Cereal Grains Properties, Processing, and Nutritional Attributes 2010 PDF

Cereal Grains
Properties, Processing,
and Nutritional Attributes
FOOD PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY SERIES
Series Editor
Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas
Cereal Grains: Properties, Processing, and Nutritional Attributes

Sergio O. Serna-Saldivar
Water Properties of Food, Pharmaceutical, and Biological Materials

Maria del Pilar Buera, Jorge Welti-Chanes, Peter J. Lillford, and Horacio R. Corti
Food Science and Food Biotechnology

Editors: Gustavo F. Gutiérrez-López and Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas
Transport Phenomena in Food Processing

Editors: Jorge Welti-Chanes, Jorge F. Vélez-Ruiz, and Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas
Unit Operations in Food Engineering

Albert Ibarz and Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas
Engineering and Food for the 21st Century

Editors: Jorge Welti-Chanes, Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas, and José Miguel Aguilera
Osmotic Dehydration and Vacuum Impregnation: Applications

in Food Industries
Editors: Pedro Fito, Amparo Chiralt, Jose M. Barat, Walter E. L. Spiess,
and Diana Behsnilian
Pulsed Electric Fields in Food Processing: Fundamental Aspects

and Applications
Editors: Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas and Q. Howard Zhang
Trends in Food Engineering

Editors: Jorge E. Lozano, Cristina Añón, Efrén Parada-Arias,
and Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas
Innovations in Food Processing

Editors: Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas and Grahame W. Gould
Cereal Grains
Properties, Processing,
and Nutritional Attributes
Sergio O. Serna-Saldivar
I.T.E.S.M.
Monterrey, México
Boca Raton London New York
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Dedication
On our large and yet small planet there are many people who suffer from hunger
and lack of proper foods. Among them, millions are chronically malnourished and
thousands perish from related causes every single day. I wish from the bottom of my
heart that this book, by indicating the better utilization of cereal grains, can diminish
grief and human suffering.
This book is dedicated to Dr. Lloyd W. Rooney, the person who guided and taught
me the intriguing and fascinating science and technology of cereal grains. The infor-
mation herein summarizes part of his vast knowledge and relentless work that has
contributed to the improvement of mankind and formation of many skilled students
and scientists around the globe.
Finally, I dedicate this book to my lovely wife Judith and my two dear sons,
Sergio and Andres, who are the highlight of my existence and my foremost inspira-
tion. Thanks for your support throughout the years and for allowing me to spend
countless hours focused on this endeavor.
v
Contents
Dedication...................................................................................................................v
Foreword.................................................................................................................xxv
Preface..................................................................................................................xxvii
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................xxix
The Author.............................................................................................................xxxi
List of Figures..................................................................................................... xxxiii
List of Tables........................................................................................................xxxix
Chapter 1 Cereal Grains: The Staff of Life...........................................................1

1.1 Introduction................................................................................1
1.2 Cereal Production versus Population Growth............................4
1.3 General Characteristics..............................................................7
1.4 Adaptation and Cytogenetic Origin...........................................9
1.4.1 Maize.............................................................................9
1.4.2 Rice............................................................................. 12
1.4.3 Wheat.......................................................................... 21
1.4.4 Barley.......................................................................... 22
1.4.5 Sorghum...................................................................... 22
1.4.6 Rye............................................................................... 23
1.4.7 Oats..............................................................................24
1.4.8 Triticale.......................................................................24
1.4.9 Millets.........................................................................24
1.5 General Uses.............................................................................26
1.5.1 Maize........................................................................... 27
1.5.2 Rice.............................................................................28
1.5.3 Wheat, Rye, and Triticale............................................ 29
1.5.4 Barley.......................................................................... 30
1.5.5 Oats.............................................................................. 31
1.5.6 Sorghum and Millets................................................... 32
1.6 Nutritional Value...................................................................... 33
1.7 Biotechnology........................................................................... 37
1.8 Future Outlook......................................................................... 38
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................... 39
References...........................................................................................40
Chapter 2 Physical Properties, Grading, and Specialty Grains........................... 43

2.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 43
2.2 Physical Properties of Cereal Grains.......................................44
2.3 Grain Quality............................................................................44
vii
viii Contents
2.3.1 Moisture......................................................................44
2.3.2 Volumetric Weight or Test Weight.............................. 49
2.3.3 Foreign Material or Dockage...................................... 50
2.3.4 Damaged Kernels........................................................ 50
2.3.4.1 Insect Damage............................................ 50
2.3.4.2 Heat Damage.............................................. 50
2.3.4.3 Germ Damage............................................ 50
2.3.4.4 Germinated or Sprouted Kernels............... 51
2.3.4.5 Mold-Infested or Weathered Kernels......... 51
2.3.4.6 Frost Damage............................................. 51
2.3.4.7 Shriveled or Shrunken Kernels.................. 51
2.4 Classification and Grading Systems......................................... 52
2.4.1 Maize........................................................................... 52
2.4.2 Rice............................................................................. 52
2.4.3 Wheat.......................................................................... 57
2.4.3.1 United States.............................................. 57
2.4.3.2 Canada........................................................60
2.4.3.3 Australia..................................................... 61
2.4.4 Barley.......................................................................... 61
2.4.5 Sorghum......................................................................64
2.4.6 Rye...............................................................................66
2.4.7 Oats..............................................................................66
2.5 Specialty Cereals...................................................................... 67
2.5.1 Maize........................................................................... 67
2.5.2 Rice............................................................................. 72
2.5.3 Wheat.......................................................................... 74
2.5.4 Barley.......................................................................... 75
2.5.5 Sorghum...................................................................... 76
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................... 77
References........................................................................................... 78
Chapter 3 Chemical Composition of Cereal Grains............................................ 81

3.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 81
3.2 Proximate Composition............................................................ 81
3.3 Carbohydrates...........................................................................84
3.4 Proteins.....................................................................................92
3.5 Lipids........................................................................................ 98
3.6 Minerals and Vitamins........................................................... 102
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................. 106
References......................................................................................... 107
Chapter 4 Grain Development, Morphology, and Structure.............................. 109

4.1 Introduction............................................................................ 109
4.2 Pollination, Fertilization, and Grain Development................ 110
Contents ix
4.3 Morphology and Structure of the Mature Grain.................... 114

4.3.1 Glumes...................................................................... 115
4.3.2 Pericarp..................................................................... 117
4.3.3 Endosperm................................................................. 118
4.3.3.1 Testa or Seed Coat.................................... 118
4.3.3.2 Aleurone................................................... 118
4.3.3.3 Peripheral Endosperm.............................. 121
4.3.3.4 Vitreous Endosperm................................. 121
4.3.3.5 Floury Endosperm................................... 122
4.3.4 Germ.......................................................................... 122
4.4 Physiology and Grain Germination........................................ 123
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................. 126
References......................................................................................... 127
Chapter 5 Storage of Cereal Grains................................................................... 129

5.1 Introduction............................................................................ 129
5.2 Grain Deterioration................................................................ 130
5.2.1 Intrinsic Deterioration............................................... 131
5.2.2 Extrinsic Deterioration.............................................. 132
5.3 Grain Moisture and Hysteresis............................................... 132
5.4 Management of Stored Grains................................................ 133
5.4.1 Sampling.................................................................... 133
5.4.2 Grading...................................................................... 135
5.4.3 Weighing................................................................... 136
5.4.4 Unloading.................................................................. 136
5.4.5 Grain Cleaning.......................................................... 137
5.4.6 Grain Drying............................................................. 138
5.5 Storage.................................................................................... 139
5.5.1 Types of Storage Facilities........................................ 139
5.5.1.1 Piling Grain on the Ground..................... 139
5.5.1.2 Underground Storage............................... 140
5.5.1.3 Grain Elevators........................................ 140
5.5.1.4 Controlled Atmosphere Storage............... 140
5.6 Grain Rotation or Turning...................................................... 142
5.7 Aeration or Ventilation........................................................... 142
5.8 Explosion in Grain Storage Facilities..................................... 143
5.9 Chemical and Physical Changes Incurred During Grain
Deterioration........................................................................... 144
5.9.1 Dry Matter Losses..................................................... 144
5.9.2 Changes in Carbohydrates........................................ 145
5.9.3 Changes in Nitrogenous Compounds........................ 145
5.9.4 Changes in Lipids...................................................... 145
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................. 146
References......................................................................................... 147
x Contents
Chapter 6 Grain Storage Pests........................................................................... 149

6.1 Introduction............................................................................ 149
6.2 Insects..................................................................................... 149
6.2.1 Prevention.................................................................. 159
6.2.2 Control....................................................................... 159
6.2.2.1 Chemical Control..................................... 159
6.2.2.2 Controlled Atmospheres and Cold
Storage...................................................... 161
6.2.2.3 Irradiation and Sonication........................ 162
6.2.2.4 Biological Control.................................... 162
6.3 Molds...................................................................................... 162
6.3.1 Mycotoxins................................................................ 166
6.4 Rodents................................................................................... 170
6.4.1 Biology...................................................................... 171
6.4.2 Control....................................................................... 172
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................. 174
References......................................................................................... 174
Chapter 7 Dry-Milling Operations.................................................................... 177

7.1 Introduction............................................................................ 177
7.2 Traditional Milling................................................................. 178
7.3 Grain Cleaning....................................................................... 179
7.3.1 Air Aspirators............................................................ 179
7.3.2 Sieves or Size Separators........................................... 179
7.3.3 Gravity Separators..................................................... 182
7.3.4 Disc Separators.......................................................... 183
7.3.5 Color Sorters............................................................. 183
7.4 Maize Dry Milling................................................................. 183
7.4.1 Whole-Meal Milling Processes................................. 183
7.4.2 Tempering–Degerming Milling Process................... 185
7.4.2.1 Cleaning................................................... 185
7.4.2.2 Tempering and Degerming...................... 185
7.4.2.3 Drying and Sizing.................................... 186
7.4.2.4 Dry-Milled Fractions and Coproducts..... 189
7.4.3 Production of Precooked Arepa Flour...................... 189
7.5 Rice Milling........................................................................... 193
7.5.1 Drying....................................................................... 193
7.5.2 Cleaning.................................................................... 194
7.5.3 Dehulling................................................................... 195
7.5.4 Decortication/Polishing............................................ 195
7.5.5 Sizing/Classification.................................................. 197
7.5.6 Dry-Milled Fractions and Coproducts......................200
7.5.7 Parboiling..................................................................200
7.6 Wheat Milling........................................................................ 201
Contents xi
7.6.1 Cleaning.................................................................... 201

7.6.2 Tempering..................................................................202
7.6.3 Roll Milling and Classification................................. 203
7.6.4 Post-Milling Treatments............................................207
7.6.5 Types of Flours and Coproducts...............................208
7.7 Milling of Durum Wheat, Rye, and Triticale......................... 211
7.8 Milling of Oats....................................................................... 212
7.8.1 Cleaning.................................................................... 212
7.8.2 Thermal Treatments.................................................. 212
7.8.3 Dehulling................................................................... 212
7.8.4 Milling and Flaking.................................................. 213
7.9 Milling of Sorghum and Millets............................................. 216
7.9.1 Cleaning.................................................................... 217
7.9.2 Decortication............................................................. 218
7.9.3 Milling and Classification......................................... 219
7.9.4 Dry-Milled Fractions................................................. 219
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................. 220
References......................................................................................... 222
Chapter 8 Wet-Milling Operations.................................................................... 225

8.1 Introduction............................................................................ 225
8.2 Maize Wet Milling................................................................. 226
8.2.1 Cleaning.................................................................... 226
8.2.2 Steeping..................................................................... 226
8.2.3 Grinding and Fractionation....................................... 227
8.2.4 Starches and Coproducts........................................... 230
8.3 Rice Wet Milling.................................................................... 230
8.3.1 Steeping in Sodium Hydroxide................................. 230
8.3.2 Grinding and Fractionation....................................... 231
8.3.3 Drying....................................................................... 232
8.4 Wheat Wet Milling................................................................. 232
8.4.1 The Martin Process................................................... 233
8.4.2 The Fesca Process..................................................... 233
8.4.3 The Alfa Laval Raiso System.................................... 234
8.4.4 The Acid (SO2) Process............................................. 234
8.4.5 Products and Coproducts.......................................... 234
8.5 Sorghum Wet Milling............................................................. 234
8.6 Properties of Starches............................................................. 235
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................. 237
References......................................................................................... 237
Chapter 9 Milling of Maize into Lime-Cooked Products................................. 239

9.1 Introduction............................................................................ 239
9.2 Key Ingredients for Nixtamalization...................................... 241
xii Contents
9.2.1 Maize Kernels........................................................... 241

9.2.2 Lime.......................................................................... 242
9.2.3 Water......................................................................... 242
9.2.4 Preservatives and Acidulants.................................... 243
9.2.5 Gums or Hydrocolloids and Emulsifiers................... 243
9.2.6 Enrichment with Vitamins and Minerals..................244
9.3 Industrial Production of Fresh Masa and Tortillas.................244
9.3.1 Lime-Cooking and Steeping.....................................244
9.3.2 Nixtamal Washing.....................................................248
9.3.3 Stone Grinding..........................................................248
9.3.4 Tortilla Forming and Baking.................................... 249
9.3.5 Cooling and Packaging............................................. 250
9.4 Industrial Production of Dry Masa Flour............................... 250
9.4.1 Lime Cooking........................................................... 250
9.4.2 Nixtamal Washing and Grinding.............................. 250
9.4.3 Drying....................................................................... 251
9.4.4 Classification and Flour Formulation........................ 251
9.4.5 Additives and Enrichment......................................... 251
9.4.6 Types of Dry Masa Flours......................................... 251
9.4.7 Reconstitution or Hydration of Dry Masa Flour....... 254
9.4.8 Alternative Processing Technologies for Dry
Masa Flours............................................................... 254
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................. 254
References......................................................................................... 255
Chapter 10 Manufacturing of Bakery Products................................................... 259

10.1 Introduction............................................................................ 259
10.2 Uses of Whole Wheat............................................................. 259
10.3 Yeast-Leavened Products........................................................ 261
10.3.1 Ingredient Functionality............................................ 262
10.3.1.1 Flour......................................................... 262
10.3.1.2 Water........................................................ 263
10.3.1.3 Yeast......................................................... 263
10.3.1.4 Sweeteners................................................ 265
10.3.1.5 Salt............................................................ 265
10.3.1.6 Shortening/Lard.......................................266
10.3.1.7 Diastatic Malt...........................................266
10.3.1.8 Dried Milk...............................................266
10.3.1.9 Vital Gluten..............................................266
10.3.1.10 Dough Conditioners/Emulsifiers.............. 267
10.3.1.11 Oxidizing Agents..................................... 267
10.3.1.12 Gums or Hydrocolloids............................ 268
10.3.1.13 Preservatives or Antimold Agents........... 268
10.3.1.14 Yeast Food................................................ 268
10.3.1.15 Enzymes................................................... 269
Contents xiii
10.3.2 Dough Mixing........................................................... 269

10.3.3 Dough Dividing and Rounding................................. 270
10.3.4 Fermentation.............................................................. 270
10.3.5 Degassing/Punching and Molding............................ 271
10.3.6 Baking....................................................................... 271
10.3.7 Cooling and Slicing................................................... 272
10.3.8 Packaging.................................................................. 272
10.4 Types of Breads...................................................................... 273
10.4.1 Chinese Steamed Bread............................................ 273
10.4.2 French Bread and Baguettes...................................... 273
10.4.3 Bagels........................................................................ 276
10.4.4 Flat or Arabic Breads................................................ 276
10.4.5 Soft Pretzels.............................................................. 277
10.4.6 Pan Bread.................................................................. 278
10.4.6.1 Straight-Dough System............................ 279
10.4.6.2 Sponge-Dough System.............................280
10.4.6.3 Liquid Fermentation Process...................280
10.4.7 Hamburger and Hot Dog Buns.................................. 281
10.4.8 Whole, Variety, and Multigrain Breads.................... 282
10.4.9 Sour Breads...............................................................284
10.4.10 Sweet Breads............................................................. 285
10.4.10.1 Croissants................................................. 285
10.4.10.2 Danish Pastries......................................... 287
10.4.10.3 Sweet Rolls............................................... 287
10.4.10.4 Yeast-Leavened Donuts............................ 287
10.4.11 Production of Pizza Dough Bases............................. 288
10.5 Frozen Doughs........................................................................ 289
10.6 Staling.....................................................................................290
10.7 Chemically Leavened Products.............................................. 291
10.7.1 Ingredients................................................................. 291
10.7.1.1 Soft and Chlorinated Flours..................... 292
10.7.1.2 Chemical Leavening Agents and
Baking Powder......................................... 292
10.7.1.3 Egg Products............................................ 293
10.7.2 Cookie Manufacturing Processes............................. 294
10.7.2.1 Rotary Mold............................................. 294
10.7.2.2 Sheeting and Forming.............................. 298
10.7.2.3 Extruding and Depositing........................ 301
10.7.2.4 Wire-Cut.................................................. 301
10.7.2.5 Wafers...................................................... 301
10.7.2.6 Baking and Cooling.................................302
10.7.2.7 Packaging................................................. 303
10.7.3 Production of Cakes and Related Products............... 303
10.7.3.1 Low- and High-Ratio Cakes....................304
10.7.3.2 Sponge–Angel Cakes...............................304
10.7.3.3 Hotcakes and Crepes................................306
xiv Contents
10.7.3.4 Muffins and Biscuits................................306

10.7.3.5 Chemically Leavened Donuts..................306
10.7.4 Wheat-Flour Tortillas................................................308
10.8 Crackers/Saltines.................................................................... 311
10.9 Batters and Breading.............................................................. 313
10.10 Pastas and Oriental Noodles.................................................. 315
10.10.1 Pastas from Semolina................................................ 316
10.10.1.1 Laminated Pasta....................................... 316
10.10.1.2 Extruded Pasta......................................... 318
10.10.1.3 Pasta Drying............................................. 318
10.10.1.4 Fresh and Precooked Pastas..................... 319
10.10.2 Oriental Noodles....................................................... 319
10.10.2.1 Wheat Noodles......................................... 319
10.10.2.2 Rice Noodles............................................ 320
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................. 322
References......................................................................................... 324
Chapter 11 Manufacturing of Breakfast Cereals................................................. 329

11.1 Introduction............................................................................ 329
11.2 Classification of Breakfast Cereals........................................ 331
11.3 Traditional Flaked Products................................................... 331
11.3.1 Rolled or Flaked Oats................................................ 331
11.3.2 Traditional Processes for Corn, Wheat, and Rice
Flakes........................................................................ 333
11.3.2.1 Corn Flakes.............................................. 333
11.3.2.2 Rice Flakes............................................... 334
11.3.2.3 Wheat Flakes............................................ 335
11.4 Compressed Flake Biscuits.................................................... 335
11.5 Oven-Puffed Cereals.............................................................. 335
11.6 Gun-Puffing of Whole Grains and Milled Fractions............. 337
11.7 Shredded Wheat..................................................................... 338
11.8 Baked Cereals.........................................................................340
11.9 Granolas..................................................................................340
11.10 Muesli Products...................................................................... 341
11.11 Extruded Products.................................................................. 342
11.11.1 Extrusion Forming of Breakfast Cereals ................. 345
11.11.1.1 Direct Expansion...................................... 345
11.11.1.2 Half-Products or Pellets...........................346
11.11.1.3 Extruded Flakes....................................... 349
11.11.1.4 Extruded Shredded Cereals..................... 350
11.12 Enrichment and Fortification.................................................. 352
11.13 Packaging............................................................................... 352
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................. 353
References......................................................................................... 353
Contents xv
Chapter 12 Manufacturing of Cereal-Based Snacks............................................ 355

12.1 Introduction............................................................................ 355
12.2 Classification of Snacks.......................................................... 355
12.3 Popcorn................................................................................... 357
12.3.1 Breeding and Quality................................................ 357
12.3.2 Post-Harvest Management......................................... 358
12.3.3 Popping Methods....................................................... 359
12.3.3.1 Wet Popping.............................................360
12.3.3.2 Dry Popping.............................................360
12.3.3.3 Microwave Popping.................................. 362
12.4 Alkaline-Cooked Maize Products.......................................... 363
12.4.1 Raw Materials........................................................... 363
12.4.1.1 Oil............................................................364
12.4.1.2 Salt and Flavorings...................................364
12.4.1.3 Antioxidants and Chelating Agents.........364
12.4.2 Production of Corn Nuts........................................... 365
12.4.3 Production of Corn and Tortilla Chips...................... 366
12.4.3.1 Lime Cooking and Steeping.................... 366
12.4.3.2 Draining/Washing.................................... 367
12.4.3.3 Grinding................................................... 367
12.4.3.4 Production of Dry Masa Flour for
Snacks...................................................... 368
12.4.4 Production of Extruded Corn Chips.......................... 368
12.4.5 Production of Tortilla Chips...................................... 370
12.4.5.1 Kneading–Mixing and Sheeting–
Forming.................................................... 371
12.4.5.2 Baking...................................................... 371
12.4.5.3 Cooling–Equilibration............................. 371
12.4.5.4 Frying....................................................... 372
12.4.5.5 Seasoning................................................. 373
12.4.5.6 Low-Fat Tortilla Chips............................. 373
12.5 Extruded Snacks..................................................................... 374
12.5.1 High-Shear Extruded Products................................. 374
12.5.1.1 Production of Direct-Expanded Baked
Products.................................................... 375
12.5.1.2 Production of Fried Expanded Products.. 377
12.5.1.3 Extruded Whole Grains........................... 378
12.5.2 Extrusion of Pellets or Half-Products........................ 379
12.5.2.1 Production of Third-Generation Snacks.. 379
12.5.3 Coextrusion............................................................... 382
12.6 Wheat-Based Snacks.............................................................. 382
12.6.1 Production of Crispbreads......................................... 383
12.6.2 Production of Hard Pretzels...................................... 385
12.7 Packaging............................................................................... 388
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................. 389
xvi Contents
References......................................................................................... 390
Chapter 13 Industrial Production of Modified Starches and Syrups................... 395

13.1 Introduction............................................................................ 395
13.2 Native Starches....................................................................... 395
13.3 Modified Starches................................................................... 396
13.3.1 Physically Modified Starches.................................... 396
13.3.2 Chemically Modified Starches.................................. 397
13.3.2.1 Acid-Treated Starches.............................. 397
13.3.2.2 Oxidized/Bleached Starches....................400
13.3.2.3 Cross-Bonded Starches............................ 401
13.3.2.4 Derivatized and Substituted Starches...... 401
13.4 Resistant Starches...................................................................402
13.4.1 Type I.........................................................................402
13.4.2 Type II.......................................................................402
13.4.3 Type III......................................................................403
13.4.4 Type IV......................................................................403
13.5 Production of Syrups..............................................................403
13.5.1 Acid Hydrolysis or Conversion..................................404
13.5.2 Enzyme Conversion...................................................405
13.5.2.1 α-Amylase................................................405
13.5.2.2 β-Amylase................................................405
13.5.2.3 Pullulanase or Debranching Enzyme.......406
13.5.2.4 Amyloglucosidase....................................406
13.5.2.5 Cyclodextrin Glycosil Transferase
(CGTase)...................................................406
13.5.2.6 Glucose Isomerase...................................406
13.5.3 Syrups........................................................................407
13.5.3.1 Low-DE Syrups (Maltodextrins)..............407
13.5.3.2 Maltose Syrups.........................................407
13.5.3.3 Glucose Syrups........................................409
13.5.3.4 High-Fructose Corn Syrups (HFCS)....... 410
13.5.4 Refining and Evaporation.......................................... 412
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................. 413
References......................................................................................... 415
Chapter 14 Production of Malts, Beers, Alcohol Spirits, and Fuel Ethanol........ 417
14.1 Introduction............................................................................ 417
14.2 Malting Grains....................................................................... 419
14.2.1 Barley........................................................................ 419
14.2.2 Sorghum and Other Related Cereals......................... 419
14.2.3 Wheat and Other Related Cereals............................. 421
14.3 Malting................................................................................... 422
14.3.1 Malting Systems........................................................ 423
Contents xvii
14.3.2 Steeping..................................................................... 424

14.3.3 Germination.............................................................. 424
14.3.4 Kilning...................................................................... 426
14.3.5 Classes of Malts........................................................ 429
14.4 Production of European Beers............................................... 429
14.4.1 Ingredients................................................................. 429
14.4.1.1 Brewing Adjuncts..................................... 429
14.4.1.2 Hops......................................................... 433
14.4.1.3 Yeast......................................................... 435
14.4.1.4 Water........................................................ 435
14.4.2 Brewing Operations................................................... 435
14.4.2.1 Mashing.................................................... 435
14.4.2.2 Lautering.................................................. 438
14.4.2.3 Addition of Hops...................................... 438
14.4.2.4 Fermentation............................................ 439
14.4.2.5 Carbonation, Clarification, and
Pasteurization...........................................440
14.4.3 Classes of Beers........................................................ 441
14.5 Opaque Beer Production........................................................ 443
14.6 Production of Sake................................................................. 445
14.7 Production of Cereal-Based Alcoholic Spirits....................... 447
14.7.1 Whiskey..................................................................... 447
14.7.1.1 Malting, Kilning, and Mashing................ 447
14.7.1.2 Fermentation............................................ 450
14.7.1.3 Distillation and Aging.............................. 451
14.7.2 Vodka........................................................................ 452
14.7.2.1 Malting..................................................... 452
14.7.2.2 Mashing.................................................... 452
14.7.2.3 Fermentation............................................ 452
14.7.2.4 Distillation and Rectification................... 453
14.7.3 Shochu....................................................................... 453
14.8 Production of Fuel Ethanol from Cereals............................... 453
14.8.1 Grinding.................................................................... 456
14.8.2 Gelatinization............................................................ 456
14.8.3 Liquefaction............................................................... 456
14.8.4 Simultaneous Saccharification–Fermentation........... 456
14.8.5 Distillation and Ethanol Purification........................ 457
14.8.6 Spent Grains.............................................................. 458
14.8.7 Production of Bioethanol from Cereals Other
Than Maize............................................................... 458
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................. 459
References.........................................................................................460
Chapter 15 Quality Control of Cereal Grains and Their Products...................... 463

15.1 Introduction............................................................................ 463
xviii Contents
15.2 Quality of Whole Grains........................................................ 463

15.2.1 Moisture.................................................................... 463
15.2.2 Dockage or Foreign Material....................................466
15.2.3 Thousand Kernel Weight........................................... 470
15.2.4 Density...................................................................... 470
15.2.5 Flotation Test............................................................. 470
15.2.6 Grain Hardness.......................................................... 471
15.2.7 Stress Cracks............................................................. 471
15.2.8 Breakage Susceptibility............................................. 471
15.2.9 Germ Viability.......................................................... 471
15.2.10 Genetically Modified Grains..................................... 472
15.3 Quality Control of Dry- and Wet-Milled Products................ 472
15.3.1 Laboratory Dry Milling............................................ 473
15.3.1.1 Maize........................................................ 473
15.3.1.2 Rice.......................................................... 473
15.3.1.3 Wheat....................................................... 473
15.3.1.4 Sorghum................................................... 477
15.3.2 Laboratory Wet Milling............................................480
15.3.3 Chemical Composition of Milled Products............... 481
15.3.4 Color.......................................................................... 481
15.4 Starch Characterization, Quality, and Functionality.............. 482
15.4.1 Chemical and Physical Properties............................. 482
15.4.2 Viscoamylograph....................................................... 486
15.4.3 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (Thermal
Properties)................................................................. 486
15.5 Functionality Tests for Wheat Flours, Seminolas, and
Yeast....................................................................................... 488
15.5.1 Wheat Flour Properties............................................. 488
15.5.1.1 Pelshenke and Sedimentation Tests......... 488
15.5.1.2 Gluten Content......................................... 490
15.5.2 Wheat Dough Rheological Properties....................... 490
15.5.2.1 Farinograph.............................................. 492
15.5.2.2 Extensigraph............................................. 492
15.5.2.3 Mixograph................................................ 493
15.5.2.4 Alveograph............................................... 494
15.5.2.5 Mixolab.................................................... 495
15.5.3 Yeast Fermentation Tests........................................... 496
15.5.3.1 Fermentograph......................................... 497
15.5.3.2 Maturograph............................................. 497
15.5.3.3 Rheofermentometer.................................. 499
15.5.3.4 Gasograph................................................ 499
15.5.3.5 Pressurometer...........................................500
15.6 Functionality Tests for Wheat-Based Products......................500
15.6.1 Breads........................................................................500
15.6.2 Cookies...................................................................... 505
15.6.3 Crackers..................................................................... 505
Contents xix
15.6.4 Cakes......................................................................... 508

15.6.5 Wheat Flour Tortillas................................................ 508
15.6.6 Pasta and Oriental Noodles....................................... 508
15.6.6.1 Pasta......................................................... 508
15.6.6.2 Oriental Noodles......................................509
15.7 Functionality Tests for Rice....................................................509
15.8 Functionality Tests for Lime-Cooked Products..................... 510
15.9 Functionality Tests for Breakfast Cereals.............................. 515
15.10 Functionality Tests for Snacks................................................ 516
15.10.1 Popcorn..................................................................... 516
15.10.2 Hard Pretzels............................................................. 517
15.10.3 Extruded Snacks........................................................ 517
15.10.4 Lime-Cooked Snacks................................................ 521
15.11 Functionality Tests for Cereal-Based Syrups and
Sweeteners.............................................................................. 522
15.12 Functionality Tests for Malt, Beer, and Distilled
Alcoholic Spirits..................................................................... 522
15.12.1 Ingredients................................................................. 522
15.12.1.1 Malt.......................................................... 523
15.12.1.2 Adjuncts................................................... 523
15.12.1.3 Hops......................................................... 524
15.12.1.4 Enzymes................................................... 524
15.12.2 Intermediate and Finished Products......................... 524
15.12.2.1 Wort.......................................................... 524
15.12.2.2 Beer.......................................................... 525
15.12.2.3 Alcoholic Spirits and Fuel Ethanol.......... 526
15.13 Nutritional Quality Control of Foods and Feedstuffs............ 527
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................. 528
References......................................................................................... 529
Chapter 16 Production of Cereal-Based Traditional Foods................................. 535

