\" I will give him half the price of the fish.
• ®bitiqYAsiu;rqv\ ®mn\maNiuc\cMAa; luM;wl∑t\lp\er; ep;reta.qv\" The British
government finally had to give full independence to Burma.
• kÁn\eta\.Aa; ska;ta‰˙v\ e®paliueÂkac\; qiq®Pc\." Realizing that he wanted to
speak to me at some length.
• k´' lk\Tip\Kt\Âkeh.hu pulip\m¥a;Aa; Amin\≥ep;elf" He issued an order to
the policemen, saying “Right. Put the handcuffs on him”.
• Agçlip\' Aemrikn\tiu≥Aa; g¥pn\k ss\eÂkvaqv\" Japan declared war on the
English and the Americans.
• AlMeta\Aa; ’kiSiupåf" Welcome to the National Flag (on banner at entrance
to town on Union Day).
• q¨≥kiu rp\Âkv\.enq¨N˙s\Ë;Aa; ®mc\liuk\rqv\.AKå" When she caught sight of the
two men who were watching her.
• l¨Siu;tiu≥Aa; r´tp\P∑´≥k Pm\;S^;liuk\qv\" The police arrested the criminals.
• q¨tui≥qa;Aa; tun\eneAac\ K¥s\Âkqv\" They adored their son (“loved so as to
tremble”).
• qui;m¥a;Aa; RMuT´qui≥ emac\;q∑c\;rqv\" He had to drive the sheep into the shed.
• Ask tiuc\;rc\;eS;Aa; ATc\eq;K´.mira" At first he looked down on traditional
medicine.
• Aim\AK¥oi>Aa; TuRiuk\P¥k\S^;K´.Âkpåqv\" They attacked and damaged some
houses.
• ItÊ^' min\mqv\" Amraedwiya' AmraedwÂa;" Aaeraesqi' Âka;epf" The
woman reported it to Amaradevi (nissaya).
Aa;”k^;- (V~-) to V too much, excessively; vb mod, CB; more commonly V-
l∑n\;- or V-l∑n\;Aa;Âk^- see under l∑n\;'
• m®mc\.Aa;”k^;B¨;la;" Isn’t it much too tall?
• nń´ l∑n\Aa;”k^;ty\" That’s going a bit too far.
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• emac\epåm˙a hn\lup\Aa;Âk^;qv\.A®pc\" Maung P, besides putting on airs to

excess.
Aa;®Pc\. 1 (N~, VA~) by means of, by dint of, as a result of N; by way of
V-ing, as a means of V-ing; nn mkr and sub stc mkr, mainly FB; the mean-
ing “by means of” is also carried by ®Pc\. qv;
• emac\;eTac\;®Kc\;(Aa;)®Pc\. AK∑Mm¥a; K∑arpåqv\" They have to dehusk (the rice)
by pounding it.
• tN˙s\m˙a el;l pvaqc\ep;en®Kc\;Aa;®Pc\. ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a;kui ASc\.Atn\; mêAac\
’ki;sa;Âkrqv\" They had to try and get the students up to standard by
teaching them four months in the year.
• A´d^lui set;K´.t´.lët∑kui mem.eqaAa;®Pc\. kÁn\eta\tui≥ha
l∑t\lp\er;eAac\p∑én≥kui k¥c\;pK´.ta ®Ps\påty\" We celebrate Independence
Day so as not to forget those who sacrificed their lives in this way.
• ek¥a\q¨≥ estnakiu AqiAm˙t\ ‘peqaAa;®Pc\. sa;mv\hu SMu;®Pt\®p^;qa;" She had
already decided that she would eat them (anyway) as a way of
acknowledging KT’s kindness.
Aa;®Pc\. 2 (N~) as regards, as concerns, in terms of N; nn mkr, CB+FB;
•kÁn\eta\.AyÄSAa;®Pc\.eta. A´d^liu ADipπåy\ ‰˙ity\" That is its meaning, in
my opinion.
• Kun e®pa®pt´. AeÂkac\;Araet∑ eTak\®Kc\;Aa;®Pc\. Asiu;rkiup´ A®ps\ tc\rmy\"
Considering the facts set out just now, it is the Government that must be
blamed.
• ec∑eÂk;Aa;®Pc\.eta. Kc\l∑m\;m˙alv\; qip\e®plv\qv\ mhut\ep" KL too was not
well placed in regard to money.
• ec∑eÂk;N˙c\. pt\qk\j sit\wm\;k´∑Âkel®p^" qiu≥eqa\ AepÅyMAa;®Pc\.eta. epåc\;S´"
They had fallen out over money, but to appearances they were still
together.
• qm^;”k^;m˙a pvaer;Aa;®Pc\. el;tn\;pc\ eAac\‰˙aqv\" As far as education was
concerned, their eldest daughter had only passed Fourth Standard.
• dutiyAa;®Pc\. kÁNu\p\f rv\r∑y\K¥k\m˙a …" Secondly, my objective is …
• ®pv\q¨l¨Tupvaer; ASc\.®mc\.ty\ Siutaha nMpåt\(1)Aa;®Pc\. miBm¥a;ha
kel;m¥a;kiu ek¥ac\;ekac\;ekac\; Ta;Niuc\ty\ Siut´≥ ADipπay\ erak\påty\"
Saying that state education is of a high standard means, in the first place,
that parents are able to place their children in good schools.
• qmwåymm˙a saer;mAlup\kiu relqv\" lt\telaAa;®Pc\. Amiu;f
Tmc\;srit\T´ ts\lKuns\Sy\mY Tv\.wc\laNiuc\qv\" She got a job as a clerk in
the Co-op. So for the time being she was able to contribute K70 a month
to Amoe’s expenditure on food.
312
• ska;e®paqliu er;rmv\ hëqa lOp\‰˙a;mOgyk\qv\ Aeta\Atn\Aa;®Pc\.

Riuk\Kt\K´.påqv\" The repercussions of what is known as the write-as-you-
speak movement have been quite considerable.
Also found in a number of set adverbial phrases:
• qamn\Aa;®Pc\. normally; AÂkm\;Aa;®Pc\. roughly, approximately; Am¥a;Aa;®Pc\. =
m¥a;eqaAa;®Pc\. mostly; Ae®KKMAa;®Pc\. basically; eyBuy¥Aa;®Pc\. generally;
AK¥op\Aa;®Pc\. in brief; tnv\;Aa;®Pc\. in other words, put another way;
UpmaAa;®Pc\. for example; Am˙n\tky\Aa;®Pc\. in fact, really; ADikAa;®Pc\.
principally; p¥m\;mY®Kc\;Aa;®Pc\. on average.
Aa;luM; (N~) all Ns, the whole N; nn mod, CB+FB;
• Aim\eTac\mOkisßAa;luM;t∑c\ l¨Âk^;k´.qui≥ Tin\;qim\;Nuic\qv\" He could cope with all
household matters like a grown-up (though only young).
• ec∑mtt\Nuic\t´.AKåk¥eta. tK¥oi>enraet∑m˙a miqa;suAa;luM;ha T∑k\“p^;eta.
Alup\lup\rty\" When people are short of money, in some places the entire
family has to go out and work.
• d^lÄa;lMu; dÂim\m˙a tv\;m˙ala;" Are all these people going to stay in this
house?
• q¨≥APiu≥ ®mc\k∑c\;Aa;lMu;qv\ Riu;j enep®p^" For her the entire scene was well
known (and not exciting).
Also used with the preceding noun unstated:
• Aa;lMu; cå;k¥p\K´∑ k¥ty\" That comes to 5/50 in all.
•pc\ly\elqv\ Aa;lMu;kiu ln\;ln\;Sn\;Sn\; ®Ps\esqv\m˙aeta. Am˙n\
®Ps\elqv\" It was certainly true that the sea air freshened everyone up.
Aa;el¥a\s∑a (VA~, N~) in accordance with N, in keeping with N, as is
fitting for V, as you would expect from V; nn mkr and sub stc mkr,
mainly FB; cf Ar' Av^' Aluik\' Ael¥ak\' Atiuc\;'
• rhn\;l¨T∑k\ ®Ps\qv\.Aa;el¥a\s∑a lk\eÂkatc\;eAac\ Alup\mlup\tt\" As you
would expect from one who had been in the monkhood, he was not used
to strenuous work.
• ts\Kåts\rM ®ps\mOk¥ø;l∑n\q¨tiu≥kiu lk\p¨;lk\Âkp\ Pm\;miq®Pc\. Tiuk\qv\.Aa;el¥a\s∑a
A®ps\d%\tiu≥kiu RMu;mc\;k s^rc\ep;K´.qv\" Sometimes, when criminals were
caught red-handed, the magistrate would award penalties as appropriate.
• edÅ®mec∑qv\ t¨;t¨;f sit\SN∂m¥a;kiu na;mlv\Niuc\qv\.Aa;el¥a\s∑a Siuvv\;s‘pf"
Daw MN, being unable to understand TT’s attitude, started to complain.
• AN˙s\ 40 ss\k ts\K¥in\lMu; tiuk\ent´.ss\ mhut\påB¨;" AeÂkac\;Aa;el¥a\s∑a
ss\na;Âkt´. AK¥in\m¥a;lv\; ‰˙ipåty\" The Forty Years War was not a war that
was waged continuously. There were times when, according to
circumstances, there was an intermission.
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• Tiul¨cy\m¥a;qv\ eKt\pvakiu tt\e®mak\Âkqv\.Aa;el¥a\s∑a ®mn\ma®pv\f

Aer;kisß h¨qmYqv\ eKt\Ael¥ak\ tiu;tk\rmv\ … hëqa A®mc\kiu
rÂkq¨m¥a; ®Ps\qv\" These young people, as you would expect from their
modern education, hold the belief that Burma’s affairs must progress in
keeping with the times.
• CIA qv\ nv\;√pedm¥a;kui AKåAa;el¥a\s∑a e‰˙ac\lWél. ‰˙iqv\hu ePa\®pK´.qv\" It
revealed that the CIA bent the rules when required (“according to the
occasion”).
• eÂk∑;eÂka\qMkui qv\AeK∑ mRuik\Kc\ktv\;k kÁn\eta\.na;T´m˙a kMAa;el¥a\s∑a
Âka;N˙c\.K´.“p^; ®Ps\påty\" Fortunately (“in keeping with good karma”) I had
heard the slogan even before the tape had been recorded.
È (~N or ~sfx) this N, this; selective noun, FB; more formal than FB qv\
qv; regular equivalent of Pali aya∑ in nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p
208);
• Èkb¥am¥a; these poems; Èqiu≥ in this way, like this: AtiuK¥op\ka; Èqiu≥tv\;"
In summary, it is as follows.
•Èqui≥eqakel;m¥oi; a child like this.
•Èqv\m˙a Upmaqa ®Ps\qv\" This is just an analogy.
•ÈAt∑k\ on this account, for this; Èt∑c\ here, at this point; Èqv\pc\lYc\
even so, even then (= CB dåetac\m)˙ .
Èmv\eqa (~N) a certain N, such and such a N; selective noun, FB; regular
equivalent of Pali asu, asuko in nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p 208); pron
/A^m¥êq˙a/;
• Aqukmaeq' Èmv\eqa lÒ" In a certain month (nissaya).
• Aqukaynam' ÈAmv\‰˙ieqa" dåqiya' kÁn\m" A serving girl named So-and-
so (nissaya).
AuM; see under Ë; still, yet
Ë; 1 (Nº~) person, comm nmtv for people, also for animal characters in folk
tales; CB+FB; more respectful than eyak\; cf på;'
• qtc\;eTak\ N˙s\Ë; two reporters; Sratpv\. N˙s\Ë; a teacher and his pupil,
the pair of them; qkçn\;wt\ts\Ë; a monk (“a wearer of the robe”); q^l‰˙c\
Kp\”k^;”k^;ts\Ë; an elderly nun; ek¥;c˙k\' q¨Âk∑y\' miek¥ac\; quM;Ë; three
persons, the bird, the rich man and the crocodile (folk tale).
Ë;- 2 or AuM;- (V~-) (a) to V still, yet (in the future); vb mod, CB+FB; pron
/A¨;/ in formal reading, but /Aun\;/ elsewhere; often written AuM; in CB, but Ë;
is regarded as the correct spelling; only used in imperatives and sentences
with mv\/my\ etc, i.e. future reference or supposition: cf V-eq;- which car-
ries a similar meaning for statements relating to present and past; placed
314
after n´≥/N˙c\. in negated imperatives; for a discussion of eq;' Ë;/AuM;' eta. see
Okell 1979;
• esapåAuM;my\" It will still be early. Cf esapåeq;ty\" It is/was still early.
• cå;mins\ liupåË;my\" There will still be five minutes left. Cf cå;mins\
liupåeq;ty\" There are/were still five minutes to go, and cå;mins\ liupå
eta.ty\" There are only five minutes left.
• Asv\;Aew; Tuic\enlim\.AuM;my\" He will probably still be attending the meeting.
• Tuic\påAuM;la;" Why not carry on sitting there? (i.e. don’t leave yet).
• cå;N˙s\elak\p´ ‰˙iAuM;my\" He can only be about five years old by now, or he
will only be about five years old by then, or he can only have been about
five years old at that time.
(b) to V as well, additionally, even, to V more Ns, another N;
• qRup\eSac\tatc\ mkB¨;' kl´ krË;my\' q^K¥c\;l´ SuirË;my\ena\" It’s not
just acting, you know. You’ll have to sing and dance as well.
• ®mn\ma®pv\qui≥ ts\eKåk\ ®pn\q∑a;rU^;mv\" He will have to make another journey
back to Burma. Cf ts\eKåk\ ®pn\q∑a;req;qv\" He had to make another
journey.
• bma®pv\ ts\eKåk\elak\ laK´.påAuM;la;" Why not come again to Burma?
• ts\K∑k\elak\ eqak\påAuM;" Please drink another glass.
• By\q¨ laAuM;ml´" Who else is coming? Cf By\q¨ laeq;ql´" Who else
came?
Also in contexts where the additional Ns or Vs are not so obvious:
• mq∑a;Kc\ pn\;kn\ eS;luik\AuM;my\" I’ll just wash the dishes before we go (sc.
as well as the other things we have to do).
• Tmc\; msa;m^ kÁn\eta\ erK¥oi;U^;mv\" I shall have a shower before eating (sc.
as well as coming to table).
• qÂka; mTv\.req;rc\ cå Tv\.liuk\AuM;my\" If you haven’t put any sugar in yet
I will (go ahead and) put some in.
• q∑a;påAuM;my\" Goodbye (sc. I’ll be going next thing).
• sU\;sa;rË;my\" I shall have to think it over (sc. before doing the next thing).
(d) with negated verbs: (don’t) V yet;
• m®pn\pån´≥AuM;" Don’t go home yet.
• qBawtra;”k^;kuilv\; ps\py\em.el¥a. mTa;ÂkpåN˙c\.Ë;" Don’t reject the great
law of nature yet.
Ë;eta. or esË;eta. sts Ë;etac\ (V~) let it V, even supposing, even if V,
however much V; a way of setting up an unlikely hypothesis; sub cls mkr,
CB+FB; also spelled (es)AuM;eta.'
315
• Aqk\keta. q¨¨tui≥qa;AP epåc\;Ë;eta. cå.mm˙^påB¨¨;" As regards age, even if

