Chapter 5

Intake and Exhaust Flow

5.1) If an engine has a bore of 0.1 m, stroke of 0.08 m, inlet flow effective area of 4.0 × 10−4 m2 , and inlet
temperature of 320 K, what is the maximum speed it is intended to be operated while maintaining
good volumetric efficiency?

The Mach Index Z should be ≤ 0.6, so:

Ai · ci
Up ≤
1.3 · b2

The speed of sound in the inlet flow is

1/2 1/2
ci = (γRTi ) = [(1.4)(287)(320)] = 358.6 m/s

so


4.0 × 10−4 (358.6)
Up ≤ = 11.0 m/s
(1.3)(1)2

Solving for the speed

Up 11
N= = = 68.9 rev/s
2s (2)(0.08)
N = 4138 rpm

1
2 CHAPTER 5. INTAKE AND EXHAUST FLOW

5.2) Explain how unburned fuel can appear in the exhaust during the intake and exhaust strokes.

Fuel air mixtures can flow into the exhaust system via a short-circuit during the intake and exhaust
valve overlap period if the pressure conditions are such that

Pintake port > Pcylinder > Pexhaust port

Such conditions can exist with superchargers.

 3

5.3) Combustion gases (γ= 1.3, R = 280 J/kg K) exit through the exhaust port of a two stroke engine
during blowdown. The exhaust port geometry can be modeled as a converging nozzle with a port
diameter of 2 cm. The cylinder gases are initially at 200 kPa and 393 K, and Patm = 101 kPa. What
is the initial exit velocity and mass flow rate of the exhaust flow ?

The initial pressure ratio is Po /Patm = 200/101 = 1.98

The critical pressure ratio for choked flow is
   γ/(γ−1)
Po γ−1
= 1+ M2
Pe 2
γ/(γ−1)
(5.1)

γ+1
=
2
= 1.83

Therefore the initial flow will be choked and the flow sonic at the exit, with M = 1. The exit pressure
Pe is 200/1.83 = 109 kPa.
Since the exit pressure is slightly above atmospheric, the exit flow will be an underexpanded jet.
The exit temperature Te is
 
To γ−1
=1+ M2
Te 2 (5.2)
= 1.15

Te = 393/1.15 = 342 K (5.3)

The initial exit velocity Ve is equal to the exit speed of sound ce

Ve = ce = (γRTe )1/2 = (1.3 × 280 × 342)1/2 = 353 m/s (5.4)

The stagnation density is

Po 200000
ρo = =
RTo (280) (393) (5.5)
3
= 1.817 kg/m

The density ratio ρo /ρe is

 γ/(γ−1)
ρo To
=
ρe T
4.33
(5.6)

393
=
342
= 1.83

So ρe = 1.817/1.83 = 0.99 kg/m3

The mass flow rate, ṁ, through the port is

ṁ = ρe Ae Ve = (0.99)(π/4)(0.022)(352) = 0.10 kg/s (5.7)

4 CHAPTER 5. INTAKE AND EXHAUST FLOW

5.4) It was explained in the chapter that because of the pressure drop across a valve, it is advantageous to
close the intake valve after bottom dead center. Use the same logic to explain why exhaust valves are
closed after top dead center and what the effect of engine speed is on the residual fraction.

Exhaust valves are closed after top dead center for two main reasons. The first reason is the fi-
nite opening and closing time of cam actuated poppet valves. Due to the mechanical inertia of the
valve train, and to avoid float, there is a limit on the acceleration and deceleration of the valve. This
implies that there is a minimum closing time required to close a poppet valve. To maximize the open
duration time of the valve during the exhaust stroke, it is therefore necessary to extend the closing
time past top dead center.

The second reason is the effect of finite engine speed. In the limit of zero engine speed, there would
be no pressure drop across the exhaust valve during the exhaust stroke. Thus after top dead center
when the piston begins to move downward, if the exhaust valve is open, there would be a flow reversal,
since the motion of the piston would pull the exhaust gas from the exhaust manifold to the cylinder.
As the engine speed increases, the pressure drop across the exhaust valve will increase, and the angle
of flow reversal will occur later and later past top dead center. The duration between top dead center
and the onset of flow reversal can be used to extend the exhaust process.