16.1 Introduction............................................................................ 535
16.2 Whole Grains.......................................................................... 535
16.2.1 Pounded Wheat......................................................... 535
16.2.2 Popcorn..................................................................... 536
16.2.3 Rice Analogs............................................................. 536
16.3 Traditional Foods from Milled Fractions............................... 537
16.3.1 Bulgur........................................................................ 537
16.3.2 Frekeh........................................................................ 537
16.3.3 Couscous................................................................... 538
16.3.4 Others........................................................................ 538
16.4 Gruels and Porridges..............................................................540
16.4.1 Nonfermented Gruels................................................540
16.4.1.1 Tô.............................................................540
16.4.1.2 Pinole.......................................................540
xx Contents
16.4.2 Fermented Sour Gruels and Porridges......................540

16.4.2.1 Ogi............................................................540
16.4.2.2 Uji and Bogobe......................................... 541
16.4.2.3 Mahewu or Magou................................... 541
16.4.2.4 Kenkey..................................................... 541
16.4.2.5 Sauces....................................................... 542
16.4.2.6 Miso......................................................... 542
16.5 Flat Breads.............................................................................. 542
16.5.1 Roti or Chapati.......................................................... 542
16.5.2 Arepas.......................................................................544
16.6 Fermented Sour Breads.......................................................... 545
16.6.1 Idli and Dosai............................................................546
16.6.2 Anarshe..................................................................... 547
16.6.3 Puto........................................................................... 548
16.6.4 Ambali....................................................................... 548
16.6.5 Injera.......................................................................... 548
16.6.6 Kisra.......................................................................... 549
16.6.7 Appa.......................................................................... 550
16.7 Yeast-Leavened Wheat Breads............................................... 550
16.7.1 Central Asian Breads................................................ 550
16.7.2 Arabic Flat Breads..................................................... 551
16.7.3 French........................................................................ 551
16.7.4 Croissants.................................................................. 551
16.7.5 Bagels........................................................................ 551
16.7.6 Steamed-Chinese Bread............................................ 552
16.8 Nixtamalized Maize Products................................................ 552
16.8.1 Atole.......................................................................... 552
16.8.2 Tortillas..................................................................... 555
16.8.3 Tamales..................................................................... 557
16.8.4 Pozol.......................................................................... 557
16.9 Fermented Porridges and Beers............................................. 557
16.9.1 Chicha........................................................................ 558
16.9.2 Tesguino.................................................................... 559
16.9.3 Opaque Beers............................................................ 560
16.9.4 Sake........................................................................... 560
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................. 562
References......................................................................................... 563
Chapter 17 Role of Cereals in Human Nutrition and Health............................... 565

17.1 Introduction............................................................................ 565
17.2 World Malnutrition................................................................. 567
17.2.1 Marasmus and Kwashiorkor...................................... 567
17.2.2 Vitamin Deficiencies................................................. 569
17.2.2.1 Vitamin A................................................ 569
17.2.2.2 B-Vitamins............................................... 570
Contents xxi
17.2.3 Mineral Deficiencies................................................. 571

17.2.3.1 Iron (Anemia)........................................... 571
17.2.3.2 Zinc (Dwarfism and Hypogonadism)....... 572
17.2.3.3 Iodine (Cretinism).................................... 573
17.3 Improvement of the Nutritional Value of Cereal through
Plant Breeding and Biotechnology......................................... 573
17.4 Nutrient Composition of Cereals and Nutritional
Requirements.......................................................................... 574
17.4.1 Starch and Soluble Carbohydrates............................ 574
17.4.2 Dietary Fiber............................................................. 574
17.4.3 Lipids......................................................................... 575
17.4.4 Energy Requirements................................................ 576
17.4.5 Protein....................................................................... 578
17.4.6 Essential Amino Acid Requirements........................ 579
17.4.7 Minerals.................................................................... 580
17.4.8 Vitamins.................................................................... 582
17.5 Effect of Processing on Nutritional Value.............................. 584
17.5.1 Milling....................................................................... 585
17.5.2 Cooking and pH........................................................ 585
17.5.3 Malting or Sprouting................................................. 586
17.5.4 Fermentation.............................................................. 586
17.6 Effect of Environmental Conditions and Packaging on
Nutrient Stability.................................................................... 587
17.7 Nutritional Labeling............................................................... 588
17.8 Nutritional Value of Cereal-Based Foods............................... 589
17.8.1 Fermented Bakery Products...................................... 589
17.8.2 Chemical-Leavened Bakery Products....................... 591
17.8.2.1 Cookies..................................................... 591
17.8.2.2 Cakes and Related Products..................... 594
17.8.3 Maize and Wheat Flour Tortillas.............................. 594
17.8.4 Crackers..................................................................... 597
17.8.5 Pasta Products and Oriental Noodles........................ 597
17.8.6 Breakfast Cereals...................................................... 597
17.8.7 Snacks........................................................................600
17.8.8 Beer and Distilled Alcoholic Beverages...................604
17.9 Resistant and Slowly Digestible Starch..................................604
17.10 Nutraceutical Properties.........................................................606
17.10.1 Phenolic Compounds.................................................609
17.10.2 Lipids, Phospholipids, and Inositol........................... 612
17.10.3 Phytosterols............................................................... 613
17.10.4 Carotenoids and Xanthophylls.................................. 614
17.10.5 Tocopherols............................................................... 615
17.10.6 Policosanols............................................................... 616
17.11 Antinutritional Factors........................................................... 616
17.11.1 Phytates..................................................................... 616
17.11.2 Tannins...................................................................... 617
xxii Contents
17.11.3 Cyanogenic Glycosides............................................. 617

17.11.4 Goitrogens................................................................. 618
17.12 Gluten Intolerance.................................................................. 618
Self-Evaluation.................................................................................. 619
References......................................................................................... 622
Chapter 18 Cereals as Feedstuffs for Animal Nutrition...................................... 629

18.1 Introduction............................................................................ 629
18.2 Monogastrics.......................................................................... 630
18.2.1 Poultry....................................................................... 630
18.2.1.1 Digestive System and Digestion............... 630
18.2.1.2 Nutrient Requirements............................. 633
18.2.2 Swine......................................................................... 634
18.2.3 Equines...................................................................... 636
18.3 Ruminants............................................................................... 638
18.3.1 Digestive System and Digestion................................640
18.3.1.1 Protein Digestion and Utilization............ 641
18.3.1.2 Carbohydrate Digestion and Energy
Utilization................................................ 641
18.3.2 Nutrient Requirements of Ruminants....................... 642
18.3.2.1 Beef Cattle................................................ 642
18.3.2.2 Dairy Cattle.............................................. 645
18.4 Cereal Grains and Coproducts as Feedstuffs.........................648
18.4.1 Nutritional Value of Whole Cereal Grains................648
18.4.2 Factors Affecting Starch Digestibility...................... 655
18.4.3 Cereal By-Products................................................... 655
18.5 Enhancement of the Nutritional Value of Cereals through
Processing............................................................................... 658
18.5.1 Reconstituted and High-Moisture Grains................. 658
18.5.2 Milling or Mechanical Disruption............................ 659
18.5.2.1 Dehulling and Decortication.................... 659
18.5.2.2 Milling..................................................... 659
18.5.3 Thermal Treatments..................................................660
18.5.3.1 Extrusion..................................................660
18.5.3.2 Pelleting.................................................... 661
18.5.3.3 Crumbling or Crushed Pellets.................. 662
18.5.3.4 Micronization........................................... 662
18.5.3.5 Popping.................................................... 662
18.5.3.6 Toasting.................................................... 663
18.5.3.7 Steam-Flaking.......................................... 663
18.5.3.8 Puffing......................................................664
Contents xxiii
Self-Evaluation..................................................................................664
References......................................................................................... 665
Glossary................................................................................................................. 669
Index....................................................................................................................... 707
Foreword
This book details the history and critical role of cereal grains in the establishment,
development, and maintenance of civilizations and how these staples have contrib-
uted, and keep contributing, to the nutrition and well-being of humankind. The
information herein is divided into 18 chapters that comprehensively cover the fol-
lowing topics.
• History, domestication, and general food uses of cereal grains

• Morphological, physical, and chemical characteristics of cereal grains
• Principles involved in the preservation of stored grains
• Description of industrial milling systems, and chemical composition and
characteristics of dry-milled, wet-milled, and nixtamalized or lime-cooked
products
• Industrialization and utilization of cereal-based foods
• Quality control of raw materials, intermediate, and end products
• Role of cereals and their processed products in human and animal nutrition
and health
Consequently, this book is of special interest for students interested in obtaining a

wide and complete knowledge of the scientific principles related to domestication,
morphology, production, storage, and physical and chemical characteristics of cereal
grains, and how these properties relate to industrial processing and nutritional value.
Dr. Serna-Saldivar’s book has a relevant place in the technical and scientific litera-
ture, and therefore is a valuable reference for students, researchers, food agrotech-
nologists, and other food specialists.
The cereals—wheat, rice, maize, oats, barley, sorghum/millets—are planted in
most of the world’s arable land and constitute the major foods and source of carbo-
hydrates and proteins that sustain the world population, especially the inhabitants of
developing countries. There is a vital need to keep providing cereals for the increas-
ing world population. The average human being will depend on these crops for many
years to come. Cereal production will have to increase from the current production of
2.4 billion tons to more than 3.5 billion tons by year 2030. The challenge ahead of us
is enormous, due to demographic changes, lack of economic resources, and the impact
on natural resources of these times, especially in the developing world. Everyone
has to keep contributing their best efforts to the welfare of the world population. Dr.
Serna-Saldivar has done a great service to the science and technology of cereals with
the excellent compilation and clear presentation of this valuable and updated book.
Dr. Norman E. Borlaug

Nobel Peace Prize 1970
Distinguished Professor of International Agriculture
Texas A&M University
xxv
Preface
The more than 2.3 billion metric tons of cereals produced annually continue to be
the most important foods in our world, which is currently inhabited by more than 6.3
billion people. The cereal industries have evolved from a craft to sophisticated tech-
nological processing plants around the world. The mechanization of the industry and
the development of new cereals suited for different processes and applications have
made it possible to produce a wide array of high-quality foods with great processing
efficiency. Nowadays, the consumer is demanding new foods with better nutritional
attributes and health-promoting properties, and processors have to innovate in order
to keep or expand their markets. Nutraceutical or functional cereal-based foods are
starting to play an important role in new product development.
This book provides current information about the physicochemical and nutritional
properties of cereals and their products, and focuses on postharvest management and
the wide array of industrial processes used to manufacture foods. It is organized in
such a way that the first four chapters cover the importance of cereals for mankind,
the comparative chemical and physical grain properties of the various types of cereal
grains, the morphology and grain anatomy of caryopses, and the physiology of fertil-
ization, grain development, and germination so the reader can understand better the
contents of subsequent chapters. The next two chapters deal with grain storage and
pest control. Maintenance of quality in grains and their products from the farm to the
final consumer is of utmost importance in an increasing costly, crowded, and compet-
itive world. These chapters describe the importance of grain elevators and the intrin-
sic and extrinsic factors that affect grain quality and losses. The biology and control
of insects, molds, and rodents is covered in a practical way with the aim of providing
information to reduce storage losses that still average 15% across the globe.
The following three chapters cover industrial dry milling, wet milling, and both
dry and fresh masa industries. The dry milling chapter comprises milling processes
for rice, wheat, maize, oats, and sorghum. Decorticated grains, refined grits, semo-
lina, and different sorts of flours are the basic raw materials in the baking, brew-
ing, breakfast cereal, and snack industries covered later on. The wet-milling chapter
reviews the industrial processes for the production of refined maize, wheat, rice,
and sorghum starches. These intermediate products are usually modified to produce
functional starches, or are bioenzymatically transformed into an array of syrups. The
dry and fresh masa chapter covers the two major milling processes to obtain lime-
cooked dough that is the backbone of the fabrication of table tortillas and snacks
such as corn and tortilla chips. The tortilla and related snack industries are consid-
ered some of the fastest growing worldwide.
The next five chapters represent the core of the book because they thoroughly
describe the processing of basically all types of cereal-based foods consumed by
mankind. Chapter 10 covers bakery products obtained from wheat, such as differ-
ent types of yeast-leavened breads, cookies, crackers, cakes, flour tortillas, pasta,
and noodles. Chapters 11 and 12 detail various industrial processes to manufacture
xxvii
xxviii Preface
breakfast cereals and snack foods, respectively. In these two chapters, thermoplastic
extrusion processes are particularly covered. Chapter 13 deals with the chemical and
enzymatic transformation of refined starch into maltodextrin, maltose, glucose, and
high-fructose syrups. The role and specific catalytic activity of the different enzymes
used in these processes are described. Chapter 14 covers raw materials and process-
ing steps commonly used to manufacture different types of European and traditional
beers, sake, and distilled alcoholic spirits such as scotch and bourbon whiskies. The
final part of this chapter specifies the production of fuel ethanol from starchy cereal
grains. This nonfood industry is considered the fastest growing worldwide. Each of
the manufacturing chapters contains functionality of raw materials, detailed flow-
charts of the manufacturing processes including mass balances, and descriptions of
machinery or processing lines.
The book would be incomplete without a quality control chapter. Chapter 15
details the most common quality control tests for raw grains, milled, and finished
products. Chapter 16 covers of the production of the most popular traditional foods
that are still the main sustenance for more than half of the world’s population. The
flowchart of the different traditional foods manufactured with simple utensils and
tools in Asia, Latin America, Africa, and Europe are detailed.
The role of cereals in human and animal nutrition is covered in the last two chap-
ters. Chapter 17 covers the important role of cereals in human nutrition and the
new emerging area of how nutraceuticals, associated to different types of cereal
grains, positively affect human health. This section contains many tables detailing
the nutritional requirements of humans throughout their life cycle, as well as the
chemical and nutraceutical composition of different types of cereal-based products.
The last chapter deals with the importance of cereals and their by-products in animal
nutrition. This chapter also includes tables detailing the composition of the different
types of cereals, by-products, and processes commonly used to enhance the nutri-
tional value of cereals for poultry, swine, horses, and ruminants, which provide most
animal food products for human consumption.
At the end of each chapter a set of updated references are included with the aim
of providing key scientific material useful to expand knowledge. Additionally, each
chapter contains a section consisting of selected questions aimed toward the self-
evaluation of the comprehension of the contents. Finally, a glossary with approxi-
mately 600 words is included at the end to help in the understanding of technical and
scientific words used throughout the book.
In short, the book was created and designed especially for students and lecturers,
and can be helpful to and serve as a guide for scientists, food product developers, and
nutritionists interested in the fascinating field of cereal science and technology.
Dr. Sergio O. Serna-Saldivar

Professor
Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering
Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to express his deepest gratitude to the president of Tecnologico
de Monterrey, Dr. Alberto Bustani Adem, and the Deans of the School of Medicine
and Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Drs. Martin Hernandez and Manuel I.
Zertuche, for their invaluable support throughout the years. In addition, the author
would particularly like to recognize the contribution of Diana Sanchez, MSc., and
Ana Laura Barragan for their skillful assistance in the elaboration of tables, flow-
charts, figures, and photographs.
xxix
The Author
Sergio O. Serna-Saldivar is professor and
former head of the Biotechnology and Food
Engineering Department, Tecnologico de
Monterrey, Mexico. Prior to this, he was
research scientist in the Soil and Crop Science
Department at Texas A&M University, consul-
tant for EMBRAPA at Río de Janeiro, Brazil,
and associate professor at the University of
Sonora. He is currently the research chair
leader for the study of the nutraceutical value of
indigenous Mexican foods and plants. He has
been a member of the American Association
of Cereal Chemists for more than 25 years,
and of the Institute of Food Technologists,
and has acted as associate editor for the jour-
nals Cereal Chemistry and Cereal Science.
He is currently a member of the AACC International Board of Directors. He received
his B.S. in animal science/agricultural engineering from ITESM, and his M.Sc. and
Ph.D. degrees in scientific nutrition and food science and technology from Texas
A&M. He has published 4 books, 20 chapters, 68 journal articles, holds 4 patents,
and is co-developer of the wheat variety TAM-202. He has directed 47 M.Sc. and
4 Ph.D. students. His research interests focus on the chemistry, nutraceutical/nutri-
tional properties, and biotechnology of maize, sorghum, and other grains. He belongs
to the maximum category of the Mexican National Research System and the Mexican
Academy of Sciences. In addition, he was awarded the Luis Elizondo Award in the
Agricultural and Food Industries, the 2004 AACC Excellence in Teaching Award, and
six times the Teaching and Research Award at Tecnologico de Monterrey.
xxxi
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Statistics of Total and Individual Cereal Production in the World
and Leading Countries in Year 2007..........................................................................2
Table 1.2 Major Characteristics and Adaptation Range of Commercial
Cereal Grains............................................................................................................ 10
Table 2.1 Physical Properties of Cereal Grains.................................................. 45
Table 2.2 U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Maize................................ 53
Table 2.3 U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Long, Medium, and
Short Rough Rice...................................................................................................... 54
Short Brown Rice...................................................................................................... 55
Short White Rice...................................................................................................... 56
Table 2.6 U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Wheat............................... 58
Table 2.7 U.S. Wheat Classification According to Properties and Gluten
Functionality............................................................................................................. 59
Table 2.8 Canadian Wheat Classification According to Properties and
Gluten Functionality.................................................................................................60
Table 2.9 Australian Wheat Classification According to Properties and
Gluten Functionality................................................................................................. 62
Table 2.10 U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Barley............................. 63
Table 2.11 Grade Assignation System for Barley in the United States...............64
Table 2.12 U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Sorghum......................... 65
Table 2.13 U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Rye..................................66
Table 2.14 Canadian Grades and Grade Requirements for Rye......................... 68
Table 2.15 U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Oats................................. 70
Table 2.16 Commercial Classification of Oats in the United States................... 70
Table 2.17 Properties and Functionalities of Regular and Specialty Maizes..... 71
Table 2.18 Properties and Functionalities of Regular and Specialty Rices........ 73
Table 2.19 Properties and Functionalities of Regular and Specialty Wheats..... 75
Table 2.20 Characteristics and Food Uses of Specialty Barleys........................ 76
xxxiii
xxxiv List of Tables
Table 2.21 Properties and Functionalities of Regular and Specialty

Sorghums.................................................................................................................. 76
Table 3.1 Proximate Composition of Cereal Grains........................................... 82
Table 3.2 Carbohydrate Composition of Cereal Grains...................................... 88
Table 3.3 Distribution of Protein Fractions in Cereal Grains............................. 93
Table 3.4 Amino Acid Composition of Cereal Grains........................................ 95
Table 3.5 Fatty Acid Composition of Cereal Grains......................................... 101
Table 3.6 Mineral and Vitamin Composition of Cereal Grains........................ 104
Table 4.1 Percent Amount of the Different Anatomical Parts of Cereal
Grains...................................................................................................................... 115
Table 4.2 Functionality and Chemical Composition of the Different
Anatomical Parts of Cereal Grains......................................................................... 116
Table 4.3 Properties and Traits of Cereal Caryopses........................................ 119
Table 4.4 Main Enzymes Synthesized during Germination of Cereal
Grains...................................................................................................................... 125
Table 6.1 Biology and Habits of the Most Common Insects That Infest
Cereal Grains and Their Products.......................................................................... 150
Table 6.2 Characteristics and Toxicological Effects of the Main
Mycotoxins That Occur in Cereal Grains and Their Products............................... 163
Table 7.1 Milling Yields and Chemical Composition of Dry-Milled
Products of Maize................................................................................................... 190
Table 7.2 Main Food Uses of Refined Dry-Milled Fractions of Maize............ 191
Table 7.3 Milling Yields and Chemical Composition of Dry-Milled
Products of Rice...................................................................................................... 197
Table 7.4 Chemical Composition of the Different Classes of Wheat and
Its Dry-Milled Products..........................................................................................209
Table 7.5 Classification of Wheat Flours According to Main Food Uses......... 210
Table 7.6 Chemical Composition of Dry-Milled Fractions of Oats.................. 217
Table 7.7 Chemical Composition of Dry-Milled Fractions of Sorghum and
Millets..................................................................................................................... 220
Table 8.1 Comparison of the Physical and Viscoamylograph Properties of
Main Starches......................................................................................................... 236
Table 9.1 Average Particle-Size Distribution of Dry Masa Flours for Table
Tortillas, Corn Chips, and Tortilla Chips............................................................... 253
List of Tables xxxv
Table 10.1 Typical Formulas for the Elaboration of Chinese Steamed,

French, Bagels, Pita, or Arabic and Pretzel Breads................................................ 275
Table 10.2 Typical Pan Bread Formulas for Straight, Sponge, and
Continuous Baking Systems................................................................................... 278
Table 10.3 Typical Sponge Dough Formula for Hamburger and Hot Dog
Buns........................................................................................................................ 282
Table 10.4 Typical Formulas for the Elaboration of Whole-Wheat,
Variety, Pan, and Sourdough Breads...................................................................... 283
Table 10.5 Typical Formulas for the Elaboration of Sweet Breads or
Pastries and Yeast-Leavened Donuts...................................................................... 286
Table 10.6 Typical Formulas for the Elaboration of Pizza Crusts.................... 289
Table 10.7 Typical Formulas Used in the Manufacturing of Different
Types of Cookies..................................................................................................... 295
Table 10.8 Typical Formulas for Elaboration of Different Types of Cakes...... 305
Table 10.9 Typical Formulas for the Elaboration of Hotcakes, Crepes,
Muffins, Corn Bread, Biscuits, and Chemically Leavened Donuts........................307
Table 10.10 Typical Formulas for the Elaboration of Regular and Whole-
Wheat Flour Tortillas.............................................................................................. 310
Table 10.11 Typical Formulas for the Production of Various Types of
Crackers.................................................................................................................. 312
Table 12.1 Classification of Snack Foods according to Manufacturing
Process.................................................................................................................... 356
Table 12.2 Physical Properties of Popcorn....................................................... 357
Table 12.3 Formulation Commonly Used to Manufacture Hard Pretzels........ 387
Table 13.1 Composition and Properties of Physically and Chemically
Modified Starches................................................................................................... 398
Table 13.2 Composition and Properties of Maize Syrups................................408
Table 14.1 Comparison of the Average Chemical Composition of Barley,
Wheat, and Sorghum Grains with Their Respective Malts.................................... 420
Table 14.2 Main Types of Malts....................................................................... 427
Table 14.3 Major Types of Beers...................................................................... 430
Table 14.4 Chemical Composition of Hops (Humulus lupulus).......................... 434
Table 14.5 Carbohydrate Composition of a Typical Wort Obtained after
Mashing and Lautering........................................................................................... 439
Table 14.6 Chemical Composition of Regular and Light Beers....................... 442
xxxvi List of Tables
Table 14.7 Types of Cereal-Based Distilled Alcoholic Beverages...................448

Table 15.1 Quality Control Parameters Commonly Used to Assess the
Quality of Cereal Grains.........................................................................................464
Table 15.2 Laboratory Milling Procedures and Quality Control
Parameters Commonly Used to Determine Yields and Qualities of Dry- and
Wet-Milled Products............................................................................................... 474
Table 15.3 Quality Control Parameters Most Commonly Used to Assess
Quality and Functionality of Starches.................................................................... 483
Quality of Lime-Cooked Products......................................................................... 511
Quality of Snack Foods........................................................................................... 518
Table 16.1 Major Uses of Lime-Cooked Maize for the Preparation of
Indigenous Foods.................................................................................................... 553
Table 17.1 Estimated World Food Production and Per Capita Availability
of Different Foods in 2007..................................................................................... 566
Table 17.2 Recommended Caloric Intake According to Age, Gender, and
Physiological Stage................................................................................................. 577
Table 17.3 Amino Acid Requirements According to Age and Body Weight.....581
Table 17.4 Essential Amino Acid Requirements Based on Food Protein
Composition............................................................................................................ 582
Table 17.5 Recommended Daily Allowances for Essential Minerals and
Vitamins Throughout the Life Cycle...................................................................... 583
Table 17.6 Susceptibility of Water and Fat-Soluble Vitamins to Light,
Oxygen, Heat, and Presence of Trace Minerals...................................................... 587
Table 17.7 Food Labeling: Mandatory Nutrients with Their Reference
Daily Intake (RDI) Values and Relationships to Human Health and Disease....... 590
Table 17.8 Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Selected Yeast-
Leavened Bakery Products (100 g)......................................................................... 592
Table 17.9 Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Selected Chemically
Leavened Cookies (per 100 g)................................................................................ 593
Table 17.10 Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Selected Chemical-
Leavened Cakes and Related Products (per 100 g)................................................ 595
Table 17.11 Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Maize and Wheat
Flour Tortillas (per 100 g)....................................................................................... 596
List of Tables xxxvii
Table 17.12 Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Selected Yeast and

Chemical-Leavened Crackers (per 100 g).............................................................. 598
Table 17.13 Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Pasta and Noodles
before, and after Cooking (100 g)........................................................................... 599
Table 17.14 Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Selected Breakfast
Cereals (per 100 g).................................................................................................. 601
Table 17.15 Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Selected Snack
Foods (per 100 g)....................................................................................................603
Table 17.16 Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Alcoholic
Beverages (per 100 g).............................................................................................605
Table 17.17 Classification or Resistant Starches and Their Main Sources.......606
Table 17.18 Major Nutraceuticals Associated with Cereal Grains...................607
Table 18.1 Percent Utilization of Cereal Grains for Animal Feeds in 2007.... 630
Table 18.2 Nutrient Requirements of Broilers and Laying Hens...................... 634
Table 18.3 Nutrient Requirements of Starter, Grower, and Finisher Pigs........ 637
Table 18.4 Nutrient Requirements of Mature and Growing Horses................. 639
Table 18.5 Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cows............................................. 643
Table 18.6 Nutrient Requirements for Growing and Finishing Beef Cattle..... 645
Table 18.7 Nutrient Requirements of Large Breed Dairy Cattle......................646
TABLE 18.8 Nutrient Requirements of Lactating Dairy Cows........................... 647
Table 18.9 Nutrient Composition of Cereal-Based Feedstuffs Commonly
Used in Animal Nutrition.......................................................................................649
Table 18.10 Energy Values of Cereal-Based Feedstuffs for Poultry and
Livestock Animals.................................................................................................. 652
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Relationship between cereal production and world population
from 1960 to year 2007...............................................................................................5
Figure 1.2 Estimation of the postharvest losses and utilization of cereal
grains in 2007.............................................................................................................6
Figure 1.3 Photograph of the modern maize cob compared to its ancestor
Teosintle......................................................................................................................9
Figure 1.4 Pictures of inflorescences of cereal grains....................................... 13
Figure 1.5 Flowchart of the main direct food uses of cereals...........................26
Figure 1.6 Flowchart of the main food uses of maize.......................................28
Figure 1.7 Flowchart of the main food uses of rice........................................... 29
Figure 1.8 Flowchart of the main food uses of wheat, rye, and triticale........... 30
Figure 1.9 Flowchart of the main food uses of barley....................................... 31
Figure 1.10 Flowchart of the main food uses of oats......................................... 31
Figure 1.11 Flowchart of the main food uses of sorghum and millets.............. 32
Figure 1.12 Comparison of cereals with different types of food sources in
terms of per capita food, caloric, and protein intake................................................34
Figure 1.13 Per capita food, caloric, and protein intake of the different
types of cereals......................................................................................................... 35
Figure 2.1 Photographs of the major cereals..................................................... 47
Figure 3.1 Chemical structure and composition of linear amylose and
branched amylopectin............................................................................................... 85
Figure 3.2 Native maize starch granules microscopically viewed under
normal light field and polarized light....................................................................... 86
Figure 3.3 Chemical structure of the main soluble sugars found in cereal
grains........................................................................................................................ 87
Figure 3.4 Chemical structure of the main insoluble and soluble dietary
fiber components generally associated with cell walls............................................. 91
Figure 3.5 Chemical structure of the essential amino acids.............................. 98
Figure 3.6 Chemical structure of the main fat soluble compounds
associated with cereal grains....................................................................................100
xxxix
xl List of Figures
Figure 3.7 Chemical structure of B-vitamins found in cereal grains.............. 103

Figure 3.8 Chemical structure of phytic acid.................................................. 106
Figure 4.1 A schema of the typical flower of cereal grains and the ovary
structure showing the ovum and polar nuclei that, upon fertilization, yield the
germ and endosperm tissues................................................................................... 111
Figure 4.2 A schema showing the major anatomical parts of the sorghum
caryopsis................................................................................................................. 114
Figure 4.3 Microphotograph detailing the microstructure of the pericarp
and aleurone layer of the sorghum caryopsis.......................................................... 117
Figure 4.4 Microphotographs detailing the microstructure of the
sorghum endosperm................................................................................................ 121
Figure 5.1 Progressive deterioration process of stored cereal grains.............. 131
Figure 5.2 Typical isotherm curve for cereals stored at 25°C......................... 133
Figure 5.3 Basic management operations of cereals grains during storage..... 134
Figure 5.4 (a) Ground piling. (b) Flat or horizontal storage (exterior view)
and (c) interior view. (d) Upright concrete silos. (e) Silos capable of receiving
grains from barges and trains................................................................................. 141
Figure 6.1 Main stored-grain moths of the Lepidoptera order........................ 154
Figure 6.2 Main stored-grain weevils and beetles of the Coleoptera order.... 155
Figure 6.3 Chemical structure of the different types of aflatoxins.................. 167
Figure 6.4 Chemical structure of most common grain mycotoxins................ 168
Figure 6.5 Comparative morphology of the main rodents of storage
facilities................................................................................................................... 171
Figure 7.1 Schema of antique stone mill moved by domestic animals or
men.......................................................................................................................... 178
Figure 7.2 Universal cleaning equipment used in the various milling
industries................................................................................................................. 180
Figure 7.3 Flowchart of the tempering–degerming (TD) dry-milling
process of maize..................................................................................................... 184
Figure 7.4 Maize degerminators...................................................................... 187
Figure 7.5 Flowchart of the precooked Arepa flour process............................ 192
Figure 7.6 Flowchart of the typical dry-milling process of rice...................... 196
Figure 7.7 Equipment commonly used in rice-milling operations.................. 198
Figure 7.8 Flowchart of the typical dry-milling process of wheat...................202
List of Figures xli
Figure 7.9 Equipment commonly used in wheat-milling operations...............204