you add together (the ages of) the father and the son, they wouldn’t match
me.
• qRup\eSac\q¨ K¥al˙t´.At∑k\ rn\eAac\n´≥ dåRuik\ta A®pn\ts\ra
ekac\;K¥c\enesË;eta. ka;ts\ka;lMu;ha sit\vs\sra”k^; ®Ps\enpåty\" The
actors being so incompetent, even though Yan Aung and the director are a
hundred times as good, the entire film is still a disaster.
• Asui;rUpedn´≥ ml∑t\kc\;t´. kisßB´ ®Ps\AuM;eta. Pui;Tc\At∑k\ SuilYc\
lup\ep;reta.m˙ap´" Even supposing it were something that was not within
the law, if it’s for Hpo Htin I would have to do it.
• tK¥oi>k Ë;tv\K¥k\ luM;luM; m‰˙iB¨;lui≥etac\ e®paÂkty\" Ë;tv\K¥k\ ‰˙iAuM;eta.
Am¥oi;m¥oi; ®Ps\enty\" … tKutv\;eqa Ë;tv\K¥k\ m‰˙iB¨;" Some of them said
they had no objective at all. Even when they did have an objective, they
were all different. They had no single objective among them.
• kÁn\eta\.kui rn\q¨hu qeBaTa;ÂkesË;eta. …" Even if they look on me as an
enemy, ….
• dåha mlup\ekac\;' mlup\Tuik\t´.A®pc\ lup\t´.l¨k m‰˙k\meÂkak\ lup\ty\
SuiË;etac\ K∑c\.m‘pAp\t´. kisßpå" This action, besides being something that
should not be done, is a matter that — even if the perpetrator acted
without shame — ought not to be permitted.
Apparently developed from combination V-Ë;eta. as used in predictable
sense (Ë; further + eta. now), e.g.
• k´' Kc\b¥a;l´ Aip\K¥c\era.my\" Aip\epË;eta." Well. You must be sleepy. Go
ahead and sleep.
• kÁn\eta\tiu≥kiu K∑c\.®poÂkepË;eta." Please excuse us, allow us to leave.
• cå. min\;mn´≥ et∑>rË;eta.my\" I shall at last see my wife again (when I get out
of prison).
eA and eA. (mostly Stc~) term of address, used in addressing people or
compelling their attention; used by women to men or other women, fairly
familiar; the short, creaky-tone form is more emphatic and peremptory; cf
English “My boy, My girl” etc; appended appellative, CB;
• N˙s\k¥p\p´ Ta;epå.eA" Let me have it for two kyats (customer to flower seller).
• cåk qna;liu≥ enraep;Ta;taeA." I gave you a space because I felt sorry for
you my dear (shopkeeper to itinerant vendor).
A´ 1 um, oops, sorry, I mean; interjection, CB and occasionally FB; used
when the speaker hesitates for a word, or when he/she has used the wrong
word and wants to replace it with a better one;
316
• hiuel As\mry\' A´ kÁn\mn´≥ es.sp\Ta;t´.l¨S^k" It’s er … Sister. Um, it’s from

the man I am engaged to.
• eÂqa\ Ta;' A´ edÅTa;Ta;r^' Kuliu et∑>rta wm\;qaliuk\tab¥a" Oh Hta! —
oops — sorry, I mean Daw Hta Hta Yi. I am delighted to meet you.
• Srawn\k l¨p´ siuk\rqv\" A´ l¨N˙c\. pvap´ siuk\rqv\" The doctor (in the
practice) only has to provide himself. Or rather, himself and his skills.
• k´ d^m˙a qrk\q^;qnp\' Aél hut\epåc\' N˙c\;S^p∑c\. l˙l˙Âk^;et∑ y¨q∑a;ÂkU^;
As\mer" Right, here you are: mango pickle — oops: that’s not it. I mean
please buy some pretty roses.
• q¨tiu≥ Balup\ sa;m˙n\; qikiu mqiB¨;' A´ sim\; lup\tt\tael;et∑eta.
nv\;nv\;på;på; qipår´." I simply don’t know what they do for a living … or
well, actually I do know a bit about the kind of thing that Sein usually
does.
A´ 2 in combinations CB A´d^' A´då' A´hui and FB A´qv\ that, that just
mentioned; selective noun; more emphatic than simple d^' då' hu;i perhaps
originally from A´ “er”;
• eZ;e‰˙>plk\ePac\;k ‰˙c\;enty\' A´d^ q∑a;erac\;ÂkreAac\" The pavement in
front of the market is not so crowded. Let’s go and sell (our flowers) there.
• A´dåkiu e®pataepå.' mrc\.k¥k\eq;B¨; Siuta" A‘pAmët∑eka ska;lMu;et∑eka
q¨m¥a;kiu eT.Piu≥ecå.Piu≥ ATc\l´∑Piu≥' A´dåkiup´ A®m´ sU\;sa;enty\" A´då
mrc\.k¥k\taepå." That’s precisely what I’m talking about. That you’re
immature. Both in action and in speech you want to tease people, to
annoy them, to misunderstand them. That’s all you think about. That is
being immature.
• A´qv\v nar^®pn\ 2 K¥k\ AK¥in\elak\k¥eta." On that same night, at about 2
a.m.
• kel;mk d^l¨Âk^;kium˙ m’kik\ta' A´hiueyak¥\a;n´≥ liuk\q∑a;ta Sy\rk\
elak\ÂkaPiu≥t´." The girl didn’t care for this older man. She ran off with the
other man (I told you about) about ten days ago.
eAak\ (N~) under, beneath, below N; inferior to N; loc nn, CB+FB; opp
ATk\' AepÅ above;
• Kutc\eAak\m˙a Ta;rty\" We had to keep them under the bed.
• mekac\;t´. Avs\AeÂk;et∑kiul´ Aim\eAak\ q∑n\ps\Âkn´≥" Throwing filth and
rubbish under the house (i.e. a house built on stilts).
• q¨≥eAak\ Ara‰˙ikel;et∑" The junior officials under him.
• kuiluinÂsui;rlk\eAak\m˙ l∑t\e®mak\eAac\" So as to escape from beneath the
hand of the colonial government.
• d^miukers^sns\eAak\m˙a" Under a democratic system.
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•etak\peqa lerac\eAak\t∑c\" Under the light of the moon.

•15 N˙s\eAak\ kel;cy\et∑" Young children under 15 years of age.
eAac\ 1 and eAac\lui≥ (V~) so that V is achieved, to V, so as to V; to such
an extent that V, until V; sub cls mkr, CB+FB; the form eAac\liu≥ is more
frequent in answer to “why” questions; cf Piu≥ and FB rn\;
• d^mek¥np\mOet∑ e®plv\q∑a;eAac\ lup\ep;på" Please take steps to ensure that
these complaints are resolved.
• AssArara ASc\e®peAac\ s^s√\eSac\R∑k\ep;påqv\" He takes responsibility
for everything running smoothly.
• q¨≥liu ®Ps\eAac\ ’ki;sa;rmy\" You must try to become like him.
• ®mwtÂeÂkac\; e®paÂkreAac\ K¥in\;luik\®Ps\K´.påty\" I managed to make an
appointment to talk about Myawadi.
• emac\rc\emac\N˙c\. et∑>SuMreAac\ mPa;UAim\qui≥ q∑a;raqv\hu et∑;Tc\f" He
thought she must be going to Ma Pa U’s house so as to meet Maung Yin
Maung.
• q¨tui≥ Aa%a reAac\' eR∑;ekak\p∑´m˙a ANiuc\reAac\ nv\;Am¥oi;m¥oi;n´≥ ’ki;sa;Âkm˙ap´"
They will try every possible method to win the election, so that they gain
power.
• kuiluinÂsui;rlk\eAak\m˙ l∑t\e®mak\eAac\lui≥ lup\ent´.AK¥in\m˙a" While they were
trying to struggle free from colonial domination.
• N˙M≥eAac\ elYak\lv\Âkv\.Âksiu≥" Let’s go around and see everything (“look so
that we cover all the ground”).
• na;lYMeAac\ e®paenty\" They talked so much that one’s ears overflowed.
• mSuM;Nuic\eAac\ et∑;etamipåqv\" I racked my brains endlessly (“so as not to
end”).
• Aui;Tin\;lup\cn\;kui N˙s\narêk¥a\ ÂkaeAac\ el.laf" … em;K∑n\;epåc\; suMeAac\
em;enty\" They studied the work of the potters for over two hours (“so
that over two hours passed”), and asked all sorts of questions.
• Aaevac\;eAac\\ ®cc\;Kun\Âk®p^;enak\" After arguing till our jaws ached.
• AK¥in\‰˙iqer∑> Alup\N˙c\.lk\ m®pt\eAac\ lup\kiuc\‰˙aeP∑enr‰˙aqv\" They had to
toil all the time without respite to earn a living (“so that their hands and
their work were not separated”).
• Aec∑>teTac\;eTac\;N˙c\. lk\Pk\rv\Âkm\;kui RW^;Kn´´ mv\eAac\ sup\y¨luik\elqv\"
He sucked up the steaming tea with a loud slurp.
• kÁn\eta\l´ Aim\erak\eAac\ Sk\lk\“p^;elYak\my\ lup\tun\;" While I was
preparing to continue walking back to the house (“so as to get to the
house”).
318
• Aip\ep¥a\eAac\ Aip\eta.mv\hëqa SMu;®Pt\K¥k\®Pc\." Resolving to have a good

sleep (“to sleep so as to fall asleep”).
• kÁn\mk puieqK¥aeAac\lui≥ ek¥ac\;qa;el;teyak\kui eKÅem;påty\" So as to be
more certain I questioned a young student.
• ‘mi>Riu;kiu Ba‘pliu≥ ’kM;wiuc\;Ta;ql´" _ rn\q¨ Rut\trk\ mwc\Niuc\eAac\liu≥" Why is
the city wall surrounded by a moat? — So that the enemy can’t get in all
of a sudden, to prevent a sudden enemy attack.
• cå.kiu m¥k\sin´≥ ®mc\reAac\ ®psm\;på" Show it to me so that I can see it with my
own eyes.
• q¨tiu≥ Tmc\;sa;®p^;eAac\ ASaKMesac\.enrj" As she had to remain hungry and
wait until they had finished eating.
• AiueAac\mc\;eAac\ epåc\;rpåes" May we be together till we are old.
• APla;ha ÂkMramr ®Ps\“p^; wiuc\;T´m˙a Tiuc\ciuK¥c\eAac\ ®Ps\q∑a;qt´." Afala was
desperate and felt like sitting and weeping in the (boxing) ring.
• Nuic\cMk¨;lk\m˙t\Tut\ep;ra@anqv\ Tut\ep;j melak\Nuic\eAac\pc\ ‰˙if" The
passport issuing department didn’t have enough passports to issue (“was
so that there were not enough”).
• mÂka;relak\eAac\ ®Ps\q∑a;påty\" It became almost unheard of.
eAac\ 2 (m-VV~) so as to V without fail; sub cls mkr, CB+FB;
• pulip\m¥a;k q¨≥kiu Pm\;®p^;lYc\ mepÅepÅeAac\ V˙U\;pn\;N˙ip\sk\j em;rat∑c\" The
police arrested her and interrogated her under torture to discover the
facts (“so that they would emerge”).
• cå.APka; psßv\; ‰˙iqv\.enra cåmerak\erak\eAac\ eqK¥as∑a m˙aTa;q∑a;qv\"
my\zy\pc\Âk^; Kuns\pc\ ‰˙iqv\ Suiqv\" &c\;Kuns\pc\kui mes.es.eAac\ ert∑k\rmv\"
My father gave firm instructions that I was to go without fail to the place
where the treasure is. He said there were seven big Meze trees there. I
must count these seven trees and make sure they are the right number.
• mPt\®Ps\Pt\®Ps\eAac\ ’ki;sa;®pn\påf" He tried again to get through reading
(the book).
• Bapé®pae®pa As\mk enak\en≥m˙a qrk\q^;N˙s\lMu;elak\eta. m®Ps\®Ps\eAac\
‰˙awy\lamv\kiu qienqv\" Anyway, he knew that the next day his sister
would find and buy about two mangos without fail.
• Srawn\ m®Ps\®Ps\eAac\ Atc\;Ak¥p\ ’ki;sa;Kiuc\;eqa miBm¥a; mhut\K´.på" My
parents were not the sort who put me under pressure to become a doctor
at all costs.
• rTa;lk\m˙t\ dêlak\Kk\t´.rk\m˙akiu mrreAac\ wy\“p^; Sc\\;K¥q∑a;liuk\Âkta"
Even on a day when it was so hard to get hold of train tickets they had
somehow managed to buy some and rushed down (to Yangon).
319
• emac\qin\;hn\k erak\erak\K¥c\; hiuvenk l¨kiu mrreAac\ ‰˙a“p^; Pm\;takiu;b¥"