The residual fraction will be a minimum when the onset of flow reversal is coincident with the valve
closing. If the valve closing occurs earlier, then additional residuals will remain in the cylinder, in-
creasing the residual fraction. If the valve closing occurs later, then exhaust products will return to
the cylinder from the exhaust manifold, also increasing the residual fraction.
 5

5.5) Suppose an engine were constructed with variable valve timing, thus ensuring optimum timing at all
speeds. Explain how the volumetric efficiency would depend on speed for wide-open throttle operation
with short pipes and Z < 0.6.

With a wide open throttle, short pipes, and Z < 0.6, the inlet pressure drop will be only across
the valve, and there will be negligible compressible flow effects. As stated in the text, the volumetric
efficiency increases with speed, until flow reversal starts at intake valve closure. With a VVT, one can
increase (delay) the intake valve closure as the engine speed increases. This will move the location of
the maximum volumetric efficiency to higher and higher piston speeds. The value of the maximum
volumetric efficiency will decrease slightly, since at greater speeds there is an increased pressure drop
across the inlet valve, and the trapped mass will be relatively decreased.
6 CHAPTER 5. INTAKE AND EXHAUST FLOW

5.6) Figure 5.2 shows an inlet valve opened to l/di = 0.25. If the stem is chosen to be ds = 0.15di and the
throat of the port is dt = 0.85di , what would be the flow coefficient based purely on the geometrical
blockage?

Taking the valve stem into account, the flow cross sectional area is
π
dt 2 − ds 2


Af low =
4

The valve area is

π
di 2


Av =
4

If we define
Af low
Cd,blockage =
Av
then
dt 2 − ds 2
Cd,blockage = = (0.85)2 − (0.15)2
di 2
Cd,blockage = 0.700
 7

5.7) Calculate the ratios of the inlet valve area to piston area for the three configurations, a, b, c in Figure
5.11.

The ratio of inlet valve area to piston area is

π 2

 2
Av 4 di di
= ni π 2 = ni
Ap 4 (b ) b

a)
 2
Av 0.44b
= (1) = 0.194
Ap b

b)
 2
Av 0.49b
= (1) = 0.240
Ap b

c)
 2
Av 0.33b
= (2) = 0.218
Ap b

Note that with a flat cylinder head, the length ratio of 0.24 was obtained with a single intake valve. If
the head is more wedge or dome shaped, the diameter of the multiple valves can be increased, giving
ratios up to 0.5.
8 CHAPTER 5. INTAKE AND EXHAUST FLOW

5.8) Compare the performance of a single inlet valve and a double inlet valve configuration. The diameter
of the inlet valve is 22 mm for the single valve configuration, and 16 mm for the double valve configu-
ration. If the maximum valve lift l/d = 0.25, what is the difference in the valve curtain and the valve
seat areas for both cases ? What are some advantages to using four valves per cylinder ?

The valve curtain area Ac = πdl and the valve seat area As = πd2 /4. Note that at l/d = 0.25, Ac = As ,
so for larger valve lift with Ac > As , the minimum flow area is the constant seat area As .

For d = 22 mm, Ac = Ad = 380 mm2 . For d = 16 mm, Ac = Ad = 201 mm2 . So for the two inlet valve
configuration, the total area is 2 x 201 = 402 mm2 , a 6% increase, relative to the single inlet valve at
d = 22 mm.

As stated on p. 142, the use of multiple valves increases the valve area per unit piston area, and hence
the speed at which the engine power becomes flow limited. Heads are often wedge-shaped or domed to
increase the valve area to piston area, so that intake valve area to piston area ratios of up to 0.5 can
be obtained.
 9

5.9) If the inlet Mach index in each case in Figure 5.11 is held to Zi = 0.6 and ci = 400 m/s, Ai =
0.35 ni(π/4) d2i where ni = number of intake valves, then what would be the maximum piston speed in
each case?