Figure 7.10 Flowchart of the typical dry-milling process of oats.................... 213
Figure 7.11 Equipment commonly used in oat milling operations.................. 214
Figure 7.12 Flowchart of the typical dry-milling process of sorghum or
millets..................................................................................................................... 218
Figure 7.13 Abrasive disc decorticator commonly used in sorghum- or
millet-milling processes.......................................................................................... 219
Figure 8.1 Flowchart of the wet-milling process for the production of
maize starch............................................................................................................ 227
Figure 8.2 Equipment commonly used in wet-milling operations.................. 228
Figure 8.3 Flowchart of the wet-milling process for the production of
rice starch................................................................................................................ 231
Figure 8.4 Flowchart of the wet-milling Martin process for the
production of wheat starch and vital gluten............................................................ 232
Figure 9.1 Flowchart of industrial processes for the manufacture of table
tortillas, corn chips, tortilla chips, and dry masa flour...........................................240
Figure 9.2 Flowchart of industrial processes for the manufacture of table
tortillas from fresh masa......................................................................................... 245
Figure 9.3 Equipment commonly used for the industrial production of
table tortillas...........................................................................................................246
Figure 9.4 Flowchart of the milling process for the production of dry
masa flour................................................................................................................ 252
Figure 10.1 Major food uses of hard, soft, and durum wheats by the
various segments of the baking industry................................................................260
Figure 10.2 Flowchart of the industrial production of compressed fresh
and dry yeasts.........................................................................................................264
Figure 10.3 General flowchart of processes to produce yeast-raised
fermented breads..................................................................................................... 274
Figure 10.4 Flowchart of the straight-dough baking process for the
production of pan bread and related products......................................................... 279
Figure 10.5 Flowchart of the sponge-dough baking process for the
production of pan bread and related products......................................................... 281
Figure 10.6 General flowchart of industrial processes for the production
of cookies................................................................................................................ 297
Figure 10.7 Forming and molding equipment used for the production of
various types of cookies......................................................................................... 298
xlii List of Figures
Figure 10.8 General flowchart of the hot-press, hand-stretch, or die-cut

industrial processes for the production of wheat-flour tortillas..............................309
Figure 10.9 Flowchart of industrial processes for the production of
different kinds of crackers...................................................................................... 314
fresh, dried, and precooked dried pastas................................................................ 317
fresh, dried, and precooked wheat noodles............................................................ 321
Figure 11.1 Flowchart of processes to manufacture regular and quick-
cooking rolled or flaked oats.................................................................................. 332
Figure 11.2 Flowchart of traditional processes to manufacture corn, rice,
and wheat flakes...................................................................................................... 333
Figure 11.3 Flowchart of the traditional process to manufacture oven-
puffed rice............................................................................................................... 336
Figure 11.4 Flowchart of processes commonly used to manufacture gun-
puffed wheat and other cereals............................................................................... 338
Figure 11.5 Flowchart of the traditional process to manufacture shredded
wheat products........................................................................................................ 339
Figure 11.6 Flowchart of the traditional process to manufacture a whole-
wheat fermented-baked granola.............................................................................. 341
Figure 11.7 Schema and photograph of typical extruder components............. 343
Figure 11.8 Flowchart of the typical extrusion process to manufacture
direct expanded collets........................................................................................... 345
Figure 11.9 Flowchart of the extrusion process to manufacture pellets
further processed into gun-puffed cereals..............................................................348
Figure 11.10 Flowchart of the extrusion process to manufacture flakes......... 350
Figure 11.11 Flowchart of extrusion processes to manufacture shredded
cereals..................................................................................................................... 351
Figure 12.1 Postharvest practices for the production of cleaned and
packaged popcorn kernels....................................................................................... 359
Figure 12.2 Flowchart of manufacturing processes for flavored popcorn
obtained by dry or wet popping.............................................................................. 361
Figure 12.3 Flowchart of the manufacturing process of Corn Nuts................ 365
Figure 12.4 Flowchart of the manufacturing process of regular and
partially defatted corn chips................................................................................... 369
List of Figures xliii
Figure 12.5 Flowchart of the manufacturing process of regular tortilla

chips and related products....................................................................................... 370
Figure 12.6 Flowchart of the manufacturing processes for the production
of direct expanded baked or fried snacks............................................................... 375
Figure 12.7 Flowchart of the manufacturing process for the production of
pellets and third-generation snacks......................................................................... 380
crispbreads by extrusion cooking........................................................................... 384
hard pretzels............................................................................................................ 386
Figure 13.1 Comparative pasting behavior of different types of starches.......400
Figure 13.2 Flowchart of industrial processes to produce maltodextrins........409
Figure 13.3 Flowchart of industrial processes to produce maltose syrups...... 410
Figure 13.4 Flowchart of industrial processes to produce glucose syrups...... 411
Figure 13.5 Flowchart of industrial processes to produce high-fructose
maize syrups........................................................................................................... 412
Figure 14.1 Flowchart of the barley malting process....................................... 422
Figure 14.2 Flowchart of the sorghum malting process.................................. 423
Figure 14.3 Chemical structures of humulones or α-acids and lupulones
or β-acids................................................................................................................ 434
Figure 14.4 Flowchart of industrial processes for production of lager and
ale beers.................................................................................................................. 436
Figure 14.5 Flowchart of the industrial process for production of
sorghum opaque beer..............................................................................................444
Figure 14.6 Flowchart of the industrial sake process......................................446
Figure 14.7 Flowchart of the commercial production of various types of
whiskeys.................................................................................................................. 450
Figure 14.8 Flowchart of the commercial production of fuel ethanol from
cereal grains............................................................................................................ 455
Figure 15.1 Instruments commonly used to determine physical and
chemical properties of cereal grains....................................................................... 467
Figure 15.2 Experimental apparatus commonly used to perform dry
milling studies........................................................................................................ 478
Figure 15.3 Falling number apparatus and instruments commonly used
to assess functional properties of starches with their typical curves...................... 487
xliv List of Figures
Figure 15.4 Experimental assays commonly employed to assess gluten

properties of wheat flour......................................................................................... 489
Figure 15.5 The farinograph used to assess rheological properties of
wheat dough, with its corresponding curve............................................................ 491
Figure 15.6 The extensigraph used to assess rheological properties of
wheat dough, with its corresponding curve............................................................ 493
Figure 15.7 The mixograph used for the quick assessment of wheat
dough rheological properties with typical curves for hard and soft
wheat flours............................................................................................................. 494
Figure 15.8 The alveograph used to assess rheological properties of
wheat dough, with corresponding curves for durum, hard, and soft wheats.......... 496
Figure 15.9 The mixolab used to assess rheological and pasting
properties of wheat dough, with its corresponding curve....................................... 497
Figure 15.10 Instruments commonly used to assess functional properties
of yeast in dough systems....................................................................................... 498
Figure 15.11 Sequential steps followed to perform the 100 g flour straight
dough baking test.................................................................................................... 501
Figure 15.12 Sequential steps followed to perform the cookie spread
factor test.................................................................................................................506
Figure 16.1 The traditional process for the preparation of couscous.............. 539
Figure 16.2 The traditional process for the preparation of fermented soy
sauce........................................................................................................................ 543
Figure 16.3 The traditional process for the preparation of fermented miso......544
Figure 16.4 The traditional process for the elaboration of rotis or chapatis.....545
Figure 16.5 The traditional process for the production of arepas, the
national bread of Venezuela....................................................................................546
Figure 16.6 The traditional processes for the preparation of idli and dosai.... 547
Figure 16.7 The traditional process for the elaboration of injera, the most
popular food in Ethiopia......................................................................................... 549
Figure 16.8 The traditional processes used to prepare atole and tortillas
in Mexico and Central America............................................................................. 556
Figure 16.9 The traditional process for the elaboration of Chicha.................. 559
Figure 16.10 The traditional process for the production of sorghum
opaque beer............................................................................................................. 561
List of Figures xlv
Figure 17.1 Progressive clinical manifestations of children affected by

kwashiorkor and micronutrient deficiencies. The photographs show a child
severely affected by malnutrition before and after nutritional intervention for
nearly 2 months....................................................................................................... 568
Figure 17.2 Scheme of the energy partition and corresponding energy
values for white pan bread...................................................................................... 576
Figure 17.3 The concept of protein quality using maize tortillas as
example................................................................................................................... 578
Figure 17.4 Chemical structure of main types of phenolic compounds
associated with cereal grains.................................................................................. 610
Figure 17.5 Chemical structure of antinutritional factors associated with
some cereal grains.................................................................................................. 618
Figure 18.1 Domestic animals that consume approximately 30% of the
world cereal production and provide humankind with nearly all its meat,
milk, and eggs......................................................................................................... 631
Figure 18.2 Internal mechanism for pelleting feedstuffs................................ 661
Figure 18.3 Schema of the conventional steam-flaking process..................... 663
1 Cereal Grains
The Staff of Life
1.1 Introduction
Devoid of plants there would not be human or animal life on our planet. Of all
the plant groups, the flowering plants or angiosperms have furnished mankind with
nearly all the species used for food. The cereals are the foremost important plants.
From the time of the earliest seed gatherers to the present, cereals have been the staff
of life. The name cereal derives from Ceres, the ancient Roman and Greek goddess
of sustenance. Cereal foods have been the most important suppliers of dietary energy
for more than 24 centuries and will continue to be the main food source for mankind
in years to come. Most cultures have been strongly related to the planting and use
of cereals; for instance, rice has been the main food for Asian civilizations, whereas
sorghum and millets are the staples for people in Africa and India. In Europe, the
most ancient and modern societies have traditionally depended on wheat, rye, and
barley. In the new world, maize is the primary and most important staple.
Since the rise of sedentarism, cereal grains have been considered as the backbone
of agriculture and the most prolific food source. It is estimated that more than 70% of
the farm land (700 million ha) was planted with cereal crops in 2007 (Table 1.1; FAO
2009). Of the world’s economically active population, about 45.2% are in agriculture-
related activities, mainly the planting and harvesting of cereal grains. This percent-
age swells as the level of poverty increases. For instance, in developing countries of
Africa and Asia, about 75% of the people make their living in farming-related work
whereas in the United States, Canada, Australia, and developed European countries,
only one of ten workers are farmers. Interestingly, these developed areas produce
most of the cereals that currently sustain humankind.
Approximately 10,500 years ago, Neolithic men started to domesticate plants and
practice farming. The gradual change from hunter–gatherers to agriculture and even
more sedentary occupations led to denser human populations and shortened birth
intervals. Undoubtedly, the cultivation of cereal grains is responsible for the demo-
graphics observed nowadays. The earliest agriculture sites are traced to the area
known as the Fertile Crescent, considered to be the cradle of agriculture and food
production. The Fertile Crescent, located in southwest Asia (the Near East), and
currently composed of Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Syria, and Turkmenistan, has by far the
largest number of accurate radiocarbon dates for early cereal production. The first
cultivated barleys and wheats were planted in this area. From this region, cereals
and the primitive agriculture technologies moved east and west to Europe and Asia,
and south to Africa. Cereals reached Greece, Cyprus, and the Indus Valley through
1
2 Cereal Grains
Table 1.1
Statistics of Total and Individual Cereal Production in the World
and Leading Countries in Year 2007
Harvested Area Yield Production
Cereal Country (1000 ha) (kg/ha) (103 ton)
Total World 699,813 3,347 2,342,426
China 84,734 5,432 460,353
United States 61,953 6,683 414,066
India 99,702 2,528 252,121
Maize World 157,874 4,970 784,786
United States 35,022 9,482 332,092
China 28,074 5,413 151,970
Brazil 13,827 3,730 51,589
Wheat World 217,432 2,791 607,045
China 22,980 4,780 109,860
India 28,035 2,671 74,890
United States 20,643 2,596 53,603
Paddy Rice World 156,952 4,152 651,742
China 29,495 6,341 187,040
India 44,000 3,207 141,134
Indonesia 12,165 4,689 57,048
Barley World 56,608 2,406 136,209
Russian Fed. 9,551 1,639 15,663
Germany 1,933 5,706 11,034
Ukraine 4,100 1,463 6,000
Sorghum World 43,794 1,474 64,589
Nigeria 7,400 1,418 10,500
India 8,451 875 7,402
United States 2,753 4,657 12,827
Rye World 6,892 2,285 15,749
Russian Fed. 2,590 1,509 3,910
Germany 674 4,924 3,319
Poland 1,324 2,412 3,194
Oats World 11,951 2,174 25,991
Russian Fed. 3,557 1,520 5,407
Canada 1,853 2,703 5,009
United States 609 2,183 1,329
Triticale World 3,739 3,369 12,599
Poland 1,263 3,324 4,201
Germany 380 5,695 2,167
France 330 4,663 1,539
Millets World 35,835 889 31,875
India 10,800 982 10,610
Nigeria 5,850 1,316 7,700
Niger 6,170 450 2,781
Source: FAO (Food Agriculture Organization). 2009. Statistical Database. Rome, Italy.
Electronic page http://faostat.fao.org.
Cereal Grains 3
Iran by 6500 BC, Egypt soon after 6000 BC, Central Europe by 5400 BC, southern
Spain by 5200 BC, and Great Britain around 3500 BC. The Fertile Crescent grains
penetrated Africa southward to Ethiopia at some still uncertain date. By the time of
Christ, cereals of Fertile Crescent origin were growing over the 8,000-mile expanse
from the Atlantic coast of Ireland to the Pacific coast of Japan. The next known
site of plant domestication was China where rice and millets were grown by year
7500 BC. Approximately 4,000 years later (3500 BC), the Mesoamerican (Aztecs,
Mayans) and Andean (Inca) civilizations, without any influence from Eurasian soci-
eties, also started practicing the cultivation of several indigenous crops including
maize, beans, potatoes, and squash.
Regardless of the region or civilization, the planting and harvesting of the differ-
ent genus and species of cereals quickly became the key for further development,
sophistication, and knowledge, and the main catalyzer of population growth and
welfare. Cereals became so valuable that almost every religion had a specific god or
goddess who could be invoked to guarantee grain harvest.
Cereals belong to the Graminae family, commonly known as grasses. Most of
these plants are perennial; however, all commercial cereals are annual. It is believed
that prehistoric men selected those grasses that yielded large kernels in a relatively
short period of time. As a result of the cultivation of cereals, men gradually evolved
into primitive farmers and acquired expertise in agriculture activities. Around 3000
BC, the invention of the plow and other ancient farming tools and the use of irrigation
in Asia, Europe, and America boosted grain yields and enhanced formation of larger
societies and human relationships. The manipulation of cereals allowed the production
of new and improved types with better adaptation and yields. The scientific breeding
of cereals that started during the early part of the twentieth century increased yields
to a level of sustaining the gigantic demographic explosion experienced during this
period (from approximately 1.7 billion in 1900 to more than 6 billion in 2000).
The most important advances were due to the Green Revolution in the 1960s and
1970s. The Green Revolution consisted of the breeding of high-yielding varieties,
mainly wheat and rice, coupled with technological packages that tripled grain produc-
tion. The father and mentor of the Green Revolution, Dr. Norman Borlaug, was awarded
the Nobel Prize due to his contributions in favor of the well-being of the human race.
Today, traditional plant breeding coupled with the new advances in agrobiotech-
nology allows the production of higher yields with fewer agrochemicals in a wider
range of adaptation. The use of biotechnology tools to produce genetically modified
organisms (GMO) is now a reality, especially in maize. The genome of the Bt maize
was modified in order to increase its natural resistance to insects and reduce the
use of pesticides that harm the environment and ecology. A similar approach was
followed to produce golden rice, which contains high amounts of β-carotenes or
provitamin A. Golden rice was developed in order to diminish vitamin A deficien-
cies in Asia and other parts of the world. Unfortunately, golden rice is not being
commercially used although it can potentially save thousands of lives. Fortunately,
golden rice is being tested in India, the Philippines, and China. It is expected that the
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and the Philippines will launch high-
yielding varieties by 2012. The current use of GMO cereals for direct food use has
been controversial and is prohibited in most countries around the globe.
4 Cereal Grains
Cereals have a wide array of virtues and advantages. They yield mature grains that
are not perishable and therefore can be stored for long periods of time and gradually used
for food production or as seed for future sowing. One of the main advantages of these
grains is that they concentrate calories and other nutrients in a relatively small package.
Among the major food groups, cereals are undoubtedly the largest supplier of calories.
In addition, they do not contain antinutritional factors, except phytic acid, and are pro-
cessed into foods with a low-energy input and in a relatively short period of time. This is
critically important in those regions of the world where wood or charcoal is scarce.
1.2 Cereal Production versus Population Growth

Of all the issues humankind faces nowadays, the most significant are population
growth, food availability, and energy. These three interlinked issues are closely
related to cereals. Ninety-eight percent of the population growth experienced today
is in the developing world. During the past century, the number of inhabitants almost
quadrupled to 6.2 billion people, and the population projected to year 2050 is at least
8.2 billion. From 1960 to 2003, the human population and grain production doubled.
The increased grain productivity is attributed to a 6.9-fold increase in nitrogen fertil-
ization, a 1.7-fold increase in the amount of irrigated cropland, and a 1.1-fold increase
in land in cultivation. The proportion of yield increase that may be attributed to
genetic improvement is about 0.5 to 0.6, providing farmers with improved materials
highly responsive to fertilization. In addition, the intensity of crop protection has
increased considerably as exemplified by a 15–20-fold increase in the amount of
pesticides used worldwide (Oerke 2006).
The planet is currently experiencing a daily population growth of 230,000 people,
equivalent to 84 million of net gain per year (137 million born versus 53 million
deaths). Of the current world population, one billion people will go to bed hungry
and live daily with less than a couple of dollars. It is estimated that one out of five
people in developing countries is chronically malnourished, and close to 200 mil-
lion children still suffer from protein-energy malnutrition. As a result, more than 12
million preschool children die every year. About 33% of the world’s population still
experiences micronutrient deficiencies (iron, zinc, vitamin A, iodine, etc.) and 25%,
anemia. Anemia occurs especially in women of childbearing age.
The challenge ahead of us is to improve the quality of life by gradually lowering
these impacting negative statistics. The key is to increase production of cereals and
other grains through intelligent breeding and new biotechnological tools of genetic
engineering, and equally decrease postharvest losses that average 15% now. These
losses represent a significant waste of labor, inputs, food, and job opportunities that
hinders economic growth. The higher production should be accompanied by educa-
tion in nutrition, food science, and technology at all levels. The nutritional education
in developing countries should be aimed toward the prevention of protein-energy and
micronutrient deficiencies; whereas in developed countries, education should focus
on deterring the alarming cases of obesity and metabolic syndrome that lead to many
chronic diseases, including diabetes, high cholesterol, cardiovascular disease, and
hypertension.
Cereal Grains 5
Cereals are the main food source for mankind. By far they provide most of the
calories, protein, B-vitamins, and minerals. In most countries, diets have a single
cereal as the primary staple. The most widely used are rice, wheat, and maize, which
provide more than 90% of the total cereal calories. These grains constitute the main
staples for Asia, Europe, and America, respectively. The inhabitants of developing
countries have a higher dependency on cereal-based foods because they are cheaper
compared to animal foods.
Table 1.1 depicts the main producers of each type of cereal grain with the cor-
responding statistics of production, area harvested, and yield expressed as tons per
hectares. According to the Food Agriculture Organization (FAO 2009), cereals are
by far the most important foods with an annual production exceeding 2.3 billion tons
in 2007. Cereals are the staple for the more than 6,500 million world inhabitants,
and the main raw materials for the manufacture of animal feeds and animal-derived
foods. Using simple mathematics by dividing the current world cereal production
by the existing population (2,340 million tons by 6,500 million people) the amount
of cereal per capita amounts to 986 g/d. Interestingly, this cereal availability has
remained practically unchanged during the past 60 years (Figure 1.1). The amount
would provide every person about 4,140 kcal and 88 g protein daily, considering that
each kilogram of cereal averages approximately 4,200 kcal and 9% protein. If we
consider that the daily requirement for an adult is 2,000 kcal and 56 g protein, the
question is, why are approximately 30,000 children still dying each day? The answer
is not easy. First, about 15%–20% of the cereal grains are lost due to faulty storage,
and these losses are higher in underdeveloped countries that have poor facilities and
faulty postharvest technologies. Secondly, we need to consider that not all cereals
go directly for human food. About 750 million tons are channeled to animal feed,
2500 7000
Cereal Production (millions metric tons)
6000
2000
World Population (millions)
5000
1500
4000
3000
1000
Production
Population 2000
500
1000
0 0
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year
Figure 1.1 Relationship between cereal production and world population from 1960 to
year 2007.
6 Cereal Grains
Cereal Grains
(2,342 Million Tons)
Storage Losses
Grain Storage
(351 Million Tons)
Direct Feed Uses Direct Feed Uses Industrial Processing

(746 Million Tons) (1138 Million Tons) (102 Million Tons)
Animal Industrial
Food Products Coproducts Coproducts
Feedstocks Products
797 Million Tons 341 Million Tons 31 Million Tons
370 Million Tons 71 Million Tons
Figure 1.2 Estimation of the postharvest losses and utilization of cereal grains in 2007.
bioethanol, and other industrial nonfood products (Figure 1.2). For instance, nowa-
days 65% or more of the maize, barley, rye, and oats, and 46% of the sorghum are
channeled to animal feed. Third, about 30% of the cereal mass is removed during
processing, yielding coproducts that are not directly used. About 25%–35% of the
wheat, rough rice, and maize are removed during milling operations aimed toward
the production of refined wheat flour, white rice, and dry-milled fractions, respec-
tively. The removed husks, pericarp, and germ are normally used as feedstuffs. If
we add up these nonfood uses, the amount of cereals that reach the world population
amounts to 797 million tons. Thus, of the total cereal output, only 34% is directly
used for the preparation of foods for human consumption. Without considering waste
before, during, and after food preparation, this will provide about 336 g of cereal per
day, which fulfills about 67% of the energy needs of an average human being, but is
not enough to satisfy the protein quantity and quality required by growing infants.
Among cereals, three contrasting grains—rice, wheat, and maize—yield approxi-
mately 87% of the total production (Table 1.1). Rice and wheat are almost exclusively
channeled to human foods, whereas maize is widely used as feedstock for animals
and fuel ethanol. Maize is the cereal with the highest production and yield, followed
closely by rough rice and wheat. Maize production has increased the most because
of its greater adaptation and the strong demand for bioethanol and animal feed, as
well as for the production of sweeteners and nonfood industrial products (biodegrad-
able packaging materials). The genetic modification of maize (Bt maize) is partially
responsible for the record production observed in 2007 (784 million metric tons).
The United States harvests 42% of the world production due to the use of high-
yielding hybrids, including an increasing number of GMOs, with high technology
that allows the production of 9.5 t/ha, especially in the corn belt. Other important
exporters and producers of this cereal are South Africa and Argentina. Although
Mexico is the second maize producer in Latin America, it still imports important
quantities of the grain (2 to 5 million tons per year) to satisfy the domestic demand
for direct food use.
Cereal Grains 7
Wheat is still considered the “queen of cereals” because of its versatility to produce
a wide array of leavened foods. This is possible due to its unique gluten properties.
Wheat is the cereal that contributes the most in terms of human caloric intake. About
47% of wheat is produced in China, India, the United States, and Russia (FAO 2009).
The United States, Canada, Australia, and Argentina have important export markets
throughout the Americas, Europe, and Asia. Wheat is produced in large quantities
in the Northern Winter Region of China, in India, Russia, Pakistan, Turkey, and
Kazakhstan—areas that use most of the milled flour domestically.
In 2007, more than 75% of paddy rice was harvested in China, India, Indonesia,
Bangladesh, Viet Nam, and Myanmar. The export market of rice is poorer compared
to maize and wheat because it is the staple food for practically all Asians. The per
capita kg/yr of rice in developing Asian countries averages 80 kg/year, with per capi-
tal consumption (kg/yr) among the most dependent countries being the following:
Myanmar (195), Viet Nam (167), Bangladesh (160), Cambodia (147), and Indonesia
(140). Brazil is the major producer in Latin America where rice is consumed daily.
However, the per capita yearly consumption of rice in Cuba and Peru is higher (74
and 50 kg, respectively) compared to Brazil (35 kg).
Rye, barley, and oats are mainly planted in Europe, Russia, and the United States.
These winter small grains are also planted for forage or as dual-purpose crops. About
65% of the rye is harvested in eastern Europe (Russia, Poland, and Germany) due
to its adaptation to harsh winters and poor soils. In these regions, rye flour is usu-
ally mixed with wheat flour for the production of many traditional breads and other
bakery goods. Likewise, most of the barley and oats are planted in the United States,
Canada, and Europe for food and feed. Barley is used for malting, brewing, and dis-
tilled alcoholic spirits, whereas milled oats or groats are used in the production of
composite breads and other bakery items.
Sorghum is currently the fifth cereal grain in terms of production, with a global
production of 64.6 million tons (Table 1.1, FAO 2009). It is directly used to produce
a wide array of traditional foods in Africa and India, and almost exclusively used
for animal feed in the United States, Mexico, and other Latin American countries.
Sorghum as feed competes strongly with maize, although it is considered to have a
slightly lower nutritional value. About 25% of the total sorghum is harvested in the
United States, and the grain is also bioconverted into fuel ethanol. India and China
are the second and third world producers, respectively.
The millets are grown as subsistence crops because of their hardiness and drought
resistance. These “poor-people cereals” produced in developing countries of Africa
and Asia seldom yield more than 1 t/ha. The main producers are India (33%), Nigeria
(24%), Niger (8.7%), and China (6.6%) (FAO 2009). The African countries located
south and west of the Sahara desert (Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Nigeria) have
traditionally depended on millets and sorghum as the main source of nutrients.
1.3 General Characteristics
Cereals are defined as cultivated grasses belonging to the Graminae family, con-
sidered as the most widely distributed and important. The main plant characteris-
tics are stems with nodes where buds and leaves originate, alternate spear-shaped or
8 Cereal Grains
lanceolated leaves, and an inflorescence that could be a spike or panicle (Stoskopf

1985). These bear multiple flowers enclosed in glumes that, upon fertilization and
maturation, yield monocotyledon starchy fruits composed of pericarp, germ, and
endosperm. The cotyledon is located in the germ’s scutellum and is considered as
the first reserve tissue, whereas the endosperm is the largest part, where protein and
starch are stored as secondary reserve tissues. Unlike other genus of the family, cere-
als are classified as annual crops and produce comparatively larger caryopses com-
pared to other grasses.
Cereals are divided according to the photosynthesis pathway into two groups:
1. C3 plants that form three-carbon compounds via the Calvin–Benson meta-

bolic cycle—Rice and small grains (wheat, barley, rye, triticale, and oats)
are classified as C3 plants.
2. C4 plants that form four-carbon compounds via the acidic Crassulacean
metabolic pathway—These plants (maize, sorghum, and all millets) gener-
ally grow in hot climates with a high light intensity.
The C4 plants are more efficient in terms of water, CO2 utilization, and nutrient
uptake. They respond better to the high light intensity and are not as adversely
affected by high temperatures and lack of oxygen. The net result is that C4 plants are
more efficient and could be key crops for the future because of the lower availability
of irrigation and fresh water, and the increasing levels of CO2 in the atmosphere
linked to higher temperatures and the “greenhouse effect.”
The inflorescence of cereals could be a spike (wheat, barley, rye, and triticale), a
panicle (rice, sorghum, oats, and all millets) or, in the specific case of maize, a cen-
tral axis. Maize, rye, sorghum and pearl millet cross-pollinate, whereas wheat, oats,
barley, and rice self-pollinate.
The cereal fruit is botanically named caryopsis and consists of three major ana-
tomical parts: pericarp, endosperm, and germ. There are some species that lose the
glumes or husks during harvesting and others that tightly retain these protective coats.
Maize, sorghum, wheat, rye, triticale, and pearl millet are examples of naked cary-
opses, whereas rice, oats, and barley are covered caryopses. Interestingly, some ancient
types of wheats are husked or covered, whereas some new barley types are hull-less.
The pericarp, bran, or fruit coat is the outer layer that covers the grain and contains
most of the fiber. The endosperm is the main anatomical part in terms of quantity
and food utilization. It could constitute up to 75% of the total grain weight, is mainly
composed of starch and protein, and is practically devoid of fiber. The starch is stored
in granules that are classified as simple or compound. Among cereals, only rice and
oats contain compound starch granules. The germ that encloses the scutellum and
embryo contains most of the oil and is also rich in protein and vitamins. Niether
pericarp nor germ contain starch granules, except for some thick-pericarp sorghums
that enclose small amounts in the mesocarp or middle part of the bran. The scutellum,
or cotyledon, and endosperm are considered as the first- and second-reserve tissues,
respectively. These anatomical parts store nutrients necessary for germination.
Cereal Grains 9
1.4 Adaptation and Cytogenetic Origin