As soon as Maung Thein Han had arrived, that very afternoon he had
found a way of tracking down the man and arresting him.
eAac\ 3 see under reAac\ shall we V? How about V?
Usßa (Stc~, VA~) indeed, after all, for goodness’ sake, don’t you see,
dammit; noun “thing”, perhaps in process of becoming a stc fin phr ptcl;
CB; exclamatory and familiar, used to make a strong or dramatic point; cf
ha;
• cå ‰˙c\;på.my\" mc\; enpå" cå eKÅlatapÚsßa" I’ll settle the bill. You stay put.
It was me that suggested coming here in the first place.
• min\;m mhut\B´ Ba‘pliu≥ eKÅlam˙al´' q¨tui≥At¨t¨p´ Aip\t´.Usßa" Why should he
bring her here if she isn’t his wife (sc of course she is!). They sleep with
each other for goodness’ sake!
• tky\k¥eta. q¨¨tui≥ s∑n\≥sa;ty\ Suita Bahut\eq;l´´" q¨¨tui≥ka;kel;et∑k
AN †ray\ nv\;eAac\ eqeqK¥aK¥a sns\tk¥ lup\Ta;t´´.ka;et∑pÚsßa" In
fact, the idea that they are taking risks is rubbish. Their little cars are
made most painstakingly so as to reduce the danger, don’t you see.
• cåketa. By\liuken By\liu A®pc\erak\q∑a;ty\ mqipåB¨;k∑a' eK¥ac\;erT´
em¥apåq∑a;liuk\t´.Usßa' eta\eta\ Âkaty\" As for me, I’ve no idea how or
where I got out. I was just washed along by the current of the stream. I
was there quite a while.
Ev\. see under f present or past tense and f belonging to (listed at end of
Burmese entries)
Ap\- 1 (V~-) to be suitable, right to V; should V, ought to V; vb mod,
mainly FB, cf V-qc\.-' V-Tuik\-' V-tn\-' V-ra-' V-Pui≥ ekac\;-;
• 15 N˙s\eAak\ kel;cy\et∑ mÂkv\.Ap\B¨;lui≥ qt\m˙t\rmy\ Tc\påty\" I think
(the film) should be classified as not suitable for children under 15 to
watch.
• AquM;‘pAp\qv\. AeTak\ATa;" Sources which should be used, necessary
supporting evidence.
• m®mc\Ap\t´.enram˙a m˙´≥qMu;lMu; ‰˙itaks" Starting from the fact that you have
three moles in a place that should not be exposed to view.
• dåha mlup\ekac\;' mlup\Tuik\t´.A®pc\ lup\t´.l¨k m‰˙k\meÂkak\ lup\ty\
SuiË;etac\ K∑c\.m‘pAp\t´. kisßpå" This action, besides being something that
should not be done, is a matter that — even if the perpetrator acted
without shame — ought not to be permitted.
Beware of ambiguity between Ap\ “to entrust” and Ap\ “should”:
320
ep;Ap\qv\ may be “give and entrust = give”, or “should give”. The same is
true of verbs like N˙c\;Ap\-' lWÁp\- etc.
Ap\- 2 (V~-) (a) indicates passive voice in nissaya translation from Pali;
for nissaya translation conventions see Okell 1965 p 203; vb mod, mainly
FB; this use is perhaps the forerunner of (b) below;
• et' qc\qv\" pe√Ha' ®pœnakui" siNi †eta' ÂkMAp\f" Pa¥ho the problem —
cintito was solved — te by you, or: You solved the problem. An example of
the convention regularly observed in nissaya translations and common in
Pali-based text, by which a passive sentence in Pali is converted to an active
sentence in Burmese translation: Pali “The problem (nominative) was solved
(passive) by you (instrumentive)” = Burmese “You (subject) solved (active) the
problem (object)”.
• etn' Tuiq¨qv\" Briya' mya;kui" Aan^ta' eSac\Ap\f" Bhariya– a wife —
a–n^ta– is brought — tena by him, or: He brought a wife.
• IdM' ÈN˙s\på;Aepåc\;kiu" R¨pM' Rup\h¨j" wusßti' SiuAp\f" Ida∑ these two
together — vuccati are to be called — ru–pa∑ “rupa”.
Beware of ambiguity between Ap\ “passive” and Ap\ “should”:
Âka;Ap\eqaska; may be “words that have been heard (Pali suta∑) or
“words that should be heard”.
(b) indicates politeness or deference, or adds dignity or solemnity to a
statement; perhaps a development from (a) above;
• AeÂkac\;Âka;Ap\påqv\' ek¥ac\;Aup\”k^;Kc\b¥a;" I am writing to inform you,
headmaster, Sir (equivalent to “Dear headmaster”).
• etac\;pn\Ap\påqv\ or emt†a rp\KMAp\påqv\" You are humbly requested.
• Pit\Âka;Ap\påqv\" You are respectfully invited.
(c) in the compound liuAp\- to be necessary, needful, same as lui-; a
verb pair in which Ap\- functions merely as a companion verb, perhaps
derived from the preceding; more common in FB, particularly in elevated
language;
• Ev\.qv\m¥a;At∑k\ liuAp\qv\m¥a;kiu em;®mn\;®Pv\.s∑m\;rn\ laerak\Âkv\.ROqv\" He
came to find out and supply whatever was need by the visitors.
• yc\;kisßN˙c\. pt\qk\j “p^;SuM;q∑a;K´.“p^ ®Ps\j AT¨;e®paSiurn\ mliuAp\eta.på" As
this matter is finished and done with there is no special need to make
further mention of it.
• m®Ps\Nuic\taet∑kui qaqaTui;Tui;el; Pk\“p^; eqakep∑entaketa. mluiAp\B¨;el"
It is not necessary to cleave to the impossible and be consumed with
anxiety about it.
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• Tuienak\ wn\Âk^;N˙c\.AP∑´>qv\ … Uy¥a√\‘mi>eta\At∑c\; tv\eSak\®p^;s^;mON˙c\.

tv\eSak\S´lup\cn\;Ae®KAenm¥a;kui l˙v\.lv\Âkv\.ROss\eS;®p^; luiAp\qv\m¥a;kui
eS∑;eN∑;m˙aÂka;q∑a;påqv\" Next the Minister and his entourage made a tour
of inspection of the construction work in the garden city, both work
completed and in progress, held discussions and gave instructions as to
what was required.
AM. sts AM.qv\ (V~) will V, is going to V; indicates future, intended action, or
assumptions; stc mkr, FB, more elevated than FB mv\; = CB my\; also used
in attributes, usually in combination AM.eqa, = CB mv\. qv; regular equivalent
of Pali future tense in nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p 201);
• lÄm¥a;tui≥ m˙t\qa;sim\.c˙a cåq¨®mt\ e®paÂka;epAM." I the virtuous one will speak
for the many to hear.
• qc.\el¥a\eqa puMUpmakui eSac\j ®ppåË;AM." I will present an appropriate
analogy.
• EkM' ts\Kueqa" qalM' zrp\kui" kriœam' ‘pkun\AM." We shall build a hall
(nissaya).
• mesatc\N˙c\. muK¥Aa;®Pc\. AeÂkac\;påAM.qv\" I shall surely be married to Ma ST
(if I am not careful).
In combination AMM.qtv\;, common in nissaya and nissaya style:
• em' cåf" put†œ' qa;f" Up™aka' Alup\AekÁ;tui≥qv\" BwsÍNi †'
®Ps\lt\kun\AM.qtv\;" They will be my son’s servants (nissaya).
• et;Tp\kel;ts\pud\kiu lup\liuk\epAM.qtv\;" I shall compose a little taydat
poem.
When used in questions is frequently rhetorical:
• SraÂk^;qv\ Èkisßm¥io;Ò Kp\mSit\ enNiuc\AM.ela" menNiuc\®p^" Would Sayagyi be
able to remain silent in this matter? He would not.
• sa;sraAt∑k\ By\m˙a p¨sra ‰˙iAM.eta.nv\;" How could there be any further
anxiety with regard to food supplies?
• q¨≥kiu ABy\k´.qiu≥ Aazanv\A®Ps\®Pc\. K¥^;k¥ø;Niuc\påAM.nv\;" How could they
possibly have praised him as a hero?
Used in conditional clauses in nissaya and nissaya style texts (see Okell
1965 p 215):
• qesg%˙ati' Aky\j yÄM." … edhi' ep;elela." If he accepts … give it to
him.
• qes' Aky\j" p¨wM' mun\≥qv\" nquN∂rM' mekac\;qv\ ®Ps\AM." Bt†M' Tmc\;kui"
Bu◊Ω' sa;eta\eKÅpåela." If the cake is not good please eat the rice.
sa;eqae®m∑qv\ mÂkaKc\ AN †ray\ts\KuKun´≥ ÂkMo“p^; Aqk\ eqpåesqa;" We
322
snakes will never eat a mouse. If we should chance to eat one, then may
the snake that ate the mouse speedily meet with some danger and die.
In combination V-AM.qui≥ ‰˙i- to be as if V, to be likely to V:
• eSac\;på;' kb¥a' !^ka AaeBa\tiu≥f Arc\;A®ms\ ®Ps\qv\hu yëqa\
rekac\;AM.qiu≥ ‰˙iqv\" If you take his articles, poems, commentaries and
opinions as the foundation you are likely to be on the right track.
In combination V-AM.S´S´ or V-AM.m¨;m¨; on the point of V-ing:
• min\;m¨;em.e®maeneqa l¨tiu≥f KNÎakiuy\kiu … el.laK´.rqv\" eqAM.m¨;m¨; l¨nam¥a;'
qk\m´.Rup\KNÎam¥a;kiulv\; Al∑t\mep;K´.Âk" We had to examine the bodies of
people who were unconscious. And we were not spared (the examination
of) people on the brink of death and corpses.
• kelac\ts\eK¥ac\;®Pc\. Aqk\em∑;mv\hu Aa;Tut\AM.S´S´t∑c\ ®pzat\saAup\
eKt\sa;Kiuk\N˙c\. ’kMq®Pc\. ®pzat\m¥a;kiu er;qv\" Just when he had decided to
earn a living by the pen, play scripts became popular, so he wrote plays.
In combination V-AM.eqa N N that is to be V-ed:
• 1922 KuN˙s\Ò k¥c\;pAM.eqa qrk\“mio> k∑n\Prc\." The conference that was to be
held at Thayet in 1922.
•lalt†M≥eqaAKå" In time to come. For combinations V-K¥im\. (=eK¥+AM.)
euphonic, V-sim\. (=es+AM.) to cause V, V-pim\. (=ep+AM.) euphonic, see
entries under K¥im\.' sim\.' pim\." For combinations AM.eqac˙a and similar “for
the purpose of”, see under c˙a" For combination lt\AM. see under lt†M>"
AM.qtv\; see under AM. will V
AM.eqac˙a' esAM.eqac˙a in order to V, in order to cause to V: see under c˙a
AuM; see under Ë; still, yet etc
AuM;eta. see under Ë;eta. let it V
EA\ see under f present or past tense and f belonging to (listed at end of
Burmese entries)
Ò sts written NOik\ (N~) in, at, on (place or time); nn mkr, FB; = FB t∑c,\ CB m˙a;
regular equivalent of Pali locative case in nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p
200);
• z¨liuc\l' ts\Sy\.‰˙s\rk\en≥Ò" On 18th July.
• kÁN\up\f e‰˙>em˙ak\Ò" In the presence of myself.
• p¥a;AuM ts\AuMÒ p¥a;Burc\m ts\ekac\qa ‰˙iqv\" There is only one queen in a
hive of bees.
• saem;p∑´m¥a;kiu tepåc\;lÒ k¥c\;pel. ‰˙iqv\" Examinations are usually held in
the month of Tabaung.
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• qiliueqa AeÂkac\;Ara' AK¥k\Alk\tiu≥kiu em;®mn\;raÒ AquM;‘peqa psßv\;kiu

Aem;psßv\;hu eKÅqv\" A particle used in asking for information is called
an interrogative particle.
• eq™aNueq™^nM' eqe™;Âk^;eqe™;cy\tui≥f" kuelqu' Am¥oi;tui≥Ò" p!iqNÎ˜'
p!iqeNÎkui' g%˙˜qu' yëlkun\f" They were conceived in the families of
greater and lesser wealthy men (nissaya).
j 1 sts written eR∑> (V~) V and; V-ing; after V-ing; V and therefore …;
generic suffix for linking two verb clauses, temporal, causal or unspecific;
sub cls mkr, FB; for CB equivalents, see subentries below; cf FB ka' ®p^;'
ra' l¥k\;
(a) V and, after V-ing; = CB V-®p^;' V-®p^;eta.' FB V-®p^;' V-ka' V-l¥k\;
• Amim˙a edÅAun\; ®Ps\j APm˙a U^;sMd∑n\; ®Ps\qv\" His mother was Daw Ohn and
his father was U SD.
• enqv\ Ae‰˙>m˙ T∑k\j Aenak\qiu≥ wc\qv\" The sun rises in the east and sets
in the west — having risen in the east, it sets etc.
• qn\;eKåc\ek¥a\j Aip\ram˙Tj ®pc\pm˙ elekac\;elqn\≥ rrn\ ek¥ac\;qKçm\;m˙
T∑k\j wrMtaqui≥ laK´.qv\" After midnight he got out of bed and came out
of the monastery onto the veranda so as to get some fresh air from
outside.
• 1974 KuN˙s\t∑c\ P∑´>sv\;puMAe®KKMUpedkiu ®p™an\;j ®pv\eTac\su Siu‰˙y\ls\qmμt
®mn\maNiuc\cMA®Ps\ TëTac\K´.påqv\" In 1974, after the constitution had been
laid down, the country was established as the Socialist Republic of the
Union of Burma.
• ®ptc\;epåk\m¥a; ‰˙ij Alc\;erac\ ekac\;s∑a reqaAKn\;" A room that had
windows and was well lit or: that was well lit because it had windows.
• PKc\kiu rv\R∑y\j (= CB rv\R∑y\®p^;) lØdån\;q®Pc\." As she made the offering
with her father in mind (“aiming at her father”).
• g¥^s^BêAt∑c\ ec∑rc\;eÂk;rc\;N˙c\. sp\l¥U\;j (= CB sp\l¥U\;®p^;) mqn\≥m‰˙c\; ®Ps\enpuM"
The story of suspicions regarding the funds of the GCBA.
• kun\eZ;NOn\;m¥a; ”k^;®mc\.en®Kc\; kisßN˙c\. pt\qk\j (= CB pt\qk\lui≥' pt\qk\®p^;)
kun\qv\”k^;m¥a;N˙c\. et∑>SuM eS∑;eN∑;p∑´kiu k¥c\;pqv\" A discussion was arranged
with the main traders concerning the high price of goods.
• mnk\ lc\;på®p^ Siuktv\;k Ark\eqak\Piu≥kl∑´j (= CB l∑´lui≥' l∑´rc\) Bakium˙
sit\mwc\sa;eta." From the moment it was light he was interested in nothing
apart from (“excepting”) drinking.
Regular equivalent of Pali gerund in nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p 213):
• tMpwt†˜' TuiAeÂkac\;kui" ˆt∑a' qij" Hearing, when he heard, of this matter
(nissaya).
324
• priqudÎM' sc\Âky\eqa" kpπåqM' wåkui" geht∑a' y¨j" quKumqut†M' qim\em∑>eqa