 2
(0.35)(ni ) π4 di 2 (ci )



Ai · ci di
U p,max = = = 85.48(n i )
1.3 · b2 1.3 · b2 b
a)

U p,max = (85.48)(0.194) = 16.4 m/s

b)

U p,max = (85.48)(0.240) = 20.3 m/s

c)

U p,max = (85.48)(0.218) = 18.4 m/s

 10 CHAPTER 5. INTAKE AND EXHAUST FLOW

5.10) A four-stroke four cylinder square (bore = stroke) engine has a displacement volume of 5 L and
operates at 3000 rpm. The intake air temperature is 350 K, the intake manifold length is 1.25 m long,
and C̄f = 0.38. (a) For a Mach index Z = 0.6, what is the mean piston speed and intake valve flow area
Av ? (b) Using the simple acoustic tuning equation, at what engine speed would the intake manifold
be ”tuned” for increased intake mass flow ?
a) The displacement volume is
π π
Vd = nc b2 s = nc b3
4 4

The bore and stroke are

 1/3  1/3
4 · Vd 4 · 5 × 10−3
b=s= = = 0.117 m
nc · π 4·π

The mean piston speed up is

 
3000
up = 2(s)(N ) = 2(0.117) = 11.7 m/s
60

The average effective flow area Ai is

1.3 · b2 · up (1.3)(0.117)2(11.6)
Ai = = = 5.5 × 10−4 m2
ci (1.4 · 287 · 350)1/2

The intake valve area Av is

Ai 5.5 × 10−4
Av = = = 1.46 × 10−3 m2
Cf 0.38

b)

(7.5)(1.4 · 287 · 350) /2

1
a · c0
Nt = = = 2250 rpm
Lt 1.25
 11

5.11) Compare the predicted resonant tuning rpm Nt (Equation 5.60) of a Helmholtz resonator model with
the simple acoustic tuning rpm of Equation 5.58 and also the experimental results for maximum vol-
umetric efficiency ev plotted in Figure 5.17. Assume Di is equal to the inlet pipe diameter. Make a
table of the tuning rpm versus tuning inlet pipe length for the five cases shown in Figure 5.17. Assume
b = 83 mm, s = 106 mm, Di = 0.05 m, r = 9, To = 300 K.

The Helmholtz effective volume is

 
Vd r + 1
Vef f =
2 r−1
 
π 9+1
= (0.083)2 (0.106)
2·4 9−1
= 3.58 × 10−4 m3

The sound speed with γ = 1.4 is

1/2 1/2
c0 = (γ · R · T0 ) = (1.4 · 287 · 300) = 347 m/s

The acoustic tuning equation is

7.5c0 2604
Nt = =
Li Li

The Helmholtz tuning equation is

π 2 1/2
4 Di

15
Nt = (c0 )
π vef f · Li
π 2 1/2
4 (0.05)

15
= (347)
π (3.58 × 10−4 ) · Li
3880
= 1/2
Li

The following table compares the predictions of the tuning equation with experimental results for
maximum volumetric efficiency. Neither of the models reproduces the complex dependence of the vol-
umetric efficiency on engine speed and pipe length. Both of the models do indicate that as the engine
speed increases, the tuned pipe length decreases, one scaling as L−1 , and the other as L /2
−1

L Experiment N (rpm) Helmholtz N (rpm) Acoustic N (rpm)

0 3900 ∞ ∞
0.203 5000 8611 12,827
0.381 4500 6285 6834
0.546 4000 5250 4769
0.826 3500 4268 3152
 12 CHAPTER 5. INTAKE AND EXHAUST FLOW

5.12) Three camshafts are available for an engine. The valve maximum lift and intake and exhaust opening
and closing angles in degrees relative to top dead center (tdc) and bottom dead center (bdc) are
tabulated below .
CAM IO IC EO EC LIFT
(before tdc) (after bdc) (before bdc) (after tdc) (mm)
Factory 30 60 60 30 9.5
A 26 66 66 26 11.4
B 22 62 62 22 10.3
Draw a sketch of the three cam timing diagrams. Discuss the effects these different cams might have,
including duration and overlap effects.