Cereals are the most important source of food for mankind because they are the
most efficient in terms of net production per area. The average world production
exceeds 3 t/ha. The different genus and species are adapted to produce in most of the
ecosystems around the globe. They are found in all continents from the Argentinean
Patagonia to Canada and from sea level to the tallest mountains. Some cereals are
planted in tropical and subtropical areas characterized by high temperature and
abundant rainfall, while others are found in temperate and semidesert zones such as
the Sub-Saharan regions of Africa. It is noteworthy to mention that all cereals are
considered annual or nonperennial plants, and therefore are more adapted to produce
in those regions where the environmental and climatic conditions require plants that
develop and mature (90–130 days) quickly, or that take advantage of the scarce rain-
fall cycles and/or snow thawing or defrosting. Table 1.2 summarizes the characteris-
tics (scientific name, chromosome number, cytogenetic origin) and adaptation range
of commercial cereal grains.
1.4.1 Maize
The Americas, and particularly Mexico, are the cradle of maize (Zea mays L), the
most produced cereal crop in the world, and the most adapted to different ecosys-
tems. Ancient Mesoamerican farmers started to select and manipulate teosinte (Zea
mexicana), and in a couple of centuries transformed this native grass into several
pre-Columbian maize races (Figure 1.3). Today, scientists recognize more than 300
races that evolved from these prehistoric ethnic groups. There are archeological find-
ings that clearly indicate full agriculture in Mesoamerica by year 2300 BC; 1,400
years later (900 BC), the Aztecs initiated the use of irrigation. The oldest paleo-
ethnobotanic evidence of maize domestication is in the archeological site of Nac
Neish, located in the southern part of the state of Tamaulipas, Mexico. It consists
of three primitive caves presenting data between 6000 and 20,000 BC. In one of
the caves a tomb was found that contained human remains covered with reed mats
Figure 1.3 Photograph of the modern maize cob (bottom) compared to its ancestor
Teosintle (lying on top) (courtesy of Dr. Juan Manuel de la Fuente).
10
Table 1.2
Major Characteristics and Adaptation Range of Commercial Cereal Grains
Common Scientific Chromosome Cytogenetic
Name Name Number Origin Characteristics and Adaptation
Maize Zea mays 2n = 20 Mesoamerica Maize is classed according to color (yellow or white) and caryopsis shape (dent or flint). The
most popular class is yellow-dent. Maize is highly adaptable to different soils and
environments. The optimum growth temperature is from 25°C–30°C. It requires a 500 mm
rainfall during its cycle, which usually lasts 120 days. It is planted from sea level up to 2500
m altitude, and from 50° north latitude to 40° south latitude. The crop is highly susceptible to
low temperatures or frosting
Rice Oryza sativa 2n = 24 South China Three major classes are recognized: long, medium, and short. Rice is a tropical cereal generally
or East India planted on flooded lands called paddies, although it is also planted using intense irrigation.
Rice is usually transplanted and requires high labor. The crop is highly susceptible to low
temperatures and photoperiod. It is generally planted from sea level to 3000 m altitude
Wheat Triticum 2n = 14 Minor Asia Three major classes are recognized: hard or bread wheats (hexaploid), soft or cookie wheats
aestivum 2n = 4X = 28 and Middle (hexaploid), and durum or pasta wheats (tetraploid). Wheat is the only cereal with functional
Triticum durum 2n = 6X = 42 East gluten that upon water addition and mixing forms elastic doughs. It is adapted to cool regions
located from 15–60° north latitude and from 27–40° south latitude. It grows in soils with good
drainage, with a precipitation of 375 to 875 mm, and from sea level to 3000 m. The optimum
temperature is from 10–25°C.
Barley Hordeum 2n = 14 Middle East Barley is classified according to the number of caryopsis per row in the spike (two or six
vulgare rowed), and use (malting or feed). It is planted in ecosystems similar to wheat, although is
more drought resistant and adapts better to poor and infertile soils.
Sorghum Sorghum 2n = 10 Africa (Sudan Sorghum is classed according to color (white, red/yellow, or brown), and bird resistance. The
bicolor and Chad) preferred class for human food is white, and the most widely produced is red/yellow.
Sorghum is generally a tropical and subtropical crop, although it is considered as the most
drought resistant commercial cereal. It is also highly resistant to high temperatures. It is
generally planted in those regions where irrigation is scarce or maize cannot produce. It
requires from 400 to 600 mm rainfall per year. It is adapted to grow under different soil
conditions, and from sea level to 4000 m altitude.
Cereal Grains
Rye Secale cereale 2n = 14 Southeast Rye is commonly known as “poor man’s wheat.” The most commercially grown rye is diploid.
2n = 4X = 28 Asia or It is planted in regions that have a harsh winter and poor soils that do not allow the production
North of wheat. It is also more drought resistant compared to wheat and highly susceptible to excess
Europe water and contamination with Ergot. It has a wide adaptation range and can grow at 4000 m
altitude.
Cereal Grains
Oats Avena sativa 2n = 12 North Europe Oat production for direct food use is growing because the naked caryopsis or groat contains
or Asia high amounts of both soluble and insoluble fiber. It is adapted to grow in ecosystems similar
Minor to wheat and barley. The optimum temperature for growth is 10°C to 12°C.
Triticale Triticum secale Hybridized in Triticale was created by crossing wheat and rye with the aim of getting functional gluten from
Russia wheat and the agronomic advantages of rye. Although production has increased in the past
two decades, triticale needs more time to start impacting world food production.
Millets
Pearl Pennisetum 2n = 14 West Sudan The cereals known collectively as millets are a set of highly variable small seeded genus and
americanum and Senegal species that are well adapted to grow under low soil fertility, low moisture, and hot
Foxtail or Setaria italica 2n = 36 4x North China environmental conditions. Millets are usually planted as subsistence crops in Africa and Asia.
Italian They are of value especially in semiarid regions because of their short growing season. Pearl
millet is the most popular, and is widely produced in India and parts of Africa. Finger millet is
Finger or Eleucine 2n = 36 4x Ethiopia
popular in East Africa and India, whereas Foxtail and Proso are common in the Near East and
ragi coracana
China. In the western hemisphere, Proso millet is grown as a catch crop and for production of
Proso or Panicum 2n = 36 4x Manchuria birdseed.
common miliaceum
Kodo Paspalum 2n = 40 4x South India
scrobiculatum
Barnyard Echinochloa 2n = 6X = 54 India
frumentacea
Fonio Digitaria exilis 2n = 6X = 54 West Africa
Tef Eragrostis teff 2n = 4X = 40 Ethiopian
highlands
11
12 Cereal Grains
and an offering consisting of a basket with maize cobs. The most accepted theory
is that teosinte is the ancestral origin of maize. The theory is based on the free and
frequent hybridization of teosintle and maize in nature, the same number of chro-
mosomes (2n = 20), and several anatomical features shared by cultivars, including
similar morphological pollen characteristics. The Mesoamericans created maize by
transforming a tiny two-rowed ear of teosintle about 3 cm long into the first small
maize ears with four ranks of paired female spikelets (Figure 1.3). This transforma-
tion took perhaps only 100–200 years. Galinat (1988), Kato (1984), and Staller et al.
(2006) presented evidence based on chromosomal studies and cob morphology that
indicates that at least two independent domestications from two teosintles gave ori-
gin to two different maizes (classified as pyramidal or cylindrical). The pyramidals,
such as Palomero Toluqueño, Conico, and Chalqueño, are distant descendants from
Chalco Teosintle (Zea mexicana), which still grows wild in Mexico and Guatemala
(Manzanilla and Lopez Lujan, 1995). The cylindricals are most prevalent in modern
races and represent another grouping tracing back to Guerrero or Balsas Teosintle
(Zea parviglumis). The oldest remains of 8-rowed maize from Tehuacan, Mexico, is
7,200 years old. The 12-rowed ear of Chapalote with a higher cob diameter is about
3,000 years old. Apparently the large kernelled eight-rowed maize (Cacahuacintle)
arose independently from Balsas Teosintle about 2,500 years ago. Analogously, the
Palomero Toluqueño indigenous Mexican race, characterized by elongated flint ker-
nels that evolved from Chalco Teosintle, originated the 16-rowed Pepitilla maize.
The cross of Cacahuacintle from Balsas and Pepitilla from Chalco Teosintles origi-
nated the high-yielding 14-rowed dent plants generally widely planted in the U.S.
corn belt (Galinat 1988).
After the Spaniards conquered most of the Americas at the end of the fifteenth
century, maize was taken to Europe and then quickly disseminated into Asia and
Africa. Today, maize is planted on all continents under different climatic conditions
(tropical, subtropical, and temperate zones) and at a variety of altitudes. The crop
yields under irrigation and in dry land conditions; however, maize is highly suscep-
tible to frosts and cold. In temperate regions, maize is generally planted during the
spring and/or summer, avoiding the winter (Table 1.2). The open-pollinated varieties
are generally planted in developing countries, whereas high yielding and Bt maize
hybrids are cultivated in developed countries. Among commercial cereals, maize is
the only one that has the male and female flowers separated. The staminate or male
inflorescence is borne in the tassel, and the pistillate or female inflorescence on the
ears. These are located in the top and middle parts of the plant, respectively. Maize
is a crop with remarkable genetic variability; therefore, many specialty genotypes
are available. The main specialty types are popcorn, waxy, high-amylose or amy-
lomaize, sweet, blue, Cuzco, and quality protein (QPM; Hallauer 2000, White and
Johnson 2003).
1.4.2 Rice
Rice (Oryza sativa; Figure 1.4) is considered a sacred plant in Asia and is still the
most important food for more than 50% of the world population. Archeological evi-
dence has proved that rice was planted and used at least 4,000 years BC. There are
Cereal Grains 13
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.4 Pictures of inflorescences of cereal grains: (a) maize; (b) rice (courtesy of
Jaime Borrero, www.fao.org).
14 Cereal Grains
(c)
(d)
Figure 1.4 (Continued) Pictures of inflorescences of cereal grains: (c) wheat; (d) barley.
Cereal Grains 15
(e)
(f )
Figure 1.4 (Continued) Pictures of inflorescences of cereal grains: (e) sorghum; (f) rye.
16 Cereal Grains
(g)
(h)
Figure 1.4 (Continued) Pictures of inflorescences of cereal grains: (g) oats; (h) triticale
(courtesy of Dr. Silverio Garcia-Lara).
Cereal Grains 17
(i)
(j)
Figure 1.4 (Continued) Pictures of inflorescences of cereal grains: (i) pearl millet (cour-
tesy of Dr. John Taylor); (j) foxtail millet (courtesy of Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State
University, www.bugwood.org).
18 Cereal Grains
(k)
(l)
Figure 1.4 (Continued) Pictures of inflorescences of cereal grains: (k) Proso millet
(courtesy of Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University, www.bugwood.org); (l) finger
millet (courtesy of Dr. John Taylor).
Cereal Grains 19
(m)
(n)
Figure 1.4 (Continued) Pictures of inflorescences of cereal grains: (m) Kodo millet; (n)
barnyard millet.
20 Cereal Grains
(o)
(p)
Figure 1.4 (Continued) Pictures of inflorescences of cereal grains: (o) Tef millet; (p)
Fonio millet.
Cereal Grains 21
approximately 20 species of the genus Oryza and only one (Oryza sativa) supplies
virtually all the rice consumed nowadays. Oryza rufipogon (perennial) and Oryza
nivana (annual) are considered the ancestral species. In developing and developed
Asian countries, the yearly per capita intake of rice is approximately 81 and 54 kg,
respectively. Production data indicate that about 90% of the world’s rice production
is harvested in Asia. Rice is planted in tropical and subtropical regions of the world,
close to or neighboring the equatorial line where there is high relative humidity and
rainfall. The agronomics of rice is different from other cereals because this plant is
generally planted on flooded soils and by transplanting seedlings previously grown
in nurseries. However, most of the rice in the U.S. is directly planted and irrigated.
Planting rice demands high labor for sowing, irrigation, other agronomic practices,
and harvesting. Mechanization is difficult, especially in terraced paddy fields.
Threshing is usually manually done by beating the harvested heads against the
ground or logs or by having animals or humans tread upon the heads. Winnowing
to remove the chaff is traditionally done by tossing the rice from rattan trays. The
wind blows the lighter chaff while the denser rice settles nearby. However, the high
labor and energy input pays off because rice is the cereal crop with the second
highest average yield—estimated to have been 4.2 tons/Ha in 2007 (FAO 2009,
Table 1.1). Three major groups of rice are widely recognized: Japonica, Indica, and
Javanica. The first two are the most relevant. Japonicas are usually high yielding
and produce short caryopses, that upon cooking, yield sticky rice. These rices are
popular in Asia. On the other hand, Indicas usually yield less compared to their
Japonica counterparts, producing long caryopses that, upon cooking, yield drier,
firmer, and nonglutinous rice (Champagne 2004, Marshall and Wadsworth 1994).
1.4.3 Wheat
Wheat (Triticum sp.; Figure 1.4) was one of the first cultivated plants and is con-
sidered as the most important cereal in terms of an energy supply for humans. It is
planted in temperate regions and considered a winter crop. In the early part of the
1900s, taxonomists recognized three species that possessed different chromosome
numbers (Table 1.2). Diploids, tetraploids, and hexaploids contain 14, 28, and 42
chromosomes, respectively. Diploids include wild (Triticum boeoticum) and culti-
vated einkorn (T. monococcum). The use of these wheats is resurfacing due to their
potential nutraceutical properties, even though they are low yielding compared with
the current commercial types. The tetraploid wheats comprise several species, the
Emer and the durum being the most important. Emer (T. dicoccoides or T. dicoc-
cum) is also categorized as an ancient wheat and yields naked caryopsis, whereas
durum (T. durum) is primarily cultivated today to fulfill the demands of the pasta
market. The hexaploid wheats include a hulled wheat known as spelt (T. spelta), and
a naked wheat (T. aestivum), which has become the most widely grown throughout
the planet. The other polyploids originated from these ancient types, which have
been planted for more than 10,000 years. The crop evolved into three major types
widely used today: hard, soft, and durum (Pomeranz 1988, Fabriani and Lintas
1988, Kulp and Ponte 2000).
22 Cereal Grains
Wheat is the only cereal that possesses functional gluten. The flour, upon hydra-
tion and the mechanical work of mixing, forms a cohesive and elastic dough suited
for production of yeast-leavened breads, chemical-leavened bakery goods, and pasta
(Pomeranz 1988, Kulp and Ponte 2000, Owens 2001). Hard wheats are preferred for
production of yeast-leavened breads, whereas soft wheats are used in the manufac-
ture of chemically-leavened products such as muffins, cookies, and cakes. Durum
wheats are almost exclusively used for the manufacture of long and short pasta prod-
ucts (Fabriani and Lintas 1988).
Wheat is also planted under irrigation in semidesert areas of the world, although
the best quality wheats are generally planted above and below the Tropic of Cancer
and Tropic of Capricorn, respectively.
1.4.4 Barley
Similar to wheat, barley (Hordeum vulgare; Figure 1.4) has been associated with
the earliest beginnings of farming. Historically, barley preceded wheat as a food
grain in ancient Egypt, and since then it has been consumed in many cultures.
Archeological sites in the Fertile Crescent contain the oldest barley samples
(two-rowed), which are 9,000 to 10,000 years old. Barley appears to have been
grown on a considerable scale by 7000–6500 BC at Jarmo in the Iraqi piedmont.
The most likely origin of cultivated barley is from a two-rowed wild progeni-
tor that evolved into two- and six-rowed types. The six-rowed barley appeared
2,000 years later at Ali Kosh and two Anatolian (Turkey) sites. Barley spread
following Neolithic migrations to North Africa, Asia Minor, and Europe. The
Sumerians were the first culture to develop barley-based alcoholic beverages. The
Egyptians, Ethiopians, Greeks, and Romans developed many foods and their own
kinds of alcoholic beverages. Columbus brought barley to the Americas in 1494
on his second voyage (Newman and Newman 2006, 2008). From Mexican and
European immigrants, barley reached the United States and Canada where it is
widely planted nowadays.
Only at the beginning of the 1900s was barley replaced by wheat as a food grain
because of the superior quality of wheat flour. Barley ranks fourth among cere-
als (Table 1.1) and significantly contributes to the world’s food supply as human
food, malt products, and livestock feed. Approximately 64% of the world’s barley is
channeled to the feed industry. Cultivated barley is one of the 31 Hordeum species.
Most are diploids (2n = 14 chromosomes), with the other half, approximately, being
tetraploids or hexaploids. Barley is a cool season crop cultivated in the spring and
summer at temperate latitudes. It is cold tolerant and considered the most drought
resistant and alkali and salt tolerant among the small grains.
1.4.5 Sorghum
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor; Figure 1.4) originated in equatorial Africa where it
has been grown for more than 2,000 years. It is one of the cereals with the highest
genetic variability; more than 30,000 selections are kept in the world’s collection
Cereal Grains 23
bank located in India. Sorghum continues to be a traditional crop in Africa and

India, and constitutes a major source of calories and protein for millions of people.
About half of the world production (approximately 26 million tons) is processed into
a wide array of traditional foods. Sorghum was introduced to the United States in
the middle of the nineteenth century and quickly positioned as a feed grain crop.
The crop has gained popularity and importance in developed countries because of
its drought resistance and high productivity when planted under good agronomic
practices (irrigation, fertilization, etc.). Sorghum is the preferred cereal in semides-
ert areas of the world or in areas where maize struggles due to high temperatures,
poor soils, or lack of rainfall. Sorghum is classified as high and low-tannin types.
Brown, bird-resistant, or high-tannin sorghums have a reduced nutritional value and
are grown because of their agronomic advantages including bird resistance, and
decreased weathering, mold infestation, and sprouting. Most cultivated sorghums do
not contain condensed tannins and have similar food and feed nutritional value when
thermal treated compared to maize. White sorghums are currently viewed as an
excellent source of gluten-free flours or meals suited for production of snacks, cook-
ies, breads, and beer. Good quality sorghums can substitute for maize in most indus-
trial applications including bioethanol (Dendy 1995, Rooney and Serna-Saldivar
2000, Taylor et al. 2006).
1.4.6 Rye
Rye (Secale cereale; Figure 1.4) has a better resistance to harsh winters, cold
weather, and lack of water compared to wheat, and is generally planted in less
fertile soils under dry land conditions. Rye has been named the “poverty grain”
because of its ability to grow and yield on soils too poor for other small grains.
It is primarily a winter crop that is sown in the fall, becomes dormant during the
winter, and is harvested early in the spring. Occasionally, rye is sown in the spring
and harvested during the summer. These spring varieties are considered inferior to
winter ryes. Cultivated rye was probably domesticated from the wild ryes (Secale
montanum or Secale anatolicum) indigenous to the Mediterranean and southwest-
ern Asia regions. Rye gradually spread throughout Europe and was brought to
America by settlers in the sixteenth century. Most ryes cultivated nowadays are
still diploid (2n = 14). Rye is more disease resistant than wheat, with the exception
of ergot (Claviceps purpurea). Historically, one of the first cases of mycotoxicosis
recorded was due to consumption of ergot-contaminated rye that produced the
syndrome known as “Saint Anthony’s Fire.” Most rye is harvested in Europe and
Russia (Table 1.1). Rye is milled and processed similarly to wheat. The grain has
been traditionally used for the production of flat breads and yeast-leavened breads,
which vary in crumb color from practically white to dark-brown, in shape from
round to elongated, and in taste from a mildly sour to a strong distinctive acidic
flavor. Rye flour is preferred for the production of sour breads and is also used for
the manufacture of crackers, cookies, and breakfast cereals. This grain is also used
to produce alcoholic beverages. Compared to wheat flours, rye flours deteriorate
faster but contain higher levels of protein, pentosans, and minerals (Bushuk 2001,
Kulp and Ponte 2000).
24 Cereal Grains
1.4.7 Oats
The origin of oats (Avena sativa) can be traced back to approximately 2000 BC in the
Middle East and surrounding Mediterranean areas. Avena sativa and A. byzantine
are the two most widely grown. The hexaploid oat species, A. sterilis and A. fatua,
are believed to be the progenitors of the cultivated oats A. sativa (Figure 1.4). Oat
cultivation developed simultaneously with wheat and barley and became an important
rotational crop. As are wheat and barley, oats are a cool season crop and rank sixth in
world cereal production (Table 1.1). The demand for oats for human consumption has
steadily increased due to its nutritional health implications, its having the best protein
quality among cereals, and especially due to the unique properties of its dietary fiber.
In the processing of oats for human foods, the hulls or glumes are removed and the
naked caryopsis, called groats, are generally consumed as whole grain. The main
drawback of whole oats and their milled fractions is the high fat content prone to
oxidation. That is the main reason the milling procedure of oats is different from the
rest of the cereals. Milling is aimed towards the deactivation of lipolytic enzymes via
thermal treatments (see Chapter 7). Flaked and milled oats are mainly used for the
production of breakfast cereals, cookies, and composite breads (Webster 1986).
1.4.8 Triticale
Triticale (Triticum secale; Figure 1.4) is the only plant species created by man. It
was first deliberately produced in 1876 by crossing wheat and rye. However, this
crop was first successfully crossed in the 1930s in Russia, but it wasn’t until the
1960s that it was commercially planted (Darvey et al. 2000, National Research
Council 1989). Triticale is a hybrid resulting of the cross of wheat (mother) and rye
(father), with the aim of obtaining kernels with the best qualities of these cereals
(functional gluten, better agronomic performance, and resistance to pests; Darvey
et al. 2000, National Research Council 1989). Triticale has regained popularity
during the past 20 years. World production in 2007 (12.6 million tons) was at least
2.8 times greater than in 1990 (FAO 2009). However, most of the triticale cur-
rently grown does not meet gluten expectations, and therefore more than 85% is
used as forage or grain feed crop. Today, the triticale planted area is approximately
3.7 million hectare (FAO 2009, Table 1.1).
1.4.9 Millets
The grasses known collectively as millets are a set of highly variable, small-seeded
cereal species indigenous to different areas of the world (Dendy 1995, McDonough
et al. 2000, National Research Council 1996). In some African countries such as
Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Gambia, the yearly consumption of millets per capita
amounts to 160, 71, 55, and 52 kg, respectively. The direct food uses of millets are
higher than sorghum and barley. In 2007, about 25 million tons were directly used
for production of many African and Asian traditional foods (Table 1.1, FAO 2009).
Similarly to sorghum, millets are mainly adapted to semidesert, tropical, and sub-
tropical areas of the world, but they are usually planted on barren and low moisture
Cereal Grains 25
soils and under hot environmental conditions. These cereals are of special value in
semiarid regions because of their short growing cycle. Most millets are viewed as
either subsistence or cash crops in developing and developed countries, respectively.
Average yields of millets seldom exceeds 1 t/ha.
The millets primarily originated in east and west Africa, Eurasia, India, and
China. Pearl millet (Figure 1.4, Pennisetum glaucum, P. americanum) apparently
originated in the corridor from western Sudan to Senegal. It is believed to be one of
the earliest domesticated millets because kernels have been found in West African
sites inhabited 2000 BC. From there it reached eastern Africa and further spread to
India and southern Africa. Undoubtedly, pearl is the most important millet because it
is the most productive and is used instead of sorghum, with the advantage that it pos-
sesses a superior nutritional value. Pearl millet produces a very unique cylindrical
panicle containing hundreds of oblong-shaped kernels. After pearl millet, the most
relevant millets are foxtail or Italian (Setaria italica; Figure 1.4), Proso (Figure 1.4;
Panicum milaceum), and finger (Figure 1.4; Eleucine coracana).
Foxtail millet is possibly one of the oldest grain crops. Its name is due to the
characteristic panicle that resembles the tail of a fox. It is especially important
in China, Japan, and India. Its cultivation in China dates to 3000 BC. On the
other hand, Proso or common millet (P. miliaceum) appears to be even older. It
originated in Manchuria, and first appeared as a crop in Transcaucasia and China
around 5000 BC. It has been reportedly found in Neolithic sites in Georgia and
East China. It is extensively cultivated in India, China, Russia, Ukraine, Middle
East, Turkey, and Rumania. Proso is considered one of the most drought-resistant
millets. It is documented that Proso continued to be used as bread grain in Europe
until medieval times. The kernels are small (2–3 mm) and can be cream, yellow,
orange-red, or brown in color. Kernels are usually traditionally milled into flours
for preparation of a wide array of traditional foods. Today, Proso millet is also
of economic importance in developed countries because of its use for birdseed
(National Research Council 1996).
Finger or ragi millet originated in Ethiopia and reached India between 3,000 and
4,000 years ago. Its name is due to the digitally arranged panicle. Like pearl, finger
is among one of the most productive millets with average yields of about 1.8 t/ha.
The two main races are the African highland, widely grown in the cooler higher-
altitude regions of East Africa and Asia, and the Afro-Asiatic lowland. Finger mil-
let is generally milled into flour for production of flatbreads, dosas, and rotis (see
Chapter 16).
Kodo (Paspalum scorbiculatum; Figure 1.4) and barnyard (Echinochloa frumen-
tacea) millets are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. Kodo has been cultivated
for more than 3,000 years. Its kernels are enclosed in hard, horny, persistent husks
that are difficult to remove. Barnyard is considered as one of the fastest growing
among all millets.
Tef (Eragrostis teff; Figure 1.4) originated in 4000 BC in the northern Ethiopian
highlands. Genetic evidence points to Eragrostis pilosa as the most likely wild
ancestor. Maximum production is achieved at high altitudes (1800–2000 m), with
rainfall of 450–500 mm, and a temperature range of 10°C–27°C. Today, tef accounts
for about one quarter of the total cereal production in Ethiopia, where it is mainly
26 Cereal Grains
processed into injera (see Chapter 16). Among millets, tef produces the smallest ker-
nels (less than 1 mm in diameter), which are rich in dietary fiber and iron and contain
better protein quality and more calcium compared to other cereals.
Fonio (Figure 1.4, Digitaria exilis) is an important subsistence crop in the savan-
nas of West Africa, where it has been planted because of its short growing cycle (2
months), resistance to arid conditions, scarce rainfalls, and poor soils. Fonio also
yields very small kernels that are milled into flours which are mainly used for prepa-
ration of porridges, couscous, traditional breads, and opaque beers (see Chapter 16;
Dendy 1995, McDonough et al. 2000, National Research Council 1996, Belton and
Taylor 2002).
1.5 General Uses
The postharvest management of cereals usually comprises three sequential stages
before reaching the consumer: storage, milling, and food manufacturing (Figure 1.5).
Most cereals are stored for different periods of time because they are usually har-
vested at specific times of the year or, when imported, are usually acquired in large
quantities. The world losses of cereal grains during storage average 15%. In some
countries, mainly in tropical and subtropical areas, more than 50% of the grain is
lost due to insects, molds, and rodent infestations. Needless to say, the proper stor-
age of grains is one of the major areas of opportunity for improvement, especially in
developing countries.
The milling industries are divided into dry, wet, and dry masa flour processes
(see Chapters 7, 8, and 9, respectively). Dry milling is widely practiced with rough
Cereal Grains
Grain Storage
Milling Malting
Barley and Sorghum
Dry-Milling Wet-Milling Nixtamalization

Rice, Wheat, Maize, Sorghum, Maize
Maize, Wheat and Rice
Rye, Triticle, Oats Diastatic Malt
Non-Diastatic
Malt
White Rice Starch
Decorticated Sorghum Germ
Groats Vital Gluten Fresh Masa
Faking and other Grits Gluten Meal Dry Masa Flour
Semolina Bran
Meals/Flours Germ
Germ Steep Water Liquor Lager and Pilsner Beers
Bran Opaque Beers
Distilled Spirits
Bakery Products, Cookies, Modified Starches Table Tortillas
Crackers, Pasta, Noodles, Break- Sweeteners or Syrups Corn Chips
fast Cereals, Snacks, Batters/ Brewing Adjuncts Tortilla Chips
Breading, Brewing Adjuncts
Figure 1.5 Flowchart of the main direct food uses of cereals.