K¥v\kui' kNi †t∑a' wc\.j" g uLM' K¥v\eT∑;kui" kt∑a' ‘pj" UsÍegç' Kå;puik\Ò'
Tept∑a' Ta;j" gåmM' R∑aqui≥" AagsÍN^ †' laqv\‰˙ieqa\" (The woman) taking
clean cotton, and spinning a fine thread, and making a cotton ball,
placing it on her hip, came to her village (nissaya).
(b) used after pre-verbs, where j (and CB ®p^;) are optional when the first
verb is close to the second:
• TiuAK¥in\m˙apc\ eTak\l˙m\;er;qc\tn\;m¥a;kiu stc\(j) kiuc\t∑y\ el.k¥c\.K´.påqv\"
At that very time he began holding training courses in intelligence work.
• raqÛtuqv\ piu(j) ekac\;laqv\" The weather became better.
• SraÂk^;f kb¥am¥a;AeÂkac\;kiu â%\m^qmY sm\;(j) er;K´.påqv\" He tried
writing what he could about the great man’s poetry.
-j is not omitted when the pre-verb is separated from the next verb:
• Amy\”k^;k ®pn\j BamY me®paB¨;" The old lady made no reply.
• Sk\lk\j Am˙aska; e®parat∑c\" In continuing to give his instructions, in
continuing his talk.
(c) used before certain verb modifiers, mainly optional, (= CB lui≥):
• Sra”k^; T∑k\(j) q∑a;elqv\" Teacher left, went out (of the room).
• ”k^;qTk\ ”k^;(j) laqv\" It grew bigger and bigger.
• km\;e®Kkiu m¥k\N˙am¨(j) enf" (The house) faced the sea.
• eS∑;®mv\.jpc\ en®p^ ®Ps\f" It had even gone rotten.
• qtc\;sa Pt\(j) m®p^;eq;m^" Before I had finished reading the newspaper.
• Kå;eq;q®Pc\. ts\m¥oi; Âkv\.(j) ekac\;enqv\" She had a slender waist and
was attractive in a way.
• eZ; Ss\(j) rqla;" Is it acceptable to bargain?
(d) used between certain pairs of verbs, mainly optional, (= CB lui≥):
• ‰˙aj et∑>qv\ to seek and find; Aip\j ep¥a\qv\ to succeed in sleeping; Pm\;j
miqv\ to succeed in catching; enj ekac\;qv\ to be well, healthy; Âkv\.j
wqv\ to gaze one’s fill.
(e) V and so, because V; = CB V-lui≥' V-tan´≥, FB V-eqaeÂkac\.' V-q®Pc\. qv;
• zat\mc\;qa; Tc\j em;®Kc\;®Ps\qv\" I asked him because I thought he was
the principal actor.
• eS∑m¥oi;et∑ erak\laj eA;misM mq∑a;®Ps\eta.ep" Some relatives had arrived, so
AMS couldn’t go.
• kÁn\eta\ saem;p∑´ eAac\j ts\Aim\qa;luM; wm\;qaÂkqv\" The whole household
was pleased because I had passed my exam.
• nt\eta\lqiu≥ erak\®p^" qiu≥®Ps\j qzc\pn\; p∑c\.qv\" We have reached the
month of Nadaw. So the thazin orchids are in flower.
325
• kÁn\eta\.N˙aeKåc\;T´t∑c\ ya;yMlaj N˙aeK¥miqv\" I had an itch in my nostrils

and it made me sneeze.
(f) in the word Aky\j “if” (= CB tky\liu≥), where j is exceptionally
suffixed to a noun:
•Aky\j q¨ laK´.lYc\" If he really comes, if he should come.
j 2 see under eR∑> as much as
&c\; see under lv\;ekac\; both, the same
f 1 formerly written eA\ sts Ev\. (N1~ N2) N1’s N2, the N2 of, belonging to
N1; nn atrb mkr, FB, = CB r´.; pron /Ai/; the use of f is optional: AP∑a;f Aim\
= AP∑a; Aim\ (= CB AP∑a;r´. Aim\' AP∑a; Aim\) “Grandmother’s house”; when
N1 ends in a low tone, the final syllable may take induced creaky tone:
AePf Aim\ = AeP.f Aim\ = AeP. Aim\ “Father’s house”; regular equivalent
of Pali genitive case in nissaya translation (Okell 1965 p 199);
• qMAmt\fAim\ or qMAmt\Aim\ the ambassador’s house;
• Aip\ep¥a\eneqa Aemfehak\qMm¥a; or Aem. ehak\qMm¥a; the sound of the
snores of my mother asleep;
• kÁn\eta\fqa; or kÁn\eta.\qa; my son;
• ek¥ac\;f wrn\ta the monastery veranda;
• ”kiyaAq^;q^;f Ank\qeBa the meaning of the various verbs;
• ®mt\s∑aBura; Sc\;tueta\”k^;f e‰˙>em˙ak\t∑c\ in front of the image of the Lord
Buddha;
• m¨;ys\eS;wå;f AN †ray\ ”k^;ma;puMkiu q¨ mqieK¥" He does not know the
danger of narcotic drugs.
• matapit¨nM' AmiABtui≥f" påed' e®Ktui≥kui' eDawit∑a' eS;j" Having washed
the feet of his mother and father (nissaya).
f 2 formerly written eA\ sts Ev\. (V~) V-s, V-ed; indicates general statement
of realised or non-future state; also habitual action; translatable by English
past or present tenses; stc mkr, FB, cf FB V-qv\; = CB V-ty\ and V-r´.;
pron /Ai/; a high frequency suffix; unlike qv\ is not used in attributive or
embedded sentences, other than in quotation; rare in open questions;
• Aelac\;mc\;tra;”k^;qv\ qMl¥c\‘mi>kiu tiuk\Kiuk\f" King Alaungpaya attacked
the town of Syriam.
• mÂkaKc\pc\ Alup\relf" He soon got a job.
• Tuiv lqaf" That night the moon shone brightly.
• emac\emac\qv\ en≥sU\ N∑a;Niu≥ eqak\f" Maung Maung drinks milk every day.
• Asv\;Aew; k¥c\;pmv\ ®Ps\f" A meeting will be held (“it is the case that a
meeting will be held”).
326
• Am˙n\tky\pc\ cåqv\ Èk´.qiu≥ KMsa;enpåfela" Did I really experience

feelings like this?
327
ENGLISH ENTRIES
Entries for grammatical devices that have no written Burmese form
Chiming syllable with the rhyme -k\ (V~-) V and so on, V and that
kind of thing; vb mod, CB; also used with nouns: see below;
• AKn\;T´wc\®p^; Âkv\.Âkk\luik\påAuM;my\" I’ll just go into the room and have a
look around.
• ®pc\®p^;qa;haet∑kui nń´ ®mv\;®mk\®p^;eta." After having a taste of (the dishes)
that have already been made.
• ekac\el;n´≥ et∑>rc\ em;mk\påAuM;" If you meet the boy, just quiz him a bit.
Occasionally used with nouns with similar effect:
• Anagt\Anagk\ the future and all that;
• UpedUpdk\ the law and so on;
• Put\Pk\ dust and such.
Induced creaky tone (N~) marks certain types of juncture when the
first of the two syllables in juncture is in the low tone. Induced creaky tone
is found:
(a) in numeral compounds, e.g. N˙s\ra + N˙s\Sy\ N˙s\ra.N˙s\Sy\ two hun-
dred and twenty;
(b) in sentence markers qv\' mv\' ty\' my\ when used in verb attrib-
utes, e.g. m˙n\qv\ + Ae®P m˙n\qv\.Ae®P a correct answer;
(c) in derived nouns of the form m-V t-V, e.g. mep¥a\ + tep¥a\ mep¥a\.tep¥a\
reasonably happy;
(d) before markers kui and m˙a when suffixed to personal referents, e.g.
Aem + kui Aem.kui to Mother;
(e) in possessive attributes, when the possessor is an individual person,
e.g. AeP + Pinp\ AeP.Pinp\ Father’s sandals; nn atrb mkr. The possessor
may also be a personified entity: ®pv\q¨ + B%\ ®pv\q¨≥B%\ People’s Bank,
Nuic\cM + g u%\rv\ Nuic\c.Mg u%\rv\ Pride of the State, bma + eKt\ bma.eKt\ The
Times of Burma, ®mn\ma + Alc\; ®mn\ma.Alc\; New Light of Myanmar.
Some sources attempt to distinguish ®mn\ma and ®mn\ma. in roman script by
writing Myanmar and Myanma respectively, but the practice is not univers-
328
ally followed. The low tone word ®mn\ma is romanized Myanma by some and
Myanmar by others. There are also one or two high tone words that may
take induced creaky tone, e.g. mc\; + Aem mc\.; Aem your mother.
(f) as a result of fusion between a verb and sentence marker r´. _ Tc\ + r´.
= Tc\,. as in ®Ps\pålim\.my\ Tc\." I think it will be.
(g) Induced creaky tone is also found in the last syllable of a sentence,
typically in a term of address or an appended appellative, e.g. Stc+‰˙c\ =
Stc+‰˙c\.' Stc+k∑y\ = Stc+k∑´>' Stc+b¥a = Stc+b¥a.' Stc+eta\ = Stc+eta\." Also
sts in verse or poetic prose: V+B¨; = V+Bu" Usually the creaky tone variant
sounds more abrupt, less ingratiating. In this position induced creaky tone
is not of course a feature of juncture.
Repetition: a process that is used for a range of grammatical functions:
(a) to form adverbs and attributes, from verbs, in various formations;
sub cls mkr and vb atrb marker:
VV ®mn\®mn\ fast ®mn\- to be fast;
nv\;nv\; slightly nv\;- to be little, not much;
NVV sns\k¥k¥ systematically sns\ system + k¥- to fit in;
sv\;km\;‰˙i‰˙i in a disciplined way sv\;km\; discipline +
‰˙i- to have;
V1V1V2V2 eqeqK¥aK¥a definitely eqK¥a- to be definite;
’ki;’ki;sa;sa; strenuously ’ki;sa;- to make efforts;
Note voicing pattern: /eqg¥a/ but /eqeq˙ K¥ag¥a/
and /’ki;za;/ but /’ki;“gi;sa;za;/"
V1V1V2 K¥s\K¥s\etak\ scorching hot K¥s\- to be burnt +
etak\- to flare up;
pt\pt\lv\ surrounding pt\- to encircle +
lv\- to go round;
V1V2V2 e®Kak\eq∑>eq∑> bone dry e®Kak\- to be dry + eq∑>- to be dry;
n^r´r´ deep red n^- to be red + r´- to be deep red;
VTT (where T represents a syllable beginning with t and rhyming with V)
wåtata yellowish wå- to be yellow;
yuic\tuic\tuic\ tottering yuic\- to lean over;
VTÂk^; w´t´Âk^; with a bad accent
w´- to speak with an imperfect accent;
el;et;Âk^; very slow el;- to be slow;
Also used with certain disyllabic nouns:
N1N1N2N2 e®Ke®K®ms\®ms\ radically Ae®K basis + A®ms\ root;
Ë;Ë;P¥a;P¥a; first and foremost AË; front + AP¥a; tip;
329
(b) for baby-talk, with nouns; nn mod:

• emem mummy Aem mother; K¥oiK¥oi sweety AK¥oi a sweet.
(c) to indicate one by one, stage by stage, severality, with nouns and
phrases:
• K%K% often K% a moment; ts\sk\ ts\sk\ drop by drop ts\sk\ a
drop; Aim\tuic\;Aim\tuic\; every single house Aim\tuic\; every house;
qc\rc\;qc\rc\; step by step as you learn qc\rc\; while learning; ts\Kåts\Kå
from time to time ts\Kå one time; By\q¨By\q¨ who (of various people)
By\q¨ who; By\N˙s\N˙s\ By\N˙s\N˙s\ t∑k\Ta;ql´ mqiB¨;" I don’t know how
many years (to each period) they use in their calculations. q¨tui≥q¨tui≥m˙ak
ts\en≥ts\en≥ emac\;rl˙ muic\ 40-50 p´ ‰˙imv\" As for all the others, they
would only drive about 40 or 50 miles a day at the most.
(d) to indicate repeated or increasing occurrence, in the pattern
V1V1V2, in compounds with pre-verbs or verb modifiers; vb mod:
• q∑a;q∑a; Âkv\.- to keep going and looking; wc\wc\ tuik\- to keep coming in
and attacking; el¥a.el¥a.q∑a;- to become less and less; wy\wy\ep;- to keep
buying for sn.
(e) to indicate alternatives, “whether V1 or V2”, or “whether V or not V” or
“whether N1 or N2”; sub cls mkr:
• mui;R∑aR∑a enp¨p¨ m˙n\m˙n\ tk\tap´" Rain or shine, he attended regularly.
• m˙a;m˙a;m˙n\m˙n\ q¨≥Ae®P q¨ eAa\luik\eta.tap´" He yells out his answer, whether
it’s right or wrong.
• q¨tui≥ts\et∑ qeBak¥k¥ mk¥k¥ lup\rm˙apå" We’ll have to do it, whether they
approve or not.
• hut\hut\ mhut\hut\ naKMrmy\Siuta" (The belief) that we must obey him
whether he’s right or wrong.
• sM®plup\qa; AeR∑;KMrKMr mKMrKMr … q¨tawn\ ek¥mv\" He would do his duty
whether he was selected as a model worker or not.
• kÁn\eta\lv\; wizΩa y¨K´.y¨K´. qipπM y¨K´.y¨K´. Srawn\ ®Ps\K´.®Ps\K´. Ac\g¥c\n^ya
®Ps\K´.®Ps\K´. … saer;Sra A®Ps\qui≥ muK¥ erak\K´.rmv\" Whether I had taken arts
or science, whether I had become a doctor or an engineer, I would
undoubtedly still have become a writer.
• etac\q¨ly\qma;Âk^;et∑p´ ®Ps\®Ps\' es¥;erac\;t´.es¥;qv\et∑p´ ®Ps\®Ps\ Aa;lMu;ha
tra;mYtmOkui luila;tap´" Whether people are peasants or traders, they all
want justice.
• wn\Âk^;n´≥ et∑>et∑> VWn\Âka;er;mØ;n´≥ et∑>et∑> ts\eyak\eyak\n´≥ et∑>®Ps\rc\
®p^;tap´" Whether we meet with the minister or with a director, so long as
we meet with someone that’s all that matters.
330
• qa;liup´ enen Ev\.qv\liup´ enen Âkiok\qluien" Whether you live here as my

son, or live as my guest, just suit yourself.
Alternative repetition is occasionally used with nouns:
• mui;mui; eSac\;eSac\; eN∑eN∑ Sy\.N˙s\raq^ p∑c\.ty\" It flowers all year round, rainy
season, cool season and hot season.
(f) to indicate whoever, however, etc, in the pattern interrogative + VV;
ordinary compound verbs repeat in the form V1V2V1V2, and compound verbs
with modifiers take the form V1V2V2; sub cls mkr:
• Bap´ wy\wy\ dÂit\T´k ec∑quM;rmy\" Whatever you buy, you must use the
money from this purse.
• As\m®Ps\q¨k By\elak\p´ S¨S¨ ®m®mkui mK¥s\B´ menNuic\" However much fuss
his sister made, he couldn’t stop loving MM.
• dêkac\ By\elak\p´ ’ki;sa;’ki;sa; ts\Kåm˙ meAac\®mc\K´.påB¨;" However hard
this lad tried, he never once succeeded.
• By\elak\p´ K∑aK∑a By\elak\p´ put\K¥put\K¥' e®KeTak\m˙aeta. eq∑;
K¥c\;K¥c\;n^l¥k\ ‰˙iqv\" However much we pulled off (the leeches), however
much we hit them, our feet were still covered with blood.
• sit\Apn\;e®peAac\ By\lui ®pc\Sc\Ta;Ta;' nv\;nv\;el;m˙ sit\k eA;mq∑a;"
Whatever they did to make the ambience (of the restaurant) relaxing, he
didn’t calm down.
• By\liup´ ARup\Siu;enen sit\wc\sa;q¨keta. sit\wc\sa;Âktap´" However
unattractive she may have been, there were nonetheless people who took
an interest in her.
Rising intonation (Stc~, Phr~) indicates a question when the listener
wants to verify or hear again what the speaker has said; marked in these
examples by “?”; stc fin phr ptcl, CB;
(a) in Yes-or-no questions:
• ‰˙s\eyak\? (Did you say) eight people?
• q¨≥kuiy\q¨ qt\eqty\? (Did you say) he committed suicide?
(b) in open questions, used without the usual marker l´"
• namv\k By\q¨? What did you say your name was?
• Ba e®paty\? What did you just say? What’s that you said?
• nMpåt\k By\elak\? What’s the number (again)?
Zero, i.e. absence of marker after a verb (whether subordinate clause marker
or sentence marker), here symbolized by Ø: used for a range of grammatical
functions:
(a) VØ indicates requests and commands; usually sounding brusque
or imperious unless tempered by verb modifier på-; stc mkr, CB+FB;
331
• T" (interpreted as T+Ø) Get up!

• Tuic\på" (sc Tuic\på+Ø) Please sit down.
• e‰˙>kui la" Come to the front.
• K% c˙a;luik\sm\;påAuM;" Please lend it to me for a moment.
• ®pn\eta." Go home now.
(b) VØ marks exclamatory or graphic statements, frequently in the
pattern qip\-VØ and V-eq;-Ø and V-Bi-Ø; stc mkr, CB;
• ekac\;b¥a' qip\ekac\;" Good, man. Very good.
• em∑;®møer;USiueta. etaÂkk\Uliu By\Aa;‰˙imléna\ _ ha ‰˙iqm˙ qip\‰˙i As\mer"
It’s an egg laid on a farm, so how could it be as nutritious as one laid in
the wild? — Oh, it is, sister, it really is.
• p¥oi>K¥c\qluilui An\K¥c\qluiluiklv\; påluik\eq;" I also felt as if I was going to
be sick.
• qm^;Âk^;k Aemrika;q∑a;eneta. q¨ påmlaliu≥ sit\mekac\; ®Ps\req;" My older
daughter has gone to America so couldn’t come with us, which is a
disappointment.
• e®papå kiueSac\;r´´>' hiup∑´m˙a mc\;qa;mc\;qm^; Siuekac\;' ciuekac\;tun\;‰˙ieq;" ‰˙c\
Baliu≥ ®pn\q∑a;rtal´´ hc\" Tell me this, Ko Hsaung. The actor and actress
in the show over there are still singing and weeping, so how come you had
to come home (before they’re finished)?
• AMma cåk eta\eq;" Oh goodness me. I’m a bit better than that.
• cåeta. qip\’kik\tap´' eka\P^n´≥Siu qaetac\ekac\;eq;" Oh I love them. They’re
even better when you have them with coffee.
• krc\namv\keta. ena\mélePat´." _ A´dåk qaetac\ eKÅrKk\eq;" My
Karen name is Naw Meh-lay-hpaw. — Oh that’s even harder to say.
• ry\sra ekac\;liuk\påBi" It was so funny!
• cåtiu≥qa RMO;rmy\Siurc\ d^liu qt†i®p®p^; AeqKMliuk\K¥c\sm\;påBi" How I wish that
we would have been able to die so bravely if we had been defeated.
(c) V1Ø V2-suffix indicates suspended clauses, i.e. a series of verb
clauses in which the marker (or other suffix) occurs only once, with the last
verb, and the verbs of the preceding clauses are left suspended without any
marker (see Okell 69 vol 1, section 7.11); CB+FB;
• tK¥oi>k S´' tK¥oi>k eAa\' tK¥oi>k k´.r´.epm´." Although some people abused
him, some shouted at him, and some derided him (read as … S´-Ø, …
eAa\-Ø, …).
• gRusuik\K´.' yuyK´.puM" The way in which they took care of her and were gentle
with her (read as gRusuik\K´.-Ø).
332
• kiuqn\;Niuc\qv\ kÁn\eta\N˙c\. ts\r∑atv\;qa;lv\; ®Ps\' eS;tk˚qiul\qiu≥ U^;s∑a

erak\q¨lv\; ®Ps\eqaeÂkac\." Because Ko TN came from the same village as
me, and because he went to medical college before me.
• epåc\;pc\ qut\qc\' e®mt¨;' e®mÂqza ekÁ;eta.m˙" Only after you have pulled out
the weeds, dug over the soil, and spread fertilizer.
• Aip\ra T' m¥k\N˙a qs\' på;sp\ eS;' eKåc\; P^;luik\ty\" He got out of bed,
washed his face, rinsed his mouth, and combed his hair.
• saAup\kui Pt\lui Pt\' Rup\‰˙c\RuMkui q∑a;lui q∑a;' wtÊots\pud\ er;K¥c\lYc\lv\; er;'
Bap´ lup\rlup\r kÁn\eta\ ep¥a\puik\K´.elqv\" I could read when I wanted, go
to the cinema when I felt like it, or write a story if I wanted to — whatever
I did I had a great time.
• ehae®paK¥k\ eR∑;' l¨sa; s^s√\' Asv\;Aew; tk\req;ty\" She also has to
select (speakers for) lectures, arrange substitutes, and attend meetings.
(d) V1Ø, V2-n´≥ what with V1 and V2, V1-ing and V2-ing; used to list
successive events or manifold activities, sts with more verbs than two; sub
cls mkr, mainly CB; note the parallel with repetition used to form adverbs:
wm\;qaqan´≥ “happily” vs wm\;qaÂk wm\;nv\;Âkn´≥ “some happily, some sadly”;
• RuM;Sc\;' ka;s^;' Aim\®pn\erak\' erK¥oi;' Tmc\;K¥k\n´≥ AK¥in\ eta\eta\ kun\ty\b¥a"
What with leaving the office, taking the bus, getting back home, having a
shower, and cooking supper — it all takes time.
• d^m˙a ‰˙c\®poÂk' rhn\;KMÂk' Bura;' ek¥ac\;' tn\eSac\;' qim\zrp\et∑ ®po®pc\Âkn´≥
qëta\ekac\;tra;et∑kui sU\Sk\m®pt\ ®poK´.Âkty\el" In this place, what
with holding novitiation ceremonies, holding monks’ ordinations,
repairing the pagodas and monasteries and shrines and simas and
zayats, we have continuously upheld the principles of the religious life.
• wuic\;wn\;®p^; wm\;qaÂk wm\;n´Âkn´≥' sit\lOp\‰˙a;m´. priqt\" An audience that would
join in and be caught up by what they saw, being now happy, now sad.
• UpedTuM;sMAr s^mMkin\; S∑´' kun\k¥m´.ec∑m¥a;kui sarc\;lup\' Suic\rarn\kun\k @ankui
tc\®p' ts\Kå B‹aer;k K∑c\.‘pqc\.m‘pqc\. s√\;sa;enn´≥ Anv\;SuM; e®Kak\l
kun\m˙ap´" What with drawing up a project in accordance with the
regulations, making a list of the expenses that would be incurred,
submitting it to the appropriate department in Yangon, then having it
evaluated as permissible or not by the Treasury — it would take at least
six months.
• kuiy\.Kutc\m˙a kuiy\. Aip\ra Kc\;q¨ Kc\;' l˙v\;q¨ l˙v\;' psßv\;et∑ enra K¥q¨ K¥n´≥
eta\eta\ Alup\ m¥a;enÂkpåty\" They were all pretty busily engaged, some
laying out their bedding, others lying down, and others arranging their
belongings.
333
1
APPENDICES
2
3
OUTLINE GRAMMATICAL DESCRIPTION

This appendix contains a brief account of the grammatical description on
which the Dictionary is based. Its purpose is to show the features of the
various categories to which the grammatical forms are assigned, and to
introduce the names we use for those categories (marker, numerative, etc).
There is no definitive way of analysing and classifying the grammatical forms

of Burmese. Different systems have advantages for different purposes. The
classification we present here deliberately ignores some of the finer distinc-
tions, in the interest, we hope, of making it easier to follow and apply.
Readers of the Dictionary will notice that there are certain entries whose final
classification is still undetermined.
This description that follows corresponds in part to the description given in

Okell 1969, but readers familiar with that grammar will find that some of its
categories have been amalgamated in the Dictionary, some have been subdi-
vided, and some of the terminology has been simplified. For a note on the
relationship of our classification to that of the MED, see the note following
the Index.
1 Sentences
The typical Burmese sentence can be analysed into one or more “noun
phrases” followed by a “verb phrase”; e.g.
noun phrase noun phrase noun phrase verb phrase

enak\en≥nMnk\t∑c\ Èsaer;q¨qv\ saN˙s\esac\kui rf"
The next day in the present writer two letters received.
the morning
“On the morning of the next day the present writer received two letters.”
Outline grammatical description 4
For brevity we use the term “noun phrase” as a cover term to include con-
stituents of the sentence that may be translated as adverbs or certain other
types of expression.
2 Markers
Some suffixes mark the rôle of a phrase in the sentence. Suffixes that per-
form this function we call “markers”. In the example sentence, we find four
markers:
-t∑c\ marking the time at which the action of the verb took place,
-qv\ marking the subject of the verb,
-kui marking the object of the verb, and
-f marking the end of the sentence and past or present time.
Not all noun phrases have to have markers; e.g.

mnk\Pn\ mamaeA; nar^wk\ SuiK¥c\ty\"
Tomorrow Ma Ma Aye half an hour wants to sing
“Tomorrow Ma Ma Aye wants to sing for half an hour.”
In this example none of the three noun phrases carries a suffix.
Markers can be split into two groups: those that are attached to nouns,
which we call “noun markers” and those that are attached to the verb at the
end of the sentence, which we call “sentence markers”. For examples of
these two types of marker see Lists 9 and 13.
3 Phrase particles
The distinctive feature of markers is that they show the rôle of the phrase in
the sentence. If you exchanged -qv\ and -kui in the example sentence, it
would mean that the letters received the writer and not the opposite. In con-
trast, there are other suffixes that can be attached to a phrase in a sentence
without having any effect on its rôle in the sentence. Suffixes of this type we
call “phrase particles”. Often they are attached to phrases that already con-
tain markers. Example:

mnk\Pn\eta. mamaeA; nar^wk\p´ SuiK¥c\ty\ena\"
Tomorrow how- Ma Ma Aye only half an hour wants to sing,
ever right?
“Tomorrow however Ma Ma Aye only wants to sing for half an hour: OK?”
Here we find three phrase particles:

-eta. however
-p´ only
-ena\ all right?
Whether the phrase particles are present or not, the rôles of the phrases in
the sentence remain unaffected.
Phrase particles can be split into two groups: those that are attached to
phrases at the end of the sentence (“sentence final phrase particles”) and
those that are attached to phrases earlier in the sentence (“sentence medial
phrase particles”). For examples of the two types of particle see Lists 12 and
14.
4 Nouns
4.1 Simple and compound
Nouns may be as short as a single syllable:
p∑´ festival
Nouns of this type we call “simple nouns”.
Simple nouns may be expanded by adding other elements, e.g.