The duration and overlap of each cam is listed in the table below:

Timing (Degrees)
Cam Overlap Duration of Intake Duration of Exhaust
θcc - θio θic - θio θcc - θco
Factory 60 270 270
A 52 272 272
B 44 264 264

• Factory
– This has the largest overlap, so it will have the largest short-circuiting
– The intake closing is the earliest, so there may be fuel starvation at high RPM
• Cam A
– The exhaust valve opens earliest, so it will have the shortest effective expansion stroke
– The intake closing is the latest, so it will have good performance at high RPM
– The duration of intake and exhaust is the largest, also giving good performance at high RPM
• Cam B
– The overlap is the smallest, so it will have the least short-circuiting
– The exhaust closing is the earliest, so the residual fraction will be the highest. This will
increase the initial pressure, and decrease the combustion temperature.
– The duration of intake and exhaust is the smallest, which will hinder performance at high
RPM
 13

5.13) Derive an expression for the volumetric efficiency of a supercharged engine, using an analysis similar
to the derivation of Equation 5.51.

With a supercharged engine, since the intake manifold pressure is always greater than the cylinder
pressure, there is no flow of residual gas from the cylinder to the intake manifold. The start of intake
of fresh mixture (is) is coincident with the opening of the intake valve (io). Also, because of the super-
charging, there is flow from the cylinder into the exhaust port, until the exhaust valve is closed. The
intake process enthalpy flow integral is

Zic
 
(ṁcp T )in − (ṁcp T )out dt
io

The mass inducted mi is

Zic
mi = ṁin dt
io

And the mass flow from the cylinder into the exhaust mov during intake is

Zic
mov = ṁov dt
io

Assuming constant temperature intake and exhaust flow, the intake enthalpy flow integral becomes

cp Ti mi − cp Tov mov

The first law, Equation 5.45 is

Pic Vic − Pio Vio
Z
= −P dv − cp Tov mov + cp Ti mi + Q
γ−1

The volumetric efficiency ev is

mi
ev =
ρi Vd

Upon substitution of the first law, an using the ideal gas relation
 
γ−1
ρi Vd cp Ti = Pi Vd
γ

The volumetric efficiency can be written

    Zic     
1 Pic Vic − Pio Vio γ−1 P dV γ−1 Q Tov mov
ev = + − + vd
γ Pi Vd γ Pi Vd γ Pi Vd Ti ρi
io

The main difference from the throttled case derive in th text is the positive sign of the mov term due
to the outflow from the cylinder into the exhaust. Also, the Tov/Ti ∼ 1. For the throttled case, the flow
is in the reverse direction from the exhaust to the lower pressure cylinder.
 14 CHAPTER 5. INTAKE AND EXHAUST FLOW

5.14) A supercharger has an isentropic efficiency of 0.75 and consumes 20 kW. If the volumetric flowrate
of standard air into the supercharger is 250 L/s, what is the air temperature, pressure, and density
exiting the supercharger ? Assume standard inlet conditions.

From the energy equation, the isentropic work wi is

wi = cp (T1 − T2s )

The mass airflow rate through the supercharger is

Pi 101,000

ṁa = ρi v˙i = (v˙i ) = 250 × 10−3 = 0.295 kg/s
RTi 287 · 298

The isentropic work is related to the power

!  
Ẇact −20
wi = ηc Ẇact = ηc = (0.75) = −50.8 kJ/kg
ṁa 0.295

so the outlet isentropic temperature T2s is

wi −50.8
T2s = T1 − = 298 − = 349 K
cp 1.0

The actual outlet temperature, T2 is

T2s − T1 349 − 298
T2 = T1 + = 298 + = 366 K
ηc 0.75

The outlet actual pressure P2 is

 γ
 γ−1   1.4
T2s 349 0.4
P2 = P1 = 101 = 175 kPa
T1 298

and outlet density

P2 175
ρ2 = = = 1.67 kg/m3
RT2 (0.287)(366)
 15

5.15) Develop Equation 5.65 for the work done in an isentropic compression.