Cereal Grains 27
rice, maize, wheat, and the other small grains. The aim of rice milling is to obtain
decorticated kernels or white rice free of husks, pericarp, germ, and the aleurone
layer. Wheat milling consists of getting the maximum amount of undamaged refined
flour or semolina from soft or hard wheats and durum wheats, respectively. Most
maize dry milling processes consist of degerming kernels with the aim of obtain-
ing an array of refined grits with different sizes, meals, and flours free of pericarp
and tip cap tissues. These dry-milled fractions are widely used as raw materials for
production of breakfast cereals, snacks, brewing adjuncts, bakery products, and as
important ingredients for batters and breadings. There are others less important dry-
milling procedures used to produce groats, decorticated or pearled sorghum, and
barley, triticale, or rye flours (Owens 2001).
Wet-milling is aimed towards the production of refined starches. It is mainly prac-
ticed to obtain maize starch, although wheat and rice starches are also processed.
The aim of wet milling is to obtain prime starch for the further production of modi-
fied starches or sweeteners. The wheat wet-milling industry also obtains vital gluten
that is used as an important additive in the production of bakery products and other
foods including processed meats.
The milling of maize into masa and its derived products is gaining popularity
worldwide because this process yields tortillas, considered as the main staple for
Mexicans and Central Americans, and fried snacks such as corn and tortilla chips
widely consumed all over the world (see Chapter 9).
1.5.1 Maize
In contrast to rice and wheat, maize is mainly utilized for animal feeding and bioeth-
anol, although direct and industrial food uses are increasing (Figure 1.6). According
to the FAO in 2007, approximately 85% of maize was used for feed and bioethanol.
Maize foods are characterized for their unique distinctive flavor, which cannot be
duplicated by any other cereal. Most processed maize products are manufactured
from raw materials obtained from dry milling, wet milling, or nixtamalization. The
dry milling industry produces an array of refined products widely used by the bak-
ing, brewing, snack, and breakfast cereal industries, whereas wet millers produce
relatively pure starch as the product, and gluten, fiber, and germ as coproducts. Most
of the starch is bioenzymatically converted into maltodextrin, maltose, glucose, and
high-fructose syrups. The production and utilization of maize syrups has increased
during the past decades because the soft drink industry prefers to use sweeteners
instead of crystallized cane or beet sugar. The high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS)
imparts 1.7 times more sweetness than sucrose at equivalent concentrations.
The alkaline cooking or nixtamalization of whole maize has become important
in the United States and other parts of the world due to the increase in popularity
of Mexican foods. Three basic types of products are industrially produced from
alkaline or lime-cooked maize: table or soft tortillas, corn chips, and tortilla chips
(Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990). Corn and tortilla chips are primarily produced and con-
sumed in developed countries, where they have an important share within the salted
snack food market, whereas table tortillas constitute the staple food for large groups
of people in developing Latin American countries. These products can be produced
28 Cereal Grains
Maize
Grain Storage
Popcorn Dry-Milling Wet-Milling Nixtamalization
Snacks and Starches Fresh and Dry

Grits, Meals
Confectionary Products and Flours Masa Flour
Modified Brewing
Starches Adjuncts
Syrups Table Snacks
Maltodextrins, Corn and Tortilla
Tortillas Chips
Glucose,
Maltose and
HFCS
Brewing
Bakery Batters and Breakfast Snacks
Second and Third
Adjuncts
Products Breadings Cereals
Generation
Flakes, Puffs,
(Puffs, Collets,
Pellets, Shredded Alcoholic
Pellets) Lager and
Ale Beers Spirits
Figure 1.6 Flowchart of the main food uses of maize.
using fresh masa or industrially manufactured dry masa flour. The use of dry masa
flour is rapidly growing because of its convenience (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990).
Specialty maizes have been selected due to their unique properties, the most
important being popcorn, sweet, high-amylose, waxy, blue, and quality protein
(Hallauer 2000). Popcorn has been a favorite traditional snack worldwide for more
than a century, whereas sweet maize is one of the most popular canned or frozen
vegetables in the United States and Canada (Serna-Saldivar 2008). Large quantities
of waxy maize, which contains more than 95% amylopectin are channeled to the
wet milling industry with the aim of obtaining starch with unique properties and
functionality. QPM was developed from the mutant opaque-2 maize discovered in
1963 by Dr. E. Mertz, and contains almost twice as much lysine and tryptophan than
regular counterparts. Thus, QPM-based foods can upgrade the nutritional status of
infants who consume cereals daily in marginal areas around the world. The future
of QPM looks promising because of its upgraded nutritional value and the recent
development of high yielding varieties and hybrids that produce kernels with differ-
ent physical properties. Blue maize has a pigmented aleurone that imparts an intense
blue color and unique flavor. It has been traditionally dry-milled for production of
flours or meals and also used for tortillas and chips. It has high levels of anthocyanins
and other phenolics with proven nutraceutical properties (White and Johnson 2003).
1.5.2 Rice
Almost all the rice in the world is directly consumed by humans. In Asia, milled
rice is directly used or cooked, whereas in other parts of the world it is also con-
sumed as breakfast cereals or used as brewing adjuncts (Figure 1.7). For instance,
Cereal Grains 29
Paddy Rice
Grain Storage
White Polished
Dry-Milling
Rice
Broken Kernels Milling

and Grits
Breakfast
Home Snacks Brewing
Cereals Wet-Milling Snacks
Preparation Flakes, Oven-
Second and Adjuncts
Third-Generation
Puffs, Pellets,
(Puffs, Collets,
Shredded Alcholic
Pellets) Flour
Lager and
Spirits and
Ale Beers
Sake
Starch
Rice
Modified Syrups and Noodles
Starches Sweeteners
Figure 1.7 Flowchart of the main food uses of rice.
in the United States, 55.8%, 27.4%, and 16.7% of the milled rice is channeled to
direct food use, processed foods, and as brewing grits, respectively. Most brewing
adjuncts are obtained from broken kernels. The long, medium, and short rough
rices are milled into white polished rice. The basic milling operations are dehull-
ing, decortication, and classification. Paddy rices can be parboiled before milling
in order to increase yields and produce white rice with different cooking and orga-
noleptic properties. Most rice is directly cooked, although some is used to manu-
facture breakfast cereals (flakes and oven-puffed) and snacks (expanded products)
(Figure 1.7). The waxy or glutinous, aromatic, black, Basmati, Rissoto, and other
specialty types are processed similarly but they possess different organoleptic prop-
erties. The by-products of the rice milling operation (broken kernels and grits) are
widely used as brewing adjuncts or as a source of fermentable carbohydrates for the
production of beers and alcoholic spirits. The compound starch in rice has unique
properties and is mainly extracted for cosmetics and as an ingredient for the pro-
duction of some food products.
1.5.3 Wheat, Rye, and Triticale

According to end use, wheat is classified as soft, hard, and durum. The first two
classes are almost always dry-milled into refined flour for the manufacturing of
fermented and chemical-leavened bakery products such as breads, cakes, crackers,
cookies, and flour tortillas (Figure 1.8). Durums are dry-milled into coarse refined
meals called semolina, ideally suited for manufacturing of long and short pasta prod-
ucts. Rye flour is usually mixed with wheat flour for the production of fermented
breads including sour breads, especially in Germany, Poland, Ukraine, and other
European countries.
30 Cereal Grains
Wheat, Rye or
Triticale
Grain Storage
Decortication/Pounding Dry-Milling Wet-Milling Whole Grains
Starches Gluten
Pounded Grains Flour Semolina
Breakfast
Modified Cereals
Starches Flakes,
Couscous Bulgur and Syrups Shredded,
Gun-Puffed
Yeast-
Snacks Chemical- Batters and Oriental Pasta
Leavened
Crackers, Breads, Pastries, Leavened Breadings Noodles Products
Pretzels Donuts, Rolls Cookies, Cakes, Couscous
Biscuits, Muffins,
Tortillas
Figure 1.8 Flowchart of the main food uses of wheat, rye, and triticale.
Many current triticales have flour extraction rates of more than 70% comparable
with those of wheat. Triticale flour can be used to partially replace wheat flour in
most food applications. In unleavened or flat breads such as chapatis, wheat flour
tortillas, and Injera, triticale behaves like soft wheat flours and the bread-making
process needs no modification. This makes the crop especially promising in many
countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America where these prepared foods are staples.
In leavened breads, triticale has not been able to match the performance of hard
wheats. However, it has been successfully utilized to produce noodles, breakfast
cereals, and porridges (National Research Council 1989).
Wet-milling of wheat is aimed toward obtaining starch and vital gluten. The first
can be used as an additive or key material for production of sweeteners, whereas the
second is used as a food additive for production of bakery products. Some wheat is
also used for production of bioethanol in Canada and Australia.
1.5.4 Barley
Barley is the most important cereal grain used for malt production (Figure 1.9).
Malt is the most significant ingredient in the formulation of lager and ale beers
and distilled alcoholic beverages. Barley is preferred because it has a husked cary-
opsis and yields the highest diastatic or amylase activity after controlled germina-
tion. The balance between the two most important amylases, alpha and beta, is
adequate for optimizing production of fermentable carbohydrates. The husks help
to speed up the filtration rate of worts, and therefore beer production. On the other
hand, nondiastatic malts are widely used to produce maltose syrups and as flavor-
ing and coloring agents, especially in the manufacturing of breakfast cereals and
bakery products. Barley is widely used as a feedstock and forage in Europe.
Cereal Grains 31
Barley
Grain Storage
Malting Dry-Milling
Non-Diastatic Brewing Refined or

Diastatic Malt Adjuncts Whole
Malt
Flour
Bakery
Products
Lager and Alcoholic Flavorings Lager and Alcoholic
Ale Beers Spirits and Syrups Ale Beers Spirits
Bakery
Products
Composite
Breads,
Muffins, Cookies
Figure 1.9 Flowchart of the main food uses of barley.
Oats
Grain Storage
Dry-milling
Groats Meals and

Flours
Breakfast Composite Breakfast

Cereals, Cookies and Cereals Composite
Rolled Oats, Crackers Flakes, Bread
Extruded Products
Granolas Gun-Puffed
Figure 1.10 Flowchart of the main food uses of oats.
1.5.5 Oats
Oats are extensively used for the production of breakfast cereals and bakery prod-
ucts (Figure 1.10). The husks are mechanically removed prior to use in the food
industry. The naked oats, commonly called groats, have gained popularity because
of their dietary fiber content and the presence of some nutraceutical compounds.
Unlike other cereals, the dietary fiber of groats is balanced because it contains both
insoluble and soluble dietary fiber rich in β-glucans. In addition, groats are high in
ferulic acid and other phenolic antioxidant compounds. The consumption of groats
helps to maintain gastrointestinal health, reduces constipation and the risk of colon
cancer, lowers blood cholesterol, and prevents cardiovascular diseases. Flaked and
32 Cereal Grains
milled groats are used for the production of ready-to-eat and hot breakfast cereals,
and yeast or chemically leavened bakery products such as composite breads and
cookies.
1.5.6 Sorghum and Millets

Grain sorghum and millets are widely used as food in Africa and some parts of Asia.
These grains are usually decorticated via abrasion in order to remove the pericarp
and germ, and then further ground into grits, meals, or flours (Figure 1.11). This
operation is usually performed via pounding and demands hand labor. Sorghums
with thick pericarp and hard endosperm texture are preferred for decortication
because they yield higher amounts of semirefined fractions. The partially refined
meals are the main ingredient for the production of many traditional foods in
Africa and India, such as thin and thick porridges, flat breads, fermented breads,
and even some breakfast cereals such as couscous. White sorghum and light-col-
ored millets are preferred for the production of these traditional foods because
they impart a better flavor and produce lighter colorations. Whole sorghum grains,
and in some instances millets, are also used for the production of diastatic malt,
which is the backbone of the production of many fermented beverages such as
opaque beers. The millets are generally reserved for the production of weaning
foods due to their better nutritional value in contrast with other cereals. Refined
sorghum flour is being used to develop gluten-free products (i.e., bread, cookies,
beer) aimed towards the increasing market of gluten-intolerant or celiac people
(Chapter 17). In addition, grain sorghum is being used for production of fuel etha-
nol in the United States.
Sorghum or Milllets
Grain Storage
Malting Dry-Milling Decortication Nixtamalization
Diastatic
Grits, Meals and Decorticated Masa
Malt
Flours Grains
Opaque Weaning Parboiling

Beer Foods Snacks
Tortillas
Tortilla Chips
Brewing Traditional Composite
Adjuncts Foods Bakery
Tô, Injera, Products Parboiled
Ugali, Roti, Grains
Couscous
Lager
Beer
Figure 1.11 Flowchart of the main food uses of sorghum and millets (picture courtesy of
Dr. John Taylor).
Cereal Grains 33
1.6 Nutritional Value
Cereal grains and their products provide most of the total food intake and nutrients
that sustain mankind. Figure 1.12 clearly shows that cereals are by far the most
important source of foods, calories, and proteins. An average human being obtains
approximately 55% of their calories and 48% of their protein from cereal grain prod-
ucts. Among cereals, polished rice, wheat, and maize provide 42%, 40%, and 12%
of the average caloric intake and 33%, 50%, and 10% of the total protein intake
(Figure 1.13). Practically all cultures depend on at least one, and frequently two,
cereals as the major source of most nutrients. Poor people in developing countries
have a greater dependency on cereals. According to the FAO (2009), the average
daily consumption of cereals in developing and developed countries is 358 and 427 g,
respectively. In some parts of America, Africa, and Asia, cereals provide more than
85% of the total daily caloric intake.
Cereals are considered an excellent source of digestible energy required for growth
and work. The starch, which is almost completely digested and utilized in a nor-
mal human system, is the main calorie contributor. Another advantage is that starch
releases glucose at a slower rate into the blood stream, and therefore helps in the con-
trol of diabetes. The consumption of whole cereals rich in dietary fiber is even better
than refined grain because of their lower glycemic index. Nowadays, whole cereals
are viewed as an excellent source of dietary fiber required for the proper function of
the gastrointestinal tract, and for their health-promoting effects, especially for people
living in industrialized countries around the globe. The consumption of whole grain
foods lowers energy density, blood cholesterol, and blood glucose, and reduces the
incidence of several cancers, mainly colon. Oat-based products exert better positive
health effects because they contain significant quantities of both insoluble and soluble
dietary fiber. The other cereals have a higher ratio of insoluble to soluble fiber, which
therefore does not exert the same positive effects as the oat’s dietary fiber (Serna-
Saldivar 2003).
The major drawback of cereals is their low protein quality. Protein quality is
affected by the digestibility rate and mainly by the essential amino acid balance.
Cereals usually contain from 8%–12% protein and have a good rate of protein digest-
ibility (80%–90%), but unfortunately lack lysine, the most important and scarce
essential amino acid in human nutrition (Serna-Saldivar 2003). The malnutrition
problems still widely distributed throughout the world are almost always observed
in infants living in places where cereals provide most of the daily food intake. The
problem worsens when diets lack legumes or animal-based products. The consump-
tion of relatively low amounts of legumes, dairy, or meat products greatly improves
both protein quality and the intake of important micronutrients.
Plant breeders are actively breeding or further improving maize, sorghum, and
barley with the aim of obtaining high-lysine cultivars. These developments are
directed toward the reduction of protein malnutrition or kwashiorkor. The most note-
worthy advances have been in maize. Quality protein maize breeding programs exist
in most countries around the world. Some QPM varieties or high-yielding hybrids
produce as much as the best local commercial genotypes, with the main advan-
tage that they contain almost twice as much lysine and tryptophan than their more
34 Cereal Grains
Food Intake (g/day)

Fish and
Seafood, 43.8 Butter, 2.74
Meats, 106
Cereals, 413.7
Dairy Products
Excluding Butter, 219.18
Nuts, 2.7
Sugar and
Sweeteners, 68.49
Pulses, 16.4
Oil Crops, 19.2
Roots and Tubers
(Dry Equiv.), 41.1
Fruits, 169.8 Vegetables, 320.55
(a)
Caloric Intake (kcal/day)

Fish and
Seafood, 27 Butter, 27
Meats, 220
Dairy Products
Excluding Butter, 123
Nuts, 9
Sugar and Sweeteners, 2.44
Pulses, 57
Oil Crops, 57
Roots and Tubers

(Dry Equiv.), 145
Fruits, 78
Cereals, 1302
Vegetables, 76
(b)
Protein Intake (g/day)

Fish and Seafood, 4
Meats, 13
Cereals, 31
Dairy Products,
Excluding Butter,7
Pulses, 3
Oil Crops, 2
Roots and Vegetables, 3
Tubers (dry equiv.), 2
(c)
Figure 1.12 Comparison of cereals with different types of food sources in terms of per
capita food, caloric, and protein intake. (From FAO (Food Agriculture Organization). 2009.
Statistical Database. Rome, Italy. Electronic page http://faostat.fao.org)
Cereal Grains 35
Food Consumption (g/capita/day)

Total Consumption (Excluding Beer) = 413.7 g
Sorghum Barley
Millets
2% 1%
Maize 3%
12%
Wheat
45%
Rice (milled
equivalent)
37%
(a)
Caloric Intake (Kcal/capita/day)

Total Consumption (Excluding Beer) = 1302 kcal
Sorghum Barley
Millets
2% 1%
3%
Maize
12%
Wheat
40%
Rice (Milled
Equivalent)
42%
(b)
Figure 1.13 Per capita food, caloric, and protein intake of the different types of cere-
als. (From FAO (Food Agriculture Organization). 2009. Statistical Database. Rome, Italy.
Electronic page http://faostat.fao.org)
36 Cereal Grains
Protein Intake (g/capita/day)

Total Consumption (Excluding Beer) = 31 g
Barley
Millets Sorghum
3% 1%
3%
Maize
10%
Wheat
50%
Rice (Milled
Equivalent)
33%
(c)
Figure 1.13 (Continued) Per capita food, caloric, and protein intake of the different
types of cereals. (From FAO (Food Agriculture Organization). 2009. Statistical Database.
Rome, Italy. Electronic page http://faostat.fao.org)
common counterparts. The consumption of QPM greatly improves the physiological

and brain development of laboratory animals and humans.
Cereals are considered a good source of all B-vitamins except B12, but they are
low in fat-soluble vitamins and devoid of vitamin C (Serna-Saldivar 2003). It is
common to observe vitamin A deficiencies in populations that depend on cereals.
Scientists are trying to develop high β-carotene varieties using molecular biology
with the aim of reducing vitamin A deficiency and night and permanent blindness
endemic to some regions of Asia and other parts of the world.
The new trend in cereal breeding programs is to select genotypes with special
uses and with better nutraceutical properties. These new genotypes are rich in caro-
tenes (β-carotenes, lutein, zeaxanthin), phytosterols, phenolics, anthocyanins, tan-
nins, and other antioxidants. These value-added grains will gradually gain market
because of their proven health benefits.
Milling, fermentation, malting, and cooking (acid or alkaline) affect the compo-
sition and bioavailability of many important nutrients. The various types of mill-
ing processes lower fiber, fat, and vitamin and mineral concentrations, and yield
flours with a higher rate of starch and protein digestibility. Since most cereal-based
products are manufactured from milled products, most regulatory agencies enacted
enrichment laws with the aim of preventing micronutrient deficiencies such as beri-
beri, anemia, cretinism, pellagra, and neural tube defects. Most enrichment programs
promote the addition of iron, zinc, and vitamins B1, B2, niacin, and folic acid.
Cereal Grains 37
Nearly all cereals are thermally processed, affecting bioavailability of starch,

protein, and micronutrients. Heat processing gelatinizes the starch, making it more
available. However, excessive heat treatment increases the amounts of resistant
starch, which lowers digestible energy but contributes to the fermentable soluble
dietary fiber that reaches the hind gut. Heating also denatures proteins and increases
their digestibility. Heating in the presence of alkali usually lowers lysine availability.
Malting and fermentation generally improve protein quality, digestibility, and the
amount and bioavailability of important vitamins.
1.7 Biotechnology
The new wave of research in cereal-related genetic technology concerns improv-
ing agronomic performance through higher yields with less input and use of
harmful pesticides, and the modification of quality traits, especially related
to ease of processing, nutritional value, and nutraceutical or health-promoting
properties. Genetic engineering of cereals is moving from the experimental to
the commercial stage. The manipulation of genetic traits is not a new concept.
Selective breeding has been practiced for centuries, although the genetically engi-
neered or modified plants that have foreign DNA introduced into their genome are
relatively new. New genetically modified crops are herbicide, insect, and disease
resistant. The soil-living bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produces specific pro-
teins active against beetles, moths, flies, and worms. The genes encoding these
proteins have been successfully inserted into transgenic maize and rice. The most
successful example of genetic engineering was the development of the Bt maize.
It was developed after the introduction of a synthetic gene derived from this bac-
terium via particle bombardment. The Bt insect-resistant maize hybrids widely
used today were the result of crossing the transgenic inbred plants with high-
yielding commercial lines. More than 80% of U.S. maize is being planted with
this transgenic maize plant.
Additionally, the new biotechnology tools are affecting cereal-related indus-
tries via the production of GMO used in the brewing and biorefineries industries
and others that produce more efficient recombinant and thermostable enzymes
for biotechnology industries, aimed mainly towards the conversion of the starch
into an array of syrups and fermentable sugars to produce bioethanol. The use of
genetically modified amylolytic yeast is now a reality and is starting to impact
both the biorefineries and brewing industries. However, the development of these
new genetically modified plants has created controversy around the globe, particu-
larly in Europe. This is in spite of the increasing number of field trials of geneti-
cally modified plants conducted during the past decades that have not shown any
adverse environmental or health effects. Acceptance is critically important with
the current world situation, where the pressure to produce higher quantities of
cereals for foods and renewable bioenergy on basically the same farm lands is
causing an escalation in grain prices. The changing agricultural picture is affect-
ing the economies and the food security of many people inhabiting developing
areas of the planet.
38 Cereal Grains
1.8 Future Outlook

Cereals will continue to be the most important foods for mankind. The C4 plants and
new genetically modified cereals will gradually displace their regular counterparts
because of their higher adaptation to drought, natural resistance to pests, adapa-
bility to changing CO2 concentration in the atmosphere and environmental tem-
perature, and better nutritional attributes. The new biotechnology tools are already
impacting cereal production, food and feed utilization, and nutritional attributes.
Over the last decade, transgenic crops bred using modern tools have been planted
on more than 500 million hectares across the planet. The main achievement was
the development of Bt maize. Other examples, although not commercially used
today, are the development of golden rice (Nash 2000) and, more recently, a trans-
genic maize biofortified with three vitamins especially needed by malnourished
people (vitamins A, C, and folic acid). The transgenic kernels contain 169-fold,
6-fold, and double the amounts of these vitamins, respectively. The consumption
of 100 to 200 g of this modified maize will provide the full RDI of β-carotene
and folate, and 20% of the RDI of vitamin C or ascorbate (Naqvi et al. 2009).
These genetically modified cereals that express high amounts of β-carotenes can
alleviate the deficiency of vitamin A endemic in certain regions of Asia, Africa,
and America. Vitamin A deficiency still affects over 250 million people world-
wide, and causes 3,000 deaths per day and a half million cases of child blindness
per year. The biotechnology and new plant breeding strategies might yield new
genotypes with greater adaptation to cold and hot environments present in many
marginal areas of the planet.
New developments in agrobiotechnology will speed up the breeding efforts
and the incorporation of foreign genes that will create new genotypes with better
adaptation, resistance, and nutritional value. This will be necessary to sustain the
increasing world population with a higher life expectancy, improve life quality, and
diminish malnutrition in developing countries around the globe. In addition, the
adoption of new genetically modified cereals will help to improve yields without
the excessive use of pesticides that harm the environment, and will improve the
health and well being of the poorest people. But, these advancements will only be
possible if political differences over the use and development of genetically engi-
neered crops are set aside.
The use of cereal crops to produce bioethanol and other energy sources has
increased cereal and food prices, and could produce scarcity, hunger, and malnutri-
tion in some developing regions around the world. Just in the United States, more
than 85 million tons/year of maize are being transformed into 34,000 million liters
of ethanol. This amount of maize can supply the annual caloric needs (2,000 kcal/d)
for more than 460 million people. The shift in the United States’ energy policy, com-
bined with higher demands of cereals for food and other industrial uses, has resulted
in higher prices that are affecting direct consumers, and food and feed processors.
The creation of ethanol as an energy source has become a formidable challenge to
the industry and people. Today, nearly 20% of U.S. maize is being bioconverted into
ethanol, and the quantity is expected to gradually rise. For example, the escalation
of maize prices has at least doubled the cost of the maize tortilla in Mexico and
Cereal Grains 39
Central America, and increased the prices of most wheat-based foods around the
world. With half of the planet living with less than $2/day, it will be a challenge for
the FAO, UNICEF, and federal governments to keep malnutrition and related deaths
at the current level.
Self-Evaluation
1. Why is photosynthesis considered as the most vital of all chemical reac-
tions on earth? Discuss the photosynthetic efficiency of the different types
of cereal plants.
2. Why are cereals considered as the most important source of food for
mankind?
3. What solutions do you propose for the existing world food problem? What
is your opinion regarding cereal grain production and population growth?
4. What are the general characteristics of plants that belong to the
Gramineae family?
5. Build a table indicating the scientific name of each cereal and draw a world
map indicating the main rice, maize, and wheat-producing areas.
6. Why is triticale considered the only man-made cereal? Why has the devel-
opment of this new cereal not impacted agriculture and food systems around
the world?
7. Why are cereals considered as nonperishable commodities? How does this
characteristic affect storage costs, usage, and processing?
8. What are the major differences between C3 and C4 plants? From the prac-
tical viewpoint, what kind of plants will have more impact in the future?
Why?
9. What was the Green Revolution? How has the Green Revolution impacted
cereal grain production?
10. What are the main anatomical parts of a cereal caryopsis? What is the dif-
ference between a naked and a covered or husked cereal?
11. What is the basic difference between a spike and a panicle? For the follow-
ing cereals, indicate if they produce a spike, panicle, or central axis.
Wheat _______________________ Rye _______________________

Maize _______________________ Sorghum ___________________
Pearl Millet ___________________ Oats _______________________
Barley _______________________ Rice _______________________
12. In a table, compare the cytogenetic origin and the most suitable ecosystems
for each cereal grain.
13. What is the main difference between a hybrid and a variety? Which is, in
general terms, more productive? Indicate the types of cereal grains that are
produced using commercial hybrids.
14. In a table, summarize the main milling systems and food uses of each com-
mercial cereal grain.
40 Cereal Grains
15. What are the main contributions of cereals to human nutrition? Why are
cereals considered a poor source of good quality protein for infants?
16. Discuss what the future of cereals may be from the agronomic and process-
ing viewpoints?
17. Discuss the implication and competition between cereals used for direct
food and bioethanol.
18. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of genetically-modified cereal
grains? Are you in favor of using GMO? Why?
References
Belton, P.S., and Taylor, J.R.N. 2002. Pseudocereals and Less Common Cereals: Grain prop-
erties and Utilization Potential. Springer, Berlin.
Bushuk, W. 2001. Rye: Production, Chemistry and Technology. Second edition. American
Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
Champagne, E.T. 2004. Rice Chemistry and Technology. Third edition. American Association
of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
Darvey, N.L., Naeem, H., and Perry Gustafson, J. 2000. Triticale: Production and utiliza-
tion. Chapter 9 in Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, K. Kulp and J.G. Ponte
(eds.). Second edition. Marcel Dekker, New York.
Dendy, D.A.V. 1995. Sorghum and Millets: Chemistry and Technology. American Association
Fabriani, G., and Lintas, C. 1988. Durum Chemistry and Technology. American Association of
Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
FAO (Food Agriculture Organization). 2009. Statistical Database. Rome, Italy. Electronic
page http://faostat.fao.org.
Galinat, W.C. 1988. The origin of corn. In Corn and Corn Improvement. G.F. Sprague and J.W.
Dudley (eds.). American Soc. of Agronomy, Inc., Crop Sci. Soc. of America, Inc., and
Soil Sci. Soc. of America, Inc. Madison, WI.
Hallauer, A.R.. 2000. Speciality Corns. Second edition. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Kato, Y.T.A. 1984. Chromosome morphology and the origin of maize and its races. Evol.
Biol. 17:219.
Kulp, K., and Ponte, J.G. 2000. Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Second edition.
Marcel Dekker, New York.
Marshall, W.E., and Wadsworth, J.I. 1994. Rice Science and Technology. Marcel Dekker,
New York.
McDonough, C.M., Rooney, L.W., and Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2000. Millets. Chapter 6 in
Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology. K. Kulp and J. Ponte (eds.). Second edi-
tion. Marcel Dekker, New York.
McGregor, A.W., and Bhatty, R.S. 1993. Barley: Chemistry and Technology. American
Naqvi, S., Zhu, C., Farre, G., Ramessar, K., Bassie, L., Breitenback, J., Perez Condesa,
D., Ros, G., Sandmann, G., Capell, T., and Christou, P. 2009. Transgenic multivita-
min corn through biofortification of endosperm with three vitamins representing three
distinct metabolic pathways. PNAS. Early edition www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/
pnas.0901412106.
Nash, J.M. 2000. Grains of Hope. Time Magazine (July 31, 2000).
National Research Council, 1996. Lost Crops of Africa. Volume I: Grains. National Academy
Press, Washington, D.C.
Cereal Grains 41
National Research Council. 1989. Triticale: A Promising Addition to the World’s Cereal
Grains. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C.
Newman, R.K., and Newman, C.W. 2008. Barley for Food and Health. Science, Technology
and Products. John Wiley & Sons. Hoboken, NJ.
Newman, C.W., and Newman, R.K. 2006. A brief history of barley foods. Cereal Foods World
51(1):4–7.
O’Brien, L., and He, R.J. 2000. Transgenic Cereals. American Association of Cereal Chemists.
St. Paul, MN.
Oerke, E.C. 2006. Centenary review. Crop losses to pests. J. Agric. Sci 144:31–43.
Owens, G. 2001. Cereal Processing Technology. CRC Press, Woodhead Publishing,
Cambridge, England.
Pomeranz, Y. 1988. Wheat: Chemistry and Technology. Vol. I and II. Third edition. American
Rooney, L.W., and Serna‑Saldivar, S.O. 2000. Sorghum. Chapter 5 in Handbook of Cereal
Science and Technology. K. Kulp and J.G. Ponte (eds.). Second edition. Marcel Dekker,
New York.
Serna‑Saldivar, S.O. 2003. Cereals: Dietary importance. Pages 1027–1033 in Encyclopedia
of Food Sciences and Nutrition. Second edition. B. Caballero, L. Trugo, and P. Finglas
(eds.). Academic Press, London.
Serna Saldivar, S.O. 2008. Industrial Manufacture of Snack Foods. Kennedys Publications,
London.
Serna‑Saldivar, S.O., Gomez, M.H., and Rooney, L.W. 1990. Technology, chemistry, and
nutritional value of alkaline‑cooked corn products. Chapter 4 in Advances in Cereal
Science and Technology. Vol. X., Y. Pomeranz (ed.). American Association of Cereal
Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
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Stoskopf, N.C. 1985. Cereal Grain Crops. Reston Publishing Co., Reston, VA.
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2 Physical Properties,
Grading, and
Specialty Grains
2.1 Introduction
Cereals differ in the physical properties of the grain. There are large differences
among different genera and smaller differences among types within species. The
environment and management during storage also affects physical characteristics.
The main criteria used to select grains for specific uses are related to their physical
properties because they affect chemical composition, functionality, and optimum
end use. Wheat is the cereal with the most elaborate grading system because of the
large differences in functionality among the three major classes.
The classification and grading play an important and critical role in the mar-
ket value of any given lot of grain. Grain classification and grading assures that a
particular lot of grain meets preestablished quality control guidelines. Federal gov-
ernments usually have impartial regulatory agencies in charge of assigning grain
quality. Furthermore, the standardization of grain quality allows a better and fairer
marketing between sellers and buyers, and also allows processors to blend a lot of
grains with similar grade or quality (Kiser, 1992). Grain production and exports are
vital to countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, Argentina, and most
countries belonging to the European Community. The importance of grain exports
to these nations has increased dramatically during recent years, as rapid population
and economic growth around the planet has resulted in more trade.
Cereals that are usually channeled to direct food consumption generally have a
more detailed and sophisticated classification system. There are many grain classi-
fication systems around the world. However, all classification systems share similar
tests to assign grade and class. The most widely applied are the ones used by devel-
oped countries that have important export markets. Regardless of the classification
system, the value of the grain depends on both grade and class. Grade is an indica-
tion of quality and grain health condition, whereas class is related to the potential use
or functionality of the grain (color, gluten type, hardness, etc.).
The main objectives of the classification systems are: to facilitate the fair com-
mercialization of grains; to provide information related to grain quality for stor-
age and further processing; to provide information that can be related to yields of
products and by-products (milling yields, end-product quality etc.); and to provide a
research platform to further improve the grading system (Kiser, 1992).
43
44 Cereal Grains
Grain quality depends on the industrial end use. For example, storage processors
demand low-moisture cereals with a low incidence of kernel damage so as to favor
the shelf life throughout storage. The milling industries demand grains that yield high
amounts of primary products (flours, grits, semolinas, starch, nixtamalized flour),
whereas the various industry segments in charge of processing end products prefer
grains with physicochemical properties that favor product quality such as bread vol-
ume, spread factor for cookies, cake crumb texture, water absorption of white rice,
color of nixtamalized snacks, and high diastatic activity for malters and brewers.
2.2 Physical Properties of Cereal Grains