“pioc\p∑´ competition
sas^sakuM;“pioc\p∑´ essay competition
Am¥io;qa;eAac\p∑én≥ sas^sakuM;“pioc\p∑´ National Day essay competition
75 N˙s\e®mak\ Am¥io;qa;eAac\p∑én≥ sas^sakuM;“pioc\p∑´ essay competition for the 75th
celebration of National Day
These we call “compound nouns”.
There are also nouns of more than one syllable that cannot be analysed as
compounds of simpler elements:
qmuic\; history
mun\tuic\; storm
They are also regarded as “simple nouns”.
4.2 Noun modifiers

Some words occur in compound nouns with high frequency, usually as the
last element in the compound, e.g. -Âk^; “great ” in: pc\ly\®pc\Âk^; the great
open sea, Aim\Âk^; the big house, enkam¥k\m˙n\Âk^; large sunglasses, etc. Words
with this distribution we call “noun modifiers”. They are listed in List 10.
4.3 Location nouns

There are two classes of noun that it is helpful to single out and name. One
is the group of words meaning “above”, “behind”, “near” etc. They are all in
common use as suffixes and occur with markers meaning “in”, “to”, “from”,
etc; e.g.
phrase with loc noun literal translation meaning

eZ;na;m˙a market-vicinity-in near the market
mit\eS∑TMqui≥ friend-place-to to a friend’s
ka;emac\;s√\k car-drive-while-from while driving
We call these “common location nouns” and list them in List 7.
4.4 Numerative nouns

The other group is used in counting. The typical number phrase in Burmee
contains three elements: the noun being counted, the number, and a word
used for counting that particular noun:
number phrase literal translation meaning

l¨cy\ quM; eyak\ youngster three person three youngsters
kÁ´ quM; ekac\ buffalo three animal three buffaloes
lk\ quM; eK¥ac\; finger three longs three fingers
qrk\q^; quM; luM; mango three rounds three mangoes
The third element in a number phrase is a type of noun we call

“numerative”.
4.5 Attributes to nouns

§4.1 above showed that a simple noun can be expanded into a compound
noun by the addition of other elements in front of it. These elements usually
qualify the noun in some way, or specify some aspect of it. We call them
“attributes”. Some attributes require a marker:
attribute noun translation

Ë;el;r´. ek¥ac\;qa;Bw Uncle’s student days
®mn\maNuic\cMk lk\Pk\e®Kak\ tea from Burma
The nouns in column 1 carry markers that show they are attributes to the
nouns in column 2. So we call markers of this type “noun attribute mark-
ers”.
4.6 Coordinate nouns

In some sentences you will find noun phrases containing two nouns
(sometimes more) in which the first noun is not attributed to the second but
has equal or coordinate status with it:
noun 1 noun 2 translation

zn^;qv\N˙c\. qm^; the wife and the daughter
Burc\”k^;era q¨≥tp\qa;et∑på both the king and his troops
Markers like -N˙c\. and -era…-på show this equal status. We call them
“coordinate markers”.
5 Verbs
5.1 Simple and compound
Verbs may be as short as a single syllable:
®pioc\- to compete
Verbs of this type we call “simple verbs”.
Simple verbs may be expanded by adding other elements, e.g.

“pioc\Suic\- to compete
wc\erak\“pioc\Suic\- to enter and compete
wc\erak\“pioc\Suic\lui- to want to enter and compete
These we call “compound verbs”.
There are also verbs of more than one syllable that cannot be analysed as
compounds of simpler elements:
Sc\®Kc\- to think
Sc\;r´- to be poor
They are also regarded as “simple verbs”.
5.2 Pre-verbs
Some words recur in compound verbs with high frequency. Some of these
occur in front of other verbs; e.g.
s“pioc\- to start competing
la“pioc\- to come and compete
These words we call “pre-verbs”, and the verb in front of which they appear
we call the “main verb”. Some common pre-verbs are listed in List 5.
5.3 Verb modifiers

Another type of element in a compound verb occurs after the main verb:
“pioc\K¥c\- to want to compete
“pioc\K´- to compete rarely
These words we call “verb modifiers”. They are listed in List 19.
6 Subordinate clauses
Some sentences contain two or more clauses; e.g.
1a noun phrase noun phrase noun phrase verb phrase

kÁn\eta\tui≥qv\ tky\. Aer; ‰˙ilapålYc\
We really need if arises
1b noun phrase noun phrase verb phrase

tuic\;®pv\At∑k\ Aqk\kuietac\pc\ s∑n\≥r´påqv\
for our country even our lives would dare to
sacrifice
“If the need should arise, we are prepared to sacrifice our lives for our coun-
try.”
Structurally 1a and 1b are closely parallel. Each consists of a verb phrase

preceded by two or three noun phrases, some of which carry markers or
phrase particles. The main difference between the two lies in the type of
marker used in the verb phrase: whereas the marker in 1b shows that the
sentence is concluded, the marker in 1a shows that sentence is not con-
cluded and is expected to continue. We call 1a a “subordinate clause” and
1b the “main clause”.
As shown in §2, markers that signal the end of a sentence are called
“sentence markers”. Markers that require the sentence to continue we call
“subordinate clause markers”. The two types of verb marker are listed in
Lists 13 and 16.
7 Verb attributes
7.1 Verb attribute markers
§4.5 above showed that a noun may be preceded by a “noun attribute”.
Nouns may also be preceded by a verb attribute. Verb attributes are usually
marked by one of a set of markers:
attribute noun translation

pålaqv\. eS;epå.lip\ the cheroots he had brought with him
We call an attribute of this type a “verb attribute”. Frequently the verb in a

verb attribute is part of a clause containing nouns with markers and parti-
cles in the same way as main clauses and subordinate clauses. In this case
the entire clause is attributed to the noun:
noun phrase noun phrase verb phrase noun

ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a; Bi∑oc\;ekak\ lup\eqa en≥
students boycott hold-which day
“The day on which the students held the boycott.”
Markers that signal verb attributes we call “verb attribute markers”. They
are listed in List 18.
7.2 Special head nouns

A small set of nouns can take verb attributes without a marker:

U^;el; Alup\m˙ ®pn\la K¥in\
Uncle from work return time
“The time at which Uncle returns from work.”
Nouns that have this property we call “special head nouns”. They are listed
in List 15.
7.3 Nominalized clauses

Some special head nouns have the effect of simply turning a clause into a
noun:
U^;el; Alup\m˙ ®pn\la ta
Uncle from work return thing
“Uncle’s return from work.”
Clauses like this we call “nominalized clauses”.
8 Subordinate sentences
There is a set of noun markers that are attached not only to nouns, but also
to whole sentences — normally with a verb attribute marker in place of the
sentence marker. The resulting unit has the same form as a noun with a
verb attribute in front of it, but it functions in the same way as a subordi-
nate clause, so we call them “subordinate sentences”:
as free-standing sentence as subordinate sentence

qa; rhn\; ‘pqv\" qa; rhn\; ‘pqv\.AeÂkac\; …
His son became a monk. concerning his son becoming a monk …
You will find other sentence examples in the entries for the various
subordinate sentence markers, and the markers are listed in List 17.
9 Sentences with no verb

Some sentences consist of just two noun phrases and no verb phrase:
noun phrase 1 noun phrase 2

kÁn\eta\.As\mk Srawn\
My sister doctor
“My sister is a doctor.”
We call these sentences “noun sentences”. Sometimes an equivalent sen-

tence will include a verb:
noun phrase 1 noun phrase 2 verb phrase 2

kÁn\eta\.As\mk Srawn\ ®Ps\påty\
My sister doctor is
“My sister is a doctor.”
Noun sentences can only be negated by using the verb hut\"
noun phrase 1 noun phrase 2 verb phrase 2

kÁn\eta\.As\mk Srawn\ mhut\påB¨;
My sister doctor is not
“My sister is not a doctor.”

12
13
LISTS OF GRAMMATICAL FORMS

ARRANGED BY CATEGORY
in alphabetical order of category
The translation equivalents in the lists are given solely to help identify the
forms, and are reduced to one word where possible. For fuller treatment see
the entry in the Dictionary.
1 clauses and verb attributes

2 common elements in compound nouns
3 common elements in compound verbs
4 common numeratives
5 common pre-verbs
6 coordinate markers
7 location nouns
8 noun attribute markers
9 noun markers
10 noun modifiers
11 selectives
12 sentence final phrase particles
13 sentence markers
14 sentence medial phrase particles
15 special head nouns
16 subordinate clause markers
17 subordinate sentence markers
18 verb attribute markers
19 verb modifiers
20 miscellaneous
Category lists 14
1. Clauses and verb attributes (Stc~, Phr~)

ekac\;S´' ekac\;tun\; while still pt\qk\j/lui≥ etc concerning
k¥(rc\)' k¥eta. etc when we get to en living in
eKÅ which is called på included in
®Ka; at intervals of “p^; one after another
(A)s beginning with ®p^;eta.' ®p^;lYc\' ®p^; etc and then
Sui didn’t you say? ®Ps\es' ®Ps\®Ps\whether it be
Suiktv\;k ever since sn said ®Ps\es' ®Ps\®Ps\however, whatever
Suika saying ®Ps\®Ps\ or something similar
SuiKåm˙ only when mk not so few
Suita' Suiqv\ that which says mSui not specified
Suieta. since it is mSuiTa;n´≥ don’t mention
Suien I’ve been telling you meR∑; any whatsoever
ASuipå the aforesaid mh¨ not specified
Suipåeta.' Suipåsui≥ let’s say m¨j (mV~) not V-ing
Suiepmy\.' Suieqa\lv\; although it is m´. lacking
Suip´ so it is said mv\qui≥Suies however that may be
Sui®p^;' Sui®p^;eta.' Sui after saying mv\qv\ that which is called
Suirc\' Sui etc if you take the case of e®mak\ -th
Suirat∑c\' SuiraÒ when we speak of m˙enj from
Suila; was it called? m˙n\lYc\' m˙n\rc\ if sth qualifies as N
Suilui≥ because it was said that mY (‰˙iqmY etc) all there are
Suieqa\ if you consider hu' h¨j saying that
t´. reported speech h¨lui take as
tn\ worth h¨qv\ that which is called
Tk\mnv\; not less than ‰˙i situated in
Ta;' Ta;U^; leave it that eR∑>' j (‰˙iqeR∑> etc) all there are
15 Category lists
2. Common elements in compound nouns (N~, V~)

eÂkac\; line, way er; affair
s a piece for rc\; original
sa; type luM; globe
s√\ row, series luM;kÁt\ the whole
d%\ penalty, damage wåd -ism
puic\; part wc\ member
puM shaped like qma; dealer
(A)®pc\ surface qa; material
®pn\ one who has returned qa; son, resident
Pui; value q¨ female resident
Bk\ area, companion qv\ doer
mO legal case, act qM sound
mØ; chief
3. Common elements in compound verbs (V~)

k¥ - to fall e®mak\- to achieve
KM- to receive erak\- to arrive
sa;- to savour ‰˙i to exist, have
mi catch, be caught
4. Common numeratives (Nº~)

(A)ekac\\ for animals (A)på; for people
Ku for unclassified items (A)pc\ for plants, threads etc
(A)eK¥ac\; for long, pointed items (A)pud\ for texts, songs etc
(A)s^; for anything riddden (A)eyak\ for people
(A)esac\ for letters, articles (A)rp\ for ideas, subjects etc
(A)S for times, fold (A)luM; for globes etc
(A)S¨ for sacred objects Ë; for people
(A)Tv\ for clothes
Category lists 16
5. Common pre-verbs (~V)

k¨(v^) help ®pn$lv$ over again
ekak$y¨) pick up ®pn\e®pac\; over again
k¥it\ secretly Pi very much
’ki(tc$' tc\’ki in advance eyac\ absently
Âkv\. at discretion era(eN˙a) join in
Kui; furtively la(erak\) come
K∑´ split up luik$lM) follow, accompany
s(tc$ start lup\ fabricate
Sk$lk$ continue l˙v\. turn
Sc\. repeat l˙m\; reach out
tn\; directly elYak\' e‰˙ak\ go straight on
ty\ very much lWt\ very much
t∑n\; very much wc$erak$ enter
Tp$mM) over again wuic\;(wn\;) gather round
nc\;(kn$ very much qa more
ep; allow qip\ very much
pui(mui) more q∑a;(erak\) go
e®p; run
6. Coordinate markers (N1~ N2, N1~ N2~)

N˙c\.' n´≥ and, with lv\;ekac\; both … and
era' eka both … and eqa neither … nor
ry\ for one eqa\lv\;ekac\; either … or
17 Category lists
7. Location nouns
kal time when Ank\ among
(A)Âka; between enak\ behind
(A)Kå time (A)p outside
(A)Kuik\ when Apå; place
(A)K¥in\ time when (A)epÅ upon
sU\ while pt$pt$lv\ surrounding
S^ place (pt\)wn\;k¥c\ around
S´S´ on the point of A®p^; after
AetaAt∑c\; during (A)®pc\ outside
(A)t∑c\; inside eB;' nMeB; beside
(A)T´ inside Bk\ direction
(A)Tk\ above ra place, mark
TM place e‰˙> in front of
TMpå; place (A)ly\ middle
(A)na; near Al¥c\' Arc\ preceding
An^; near eAak\ under
enra place where, matter of
8. Noun attribute markers (N~N)

N˙c\.' n´≥ with luilui rather like
ApåAwc\ including wå or
(A)Pui≥ for eqa adjective
r´.' k´. ’s, belonging to f ’s, belonging to
lui like induced creaky tone ’s, belonging
to
Category lists 18
9. Noun markers (N~)

k from ®Pc\. by means of
k subject ®Pc\. -ly
ktv\;kever since A®Ps\ as
ken(“p^;(eta.)) from P∑y\ just like
k´.qui≥' qui≥ like m˙ from
kui object etc m˙a' my\ in, at, on
k¥(s^) to each m˙a topic
eÂkac\.(mui≥(lui≥)) because of mY as much as
AeÂkac\; particulars of, concerning AmY' tmY equivalent to
K¥c\; reciprocally (A)eyac\' eyac\eyac\ appearance
(A)s beginning with Ar according to
Asa; instead of ry$lui≥)' h¨jas such
s√\ every Ala; in the manner of
Av^' v^s∑a matching lui like
tk∑(nk$' Ak∑ along with luilui rather like
t(s\)på; apart from lui≥ quoted
t(s\)elYak$luM;) the length of elak\ as much as
tuic\(tuic$' tuic\eAac\ up to luik\ according to
Atuic\; according to Aluik\ according to
t(s\)Sc\. (passing) through Ael¥ak\ in accordance with
tun\;k while lYc\ per
At∑k\ on account of wy\ on, at, in
t∑c\ in, at, on qui≥ to
(A)Ti' TieAac\ up to qv\ subject
Tk\ more than ha subject
Tk\Ti up to Aa; object
Tk\tuic\ up to Aa;®Pc\. by means of
Aenn´≥' AenN˙c\./®Pc\. as Aa;®Pc\. as regards
N˙c\.' n´≥ with Aa;el¥a\s∑a in accordance with
N˙y\ like Ò' NOik\ in, at, on
(A)Pui≥ for
19 Category lists
10. Noun modifiers (N~)