The energy equation for an open system with negligible kinetic and potential energy change is

q1→2 − w1→2 = h2 − h1

for an isentropic process q1−2 = 0

for an ideal gas h2 − h1 = cp (T2 − T1 ) Therefore

w1→2,isentropic = cp (T1 − T2 )

Also for an isentropic process

  γ−1
T2 P2 γ
=
T1 P1

so
    γ−1 !
T2 P2 γ
w1→2,isentropic = cp T 1 1 − = cp T 1 1−
T1 P1
 16 CHAPTER 5. INTAKE AND EXHAUST FLOW

5.16) The airflow into a four-stroke 3.5 L engine operating at 3000 rpm with a volumetric efficiency of 0.75
is to be supercharged to 145 kPa from ambient Po , To conditions. An intercooler cools the compressed
air to 325 K. If the supercharger isentropic efficiency is 0.60, what is the power consumption of the
supercharger?

The isentropic work ws into the supercharger is

"  γ−1 # "  0.4 #
P2 γ 145 1.4
ws = cp T1 − 1 = (1.0)(300) − 1 = 32.65 kJ/kg
P1 101

The actual work into the supercharger, wact is

ws 32.65
wact = = = 54.42 kJ/kg
ηc 0.60

The air mass flowrate through the supercharger and engine is

N
ṁa = ev ρi vd
2
Pi 145,000
ρi = = = 1.55 kg/m3
RTi 287 · 325
 
−3 3000
ṁa = (0.75)(1.55)(3.5 × 10 ) = 0.102 kg/s
2 · 60

The power consumption of the supercharger is

ẇ = ṁa wact = (0.102)(54.42) = 5.54 kW

 17

5.17) A Roots supercharger map is given in Figure 5.28. Match (i.e., find the resultant pressure ratio) this
supercharger to a 2.0 liter, 4-stroke engine with the following volumetric efficiencies.
N (rpm) ev (%)
1000 68
2000 68
3000 75
4000 76
5000 73
6000 70
Find the power required to drive the supercharger at each condition as well as the outlet temperature.
Choose a compressor speed Nc equal to twice the engine speed N .

Following the procedure outlined on page 155, one assumes a pressure ratio, and then reads the
compressor efficiency ηc and mass flow rate ṁc from the compressor map. The outlet temperature T2
is
(P2 /P1 )(γ−1)/γ − 1
 
T2 = T1 1 +
ηc

The outlet density from the compressor is obtained from the ideal gas law:
P2
ρ2 =
R T2

The mass flow rate through the engine is thus

ṁe = ev ρ2 Vd N/2

The calculated engine mass flowrate is compared with the compressor mass flowrate, and iterated until
the difference is less than a certain percentage, say 10%. A program to compute the engine mass
flowrate, compressor outlet temperature, power consumption, and compare with the given compressor
mass flowrate is given below. The specific heat ratio and average specific heat were assumed to be γ
= 1.40 and cp = 1.01 kJ/kg-K, respectively. Sample output of the program:

Engine flow(kg/s)= 0.0945 Supercharger flow =0.0900, Diff(\%) = 5.0

Compressor power(kW)= 8.11, Outlet Temperature (K) = 387

The Table below shows the iterative procedure for three representative engine speeds.
For Ne = 1000 rpm and ev = 0.68:
P2 /P1 ηc ṁc ṁe Diff T2 Ẇc
(kg/s) (kg/s) (%) (K) (kW)
1.3 0.40 0.0120 0.0140 20 356 0.70
1.0 0.43 0.0170 0.0137 20 317 0.33
1.25 0.42 0.0140 0.0143 2 345 0.66
For Ne = 3000 rpm and ev = 0.75:
P2 /P1 ηc ṁc ṁe Diff T2 Ẇc
(kg/s) (kg/s) (%) (K) (kW)
1.3 0.55 0.050 0.050 0.1 340 2.13
For Ne = 6000 rpm and ev = 0.70:
18 CHAPTER 5. INTAKE AND EXHAUST FLOW

P2 /P1 ηc ṁc ṁe Diff T2 Ẇc

(kg/s) (kg/s) (%) (K) (kW)
1.3 0.37 0.105 0.088 16 361 6.65
1.4 0.40 0.10 0.09 8 373 7.59
1.5 0.41 0.090 0.0945 5 387 8.11
Note how the outlet temperature and compressor power required increases as the engine speed and
thus the engine/compressor mass airflow increases.
The program to compute the supercharger matching is given below:

% program to compute supercharger matching

% enter efficiency and flowrate from map for a given dP
dP= 1.50; % pressure ratio
nc=0.41; % supercharger efficiency
mdotc= 0.09; % supercharger flowrate (kg/s)
N=6000; %engine speed (rpm)
ev= 0.70; % volumetric efficiency of engine
Vd= 2e-3; % engine displacement volume (m^3)
cp= 1.01; % cp of air at average T = 350 K
T1= 298; %inlet T (K)
P1= 100000; %inlet P (Pa)
gamma = 1.4;
gam= (gamma -1) /gamma;
R = 287;
%compute P2, T2
P2= P1*dP;
T2= T1*(1+ (dP^gam -1)/nc);
rho2= P2/(R*T2);
mdote = ev*rho2*Vd*N/60/2;
diff = (mdote-mdotc)/mdotc *100;
power=mdotc*cp*(T2-T1); %(kW)
fprintf(’Engine flow(kg/s)=%6.4f Supercharger flow=%6.4f,Diff = %6.1f \n’,...
mdote,mdotc, diff);
fprintf(’Compressor power(kW)=%5.2f, Outlet Temperature(K)=%5.0f \n’,power,T2);
 19

5.18) A naturally aspirated four-cylinder, four-stroke gasoline engine has the following specifications.

Vd 2316 cm3
b 96 mm
s 80 mm
r 9.5
Ẇb 83 kW at N = 5400 rpm

A turbocharged version of the engine utilizes the compressor mapped in Figure 5.29. Estimate the
brake power of the turbocharged engine at N = 5400 rpm if the compressor ratio is P2 /P1 = 1.5. What
is the compressor efficiency and rotational speed? What is the heat transfer to the inter-cooler? Make
the following assumptions.

• For the naturally aspirated (NA) engine

Inlet manifold conditions: Ti = 310 K, Pi = 1.0 bar, φ = 1.0.
Volumetric efficiency: ev = 0.84.
Mechanical efficiency: ηm = bmep/(imep)net = 0.90.
• For the turbocharged (TC) engine
Aftercooled gas temperature: Ti = 340 K. Volumetric efficiency: ev = 0.91.
Mechanical efficiency: ηm = bmep/(imep)net = 0.88.
• For a given engine speed and displacement, the indicated power is proportional to airflow rate:

Ẇi ≃ imepnet ≃ ev Pi /Ti

In practice, the compression ratio was lowered to 8.7 to avoid knock and the engine produced 117 kW
at 5280 rpm.

a.) The density of the mass flow entering the engine from the turbo charger is obtained from the ideal
gas law:

Pi (1.5)101000 3
ρi = = = 1.55 kg/m
R Ti (287) (340)

The mass flow rate through the engine and turbocharger

ṁa = ev ρi Vd N/2 = (0.91)(1.55)(2.316 × 10−3 )(90/2) = 0.147 kg/s

At this air mass flowrate and pressure ratio, the compressor map indicates that the compressor efficiency
is about 0.65 and speed about 1660 rps (99600 rpm).
b.) The turbocharger outlet temperature T2 is

(P2 /P1 )(γ−1)/γ − 1

 
T2 = T1 1 +
ηc
(1.5)(1.4−1)/1.4 − 1
 
= 310 1 +
0.65
= 368 K

The heat transfer to the inter-cooler is

Q = ṁa cp (T2 − Ti )
= 0.147(1.01)(368 − 340)
= 4.11 kW
20 CHAPTER 5. INTAKE AND EXHAUST FLOW

c.) The brake power is Ẇb = bmep Vd N/2, and the mechanical efficiency ηm = bmep/imep, so the
ratio of the turbocharged engine brake power Ẇb,tc to the naturally aspirated engine power Ẇb,na is

Ẇb,tc (imep ηm )tc

≃
Ẇb,na (imep ηm )na

Since imep ≃ ev Pi /Ti ,

Ẇb,tc ( ev Pi ηm )tc
= evTPii
Ẇb,na ( Ti ηm )na
( 0.91340
(1.5)
(0.88))tc
=
( 0.84310
(1.0)
(0.90))na
= 1.45

Therefore the turbocharged engine brake power Ẇb,tc = 1.45 Ẇb,na = 1.45 x 83 = 120 kW.