Table 2.1 and Figure 2.1 show and compare physical properties of commercial cereal
grains and millets. As expected, they clearly differ in physical properties. The largest
and heaviest caryopses are produced by maize, whereas the smallest and lightest are
produced by millets, particularly fonio and tef. The covered or husked caryopses—
rough rice, oats, and barley—have, comparatively, a lower test weight or apparent
density compared to the naked caryopses. The significant difference is due to the
presence of fiber-rich glumes that weigh less than the rest of the grain components
and yet contribute to the total grain volume. This is critically important because
test weight affects transportation costs and storage costs. For instance, oats require
almost twice as much transportation and storage space compared to wheat because
test weights of these two cereals are 37 and 70 kg/hL, respectively. The other impor-
tant grain physical property is the 1000-kernel weight because it is closely related to
grain size and proportion of endosperm to germ and pericarp tissues. Cuzco maize
caryopsis can weigh twice as much compared to a regular dent caryopsis (630 g
versus 300 g/1000 kernels). Within grain types, the 1000-kernel weight is related to
milling yields or extraction rates. One maize kernel weighs approximately 10 times
more than wheat, rice, and sorghum, and at least 600 times more than tef or fonio.
The 1000-kernel weight of some millets such as tef and fonio weigh less than 0.5 g.
2.3 Grain Quality
All classification systems are based on quick and easy-to-perform tests. These sim-
ple assays should closely relate to grain quality and potential use. With the exception
of moisture, most tests rely on simple-to-use equipment or visual observations by
accredited inspectors. The most common tests are moisture, test weight, foreign or
extraneous material, and the inspection of the several types of damaged kernels.
2.3.1 Moisture
For obvious reasons moisture is one of the most common and critical parameters of
grain quality. Moisture is inversely related to dry matter content and therefore affects
yields of processed products. In most countries, grains are mainly priced according
to moisture. If it is too high, the price is penalized because the buyer is getting more
water and the grain will be less stable during storage (Chapters 5 and 6). In addition, the
purchasing of grains with higher moisture contents implies a higher management cost
Table 2.1
Physical Properties of Cereal Grains
Test Weight 1000-Kernel Dimensions Density
Cereal (kg/hL) Weight (g) Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Length:Width Ratio (g/cm3)
Maize
Dent 68.5–78.0 240–370 8.0–17.0 5.0–9.8 - 1.1 1.20–1.36
Popcorn 82.0–83.0 130–151 8.0–8.6 5.3–6.0 4.0–4.4 1.4–1.5 1.37–1.39
Cuzco 62.2 636 15.0 14.0 3.0 1.1 1.22
Paddy Rice
Long 56.0 21–24 8.9–9.6 2.3–2.5 1.8–1.9 3.8:1–3.9:1 —
Medium 58.5 23–25 7.9–8.2 3.0–3.2 1.9–2.1 2.5:1–2.6:1 —
Short 60.0 26–30 7.4–7.5 3.1–3.6 2.1–2.3 2.1:1–2.4:1 —
Brown Rice
Long — — 7.0–7.5 2.0–2.1 — 3.4:1–3.6:1 —
Medium — — 5.9–6.1 2.5–2.8 — 2.2:1–2.4:1 —
Physical Properties, Grading, and Specialty Grains
Short — — 5.4–5.5 2.8–3.0 — 1.8:1–2.0:1 —

White Rice
Long — — 6.7–7.0 1.9–2.0 — 3.4:1–3.6:1 —
Medium — — 5.5–-5.8 2.4–-2.7 — 2.1:1–2.3:1 —
Short — — 5.2–5.4 2.7–3.1 - 1.7:1-2.0:1 -
Wheat
— — 4.0–10.0 2.5–4.5 — 2.0 —
Hard 80.9 20–32 — — — — —
Soft 77.8 30–40 — — — — —
Durum 74.0–80.0 20–60 — — — —
—continued
45
46
Table 2.1 (Continued)
Physical Properties of Cereal Grains
Dimensions
Test Weight 1000-Kernel Density
Cereal (kg/hL) Weight (g) Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Length:Width Ratio (g/cm3)
Barley
Hulled 46.0–71.0 17–57 8.0–14.0 2.0–4.5 — 3.4 —
Sorghum
68.5–77.3 23–35 3.0–5.0 2.5 1.6 1.6 1.20–1.35
Rye
62.5–73.5 16–32 4.5–10.0 1.5–3.5 — 2.9 —
Oats
Hulled 41.3–52.9 24.7–35.8 9.3–11.1 2.9–3.0 — 3.5 —
Groats 75.9–80.1 16.5–26.0 5.3–6.5 2.1–2.3 — 2.7 —
Triticale
77–79 28–45 — — — — 1.44
Millets
Pearl 76.0–80.0 4–15 3.0–5.5 1.5–3.0 1.2–2.4 2.4 1.25–1.30
Foxtail — 5 2.0 2.0 — 1.0 —
Finger — 1.8–3.8 1.0–1.8 1.0–1.5 1.0–1.5 1.0 1.24
Proso 72.7 — — — — — —
Fonio — 0.5 — — — — —
Tef — 0.13–0.4 1.0–1.5 0.8–1.0 — 1.4 –
Source: Data from Doehlert, D.C. et al. (2006), Kent (1975), Kulp and Ponte (2000), Serna-Saldivar and Rooney (1995), Serna-Saldivar (2008), Webb
(1985).
Cereal Grains
Physical Properties, Grading, and Specialty Grains 47
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f )
Figure 2.1 Photographs of the major cereals: (a) maize (naked caryopsis); (b) wheat
(naked caryopsis); (c) paddy rice (covered caryopsis); (d) barley (covered caryopsis); (e) sor-
ghum (naked caryopsis); (f) rye (naked caryopsis).
48 Cereal Grains
(g) (h)
(i) (j)
(k) (l)
Figure 2.1 (Continued) Photographs of the major cereals: (g) oats (covered caryopsis); (h) triti-
cale (naked caryopsis); (i) pearl millet (naked caryopsis); (j) foxtail millet (naked caryopsis); (k) fin-
ger millet (naked caryopsis); (l) Proso millet (naked caryopsis). (Photographs of pearl, foxtail, finger,
and Proso millets are courtesy of C. McDonough and L.W. Rooney, Texas A&M University.)
(m) (n)
Figure 2.1 (Continued) Photographs of the major cereals: (m) tef millet (naked cary-
opsis); (n) fonio (naked caryopsis). (Photograph of tef millet courtesy of C. McDonough and
L.W. Rooney, Texas A&M University.)
because the grain will be more susceptible to intrinsic and extrinsic deterioration and
will require drying. This is critically important for those lots of grains that are going to
be exported, transported, and stored for long periods of time. The most popular ways to
test moisture are with the electronic test meter, which measures the electrical conductiv-
ity of grains, or via the use of near-infrared analyzers. These tests do not destroy grains
and are conducted in a matter of seconds (Chapter 15).
2.3.2 Volumetric Weight or Test Weight

The bushel test or volumetric weight is the most critical criteria to determine grade
and class. The test simply consists of first sampling the grain, which is then placed
in a container with a known volume. The grain is weighed and the test weight or
apparent density calculated. Test weights are generally expressed in lb/bu (2,150.42
in.3) or kg/hL (100 L). The conversion factors of pounds per Winchester bushel
(2,150.42 in3) and pounds per imperial bushel (2,219.36 in3) to kg/hL are 1.297 and
1.247, respectively. The bushel weight is closely related to the true grain density
and therefore is affected by grain condition, grain texture, and even grain protein
content. This measurement is very useful because insects, molds, and/or sprouted
or heat-damaged kernels have a lower test weight when compared with healthy or
sound counterparts. On the other hand, vitreous or corneous grains with slightly
higher protein content are usually denser. Lots of grains with higher moisture con-
tent usually have a lower test weight because the water has a density of 1 g/cm3,
whereas starch is 1.6 g/cm3. Insect-perforated kernels have lower apparent density
because the air in the perforations has a density of only 0.1 g/cm 3. Both grade and
class are affected by test weight. The most common way to measure test weight is
by the Winchester Bushel Meter provided with different cups with a known volume
(Chapter 15).
50 Cereal Grains
2.3.3 Foreign Material or Dockage

The dockage is defined as the foreign material (other grains, stones, sticks, metals,
pieces of glass, etc.) contaminating a particular lot of grain. For obvious reasons,
dockage greatly affects grading and the market value of the grain. The amount of
foreign material is inversely related to product yield. Grains with higher dockage
contents imply a higher management cost because kernels will require cleaning
before storage. Furthermore, if the amount of foreign material is too high, the
price is penalized because the grain will be more prone to deterioration through-
out storage. It is well known that grains with higher dockage are less stable during
storage because the foreign material fosters insects. Some foreign seeds negatively
affect the quality of milled products, and consequently the quality of end products.
In some cereals such as maize and sorghum, the foreign material also comprises
broken kernels.
2.3.4 Damaged Kernels
Damaged kernels are considered to be those with evident visual damage that nega-
tively affects their value for cereal processors. The determination of damaged ker-
nels is made after removal of foreign material and fines.
2.3.4.1 Insect Damage
These kernels are easily identified because they have perforations or are covered
with weblike material that aggregates grains. Insects puncture grains for reproduc-
tive and feeding purposes, and the weblike material or silken threads are character-
istics of moth (order Lepidoptera) infestations (Chapter 6).
2.3.4.2 Heat Damage

This is the most important category because heat damage is produced by high tem-
perature drying or faulty storage. Heat-damaged kernels are identified by a darker
color and appearance. Most heat-damage is generated when grains are stored at
high humidity and therefore have high respiration rates. The high grain temperature
and generation of soluble sugars due to the activation of intrinsic enzymes produce
Maillard reactions and off-colors and, in some instances, the loss of seed viabil-
ity. Heat-damaged kernels usually have high diastatic or amylolytic activity, contain
degraded starch and other nutrients, and greatly affect functionality especially in the
wheat milling and processing industries. For instance, wheat doughs produced from
heat-damaged flours are sticky or more difficult to machine and produce darker and
less desirable products.
2.3.4.3 Germ Damage
Heat, generated during storage or high temperature drying, or mold infestation cause
important changes in the color or appearance of the germ. The so-called black tip
or blue eye grains are not viable and have higher quantities of damaged starch and
reducing sugars that enhance Maillard reactions. In addition, these grains have higher
fat acidity and oxidative rancidity, indicating hydrolysis of fats due to lipases.
2.3.4.4 Germinated or Sprouted Kernels

Cereal grains can germinate in the spike or panicle in the field or during storage,
given the appropriate moisture and temperature conditions. Sprouted kernels are eas-
ily identified because they contain rootlets and, in some instances, even acrospires.
Sprouted grains have high-diastatic, lipolytic, and proteolytic activities due to gen-
eration of amylases, lipases, and proteases, respectively (Chapter 4). Therefore, the
starch, lipids, and proteins are hydrolyzed or damaged, generating higher amounts
of reducing sugars, free fatty acids, and alpha amino nitrogen, respectively. The use
of sprouted kernels yields sticky doughs and off-colored products.
2.3.4.5 Mold-Infested or Weathered Kernels

Molds can infest cereal grains in the field or during storage, providing that ker-
nels contain at least 4% more water than the critical moisture content of 14%. Mold
infested kernels are easily detected because of the color change on the pericarp
and germ tissues. These kernels usually acquire a dirty off-coloration. Molds have
potent enzymes that degrade reserve tissues of the scutellum and endosperm. Rotten
infested kernels have lower test weight and important changes in starch, lipids, and
proteins. The amylases, lipases, and proteases breakdown starch, lipids, and pro-
teins, respectively. As a result, mold-damaged kernels have higher values of reducing
sugars and fat acidity. The free fatty acids are more prone to oxidation yielding unde-
sirable odors. Grain inspectors are trained to detect mold infested or weathered ker-
nels by a visual inspection and the moldy stench of infested grains. Grains infested
with Fusarium and/or Aspergillus molds will probably contain significant amounts
of mycotoxins that can harm human or animal health (Chapter 6). For the specific
case of sorghum, field-weathered kernels have a typical grayish or darker coloration.
Sorghum is susceptible to weathering because it generally grows in hot and humid
environments. High environmental humidity postanthesis and during grain filling
tends to increase the susceptibility to weathering.
2.3.4.6 Frost Damage

Frost damage occurs when maturing grains in the spike or panicle halt their normal
growth due to low or freezing temperatures. These grains have a lighter coloration
and usually lower 1000-kernel weight because they did not fill properly in the field
or are badly shrunken. Frost-damaged wheat and barley have a waxy appearance and
can have light green, brown, or even black colorations. In these cereals, the pericarp
is generally wrinkled and blistered in the dorsal and crease parts of the caryopsis.
Frost-damaged oats usually have a blackened germ that is easily recognized when
the caryopsis is longitudinally cut.
2.3.4.7 Shriveled or Shrunken Kernels

This type of kernel damage is highly important, especially in wheat and rice. A
shriveled kernel is generally smaller, and has a wrinkled pericarp and a relatively
low amount of endosperm. These grains are produced when environmental condi-
tions such as the lack of water or nutrients, heat stress, early frosts, and plant diseases
do not favor the development of the grain in the inflorescence. A high incidence of
52 Cereal Grains
wrinkled kernels produces low milling yields. Wrinkled kernels are segregated by
sieving and have a lower 1000-kernel weight that can be quickly determined with a
seed counter and a scale.
2.4 Classification and Grading Systems

There are several grain classification systems that are used in various countries around
the globe. These systems vary in the number of tests applied to classify and grade
the grain, but have the same philosophy. The systems employed by grain exporting
countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, and others are more elaborate
than classification systems of developing countries. In some underdeveloped countries
the systems simply consist of determining grain moisture accompanied by a visual
inspection. The U.S. grain grading and classification system (USDA-GIPSA 1999) is
one of the most recognized internationally because the U.S. is one of the main grain
exporters and trades with practically all countries around the world. Most classifica-
tion systems determine grade and class. Grade is aimed towards the determination of
grain condition or health, and class is related to industrial use or functionality.
2.4.1 Maize
In the United States maize is graded into six categories (Table 2.2). Grading is sim-
pler for maize than wheat or rice because it only considers test weight, damaged ker-
nels, foreign material, and broken kernels. Maize is classed, according to the form
of the caryopses, into dent or flint, and, then subclassed according to white or yellow
color. Mixed maize does not meet the color requirements for either of the classes
(USDA-GIPSA 1999, Paulsen et al. 2003). Approximately 85% to 90% of the U.S.
maize is dent-yellow because this is preferred by feed, bioethanol, breakfast cereal,
snack, and starch processors. The use of white dent maize is growing because it is
preferred for tortilla and related-snacks production.
2.4.2 Rice
The majority of rice is directly channeled to human consumption. Since paddy rice
has a husked caryopsis, that is the way it is graded, marketed, and stored. Most
rough rices are dry-milled into white polished rice (Chapter 7). The milling process
is aimed towards the sequential removal of the husks or glumes, pericarp, germ, and
aleurone tissues. The last three are processed by abrasion. This is the only cereal
that has grading as paddy (Table 2.3), brown (naked caryopsis) (Table 2.4), or white
(Table 2.5). The grading system is more elaborate because the properties affect qual-
ity, milling yields, and performance during cooking. In the United States, rice is
marketed according to size, form, and condition. These properties are related to
milling performance, cooking time, and organoleptic properties of the cooked rice
(Webb 1985, USDA 1983).
Rice is generally classified according to size in large, medium, and short
(Table 2.1), and graded using test weight, percentage of chalky kernels, and color.
The dimensions of large paddy rice are 8.9 to 9.6 mm in length, and 2.3 to 2.5 mm
Table 2.2
U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Maizea
Maximum Limits
Damaged Grains
Broken and
Minimum Test Foreign Total Heat Damage
Grade Weight lb/bu Material (%) (%) (%)
U.S. 1 56 2.0 3.0 0.1
U.S. 2 54 3.0 5.0 0.2
U.S. 3 52 4.0 7.0 0.5
U.S. 4 49 5.0 10.0 1.0
U.S. 5 46 7.0 15.0 3.0
Sample grade (See note at end of table.)
Source: USDA (United States Department of Agriculture)-GIPSA (Grain Inspection,

Packers and Stockyards Administration). 1999. Official United States Standards
for Grain. Washington, D.C.
Note: The sample grade in United States is the maize that does not meet the require-
ments for the grades U.S. Nos. 1–5; or contains eight or more stones that have an
aggregate weight in excess of 0.2% of the sample weight, two or more pieces of
glass, three or more crotalaria seeds (Crotalaria sp.); two or more castor beans
(Ricinus communis); four or more particles of an unknown foreign substance(s) or
commonly recognized harmful or toxic substance(s); eight or more cockleburs
(Xanthium spp.) or similar seeds singly or in combination; or animal filth in excess
of 0.2% in 1000 g; or has a musty, sour, or commercially objectionable foreign
odor; or shows signs of heat damage; or is otherwise of distinctly low quality.
a Grades and requirements for yellow, white, and mixed maize. To convert lb/bu to kg/
hL multiply the value by 1.297.
in width, with a length/width ratio of 3.8–3.9:1. The medium paddy rice has a length,
width, and length/width ratio of 7.9–8.2 mm, 3.0–3.2 mm, and 2.5–2.6:1, respec-
tively, whereas the short paddy rice has a 7.4–7.5 mm length, 3.1–3.6 mm width,
and 2.1–2.4:1 length/width ratio. This last measurement is used as one of the most
important criteria for classification. The average length and width is calculated after
the longitudinal arrangement of ten caryopses is positioned lengthwise or widthwise
(Webb 1985).
The test weight, although it is not considered in the official U.S. grading, is an
important selection parameter because it relates to milling yields and decreases when
the lot has higher amounts of dockage, immature, shriveled, and empty kernels. The
average test weight of long, medium, and short rough rices is 56, 58.5, and 60 kg/
hL, respectively.
Another important rice grading criteria is the amount of kernels with chalky
endosperm (Tables 2.3, 2.4, and 2.5). These rices are commonly known as “white
belly.” This factor is not desirable because these kernels are more susceptible to
breakage during handling and milling, and upon milling yield lower amounts of
54
Table 2.3
U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Long, Medium, and Short Rough Rice
Damaged Kernel Chalky Kernels
Heat
Red and In Medium
Total Damage
Damaged In Long or Short Other Types
Grade Num. in 500 g Rice (%) Rice (%) Rice (%) (%) Color Requirements
U.S. 1 4 3 0.5 1.0 2.0 1.0 White or cream
U.S. 2 7 5 1.5 2.0 4.0 2.0 Can be slightly gray
U.S. 3 10 8 2.5 4.0 6.0 3.0 Can be light gray
U.S. 4 27 22 4.0 6.0 8.0 5.0 Can be gray or slightly rosy
U.S. 5 37 32 6.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 Can be dark gray or rosy
U.S. 6 75 75 15.0 15.0 15.0 10.0 Can be dark gray or rosy
Note: The paddy rice with sample grade is the kernel that does not meet the requirements of U.S. grades Nos. 1–5 or 6; contains more than 14% mois-
ture; has a moldy or sour odor; shows evidence of heat damage or has strange odors that are commercially objectionable; or is otherwise of low
quality.
Cereal Grains
Table 2.4
U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Long, Medium, and Short Brown Rice
Paddy Kernels Damaged Kernels
Red and Well-
Heat Objectionable
Damaged Chalky Broken Kernels Other Milled
Total Damage Kernels
Number Kernels Kernels Removed by Types Grains
Grade (%) (500 g) No. (500 g) (%) (%) 6.5 Sieve (%) (%) (%)
U.S. 1 — 20 10 1 2 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
U.S. 2 2.0 — 40 2 10 2.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 3.0
U.S. 3 2.0 — 70 4 20 4.0 6.0 3.0 5.0 10.0
U.S. 4 2.0 — 100 8 35 8.0 8.0 4.0 10.0 10.0
U.S. 5 2.0 — 150 15 50 15.0 15.0 6.0 10.0 10.0
Source: Webb (1985), USDA (1983).

Note: The brown rice with sample grade is the kernel that does not meet the requirements of U.S. grades Nos. 1– 5; contains more than 14.5% moisture; has moldy or
sour smell or shows evidence of heat damage; has strange odors that are commercially objectionable; contains more than 0.2% of related material or more than
0.1% of nonrelated material; contains live weevils or other live insects; or is otherwise of distinctly low quality.
55
56
Table 2.5
U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Long, Medium, and Short White Rice
Seeds, Heat Damaged
and Paddy Grains Chalky Kernels Broken Kernel Other Type of Kernel
Heat Damage
and Medium Whole and
Total Objectionable Red and Long or Short Removed Whole Broken
Damaged Grain Grains Total +5 +6 Pass -6 Grains Grains Milling
Grade Num. in 500 g Rice (%) (%) (%) (%) Plate Plate Plate (%) (%) Grade Color
U.S. 1 2 1 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 0.04 0.1 0.1 — 1.0 Right White or
polished creamy
U.S. 2 4 2 1.5 2.0 4.0 7.0 0.06 0.2 0.2 — 2.0 Right Slightly
polished gray
U.S. 3 7 5 2.5 4.0 6.0 15.0 0.10 0.8 0.5 — 3.0 Reasonably Light
polished gray
U.S. 4 20 15 4.0 6.0 8.0 25.0 0.40 2.0 0.7 — 5.0 Reasonably Gray or
polished lightly
rosy
U.S. 5 30 25 6.0 10.0 10.0 35.0 0.70 3.0 1.0 10.0 — Strong Dark
polished gray or
rosy
U.S. 6 75 75 15.0 15.0 15.0 50.0 1.00 4.0 2.0 10.0 — Strong Dark
polished gray or
rosy
Sample (See note at end of table.)
grade
Source: Webb (1985), USDA (1983).

Note: The white rice with sample grade assignation is the kernel that does not meet the requirements of U.S. grades Nos. 1–6; contains more than 15% moisture; has a musty or sour odor or shows evi-
dence of heating; has strange odors that are commercially objectionable; contains more than 0.1% of foreign material; contains weevils or other live or dead insects, webs, insect residues; and is
Cereal Grains
otherwise of distinctly low quality.

product. In addition, these soft-textured kernels tend to overcook and produce an

undesirable texture in the prepared rice. The incidence of white belly caryopses is
associated with variety and increases when the kernels mature under harsh condi-
tions or are harvested at high moisture contents.
Color is another critical quality factor. It is subjectively evaluated by inspec-
tors in a representative rice sample that has been previously milled using labora-
tory equipment. The color varies from desirable white to undesirable dark gray
(Table 2.5). One of the most common off-colors is pink or rose, which results from
the contamination of rice with red wild rice. The red pigments present in the aleu-
rone-contaminated white kernels gives them a pink coloration. Parboiled rice is
classified according to light or dark coloration. The hydrothermal process enhances
color formation.
2.4.3 Wheat
Wheat is the cereal grain with the most elaborate classification system. This is due
to its high versatility and wide array of uses. The U.S. classification system consists
of determining class, subclass, and grade (USDA-GIPSA 1999). Other important
systems are the ones used by Australia, Canada, and the European Community.
2.4.3.1 United States
The U.S. system assigns grade and class, and is aimed towards millers and end users.
Class is related to wheat functionality and grade with grain condition. There are six
possible grades varying in test weight, damaged kernels, heat damage kernels, shriv-
eled and broken kernels, and other foreign grains (Table 2.6). Grades are numerically
assigned. Grade 1 is the best quality grain in terms of health or soundness. On the
other hand, wheat is classed into three categories: hard, soft, and durum. The hard
and soft wheat classes are subclassed according to color (red or white) and growth
habit (winter or spring) (Table 2.7). Hard wheats are used to produce fermented
breads and related bakery items. The most common class in terms of trade is the hard
red winter wheat (HRWW), and the class recognized as the best quality is the hard
red spring wheat (HRSW). The white hard wheats are starting to gain popularity
because they produce better quality whole-wheat products. Soft wheats are mainly
used for production of cookies, cake mixes, and related chemically leavened prod-
ucts. The most popular soft wheat is classed as soft red winter wheat (SRWW), and
the one with the highest market value is the soft white winter (SRWW), also named
“club.” Durum wheats have a simpler classification system and are divided into hard
amber (75% or more of hard and vitreous kernels of amber color), amber (60% or
more but less than 75% of hard and vitreous kernels of amber color), and durum (less
than 60% of hard and vitreous kernels of amber color).
Winter wheats are generally planted in late summer or early fall, and they stop
growing when the first snows fall or the temperature drops; therefore, they pass dor-
mant all winter and mature and finish their growing cycle after the arrival of the
spring season. The higher temperatures of the spring melt the snow or ice and usu-
ally provide enough moisture for the wheat to complete its life cycle. The main factor
that affects winter wheat production is the amount of rain or snow received during
58
Table 2.6
U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Wheata
Test Weight (lb/bu) Damaged Kernels Kernels Other Classes
Spring,
Red, or Other Heat Foreign Shrunk-
Grade White Classes Total Damage Material Broken Defects Total Contrasting
U.S. 1 58.0 60.0 2.0 0.2 0.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 1.0
U.S. 2 57.0 58.0 4.0 0.2 1.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 2.0
U.S. 3 55.0 56.0 7.0 0.5 2.0 8.0 8.0 10.0 3.0
U.S. 4 53.0 54.0 10.0 1.0 3.0 12.0 12.0 10.0 10.0
U.S. 5 50.0 51.0 15.0 3.0 5.0 20.0 20.0 10.0 10.0
Source: USDA-GIPSA (1999).

Note: Sample grade. Wheat that does not meet the requirements of U.S. grades Nos. 1–4 or 5 or contains 32 or more insect-damaged kernels per 100 g of
wheat or eight or more stones or any number of stones that have an aggregate weight in excess of 0.2% of the sample weight, two or more pieces of
glass; three or more crotalaria seeds (Crotalaria sp.); two or more castor beans (Riccinus communis); four or more particles of an unknown foreign
substance(s) or a commonly recognized harmful or toxic substance(s); two or more rodent pellets, bird droppings, or other animal filth per 1000 g
of wheat; or has a musty, sour, or commercially objectionable foreign odor (except smut or garlic odor); or shows signs of heat damage or is other-
wise of distinctly low quality.
a To convert lb/bu to kg/hL, multiply the value by 1.297.
Cereal Grains
Table 2.7
U.S. Wheat Classification According to Properties and Gluten Functionality
Class Subclass Functionality and Uses
Hard red winter — This is the most cultivated type of wheat in the United States.
It contains 10%–14.5% of protein with functional gluten for
yeast-leavened bakery products.
Hard white — It is the least cultivated in the United States. It has similar
properties to hard red winter (HRWW), except for its white
pericarp, which makes it attractive for millers and bakers for
the production of whole wheat products.
Hard red spring Northern red/ Better quality wheat for baking than its winter counterpart
northern dark since it has a more functional gluten and higher protein
content (11.0%–17.5%). The hard red spring wheat is
preferred for export markets, especially to Japan and the
European Community. It has a harder endosperm texture
compared to hard red winter wheat.
Soft red winter — This is the most popular in the soft wheat category. It possesses
a floury endosperm with low protein content (6.5%–10.0%)
and produces weak gluten adequate for the fabrication of
cookies, cakes, and products leavened with chemical agents.
Soft white Soft white club The wheat has the same functional properties as soft red
winter. Due to its white bran it is preferred for making
breakfast cereals, whole wheat products, and whole flours for
baking.
Durum Hard amber This is a tetraploid wheat with generally yellow vitreous
durum, amber endosperm used for the industrial production of long and
durum short pastas. It contains from 10%–17% of protein.
the cycle. On the other hand, spring wheats are planted in early spring and gener-
ally harvested during the fall. These wheats are usually irrigated and fertilized, and
produce larger kernels with more protein and gluten strength.
The different classes of wheat differ in their physical and chemical properties.
Durums have a corneous or vitreous texture, high test weight and density, and a
high protein (12.5%–16.5%), whereas soft wheats have a soft-textured endosperm,
lower test weight, and low protein content (8.0%–10.5%). The most popular class
is the hard wheat widely used to produce yeast-leavened bakery products (Chapter
10). They vary in their protein content (10.5%–14.5%) and are denser, with a higher
test weight than soft wheats. The baking industry prefers grains with higher pro-
tein content because they produce stronger flours with higher water absorption
requirements. The strong gluten produces bread loaves with more volume, lower
density, and better crumb texture. Among hard wheats, the preferred class for
export markets is the spring. Comparatively, this class contains approximately
1% more protein and yields stronger doughs compared to its winter counterpart.
In Japan and the European Community, spring wheats are usually imported with
60 Cereal Grains
the aim of commingling them with low protein wheats to produce flours suitable
for bread baking.
Among soft wheats, the best quality is the white colored because they are the most
suitable for whole grain products, breakfast cereals, cookies, and cakes. Club wheats
yield whiter flours compared with their red colored counterparts. In addition, white
soft wheats are preferred for manufacturing whole wheat or high-fiber products.
2.4.3.2 Canada
Similar to the U.S. system, the Canadian wheat classification system recognizes
three major classes: hard or bread, soft or cookie, and durum or pasta (Table 2.8).
There are special standards for sell-abroad wheats, which constitute the major export
activity. Canadian wheats are usually exported to the European Community, Japan,
and Mexico. For the export market, the Board of Grain Commissioners of Canada
establishes that for each grade, the standard consists of mixing at least three parts
of above-average wheat for the specific year with one part of the minimum allowed
quality for the specific grade. This rule gives a quality edge for their export wheats.
The major classes of wheat are: Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS), Canada
Table 2.8
Canadian Wheat Classification According to Properties and Gluten
Functionality
Type Functionality and Uses
Canada western red spring This wheat has excellent milling and baking qualities. It is mainly used
(CWRS) wheat for the production of high-volume pan breads. Due to good gluten
strength, it is used either alone or in blends with weaker wheats for
the production of a diverse range of products, such as hearth breads,
noodles, flat breads, and steam breads.
Canada western hard white CWHWS has excellent milling yield, equivalent to or slightly higher
spring (CWHWS) wheat than CWRS. Its dough strength is suitable for yeast-leavened bread
products, some noodles, and pasta.
Canada prairie spring red CPSR has medium-to-strong dough strength properties. Dough
(CPSR) wheat properties are not as strong as CWRS but provide an excellent
balance for the protein level. Used for production of flour for breads,
flat breads, and other products such as crackers.
Canada western red winter CWRW contains low to medium protein, medium-strength gluten, and
(CWRW) wheat hard kernel characteristics. Production of these wheats is currently
small but it is expected to increase over the next few years.
Canada western amber Top grades have high levels of hard vitreous kernels that will typically
durum (CWAD) wheat yield a high percentage of excellent quality semolina. Varieties have
strong, elastic gluten characteristics to ensure good cooking
characteristics. Used to produce high-quality couscous, a dietary
staple in parts of North Africa, as well as for durum bread in the
Mediterranean region.
Source: Canadian Wheat Board (www.cwb.ca).