(k)el; little n^;n^;' n^;på; nearly as much as
ek¥a$ek¥a$ more than epåc\; total
Âk^^; large pt\luM; for the duration
Kn\≥ approximately P male
K∑´ and a half (A)Pui male
cy\ little (A)m female
s^ each mv\ka(mY)' mv\kamt† in name only
SuM; most m¥a; plural
tka all m¥a;s∑a' Am¥a; many
titi precisely elak\ approximately
eta\ sacred, royal, official (s)luM; all
tui≥ plural luM;luM; full
tuic\; every qaqa just over
t(s\)et∑ and the rest qa; all
tv\; only Aa;luM; all
et∑ plural Repetition (b) baby talk
(A)T^; male
11. Selectives (~, ~N, ~sfx)

AÂkc\ that mv\puMmv\nv\; in what way?
AK¥oi>' t(s\)K¥oi> some (mv\eR∑>)mv\mY how much?
A®Ka;' t(s\)®Ka; other mv\q¨ who?
(A)t^ which? mv$k´.)qui≥' mv\qui≥mv\puM in what way?
t(s$suM any mv$k´.)qui≥eqa what sort of?
t(s$på; other mv\qv\. which?
Tui this, that yc\; this, that
då this, that lv\;ekac\; this, the same
d^ this, that qui≥ thus
Nui≥ that, thus qv\ this, that
AN˙a that eha this here, that there
AN˙^ this, that hui that
Ba what? È this
(A)By\ which? Èmv\eqa a certain
By\N˙s\ how many? A´ that, that just mentioned
Category lists 20
12. Sentence final phrase particles (Stc~)

kui; exclamatory epå≥ of course
K¥v\;' K¥v\. nothing but pc\ indeed
s' s.M question puM(sM(m¥oi;)) appearance, as if
tka; indeed ry\ really
tmuM≥ indeed la; question
tv\; indeed el you see
tuM; question l´ question
ena\' ena' eN˙a OK? Right? ela question
nv\; question qeBa idea of
på polite ha indeed
på≥ indeed Usßa indeed
ep indeed Rising intonation question
p´' kp´ indeed
13. Sentence markers (V~, N~)

s∑ exclamatory r´.' k´. statement
S´ is/was in the process of era' (k)era statement
tka; exclamatory era as soon as
ty\' q' ta statement era.my\ must have
N˙c\' n´≥ (m-V~) negative command Rui; statement
på(k)la; exclamatory rn\eka exclamatory
på(Ë;/AuM;)la; how about el(el) the more … the more
pålim\.(ml´) I wonder what elera.qla; could it be that
på≥ exclamatory ela. command
på.my\ I certainly will lc\. (m-V~) negative command
på.mla;/l´ will it really lt†M> will
epåc\ (m-V~) negative statement lim\.my\/mv\ probably will
pim\. future statement l˙K¥v\r´. etc exclamatory
“p^^ is V-ing (now) qa; exclamatory
B¨;' P¨; (m-V~) negative statement eqa statement
mv\ future statement qv\' q statement
my\' m' m˙a future statement AM. will
(s)®m´ always f statement
m˙n\; the fact that Zero (a) command
reAac$la;) shall we? Zero (b) graphic statement
21 Category lists
14. Sentence medial phrase particles (Phr~)

k as for m¥a; or something
ka; as for ®m´ as before
eka' era and how about m˙(qa) only
kui really m˙' mY even
K¥v\;' K¥v\. nothing but m˙ emphatic
eta.(rc$ however m˙a topic
etac$m˙) even mY in extent
på including era as well
p´' B´ emphatic lili utterly, completely
pk\(lYc$ emphatic lv\;' l´ also
pc$lYc$ emphatic lYc\ emphatic
®Pc\.(rc\) as for lYc\/rc\lv\; either … or
m¨ as for eqa\ as for
m¨ka; as for eqa\mY/m˙ even
15. Special head nouns (V~)

k¥oi; (np\-)to receive the benefit of mv\ that which will
Kmn\; that must be m˙a that which will
K¥k\ forms noun from verb mO act
®Kc\; forms noun from verb ra thing
K∑c\. permission er; affair
s beginning Rui; forms noun from verb
sra that can be rc\; essence
sit\ attitude RuM mere act
ta forms noun from verb el.(-T) habit
eta\ sacred, royal, official luM; forms noun from verb
nv\; method q¨ person who
puM manner qv\ forms noun from verb
ePa\ (r) make the effort qM sound
Pn\ (m¥a;-) many times hn\ manner
P∑y$ra) that can be
Category lists 22
16. Subordinate clause markers (V~, N~)

k if m¨' påm¨ if
ktv\;kever since m´.' mv\. (V~ V) really
ka -ing m´.qa (V~ V) for form’s sake only
kamY(N˙c\./®Pc\.)by the mere fact of m˙ only if
(A)eÂkac\; (say) that m˙n\; (know) that
Kn´' kn´´ with a (A)eyac\' eyac\eyac\ appearance
Kc\' m^ (mV~) before r (V-r-rhyme) -ish
K¥c\; (VV~, V-lYc\-V~) as soon as rka; because
K¥v\' K¥^ alternating ra when
®Kc\; (-lYc$ if one must ra (-eÂkac\;) a means to
sP¨; (m-V~) unprecedentedly era as soon as
sP∑y\ such as to cause rc\;' yc\; while
eskam¨ although rn\' pårn\ in order to
s∑a -ly la; again and again
ASuM; (mVK¥c\~) more than one wants lui (V~ V) as one wishes
t- -ly lui≥ because
eta.(Kå) when, because lui≥ -ing
tuic\; every time luik\ alternating
tun\; while lc\.ksa; although
tun\;k while l¥k\' rk\ -ing
tm\; mutual lYc\' rc\ if, when
tuM alternating qa; (AV~) -ly
enenqaqa far from eqa\ when, if
Nui; in the expectation that eqa$®ca;)lv\; although
epm´.' ept´. etc although hy\ again and again
®p^;(eta.) after Ë;eta.' esË;eta. even supposing
®p^;rc\; more than before eAac\(lui≥)so as to
Pui≥ in order to eAac\ (m-VV~) without fail
B´' p´ (m-V~) without j -ing
m (m-V-t-V) not fully Repetition (a) adverb
m (m-VV VV) not fully Repetition (e) whether…or
mK¥c\; (m-V~) for as long as not Repetition (f) whoever, whatever
mtt\ almost Zero (d) what with
23 Category lists
17. Subordinate sentence markers (VA~)

k´.qui≥' qui≥ like mui≥(lui≥) because
eÂkac\.(mui≥(lui≥)) because of m˙n\; (know) that
AeÂkac\; concerning mY as much as
Asa; instead of (A)eyac\' eyac\eyac\ as if
ASuM; (m-V-Nuic\qv\.~) finally Ar according to
At¨(t¨) one might as well eR∑>' j so long as
tuic\(tuic$' tuic\eAac\ up to Ala; like
tuic$eAac$ even though el; quotation
Atuic\; according to lui like
t(s\)‘pic\nk\(tv\;) at same time as luilui rather like
At∑k\ on account of lui≥ (say) that
(A)Ti up to elak\ as much as
Tk\ more than Ael¥ak\ in accordance with
Aenn´≥' AenN˙c\./®Pc\. as Aa;®Pc\. by way of
N˙y\ like Aa;el¥a\s∑a as is fitting
®Pc\. as a result of
18. Verb attribute markers (V~N)

sP∑y\ such as to cause ra that, which
t´.' ty\.' q that, which rc\;(s∑´) that was previously
enk¥ that is habitually rn\ in order to, for
“p^;(qa;) that is already lk\s that is not yet finished
P∑y\ to be V-d qa; that, which
Pui≥ for V-ing qv\.' q' eqa that, which
m´.' my\. that will Repetition (a) attribute
mv\. that will
19. Verb modifiers (V~-)

ekac\;- be good to K´- rarely
kun\- all K´.- back there
Âk- each, all Kc\- in time
Âkv\.- try out Kuic\;- command
Category lists 24
19. Verb modifiers (V~-) (continued)

K¥- fiercely y¨- for oneself
eK¥- (uncertain) eyac\- seem to
K¥c\- want to r- have to, be able to
es- allow r- (V(lui≥/j) ~) succeed
sui≥- let’s ra- should
sm\;- urgency r´- dare
sim\.- cause to rk\- bring oneself to
s∑a- very rs\- remain behind
eta.- at last, (no) longer ‰˙a- sympathy
tv\. etc (uncertain) la- begin, become
tt\- know how to lu(n^;)- on the point of
tn\- be suitable to el- euphonic
tn\ra- be usual to lui- wish to
Ta;- permanently elak\- be enough to
Tuik\- suitable luik\- away, out, just
en- be V-ing lt\- euphonic
Nui;- likely l∑n\;(Aa;Âk^;)- too much
Nuic\- able l∑y\- easy
N˙c\.- in advance l˙- very much
på- polite l˙v\.- encouragement
ep- euphonic wM.- dare
ep;- for qa- be feasible to
puic\- have the right to eq;- still, yet
ps\- quickly qc\.(-Tuik\) appropriate
ep¥a\- adequately q∑a;- on the way, become
®p- show Aa;- be free to
“p^;- finish Aa;”k^;- too much
‘p- and so on Ë;' AuM;- still, yet
®pn\- resume Ap\- be suitable to
P¨;- before Ap\- passive
®Ps\- manage Chime + rhyme -k\ and so on
mi- unintentionally Repetition (d) keep on V
25 Category lists
20. Miscellaneous
kuiy\ body, one tn\ worth
AeÂkac\; cause tuM- recurring action
Kp\- rather ®Ps\ it is
s (ts\-N-s) a few here and there ®Ps\®Kc\; exclamatory
Suiq¨ person known as Ara thing, matter
tky\' Aky\ if er;K¥ (m-V~) definitely
tky\' Aky\ true, real lv\;ekac\; ditto
t´. reported speech ha thing
ts\' t one A prefix
tv\. uncertain Repetition (c) one by one
tt\ (mekac\;tt\-) unavoidable Induced creaky tone marks juncture
tt\ (-qtt\-) it says Zero (c) suspended clause
26
27
BIBLIOGRAPHY
including sources referred to in the text
and selected recent studies of Burmese grammar
Allott 1965: Categories for the verbal syntagma in Burmese, by A J Allott. Pp

186-227 in Lingua 15
Allott 1994: The end of the first Anglo-Burmese war: the Burmese chronicle
account of how the 1826 Treaty of Yandabo was negotiated, by A J
Allott. Chulalongkorn University Press, Bangkok
Bernot 1978-93: Dictionnaire birman-français ("Burmese-French dictionary"),
by Denise Bernot. 15 vols, CEDRASEMI, Paris
Bernot 1980: Le prédicat en birman parlé, by Denise Bernot. In the series
Langues et civilisations de l’Asie du sud-est et du monde insulindien,
vol 8, SELAF, Paris
Bradley 1995: Reflexives in Burmese, by David Bradley. Pp 139-172 in
Studies in Burmese languages, Pacific Linguistics Publication A-83,
ed D Bradley. Papers in Southeast Asian Linguistics Nº 13,
Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies,
Australian National University, Canberra
Esche 1976: Wörterbuch Burmesisch-Deutsch ("Burmese-German dictionary"),
by Annemarie Esche. VEB Verlag, Leipzig
Johnson 1992: The Limits of Grammar: Syntax and Lexicon in Modern Spoken
Burmese, by Rod Johnson. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of
Michigan
Kasevich 1976: Kratkii Ocherk Grammatiki Birmanskogo Yazyka (“Short
Outline of Burmese Grammar”), by V B Kasevich. Pp 731-83 in
Minina 1976
Minina 1976: Birmansko-Russkiy slovar’ ("Burmese-Russian dictionary"), by G
F Minina and U Kyaw Zaw. Nauka, Moscow
Minn Latt 1962-64: Studies in Burmese grammar, by Mînn Latt Yêkháun. In
Archiv Orientální 30.1 pp 49-115, 31.2 pp 230-73, 32 pp 265-92
Mînn Latt 1966: The Modernization of Burmese, by Mînn Latt Yêkháun.
Dissertationes orientales vol 11, Oriental Institute in Academia,
Publishing House of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, Prague
Bibliography 28
MLC 1985-99: ®mn\maqd∂å (“Myanmar grammar”). Three vols, bound in

separate sections, Myanmar Language Commission, Yangon
MLC 1991: ®mn\maABiDan\ (“Myanmar dictionary”). Myanmar Language
Commission, Yangon
MLC 1993a: ®mn\maAgçlip\ABiDan\ (“Myanmar English dictionary”). Myanmar
Language Commission. Yangon
MLC 1993b: ®mn\masa ®mn\maska; (“Myanmar language”). Myanmar Language
Commission, Yangon
Myint 1994: Birumago no keitairon (“Morphology of Burmese words”), by U
Tun Myint. Tokyo Gaikokugo Daigaku, Tokyo
Okell 1965: Nissaya Burmese: systematic adaptation to a foreign grammar
and syntax, by John Okell. Pp 186-227 in Lingua 15. Revised and
reprinted: pp 95-123 in Journal of the Burma Research Society 50
(1) 1967
Okell 1969: A reference grammar of colloquial Burmese, by John Okell.
Oxford UP, London
Okell 1979: “Still” and “anymore” in Burmese, by John Okell. Pp 69-82 in
Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman area 4 (2)
Okell 1994: Burmese: an introduction, by John Okell. Four vols and 34
tapes, The Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois
University, DeKalb
Pe Maung Tin 1951: ®mn\mawåk¥P∑´>TuM;k¥m\; (“Burmese syntax”), by U Pe Maung
Tin. BTS, Yangon
Pe Maung Tin 1955: ek¥ac\;quM;®mn\maqd∂å (“Burmese grammar for schools”), by
U Pe Maung Tin. Sape Beikman, Yangon
Richter 1983: Lehrbuch des modernen Burmesisch, by E Richter. VEB
Verlag, Leipzig
Soe 1994: A semantic study of deictic auxiliaries in Burmese, by U Myint Soe.
Pp 125-39 in LTBA 17.1 spring
Stewart 1941-80: A Burmese-English dictionary, by J A Stewart et al. 6 vols
(incomplete), University of Rangoon, Luzac, SOAS, Rangoon/London
Wheatley 1982: Burmese : a grammatical sketch, by Julian K Wheatley. Ph D
Thesis, University of California, Berkeley
Wheatley 1990: Burmese, by Julian K Wheatley. Pp 106-126 in The major
languages of South-East Asia, ed. Bernard Comrie. Routledge,
London
Yabu 1993: Case particles -ká and -kou in Burmese, by Yabu Shiro. Pp 730-
36 in Current issues in Sino-Tibetan Linguistics, ed by Hajime
29 Bibliography
Kitamura, Tatsuo Nishida, Yasuhiko Nagano. The Organizing