Western Hard White Spring (CWHWS), Canada Prairie Spring Red (CPSR), Canada
Western Red Winter (CWRW), and Canada Western Amber Durum (CWAD). The
CWRS is the most produced and exported class, and it is known for its excellent
milling and baking qualities. Due to the good gluten strength, it is extensively used
for pan breads, hearth breads, noodles, flat breads, and steam breads. The top two
grades are segregated according to protein level. Significant quantities of CWRS are
being exported to Asia for a variety of noodles types such as alkaline and salted.
The CWHWS has properties similar to CWRS but produces excellent flour color.
The CPSR is a medium to strong wheat with medium protein content sold for breads
and cracker production. The CWRS is a low- to medium-protein wheat suitable for
cookies and crackers. The durum CWAD have high levels of hard-vitreous kernels
that will yield high percentages of excellent quality, bright yellow semolina suitable
for pasta products and couscous (www.cwb.ca).
2.4.3.3 Australia
In Australia, wheats are classed as Selected-Hard, Hard, Soft, and Durum (Table 2.9).
In addition they have all-purpose and feed wheats. These types are those lots that do
not meet grade based on moisture (>12%) and test weight (between 68 and 72 kg/hL
for all purpose, and between 62 and 68 kg/hL for feed wheat). The Australians also
classify special wheats for noodles because they have a strong export market to Asia.
2.4.4 Barley
Barley is graded following the same tests used for other cereals. Tables 2.10 and 2.11
show different criteria used to assign grade. Barley has a husked caryopsis that is
mainly used for malting or as a feed for domestic animals. Malting barley is divided
in two and six-rowed. The caryopses of six-rowed barleys are usually smaller or have
lower 1000-kernel weight compared to counterparts from two-rowed varieties. Malt
and feed barleys differ in protein content and diastatic activity. The malting types
usually have a lower protein but higher starch contents that upon germination yield
more fermentable sugars. Generally, malting barleys contain 9.5%–12.5% protein.
These varieties are selected based on viability, percent germination, and germination
vigor and uniformity. In addition, they should have low dormancy.
The Canadians market two-rowed and six-rowed malting barleys, hull-less barley,
and feed barley. The malting barleys are selected based on germination, protein,
varietal purity, plumpness, damaged kernels, and foreign material. The two-rowed
barleys have higher 1000-kernel weight and more uniform grain size
Barley is among the four most used cereals for animal feed (Chapter 18). The
protein of feed barley varies from 12.5% to 17%. Barley is suitable for all domestic
animals except poultry because birds are negatively affected by the high β-glucan
content. There are two types that have enhanced nutritional value for monogastrics:
hull-less and high-lysine. The naked or hull-less barleys have lower fiber content
and more digestible energy, whereas the Hiproly or high-lysine has a better essential
amino acid profile due to an improved lysine content. The utilization of Hiproly
barley lowers the use of more expensive protein feedstuffs such as soybean without
affecting the efficiency of feed conversion.
62 Cereal Grains
Table 2.9
Australian Wheat Classification According to Properties and Gluten
Functionality
Denomination Characteristics
AWB prime hard wheat With protein levels between 13% and 14%, AWB prime hard is the top
quality high protein milling wheat. Flour milled from AWB prime hard is
used to produce Chinese-style yellow alkaline noodles and Japanese ramen
noodles. It is suitable for the production of high-protein, high-volume
breads. AWB prime hard can be blended with lower protein wheats to
produce flour suitable for a wide range of baked products and noodles.
AWB hard wheat AWB hard wheat is made up of specific hard-grained white wheat varieties
selected for superior milling performance and excellent dough quality. It is
segregated at a guaranteed minimum protein level of 11.5%. Suited to the
production of a wide range of baked products including European-style
pan and hearth breads, Middle Eastern flat breads, and Chinese steamed
products such as mantou and pao, as well as Chinese-style yellow alkaline
noodles.
AWB premium white With a minimum protein level of 10%, AWB premium white is ideally
wheat suited for the production of a variety of Asian noodles, including Hokkien,
instant, and fresh noodles. It is also suitable for Middle Eastern- and
Indian-style breads, and Chinese steamed bread.
AWB standard white AWB standard white is widely recognized as a highly versatile medium- to
wheat low-protein white wheat product representing excellent value for straight
milling or blending purposes. This multipurpose wheat is used for the
production of Middle Eastern, Indian, and Iranian flat breads, European
breads and rolls, and Chinese steamed bread.
Noodle wheats AWB segregates noodle wheats for the production of both Udon white
salted and Chinese noodles. AWB noodle prime hard is also segregated to
produce high quality Chinese-style yellow alkaline noodles, with Japan
being the key market.
AWB soft wheat With a maximum protein level of 9.5%, flour derived from AWB soft wheat
is perfect for producing a wide range of confectionery and baked products
including sweet biscuits, cookies, pastries, cakes, steamed buns, and snack
foods.
AWB durum wheat AWB No.1 durum consists of selected wheat varieties with vitreous,
amber-colored kernels with a minimum protein of 13%. The semolina has
high levels of stable yellow pigment and high water absorption, making it
ideally suited to the production of a wide range of high quality wet and dry
pasta products and couscous.
Australian general Wheat received as AWB GP1 is wheat that has failed to meet the stringent
purpose wheat AWB receival standards for one of the major grades. GP1 is received every
harvest and is sold as a general purpose milling wheat.
Source: Australian Wheat Board (www.awb.com.au/customers/australianwheat/).

Table 2.10
U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Barleya
Maximum Limits
Damaged Kernel
Minimum
Test Weight Sound Heat Foreign Shrunken
Grade (lb/bu) Barley (%) Total Damaged Broken Material Kernels
U.S. 1 47.0 97.0 2.0 0.2 4.0 1.0 10.0
U.S. 2 45.0 94.0 4.0 0.3 8.0 2.0 15.0
U.S. 3 43.0 90.0 6.0 0.5 12.0 3.0 25.0
U.S. 4 40.0 85.0 8.0 1.0 18.0 4.0 35.0
U.S. 5 36.0 75.0 10.0 3.0 28.0 5.0 75.0
Source: USDA-GIPSA (1999)

Note: The barley with sample grade assignation is the kernel that does not meet the requirements of U.S. grades Nos. 1– 5 or
contains eight or more stones or any number of stones which have an aggregate weight in excess of 0.2%; two or more
pieces of glass; three or more crotolaria seeds (Crotolaria sp.); two or more castor beans (Ricinus communis); four or more
particles of unknown foreign substances or commonly recognized harmful or toxic substances; eight or more cocklebur
(Xanthium sp.) or similar seeds singly or in combination; 10 or more rodent pellets, bird droppings, or equivalent quantity
of other animal filth per 1¹/8 to 1¼ quarts of barley; or has a musty, sour, or commercially objectionable foreign odor
(except smut or garlic odor); or is heating or otherwise of distinctly low quality.
a To convert lb/bu to kg/hL multiply the test weight value by 1.297.
63
64 Cereal Grains
Table 2.11
Grade Assignation System for Barley in the United States
Classa Subclass Characteristics
Six-rowed Malting These barleys contain less than 10% of grains from two-rowed
types and more than 90% of grains with white aleurone layers. In
addition they contain less than 1.9% frost and 0.2% heat-
damaged kernels. Kernels should be not blighted, ergoty, garlicky,
infested, or smutty.
Blue malting These barleys contain less than 10% of grains from two-rowed
types and more than 90% of grains with blue aleurone layers. In
addition they contain less than 1.9% frost and 0.2% heat-
damaged kernels. Kernels should be not blighted, ergoty, garlicky,
infested, or smutty.
Common This barley does not classify in either of the previous subclasses.
Two-rowed Malting These contain less than 10% of grains from six-rowed types and
more than 95% of adequate malting type grains. In addition they
contain less than 1.9% frost-damaged, 1.9% moldy, and 0.2%
heat-damaged kernels. Kernels should be not blighted, ergoty,
garlicky, infested, or smutty.
Common This category contains less than 10% of grains from six-rowed
types and does not meet requisites of the previous described
subclass.
Barley Kernels that do not meet the requirements for the six- and
two-rowed classes or that contain more than 10% of black barley.
a The six-rowed barley is the one that possesses three fertile flowers (one central and two in opposite
sides of the nodule of the spike. The two-rowed barleys contain only one fertile central flower on
each side of the spike.
2.4.5 Sorghum
The U.S. federal grain inspection regulations recognize five grades and four classes
of sorghum (USDA-GIPSA 1999). Grade is assigned according to test weight, total
damaged kernels, heat damaged kernels, broken kernels, amount of foreign material,
and contamination with other grains (Table 2.12). The four classes of sorghum are:
brown or high tannin, yellow or red, white, and mixed. The most popular worldwide
are yellow or red. Brown sorghums, also known as bird-resistant or tannin sorghums,
posses a testa that contains condensed tannins. These are more resistant to sprouting
in the field, bird damage, weathering, molds, and other phytopathogens. Tannins act
as antinutritional compounds, decreasing protein digestibility and the overall nutri-
tional value of the grain. This is the reason why these sorghums cost less in grain
markets. Generally speaking, tannin sorghums have 85% of the nutritional value of
other sorghums and maize (Chapter 18). White sorghums possess a white pericarp
without pigmented testa and are widely planted for direct human food uses in India
and Africa. The red or yellow sorghums are widely used as a substitute for maize in
animal feeding. These sorghums do not contain significant amounts of condensed
Table 2.12
U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Sorghuma
Maximum Limits
Damaged Kernels
Minimum Broken Kernels, Foreign Heat
Test Weight Moisture Material, and Other Damaged
Grade lb/bu (%) Grains (%) Total (%) (%)
U.S. 1 57 13.0 4.0 2.0 0.2
U.S. 2 55 14.0 8.0 5.0 0.5
U.S. 3b 53 15.0 12.0 10.0 1.0
U.S. 4 51 18.0 15.0 15.0 3.0
Source: USDA-GIPSA (1999).

Note: The sorghum with sample grade assignation is the kernel that does not meet the requirements of U.S. grades
Nos. 1–4; or contains eight or more stones that have an aggregate weight in excess of 0.2% of the sample
weight; two or more pieces of glass; three or more crotalaria seeds (Crotalaria sp.); two or more castor beans
(Riccinus communis); eight or more of cockleburs (Xanthium sp.) or similar seeds singly or in combination;
four or more particles of unknown foreign substances or commonly recognized harmful or toxic substances;
ten or more rodent pellets, bird droppings, or an equivalent quantity of other animal filth per 1000 g of sor-
ghum; has a musty, sour, or commercially objectionable foreign odor (except smut odor); or is badly weath-
ered, heat-damaged or of distinctly low quality.
a To convert lb/bu to kg/hL, multiply the test weight value by 1.297.
b The lots of sorghum kernels that are decolored cannot be assigned with a better grade than U.S. No. 3.
65
66 Cereal Grains
tannins. The mixed sorghum class contains more than 10% of other classes and
therefore does not meet any of the specifications of the other three main classes.
2.4.6 Rye
The U.S. grading system for rye includes four grades and one additional special
grade that does not meet the requirements for the grades U.S. Nos. 1–4 (Table 2.13).
The Canadian Grain Commission also grades rye into four main and two special
categories (Table 2.14). For the specific case of rye, it is of utmost importance to
identify ergot (Claviceps purpurea) contaminated kernels because this mold pro-
duces a chemical highly toxic to humans. In fact, one of the first recorded cases of
toxicosis was due to this toxin, which produced ergotism or the toxemia known as
St. Anthony’s Fire (Chapter 6). The consumption of ergot-contaminated products
produce the symptoms of hallucinations, gangrene, and paralysis—and in some
instances death.
2.4.7 Oats
Oats have a husked caryopsis that is graded according to test weight, dockage, and
damaged kernels (Table 2.15). An important consideration in oats grading is the
Table 2.13
U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Ryea
Maximum Limits
Foreign Material Damaged Kernels
Minimum Heat
Test Weight Total Other, Excluding Total Damaged
Grade (lb/bu) (%) Wheat (%) (%) (%)
U.S. 1 56 3.0 1.0 2.0 0.1
U.S. 2 54 6.0 2.0 4.0 0.2
U.S. 3 52 10.0 4.0 7.0 0.5
U.S. 4 49 10.0 6.0 15.0 3.0
Source: USDA (1993).

Note: Sample grade assignation is the kernel that does not meet the requirements of U.S. grades
Nos. 1–4, or contains eight or more stones or any number of stones which have an aggre-
gate weight in excess of 0.2%; two or more pieces of glass; three or more crotolaria seeds
(Crotolaria sp.); two or more castor beans (Ricinus communis); four or more particles of
unknown foreign substances or commonly recognized harmful or toxic substances; two or
more rodent pellets, bird droppings, or an equivalent quantity of other animal filth per 1 to
1¼ quarts of rye; or has a musty, sour, or commercially objectionable foreign odor (except
smut or garlic odor); or is heat-damaged or otherwise of distinctly low quality.
contamination with wild oats (Avena fatua). Wild oats generally contaminate com-
mercial oat plantations during mechanical harvesting. The main difference between
commercial oats and wild oats is that wild oats produce twisted awns and have
pubescence in the basal or germinal part.
Oats are classified according to color in white or yellow, red, gray, black, and
mixed oats (Table 2.16). White or yellow caryopses are generally obtained from
Avena sativa, whereas red colored caryopses are derived from Avena byzantina. Red
oats are generally planted during winter, whereas white varieties during spring. The
most preferred by the food industry are the top grades of the white and red classes.
There is one oat cultivar that yields naked caryopses (Avena nuda), and which will
probably gain market in the near future due to the increased interest in the nutraceu-
tical properties of this cereal grain.
2.5 Specialty Cereals

Practically all commercial cereals have special types with unique properties for dif-
ferent uses. These specialty grains have been selected throughout the years because
they have unique uses in the industry, impart different culinary properties to pro-
cessed foods, and/or have an improved nutritional or nutraceutical value. Generally,
these grains have a greater economic value in the market and are not considered as
commodities.
2.5.1 Maize
Specialty maizes have been selected due to their unique properties, the most impor-
tant being popcorn, sweet, waxy, high-amylose, blue, and quality protein (Table 2.17).
Popcorn has been a favorite traditional snack worldwide for more than a century
(Chapter 12), whereas sweet maize is one of the most popular canned or frozen vege-
tables in the United States and Canada. Large quantities of waxy maize that contains
more than 95% amylopectin are channeled to the wet-milling industry (Chapter 8)
with the aim of obtaining starch that has unique functionality (e.g., low retrograda-
tion). Quality protein maize (QPM) was developed from the mutant opaque-2 maize
discovered in 1963 and contains almost twice as much lysine and tryptophan than
regular maize (Chapter 17). Thus, QPM-based foods can upgrade the nutritional sta-
tus of infants who consume cereals daily in marginal areas around the world. Blue
maize has a pigmented aleurone that imparts an intense blue color and a unique
flavor. It has been traditionally dry milled for production of flours or meals and also
used for tortillas and chips. Blue maize tortilla chips are often served in specialty
restaurants and are also sold as organic food. It has high levels of anthocyanins
and other antioxidants with proven nutraceutical properties (Hallauer 2000, Rooney
and Serna-Saldivar 2003). The newest development is the multivitamin transgenic
maize that expresses high amounts of provitamin A, and vitamins C and folic acid
(Naqvi et al.. 2009). These transgenic kernels contain 169-fold, 6-fold, and double
the amounts of these vitamins, respectively. The consumption of 100 to 200 g of
this modified maize will provide the full RDI of β-carotene and folate, and 20% of
the RDI of vitamin C or ascorbate. This genetically modified maize can alleviate
68
Table 2.14
Canadian Grades and Grade Requirements for Ryea
Standard of Quality Damage
Minimum
Test Weight Sprouted
Grade Name (kg/hL) Degree of Soundness Broken (%) Fireburnt (%) Fusarium (%) Heated (%) (%)
No. 1 CW/CE 72 Well matured, practically 4 Nil 0.25 0.1 0.5
free from weather-damaged
kernels
No. 2 CW/CE 69 Reasonably well matured, 5 Nil 0.5 0.75 2
reasonably free from
weather-damaged kernels
No. 3 CW/CE 63 Excluded from higher 8 Nil 1 5 10
grades on account of
damaged kernels
Grade when Rye, sample 50% or less rye, Rye, sample CW/ Rye, sample CW/ Rye, sample Rye, sample
No. 3 specs CW/CE sample CW/CE CE account CE account CW/CE CW/CE
not met account account broken fireburnt fusarium damage account heated account
light grain over 50% sprouted
weight sample broken
grain
Cereal Grains
Foreign Material
Cereal
Grains Matter Other
Other Than than Cereal
Grade Name Wheat Ergot % Excreta % Grains % Sclerotinia % Stones % Total %
No. 1 CW/CE 1.5 0.05 0.01 0.5 0.05 0.033 2
No. 2 CW/CE 3 0.20 0.01 1 0.20 0.033 5
No. 3 CW/CE 10 0.33 0.02 2 0.33 0.066 10
Grade when See mixed Rye, sample CW/CE Rye, sample CW/ Rye, sample CW/ Rye, sample CW/ 2.5% or less See Mixed
No. 3 specs grain account ergot CE account CE account CE account west rye, Grain
not met excreta admixture admixture rejected
(grade) account
stones or east
rye sample CE
account stones.
Over 2.5% rye,
sample salvage
Niote: CW = Canada Western, CE = Canada Eastern

Source: Canadian Grain Commission, Office of Chief Inspection, Official Grain Grading Guide. Winnipeg, Canada, 2009. Retrieved May 26, 2009 from: http://grain-
scanada.gc.ca/.
69
70 Cereal Grains
Table 2.15
U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Oatsa
Maximum Limits of Foreign Material (%)
Minimum Heat-
Test Weight Sound Oats Damaged Foreign
Grade lb/bu (%) Kernels Material Wild Oatsb
U.S. 1 36.0 97.0 0.1 2.0 2.0
U.S. 2 33.0 94.0 0.3 3.0 3.0
U.S. 3 30.0 90.0 1.0 4.0 5.0
U.S. 4 27.0 80.0 3.0 5.0 10.0

Note: Sample grade are oats which do not meet the requirements of U.S. grades Nos. 1–4 or contain eight
or more stones or any number of stones which have an aggregate weight in excess of 0.2%; two or
more pieces of glass; three or more crotolaria seeds (Crotolaria sp.); two or more castor beans
(Ricinus communis); four or more particles of unknown foreign substances or commonly recog-
nized harmful or toxic substances; eight or more cocklebur (Xanthium sp.) or similar seeds singly
or in combination; ten or more rodent pellets, bird droppings, or equivalent quantity of other ani-
mal filth per 11/8 to 1¼ quarts of barley; or has a musty, sour, or commercially objectionable for-
eign odor (except smut or garlic odor); or is heat-damaged or otherwise of distinctly low quality.
b Wild oats are seeds from Avena fatua or Avena sterilis. They usually have pubescence in the basal
region of the germ and twisted awns.
Table 2.16
Commercial Classification of Oats in the United States
Oat Class Characteristics
White oats The white type must be common oats of white and yellow varieties that do not
contain more than 10% of other types of oats. They are the preferred oats for
industrial processing in the production of breakfast cereals, bakery, cookies, etc.
Red oats The red class must be common oats of red varieties that do not contain more
than 10% of other types of oats.
Gray oats The gray class must be common oats of gray varieties that do not contain more
Black oats The black class must be common oats of black varieties that do not contain more
Mixed oats The mixed class includes all the mixtures that do not meet the requisites of
classes white, red, gray, and black