Committee, The 26th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan
Languages and Linguistics, Osaka
30
31
INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Appellative suffix: a set of suffixes attached to appellatives to render their
effect more compelling. See the Dictionary entries for er and er.' ry\
and r´. and c´.' ra and ra."
Appellative: a term of address used to attract or compel someone’s attention;
e.g. ePeP Daddy, mit\eS∑ My friend, ka;Sra Driver, etc.
Appended appellative: a term of address attached to the end of a sentence,
e.g. ‰˙c\ “Sir/Madam” in dêlak\ mAeq;påB¨;‰˙c\ “I’m not that stupid,
Sir/Madam”. The words k∑y\' k∑´>' k∑a' k∑ are used almost exclu-
sively as appended appellatives.
Attribute: a word or phrase that attributes some feature or quality to a noun.
See Outline grammar §4.5, 7.1.
Complement: a noun or noun phrase or subordinate clause that is governed
by a verb. For example in the sentence q¨tiu≥ AePSMu;®p^; Aemk
eS;RuMt∑c\ Alup\ rqv\ (“When their father died, their mother got a job
in the hospital”) there are four complements to the verb r-, namely
(1) q¨tiu≥ AeP SMu;®p^;' (2) Aemk' (3) eS;RuMt∑c\' (4) Alup\"
Compound noun: a noun composed of analysable components. See Outline
grammar §4.1.
Compound verb: a verb composed of analysable components. See Outline
grammar §5.1.
Coordinate marker: a marker suffixed to a noun and indicating that the
noun is cordinated with the following noun. See Outline grammar
§4.7.
Induced creaky tone: see the entry in the Dictionary, after all the Burmese
script entries.
Interjection: an expression used on its own, e.g. era. Here you are, Take this,
k´ Well now, Right then.
Location noun: a noun found suffixed to a wide range of expressions and re-
ferring to a place or time. Location nouns commonly occur with
markers k “from, in the past”, kui “to, towards”, m˙a “at, in, on”. See
Outline grammar §4.3.
Index 32
Main clause: the last (or only) clause in the sentence, marked by a sentence
marker. See Outline grammar §6.
Main verb: the element of a compound verb to which other elements are at-
tached. See Outline grammar §5.2.
Marker: a suffix which marks the rôle played by a phrase in the sentence.
See Outline grammar §2.
Modifier: a component of a compound that is found suffixed to a wide range
of words. A compound formed of a noun with a noun modifier re-
mains a noun, and in the same way a verb with a verb modifier re-
mains a verb. See Outline grammar §4.2, 5.3.
Nominalized clause: a clause ending in one of a set of special head nouns
that have the effect of converting the clause into a unit that can be
treated as a noun. See Outline grammar §7.3.
Noun attribute marker: a marker suffixed to a noun and indicating that the
noun is an attribute of the following noun. See Outline grammar
§4.5.
Noun marker: marker that is suffixed to nouns. See Outline grammar §2.
Noun modifier: a modifier that is suffixed to nouns. See Outline grammar
§4.2.
Noun sentence: a sentence without a verb. The typical structure is N1-N2,
and the verb understood is “is, was, were, are” etc. See Outline
grammar §9.
Numerative: a noun used after numbers and after the interrogative By\N˙s\
“how many”. See Outline grammar §4.4.
Personal referents: words used to refer to particular individuals. The class
includes (a) pronouns, such as mc\; you, q¨ he/she/it, (b) kin terms,
such as kuikui brother, qa; son, (c) titles, such as wn\Âk^; minister, N˙´
Sra oboe player, (d) names, such as kuiemac\emac\tc\ Master Maung
Maung Tin, edÅmael; Mrs Mar Lay. The distinctive features of per-
sonal referents are that as a rule they (1) take induced creaky tone if
applicable (see English entries sv), and (2) do not take the suffixes k
“from”, kui “to”, m˙a “at” etc directly, but require the location nouns S^
or TM to be interposed: cå “I” + k “from” cå.S^k “from me”.
Phrase particle: a suffix that does not alter the rôle of the phrase in the sen-
tence. See Outline grammar §3.
Pre-verb: a verb that is used before a wide range of other verbs. See Outline
grammar §5.2.
33 Index
Selective: a word that picks out one or more items from the general mass.
e.g. È this, By\ which?, AK¥oi> some.
Sentence final phrase particle: a phrase particle that is suffixed to the last
phrase in the sentence. See Outline grammar §3.
Sentence marker: marker suffixed to a verb and indicating that the sentence
is concluded. See Outline grammar §2, 6.
Sentence medial phrase particle: a phrase particle that is suffixed to phrases
other than the last phrase in the sentence. See Outline grammar §3.
Simple noun: a noun that cannot be analysed into smaller components. See
Outline grammar §4.
Simple verb: a verb that cannot be analysed into smaller components. See
Outline grammar §5.1.
Special head noun: a noun having the property that a verb or verb clause
can be attributed to it directly without the use of verb attribute
markers. See Outline grammar §7.2.
Subordinate clause: a clause that requires a further clause before the sen-
tence can be concluded. See Outline grammar §6.
Subordinate sentence: same as a subordinate clause, except that the marker
is not suffixed to the verb but to a sentence marker, usually in the
form of a verb attribute. See Outline grammar §8.
Verb attribute: an attribute to a noun consisting of a verb, usually with a
verb attribute marker, and optionally with some noun phrases pre-
ceding the verb. See Outline grammar §7.
Verb modifier: a modifier that is suffixed to verbs. See Outline grammar
§5.3.
Index 34
Form classes in the Myanmar English Dictionary (MED)
The MED uses a broader classification system. It distinguishes conjunc-

tions, postpositional markers, particles, pronouns and adverbs. With some
exceptions:
MED conjunctions correspond to our subordinate clause markers;
MED postpositional markers correspond to our noun markers and sentence
markers;
MED adverbs correspond to our pre-verbs;
MED pronouns correspond to our selectives; and
MED particles correspond to our phrase particles, but also include some of
our special head nouns, sentence markers, subordinate clause mark-
ers, verb attribute markers, noun modifiers, verb modifiers and nu-
meratives.
Some words denoting a quality, such as n^qv\ to be red, epåqv\ to be plenti-
ful, which we treat as “verbs”, are classified as “adjectives” in the MED. In
contrast, some other words denoting a quality, such as n^;qv\ to be near,
and m¥a;qv\ to be many, are listed in the MED as “verbs”.

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Burmese/Myanmar

is a list of the common grammatical forms or particles of Burmese. Each

Colloquial and literary styles

Structure and scope of the Dictionary

The two authors have again collaborated to compile the present

Initials Where an example contains a Burmese name, we have some-

Structure of the entry

Myanmar) Language Commission, which decided on a set of correct spellings

approved variant meaning

followed by es is pronounced /wc\ez/ not /wc\es/, and so on for all voiceable

Position of negative prefix

Notes on the alphabetical order chart

Initial Medial Rhymes: Rhymes:

• kÁn\m sit\p¨tak q¨≥k¥n\;maer;At∑k\påp´" ngi ukT´k q¨k k¥n\;maer;

kla; see under påkla; exclamatory

• ‘gih\sc\®Ps\eAac\ q∑n\;kamYqa ®Ps\j ®goih\q∑n\;hu nqt\qc\.eÂkac\; Suiqv\" As

• ss\®p^;eKt\Òka; erq∑c\;lup\cn\;m¥a;kui tsts ®pn\lv\ ‘psup¥oi;eTac\laK´.qv\" In

• buil\!^kam˙ak´.qui≥" As in the Bo Tiga (text).

• Aemeka laeq;qla;" And your mother — did she come too?

• kÁn\eta\tiu≥ R∑akiu Tn\;tpc\R∑ahu eKÅpåqv\" Our village is called Htan-tabin

• el;eyak\kiu ts\Ait\ Tut\ep;ty\" They issue one bagful to every four

• l¨q¨e‰˙>m˙aeta. e®pa(Pui≥)ekac\;my\ mTc\B¨; CB = FB l¨q¨e‰˙>t∑c\ka;

• e®paÂkkun\f" They (each) spoke.

• k¥op\tiu≥kiuy\ k¥op\tiu≥ ewK´∑mrB¨;" We can’t decide whether we belong to one

• enak\saT´ k¥m˙ t®Ka; AeÂkac\;Araet∑ er;påAuM;my\" In my next letter I’ll

• suepåc\;lup\kiuc\mO®Pc\. eK¥ac\;qs\e®mac\;qs\m¥a;kiu ePak\K´.Âk®p^" By cooperative work

• ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a;qv\ ek¥ac\;qiu≥ nMnk\ 7-nar^AK¥in\Kn\≥kpc\ ’kitc\ erak\‰˙i

• piu≥qt´.emt†aeÂkac\. Aa;luM; enekac\;Âkpåty\" We are all well thanks to the

member of the Taungdwingyi Museum executive committee and so on,

(sound of) spitting in disgust; qMeK¥ac\;qM edåc\Kn´´ epÅT∑k\laf" The sound

(c) in pattern V-t´.AKå V- to V when it Vs, to V occasionally, some-

movement verb: it expressly denies movement. So sentences like enK´.på

Aemrikn\kiu By\tun\;k erak\laql´" When did you reach A, when did

• q¨qa q´q´N˙c\. mSMu®Ps\K´.lYc\ qv\®pœnaet∑ epÅepåk\lasraAeÂkac\; m‰˙iep" If

• ®mc\Kc\eplui≥ S∑´luik\Nuic\ty\" I was able to catch hold of him because I saw

• BÂk^;emac\qv\ eA;®cim\;kiu A®pc\T∑k\j eZ;erac\;mKiuc\;" BGM didn’t make AN

(a) m¥k\luM; Awt\sv\; KM- to agree to be blindfolded, to submit to blind-

to be interrogated, to give their statements, hence Ass\KMK¥k\ statement by

• Apy\ KMr- to be rejected; Alim\ KMr- to be cheated; Ak¥U\; KMr- to be

• Âka‰˙v\ KM- to be hard wearing, long lasting; ASa KM- to be filling,

• Tuic\K¥luik\qv\" She sat down with a bump.

• lup\nv\;et∑k suMtka.suM suMl∑n\;ÂkeK¥qv\" The range of different methods (of

• tK¥oi>ek¥ac\;qa;m¥a;At∑k\eta.' ASc\e®pK¥c\ e®ppålim\.my\" It may be all right

• Aa;nv\;K¥k\ weakness; AÂkMep;K¥k\ advice; ewPn\K¥k\ criticism, review (of

• eS∑ry\m¥oi;ry\ m‰˙im˙®Pc\. l¨¨tuic\;k ATc\eq;K¥c\ty\" Everyone is apt to look

• ts\eyak\K¥c\; tiuk\p´∑" Single combat.

• nc\tiu≥Aa;lMu; At¨t¨K¥v\;p´" You lot are all the same.

• ts\rk\®Ka; ts\Kås^ lup\rqv\\" I have to do each (different activity) every

• ePePklv\; q¨≥Alup\m˙l´∑lYc\ A®Ka; BakiumY p¨p¨pc\pc\ Ta;tt\q¨ mhut\ep"

listing topics or chapter headings in books; sp hd nn; cf V-mO' V-K¥k\' V-er;'

• qiK¥c\liu≥ A´d^liu saer;®Kc\; ®Ps\påty\" It is because I want to know that I am

• q¨tui≥ eÂkak\tak d^miukers^ eÂkak\ta mhut\B¨;' l∑t\lp\s∑a er;qa;K∑c\.

• m˙n\lium˙n\®ca; ps\sm\;liuk\t´.AK¥k\B´b¥" I shot at a venture, to see if I could

rn\Alui≥c˙a and similar combinations for V-ing, to gain V, to achieve

• qÂkçn\rk\m¥a;t∑c\ q∑a;er;laer;kAs As^AsU\Aa;lMu; eK¥aem∑>eAac\

s 5 (N~) a piece for N, a hem, a trailing corner of N, typically referring to

• A”kim\”kim\ ciu“p^; qna;sP∑y\ etac\;pn\enta" She begged forgiveness weeping

• qip\ K¥s\sra ekac\;t´. Kel;kel;p´" What a sweet, loveable little baby!

• qa;APN˙s\eyak\ ts\eyak\ ts\lMu;s^ l∑y\Ait\T´ Tv\.l∑y\K´.Âkty\" Father

• d^®pœnaet∑kui kÁn\eta\tui≥ tSc\.s^tSc\.s^ d^luip´ ek¥a\lWa;q∑a;rm˙ap´" We shall

equivalent to the aspirated verb, e.g. l∑t\esqv\ “to cause to be free” =

• A´då q¨≥kiu mem.påesn´≥" Don’t let him forget that.

• kÁn\eta\.kiu enak\SuM; e®paesK¥c\ty\ Tc\ty\" I think they want me to speak