Table 2.17
Properties and Functionalities of Regular and Specialty Maizes
Specialty Maize Food Uses
Popcorn A special kind of flint corn; hybrids or varieties with high proportions of
translucent, flinty, or vitreous endosperm give higher expansion rates. Expansion
volume is the most critical quality factor for popcorn. Most commercial popcorn
has a 30- to 40-fold expansion. The pericarp and outer layers of the kernel
participate directly in the popping action by serving as a pressure vessel enclosing
the endosperm. Popped corn with a spherical shape is called mushroom or ball
type and is preferred in the confection industry. The butterfly type popcorn has a
higher expansion, lower apparent bulk density, and better mouth feel; it is
preferred for on-premises popping (Chapter 12).
Food grade Mainly developed for alkaline cooking (Chapter 9) and dry milling (Chapter 7),
yellow and these types of maizes have improved processing efficiency in dry milling and
white maize snack food processing plants. These maizes should be hard, medium to large
kernels, have high test weight, high density, and a pericarp that is easily removed
during processing. In addition, the kernels should come preferably from white
cobs. Kernels from pink or red colored cobs are high in phenols and yield
undesirable off-colors in processed foods.
Quality protein QPM has the opaque-2 gene that is combined with modifier genes that significantly
maize (QPM) improved the hardness and agronomic performance of the crop. QPM contains
twice as much lysine and tryptophans compared to regular counterparts and
therefore has better protein quality (Chapter 17). The QPM material has been
incorporated into high-yielding hybrids in Brazil, Mexico, and other countries,
while open pollinated varieties are grown in Africa and Central America. Harder
QPM corns are suited for dry milling and alkaline cooking, while soft hybrids for
use in wet-milling to produce sweeteners, starches, and alcohol would be desirable
since the coproducts would be more valuable.
Blue maize Blue corn is a floury or soft endosperm type that generally grows in long ears (8–12
rows). The aleurone layer contains anthocyanins that impart the blue appearance.
Blue corn is especially prized as ceremonial maize by the North American Indian
tribes and is currently being used to produce organic flours and foods such as
tortilla chips (Chapter 12). The blue corn contains higher levels of phenolics that
are an excellent source of antioxidants.
Sweet maize Sweet maizes have recessive genes (sugary 1 or su1, sugary 2 or su2) that causes an
alteration in the endosperm that results in higher levels of soluble sugars and
reduced levels of starch in the kernel. Sweet corn hybrids have been developed
specifically to produce corn with desirable color, sweetness, and tenderness.
Baby maize Special maize varieties are grown and shucked immediately after pollination when
the ears are one to two inches long. These small ears are used as pickles and other
tasty snacks in salad bars. Most of the baby corn used is produced in Thailand and
exported to Europe and North America.
—continued
72 Cereal Grains
Properties and Functionalities of Regular and Specialty Maizes
Specialty Maize Food Uses
Waxy maize Waxy maize is named for the somewhat waxy appearance of the kernel. Waxy
maize starch is composed entirely of amylopectin. It is utilized mainly by the
wet-milling industry (Chapter 8). Waxy starch has a higher hot viscosity and
produces softer, more stable, and clearer gels due to its lower retrogradation. It
also has higher freeze-thaw stability. Waxy maize is currently being utilized to
produce snacks with different textures.
High-amylose Also named amylomaize, it expresses high quantities of linear amylose because of
maize the recessive ae gene located in chromosome 5. Most genotypes contain from 37%
to 65% amylose. Although it is not commercially planted, the amylomaize has
potential for the paper, textile, and adhesive industries. The high-amylose starch
produces rigid opaque gels with potential for the confectionery industry and as a
thickener in various puddings and processed foods. It can be used as a binding
agent for dehydrated potatoes or as a coating to reduce oil absorption of deep-fat
fried potatoes. One of the best potential uses is for production of biodegradable
packaging materials that resembles polystyrene foam used for “plastic peanuts.”
Cuzco/ The Cuzco maize comes from eight-rowed ears that produce the largest known
Cacahuacintle kernels. Cuzco corn grows at high altitudes and produces white kernels with a soft
maize endosperm texture and bland flavor. Cuzco corn is mainly used to manufacture
CornnutsTM and Cacahuacintle kernels for hominy and pozole production (Chapter
16).
Multivitamin This is a genetically modified maize biofortified with vitamins A, C, and folic acid.
Transgenic Transgenic kernels contain169-fold, 6-fold, and double the amounts of these
Maize vitamins, respectively. The stack transgenes were bombarded and placed in white
maize that, after the genetic modification, acquired a strong orange coloration.
Source: Johnson (2000), Hallauer (2000), Rooney and Serna-Saldivar (2003), Naqvi et al. (2009).
chronic deficiencies of important vitamins that play a critical role in the well-being
of the population and can potentially save millions of deaths annually. In the future,
similar strategies will be employed to generate new genetically modified materials
that will have an excellent agronomic performance and will contain stack transgenes
that will produce nutritional and health benefits.
2.5.2 Rice
Rice is classified according to region, morphology, and chemical properties in
Indica, Japonica, and Java. In addition there are many specialty rices such as glu-
tinous or waxy, black/purple, red, aromatic (basmati and jasmine), and others such
as Toro and Risotto (Table 2.18). The aromatic rices are gaining popularity because
of their natural aroma and flavor. The most popular are basmati and jasmine with
popcorn and floral aromas, respectively (Champagne 2004, Webb 1985, Wilkinson
and Champagne 2004).
Table 2.18
Properties and Functionalities of Regular and Specialty Rices
Type of Rice Characteristics
Long A kernel that measures from 8.9 to 9.6 mm long and 2.3 to 2.5 mm wide with an
average test weight and 1000-kernel weight of 56 kg/hL and 22.5 g, respectively. It
generally possesses a regular endosperm, with 21%–23% amylose and 77%–79%
amylopectin. Has less dispersion value when cooked with alkali. It is the most
adequate for canning due to its good resistance to heat treatments and it loses few
solids. Extra high-amylose cultivars (>24%) with superior resistance to overcooking
and abuse are used for canning applications, quick cooking, and frozen rice products.
Medium Medium rices have shorter and wider kernels compared to long counterparts. Medium
size paddy rices measure from 7.9 to 8.2 mm long and 3.0 to 3.2 mm wide, with an
average test weight and 1000-kernel weight of 58.5 kg/hL and 24 g, respectively. They
possess less amylose (15%–20%) than long types, absorb more water during cooking,
and are stickier compared to long rices.
Short Short paddy rices measure from 7.4 to 7.5 mm long and 3.1 to 3.6 mm wide with an
average test weight and 1000-kernel weight of 60 kg/hL and 28 g, respectively. They
contain less amylose (18% to 20%) compared to long rices, absorb more water during
cooking, and are stickier than long rices.
Newrex This long rice has 2%–4% more amylose compared to others in this class. It was
developed for the canning industry due to its quick cooking and low water absorption,
maintaining its integrity after thermal processes.
Toro Toro rice is classified as long but contains a similar amylose content (18%–20%) to that
generally observed in the medium and short rices. Therefore, culinary and cooked
textural properties are similar to the medium/short rice. It is also known as Cajun rice.
Japanese Generally a short rice, consumed in Japan and in northern China that possesses
low-amylose content (12%–19%). Once cooked, it acquires a sticky texture.
Java Generally a short rice, with intermediate or low content of amylose and low gelatinization
temperature.
Indian Rice with intermediate or high content of amylose that, once cooked, is not sticky.
There are long, medium, and short Indian varieties.
Waxy or Also referred to as sweet or glutinous, waxy rices are characterized by opaque
Glutinous endosperms in which the starch is practically 100% amylopectin. Most varieties are
classified as short and have a low gelatinization temperature, and relatively low
amylograph peak, hot paste, and cool paste viscosities. When cooked they tend to lose
their shape and are sticky or glutinous. Waxy rices are used to prepare sushi.
Basmati This long and slender kernel is bred to possess the characteristic flavor and aroma of
basmati once cooked. It has an L/W ratio greater than 4 and elongates lengthwise
when cooked. It contains intermediate amylose content and therefore is nonwaxy or
nonglutinous. The major compound that imparts the typical nutlike or popcorn aroma
and flavor is 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline that is present in higher amounts compared to regular
rices.
Jasmine Rice that possess a characteristic floral aroma and flavor once cooked. It contains low
amylose content and soft texture.
—continued
74 Cereal Grains
Properties and Functionalities of Regular and Specialty Rices
Type of Rice Characteristics
Black or Genotypes that yield black- or purple-colored kernels that are widely cultivated in
Purple southern China where this rice is called Heiyouzhab. It is the preferred rice to prepare
sweet-and-sour desserts and puddings. These rices produce unique flavors such as
fruity or nutty.
Red Camargue (France), Wehani (California), Buthanese, and Himalayan rices characterized
for their unique red coloration. Whehani and Himalayan are long rices, whereas the
Buthanese is classified as a short rice. The red coloration is due to phenolic
compounds.
Risotto Medium grain and low amylose rice that produces bold kernels with a characteristic
chalky center. It is typically used for the production of risotto. The most popular
risotto rices are Arborio, Baldo, Carnaroli, and Vialone. The cooked rice absorbs more
water compared with other rice types and develops a creamy texture around a chewy
center, and has an exceptional ability to absorb flavors. Arborio and Baldo are the most
widely used. Arborio is larger and takes longer to cook than Baldo.
Paella These short or medium rices stay relatively firm during cooking; used for the production
of paella. Paellas are also produced from parboiled rice.
Genetically Genetically modified rice that contains high beta carotenes or provitamin A. It is the
modified or only rice that has a yellow endosperm. The Golden GMO rice was developed with the
Golden aim of lowering vitamin A deficiency, xerophthalmia, and night, and complete,
blindness endemic to several regions of Asia (Chapter 17).
Source: Champagne (2004), Webb (1985), Wilkinson and Champagne (2004), Nash (2000).
2.5.3 Wheat
There are several types of specialty wheats that have unique properties and uses. The
ancient wheats are regaining popularity, although the most promising are the waxy
and heterowaxy genotypes (Table 2.19). Waxy wheat was produced by combining
a double waxy (wx) null allele line (Kanto 107) with a wx null allele line (BaiHuo)
using traditional plant breeding techniques. The new waxy wheat line contained
no detectable amounts of amylose. Partial waxy wheat has one or two null alleles,
which results in starches with reduced amylose concentrations (approximately 16%)
(Chibbar and Chakraborty 2005). The pasting profile of waxy wheat is characterized
by a high peak viscosity, low initial pasting temperature, and low setback. The low
amylose and lipid contents facilitate water uptake and granule swelling. Following
gelatinization, the starch forms viscous solutions rather than gels, and exhibits lower
syneresis and retrogradation (Chibbar and Chakraborty 2005). Waxy and partial
waxy hexaploid wheat cultivars with reduced amylose content have been recently
researched for production of high quality noodles. The reduction in amylose content
leads to changes in physical and functional properties of starch including crystallin-
ity, amylose-lipid complexes, higher starch swelling power, higher pasting, and less
retrogradation and end product quality. The best quality noodles are obtained from
Table 2.19
Properties and Functionalities of Regular and Specialty Wheats
Specialty Wheat Characteristics
Waxy and partial waxy The starch of waxy wheat contains more than 95% amylopectin. In Asia,
partial waxy wheats are preferred for the production of oriental noodles
because they impart the preferred cooked texture (Chapter 10).
Spelt Hexaploid hulled wheat (Triticum spelta) that results from the hybridization
of ancient wheats Einkorn and Emmer. It is still planted in small areas of
Turkey and is considered a wild species. The use of these wheats is
resurfacing due to their potential nutraceutical properties, even though they
are low yielding compared with the current commercial types.
Einkorn These are diploid ancestral wheats that include wild Einkorn (Triticum
boeoticum) and cultivated Einkorn (Triticum monococcum). The uses of
these wheats are resurfacing due to their potential nutraceutical properties,
even though they are low yielding compared with the current commercial
types. The renewed nutritional interest is due to its high protein and yellow
pigment (lutein) contents. This wheat is the origin of the common wheats
and Spelta (diploid).
Emer Tetraploid ancient wheat (Triticum dicoccoides or dicoccum).
Source: Chibbar and Chakraborty (2005), Kulp and Ponte (2000), Vignaux et al. (2004).
partial waxy flours because 100% waxy wheat yields sticky and soft noodles that
tend to disintegrate quicker.
A mutant tetraploid durum wheat that reduces amylose content has lead to the
discovery of full and partial durum wheats. According to Vignaux et al. (2004),
the waxy mutation did not affect grain yield, kernel size, or hardness. However,
waxy cultivars contained more alpha amylase activity and lower semolina yield. The
commercial growth of high yielding waxy durum wheats will bring new beneficial
applications and probably new markets to the industry.
2.5.4 Barley
The direct use of barley in human nutrition is limited nowadays. There are sev-
eral specialty barleys that might gain popularity in the near future. Hull-less bar-
leys are ideally suited for making specialized human foods and dehulled malt for
bakery and other applications. In animal feeding, the hull-less or naked barleys
provide more metabolizable energy and better feed conversion rates. High-lysine
barleys contain a better essential amino acid profile compared to regular coun-
terparts. They contain from 20% to 40% more protein and lysine compared to
regular barleys, and therefore have an added value for livestock feeds and human
foods (Kulp and Ponte 2000, McGregor and Bhatty 1993). The most important
barleys besides the hull-less and Hiproly, are the waxy and high-amylose types
(Table 2.20).
76 Cereal Grains
Table 2.20
Characteristics and Food Uses of Specialty Barleys
Specialty Barley Characteristics
Hull-less or The hull-less trait is controlled by a single recessive gene. Naked barleys are
naked ideally suited for making specialized human foods and dehulled malt for bakery
and other applications. Naked barleys provide more metabolizable energy and
better feed:gain ratio for domestic animals.
Waxy Waxy barley contains 95% or more amylopectin. Waxy and hull-less barleys are
being developed for human food use.
High-amylose High-amylose barley contains 45% amylose.
Hiproly This high-lysine barley is derived from a mutant and possesses a better essential
amino acid profile compared to regular barley. It contains from 20% to 40% more
protein and lysine compared to its regular counterparts, respectively.
Source: Kulp and Ponte (2000), McGregor and Bhatty (1993), Newman and Newman (2008).
2.5.5 Sorghum
There is a wide array of specialty sorghums, the most relevant being popping sorghum
(also known as Shalu), waxy, high-lysine, black or Shawaya sorghum, and yellow
endosperm sorghum (Table 2.21) (Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 1991, Serna-Saldivar
and Rooney 1995). Sorghum is the cereal with the most potential for development
of nutraceutical foods and for the extraction of phytochemicals. The wide array of
sorghums contains important phenolics, anthocyanins, flavonoids, condensed tan-
nins, phytosterols, policosanols, carotenoids, and xanthophylls (lutein, zeaxanthin)
that can be used to combat oxidative stress, chronic diseases, and cancer (Chapter
17). White sorghum is also being used to produce gluten-free bakery products and as
a source of low digesting starch.
Table 2.21
Properties and Functionalities of Regular and Specialty Sorghums
Type of Sorghum Characteristics
Type I or White The kernel that possesses white bran and does not have pigmented testa. Preferred
for food products. Its utilization is gradually increasing in the Americas.
Type II or Red or This is the most popular sorghum class worldwide. Morphologically, it contains
Yellow a testa but is not pigmented; therefore does not possess condensed tannins.
Type III or brown Sorghums are denominated by a brown color, bird resistance, or high tannin
or bird-resistant features. Brown sorghums have a pigmented testa that contains condensed
or tannin. tannins. These sorghums generally have a soft and floury endosperm. The main
constraint of these sorghums is that they have a lower nutritional value compared
to types I and II. Tannins bind endogenous proteins and digestive enzymes,
lowering digestibility and feed efficiency. However, brown sorghums are gaining
favor because they are highly antioxidant and have important nutraceuticals.
—continued
Properties and Functionalities of Regular and Specialty Sorghums
Type of Sorghum Characteristics
Yellow endosperm This sorghum has a high content of carotenes and xanthophylls in the
endosperm. The yellow endosperm is a genetically controlled factor mainly
imparted by the female parent.
Thick pericarp Sorghums with thick mesocarp or pericarp are preferred in Africa because of
their better decortication properties. Its appearance is chalky due to the
presence of starch granules in the mesocarp.
Popping sorghum This is an Indian sorghum that has been selected throughout the years for its
or Shalu popping capacity. Kernels are tear-shaped and possess a vitreous or hard
endosperm that favors expansion.
Black sorghum or Sudanese sorghum (Shawaya) has a black color due to the high quantity of
Shawaya phenolic compounds and antocyanins contained mainly in the bran.
Waxy sorghum These sorghums have a low content of amylose (0%–5%), with a waxy or
opaque endosperm appearance similar to waxy maize. Waxy sorghums have
better digestibility compared to their regular counterparts for ruminants, and
have the potential to be used in the wet milling and brewing industries. The
waxy starch has unique functional properties compared to regular starch. There
are heterowaxy hybrids that produce waxy and normal grains, which, on
average, contain 10%–12% amylase and have intermediate properties.
Lemon sorghum These sorghums possess a yellow-lemon-colored pericarp and contain levels of
flavanones (eriodictyol and naringenin) comparable to citrus foods. Kernels,
and especially their bran, contain up to nine times higher amounts of
flavanones compared to grains and have great potential in the formulation of
new nutraceutical foods.
High-lysine These Ethiopian sorghums (P-721) possess a soft endosperm with lesser amounts
sorghum of prolamines or kafirins. They contain almost twice as much lysine compared to
regular sorghum, therefore, they have better protein quality and nutritional value
for humans and monogastrics. Unfortunately, high lysine sorghums are not
commercially produced or grown because of their yields and soft kernel
structure.
Source: Awika and Rooney (2004), Awika et al. (2004), Dykes et al. (2005), Dykes et al. (2009), Rooney
and Miller (1982), Rooney and Serna-Saldivar (1991), Serna-Saldivar and Rooney (1995).
Self-Evaluation
1. What are the main aim and advantages of grain grading?
2. What are the main differences between grade and class?
3. Why is test weight one of the most important criteria for grain grading
(grade and class)? What is the conversion factor of lb/bu to kg/hL? How
much maize with 56 lb/bu can you place in a storage bin with the following
dimensions: 20 m wide, 10 m high, and 50 m long? How many tons of oats
78 Cereal Grains
with 30 lb/bu can you place in the same storage bin? Calculate results in
pounds, kilograms, and metric tons.
4. Explain the reason why test weights of whole oats and dehulled groats are
quite different.
5. How can you identify frost-, insect-, mold-, or sprout-damaged kernels?
6. What is a heat-damaged kernel? What are the main causes of heat damage?
Why is heat damage considered as one of the most important criteria for
assigning grade?
7. What are the main physicochemical characteristics and main food uses of
the three different classes of wheat?
8. Why is the 1000-kernel weight a physical grain property highly related to
milling yields? What kind of instrument is used to perform the 1000-kernel
weight measurement?
9. What are the main physicochemical characteristics of long, medium, and short
rices? What are the main criteria used to differentiate these classes of rice?
10. What are the main differences between waxy and regular endosperm rices
in terms of starch composition, culinary properties, and food uses? How
can you differentiate a waxy from a regular endosperm rice?
11. Why do aromatic rices have a special flavor and aroma?
12. What are main differences between dent and corneous maizes in terms of
the form of the caryopses and endosperm texture?
13. What are the ideal physical properties of popcorn? Investigate the popping
expansion rate of a good popcorn.
14. Where are the blue pigments in blue maize located? What kinds of phy-
tochemicals confer these pigments?
15. Explain the reason why quality protein or high-lysine maize is nutritionally
superior compared to regular maize counterparts. Investigate how opaque-2
maize was transformed into quality protein maize. What other cereals have
high-lysine types?
16. What are major differences between two-rowed and six-rowed barleys and
the main difference between malting and feed barleys?
17. What are the three major classes of grain sorghum? Which class is the most
planted worldwide?
18. Why do brown or type III sorghums have more resistance to sprouting,
molds, birds, and other biotic agents? What is the basis of identification of
tannin sorghums using chlorine solution?
19. Why is ergot-contaminated rye heavily penalized by grading systems? How
do grain inspectors recognize ergot-contaminated rye?
20. How do grain inspectors differentiate wild from commercial oats?
21. What is the main reason why, among oats, cereals oats possess the lowest
volumetric or test weight?
References
Awika, J.M., and Rooney, L.W. 2004. Sorghum phytochemicals and their potential aspects on
human health. Phytochemistry 65:1199–1221.
Awika, J.M., Rooney, L.W., and Waniska, R.D. 2004. Properties of 3-deoxyanthocyanins from
sorghum. J. Agric. Food Chem. 52:4388–4394.
Champagne, E.T. 2004. Rice Chemistry and Technology. Third edition, American Association
Chibbar, R.N., and Chakraborty, M. 2005. Characteristics and uses of waxy wheat. Cereal
Foods World 50(3):121–125.
Doehlert, D.C., McMullen, M.S., and Jannink, J.-L. 2006. Oat grain/groat size ratios: A physi-
cal basis for test weight. Cereal Chem. 83(1):114–118.
Dykes, L., Rooney, L.W., Waniska, R.D., and Rooney, W.L. 2005. Phenolic compounds and
antioxidant activity of sorghum grains of varying genotypes. J. Agric. Food Chem.
53:6813–6818.
Dykes, L., Rooney, W.L., Peterson, G.C., and Rooney, L.W. 2009. Flavonoid content in non-
tannin sorghum of varying genotypes. Poster Presentation. Institute of Food Technologist
Annual Meeting. Anaheim, CA.
Hallauer, A.R. 2000. Specialty Corns. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Johnson, L.A. 2000. Corn: The major cereal of the Americas. Chapter 2 in K. Kulp and J.G.
Ponte (eds.). Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Second edition, Marcel
Dekker, New York.
Kent, N.L. 1975. Technology of Cereals with Special Reference to Wheat. Second edition.
New York.
Kiser, H.L. 1992. Grading Grain under the U.S. Grain Standards. Part 8 in Israel-Cyprus
Grain Grading, Storage and Handling Short Course. International Grains Program.
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS.
Kulp, K., and Ponte, J.G. 2000. Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology. Second edition.
Naqvi, S., Zhu, C., Farre, G., Ramessar, K., Bassie, L., Breitenback, J., Perez Condesa, D., Ros,
G., Sandmann, G., Capell, T., and Christou, P. 2009. Transgenic multivitamin corn through
biofortification of endosperm with three vitamins representing three distinct metabolic
pathways. PNAS. Early edition www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0901412106.
Nash, J.M. 2000. Grains of hope. Time Magazine (July 31, 2000).
Newman, R.K., and Newman, C.W. 2008. Barley for Food and Health. Science, Technology
and Products. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ.
McGregor, A.W., and Bhatty, R.S. 1993. Barley: Chemistry and Technology. American
Association of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul, MN.
Paulsen, M.R., Watson, S.A., and Singh, M. 2003. Measurement and maintenance of corn
quality. Chapter 5 in Corn Chemistry and Technology. P. White and L. Johnson (eds.).
Second edition. American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
Rooney, L.W., and Miller, F. 1982. Variation in the structure and kernel characteristics of sor-
ghum. In International Symposium on Sorghum Grain Quality. L.W. Rooney and D.S.
Murty (eds.). ICRISAT, Patancheru, A.P., India.
Science & and Technology, K. Lorenz and K. Kulp (eds.). Marcel Dekker, New York.
Rooney, L.W., and Serna‑Saldivar, S.O. 2003. Food uses of whole corn and dry milled frac-
tions. In White, P. and Johnson, L. (eds.). Corn Chemistry and Technology. American
Serna‑Saldivar, S.O., and Rooney, L.W. 1995. Structure and chemistry of sorghum and millets.
Chapter 4 in Sorghum & and Millets: Chemistry and Technology, D.A.V. Dendy (ed.).
American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
Serna Saldivar, S.O. 2008. Industrial Manufacture of Snack Foods. Kennedys Publications,
London.
USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). 1983. United States Standards for Rice.
Federal Grain Inspection Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
80 Cereal Grains
USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). 1993. Official Grain Standards of the
United States. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
USDA (United States Department of Agriculture)-GIPSA (Grain Inspection, Packers
and Stockyards Administration). 1999. Official United States Standards for Grain.
Washington, D.C.
Vignaux, N., Doehlert, D.C., Hegstad, J., Elias, M.E., McMullen, M.S., Grant, L.A., and
Kianian, S.F. 2004. Grain quality characteristics and milling performance of full and
partial waxy durum lines. Cereal Chem. 81(3):377–383.
Webb, B.D. 1985. Criteria of rice quality in the United States. Chapter 11 in Rice: Chemistry and
Technology. B.O. Juliano (ed.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
Wilkinson, H.C., and Champagne, E.T. 2004. Value-added rice products in today’s market.
Cereal Foods World 49(3):134–137.
3 Chemical Composition
of Cereal Grains
3.1 Introduction
Cereal grains are composed of carbohydrates, protein, lipids, vitamins, and minerals.
All cereals are classified as starchy grains because they contain at least 60% of this
carbohydrate. The starch is composed of hundreds of glucose units that, after diges-
tion, provide most of the energy consumed by humans. The starch is an excellent
source of energy because, in practical terms, it is completely digested and utilized
by a normal human being (Chapter 17). Beside its nutritional attributes, the starch
plays a key role in the functional properties and processing of cereals. The starch has
contrasting properties if it is in its native, gelatinized, or retrograded stages. Most
food processing is aimed toward the partial or total starch gelatinization because
the thermal-treated starch turns into molecules with a high affinity for water, which
yields viscous doughs, gels, or slurries. The gelatinized starch starts to retrograde
upon cooling. Retrogradation is also important because is related to staling or loss of
texture of most cereal grain products.
The second most abundant chemical components are the various types of protein
fractions distributed in the different anatomical parts of the grain. Those associ-
ated with the endosperm are commonly denominated gluten proteins, whereas those
associated with the germ are the albumins and globulins. Only the wheat gluten pos-
sesses viscoelastic properties when the dough is hydrated and mixed. The range of
protein of cereals is from 8% to 16% (Table 3.1). Proteins from cereals have a good
rate of digestibility but lack an adequate essential amino acid balance or composition,
especially for preschool infants and children. The most limiting amino acid is lysine,
followed by tryptophan in maize and threonine in most other cereals (Chapter 17).
The types and amounts of nutrients differ among genus and species, and affect
the nutritional, functional, and organoleptic properties of processed products. The
interaction between genotype and environment, especially during grain filling and
maturation, affects the chemical composition of all cereal grains.
3.2 Proximate Composition

The main constituent of cereals is the starch that forms part of the nitrogen-free
extract (NFE*) of the proximate analysis (Table 3.1). This fraction also includes
* The nitrogen-free extract comprises nonfibrous soluble carbohydrates (starch, monosaccharides, and
disaccharides). In the proximate analysis, the NFE is calculated by difference (NFE = 100 − % mois-
ture − % crude protein − % fat or ether extract − % crude fiber − % ash).
81
82 Cereal Grains
Table 3.1
Proximate Composition of Cereal Grainsa
Protein Fat Crude Fiber Minerals NFEb
Cereal %
Maize
Dent 9.1 4.4 3.0 1.7 81.8
8.1–11.5 3.9–5.8 2.4–3.5 1.4–2.0 77.2–84.2
Flint 11.1 4.9 2.2 1.7 80.1
9.5–12.8 4.0–5.8 1.6–2.8 1.4–2.0 76.6–83.5
Popcorn 12.1 5.2 2.3 1.8 78.6
11.0–13.2 4.6–5.8 1.8–2.6 1.4–1.9 76.5–81.2
Sweet 13.2 4.6 2.7 2.3 77.0
12.1–14.2 3.7–9.0 2.2–3.2 1.9–2.7 70.9–80.1
Rice
Paddy—rough 75.6 2.4 10.2 4.7 75.2
7–9.0 1.7–2.7 8.4–12.1 3.4–6.0 70.2–79.8
Brown 9.2 2.5 0.9 1.5 85.9
8.3-10.1 1.8–3.3 0.7–1.2 1.2–1.8 83.6–88.0
White 7.8 0.5 0.4 0.6 90.7
7.3–8.3 0.3–0.6 0.2–0.6 0.3–0.9 89.6–91.9
Wheat
Hard 14.4 2.3 2.9 1.9 78.5
11.5–17.0 1.8–2.8 2.8–3.0 1.8–2.0 75.2–82.1
Soft 9.9 2.8 2.7 1.7 82.9
8.0–12.0 2.6–2.9 2.5–2.8 1.8–1.9 80.4–85.1
Durum 13.2 2.8 2.8 2.0 79.2
12.0–15.6 1.8–3.8 2.4–3.1 1.8–2.1 75.4–82.0
Barley
11.5 2.2 5.6 2.9 77.8
7.5–15.6 1.8–2.6 5.3–5.9 2.6–3.1 72.8–82.8
Sorghum
11.0 3.2 2.7 1.8 81.3
7.3–15.6 0.5–5.2 1.2–6.6 1.1–4.5 68.1–89.9
Rye
13.4 1.8 2.1 2.0 80.7
12.6–14.5 1.6–2.2 1.6–2.6 1.7–2.2 78.5–82.5
Oats
Oats 17.1 6.4 11.3 3.2 62.0
12.4–24.4 4.5–10.3 10.4–14.3 2.9–3.4 47.6–69.8
Groats 16.9 7.4 1.6 2.1 72.0
13.8–22.5 5.9–8.4 1.0–3.3 1.9–2.4 63.4–77.4
—continued
Chemical Composition of Cereal Grains 83
Proximate Composition of Cereal Grainsa
Protein Fat Crude Fiber Minerals NFEb
Cereal %
Triticale
15.2 1.9 2.2 1.9 78.6
12.6–17.2 1.6–2.2 2.0–2.5 1.8–2.1 77.4–80.8
Milletsc
Pearl 14.5 5.1 2.0 2.0 76.4
8.6–19.4 1.5–6.8 1.4–7.3 1.6–3.6 62.9–86.9
Foxtail 11.7 3.9 7.0 3.2 74.2
6.0–14.0 1.2–5.2 2.6–8.9 1.5–3.6 68.3–88.7
Finger 8.0 1.5 3.0 3.0 75.0
6.0–10.9 1.0–4.6 2.0–6.8 2.3–3.9 73.8–88.7
Proso 11.0 3.5 9.0 3.6 72.9
6.4–12.8 2.9–4.9 4.6–12.0 1.4–5.0 65.3–84.7
Barnyard 11.8 4.9 14.3 4.9 64.1
11.2–12.7 2.5–6.3 13.9–14.7 4.7–5.0 61.3–68.0
Kodo 10.4 3.7 9.7 3.6 72.6
6.2–13.1 3.2–4.9 8.4–11.0 3.0–4.1 66.9–79.2
Tef 10.9 2.4 2.7 2.6 81.4
7.9–12.6 2.3–2.5 2.4–3.0 2.2–2.9 79.0–85.4
Fonio 8.7 2.8 8.5 3.8 73.6
5.1–10.4 2.1–5.2 4.6–11.3 1.8–6.0 62.7–80.0
Source: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 1996. Quimica, Almacenamiento e Industrialización de los Cereales. AGT
editor, S.A., Mexico, D.F., Mexico; and Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2003. Pages 1027–1033 in
Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition. B. Caballero, L. Trugo and P. Finglas (eds.).
Second edition. Academic Press, London.
a All values are expressed on dry matter basis. The upper number indicates the average value and the
lower refers to the range of values.

b Nitrogen-free extract.
c McDonough et al. (2000).
soluble sugars such as glucose, fructose, sucrose, and maltose. The protein is gener-
ally analyzed by the Kjeldahl method in which nitrogen is assayed and then con-
verted to protein. The conversion factors usually used for wheat, rye, and triticale is
5.75; rice, 5.95; and the rest of the cereals, 6.25. This means that the percentage of
nitrogen in the protein is 17.4%, 16.8%, and 16.0%, respectively.
Structural carbohydrates primarily associated with cell walls, which are insoluble
and indigestible by the human system, constitute the crude fiber fraction. These are
mainly present in the glumes or husks, pericarp, and endosperm cell walls.
Lipids are relatively minor constituents in cereal grains. However, they play
an important role in the shelf-life and organoleptic properties of end products. In
84 Cereal Grains
addition, the lipid fraction contains important nutrients and nutraceutical compounds
with proven health benefits (Chapter 17). Cereal lipids are divided into polar and non-
polar, and are mainly located in the germ. Most lipids are nonpolar triglycerides. In
most cereals, the triglycerides constitute more than 95% of the total lipidic fraction.
Approximately 80%–85% of the total fat content is located in the germ, particularly
the scutellum. Maize, sorghum, and pearl millet are the cereals that contain the high-
est amount of these compounds, whereas oats are considered the only cereal that
contains significant quantities of lipids in the starchy endosperm. Lipids are usually
determined via ether extraction in the proximate analysis. The cereals with the high-
est amount of fat are pearl millet, maize, and sorghum because they possess a rela-
tively larger germ-to-endosperm ratio compared to the rest of the cereals (Table 3.1).
The ash fraction is the inorganic or mineral material obtained after incineration
in a muffle furnace. Most minerals are associated with the glumes, pericarp, and
aleurone layer.
The endosperm is rich in soluble carbohydrates (NFE) and low in minerals, fat, and
crude fiber. Oats, paddy rice, and barley have high fiber because they are husked grains.
The naked caryopses of maize, sorghum, wheat, rye, triticale, and millets have
higher starch (approximately 75%) and protein contents, ranging from 9%–14%.
3.3 Carbohydrates
Approximately 80% of the cereal grain is composed of carbohydrates (NFE + crude
fiber). Only 3%–5% of these carbohydrates are structural or fiber-containing. The rest
is constituted by reserve carbohydrates, mainly starch (Table 3.2). The starch mole-
cules are stored in granules located within the endosperm (see Chapter 4). The starch
is a polymer of glucose units joined by α-1,4- and 1,6-glycosidic bonds (Figure 3.1).
The granules are packed with amylose and amylopectin molecules. Amylose is a
linear chain devoid of α-1,6-glycosidic bonds. The amylose forms a helix and is
the main starch responsible for retrogradation. The amylose contains 1,500 glucose
molecules and has an average molecular weight of 2.5 × 105. The amylopectin, also
called branched starch, is similar to glycogen present in the liver and muscles of the
human system. The glucose molecules are mainly linked by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds
but also contain branches that occur when α 1-6 bonds forms. Only about 4% to
5% of the total glycosidic bonds are α-1‑6. These glucose polymers have a molecu-
lar weight of 108 (600,000 glucose units/amylopectin molecule) and structurally are
divided into type A, B, and C chains.
The amylose and amylopectin are packed inside the starch granule in such a way
that the granule shows crystallinity and concentric circles when viewed under the
microscope. The crystallinity is clearly observed when native starch granules are
viewed under a microscope equipped with polarized filters (Figure 3.2). The presence
of a Maltese cross or birefringence indicates that the granule is native or undamaged.
When the starch granules gelatinize due to heat treatment or suffer mechanical or
enzymatic damage, they lose birefringence and are considered gelatinized. The gela-
tinization phenomenon is irreversible and is defined as the loss of the internal crystal
structure of the granule. Most starch granules lose birefringence when exposed to
temperatures of 68°C–78°C. The starch of most cereals contains 75% amylopectin
CH2OH CH2OH
CH2OH
O O
O
OH OH
O O OH
OH OH
n OH
HO
(a)
CH2OH CH2OH
O O
OH OH
O O
O
OH OH
CH2OH CH2OH CH2 CH2OH

O O O O
OH OH OH OH
O O O O
OH OH OH OH
n
(b)
Figure 3.1 Chemical structure and composition of linear amylose (a) and branched amy-
lopectin (b).
and 25% amylose. However, some cereals such as maize, wheat, rice, barley, and
sorghum can contain from 95% up to 100% amylopectin and therefore are almost
amylose free. These cereals are named waxy because their endosperm acquires this
appearance when viewed with the naked eye. Waxy cereals and their starches have
special industrial uses. There are also maize mutants that contain high amylose in
the endosperm (approximately 40%–50%). The commercial use of these mutants is
limited nowadays.
Mature cereal grains contain small amounts (approximately 2%) of mono-, di-,
and oligosaccharides. Most of these soluble sugars are located in the germ tissue.
Fructose, glucose, and sucrose are the soluble carbohydrates present in the high-
est amounts (Figure 3.3). The quantities of these sugars significantly increase when
the grain is malted or germinated due to the enzymatic hydrolysis of the starch and
even some fiber components. The main soluble sugars present in malted cereals are
maltose, glucose, maltotriose, and linear and branched dextrins. Sweet maize has
been selected to produce high quantities of soluble sugars (Table 3.2) by inhibiting
the enzymatic transformation of these sugars into starch in the maturing kernels.
In regular varieties and hybrids, the maize cob is harvested before it reaches full
maturity or when kernels are in the milk or dough stage. In this case the corn cobs
should be stored under refrigeration in order to reduce the metabolic activity and
starch synthesis.
86 Cereal Grains
(a)
SG
PM
(b)
Figure 3.2 (a) Native maize starch granules microscopically viewed under normal light field
and polarized light (courtesy of C. McDonough and L.W. Rooney, Texas A&M University). The
starch granules under polarized light show the typical Maltese cross indicating birefringence
or internal crystallinity. (b) Starch granules (SG) embedded in the protein matrix (PM) viewed
under scanning electron microscope (courtesy of Dr. John Taylor, University of Pretoria).
CH2OH
HOH2C
O OH
OH HO
OH CH2OH
HO OH OH
(a) (b)
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
H O H H O O H
O
OH HO OH OH
HO O CH2OH HO O OH
OH OH OH OH
(c) (d)
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

O O O
OH OH OH
OH
O O
OH OH OH
(e)
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
O O O O O
OH OH OH OH OH
OH O O O O OH
HO HO
(f )
CH2OH CH2OH
O O
OH OH
O O O
OH OH
CH2OH CH2 CH2OH

CH2OH
O O O O
OH OH OH OH
O O O O
OH OH OH OH
(g)
Figure 3.3 Chemical structure of the main soluble sugars found in cereal grains.
(a) Glucose. (b) Fructose. (c) Sucrose. (d) Maltose. (e) Maltotriose. (f) Linear dextrin. (g)
Branched dextrin.
88
Table 3.2
Carbohydrate Composition of Cereal Grains
Maize Rice
Compound, % Regular Popcorn Sweet Brown White Wheat Barley Sorghum
Nonfibrous Carbohydrates
Starch 72.4 62.3 54.1 66.4 77.6 67.5 61.5 73.7
67.8–74.0 63.0–72.0 54.0-65.0 60.0-77.0
Amylosea 24.0 30.5–38.0 24.0 22.8 22.8 24.9 28.1 28.5
12.2–30.3 19.6–28.9 25.3–30.1 27.0–30.0
Soluble Sugars 1.9 9.3 12.0 1.0 0.4 2.3 2.5 1.5
1.3–2.6 0.7–1.3 0.2–0.5 2.1–2.6 2.0–3.0 0.5–2.5
Dietary Fiber
Total 12.8 13.1 9.4 3.7 1.3 12.1 15.4 11.8
9.4–14.9 2.9–4.5 0.9–2.7 9.9–14.6 12.0–18.8 8.3–15.3
Soluble 1.1 0.4 1.2 0.9 0.4 1.7 3.9 1.0
0.5–1.64 0.1–1.2 1.3–2.1 0.9-1.1
β-Glucans — — 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.8 5.8 1.0
0.3–1.4 3.7–8.1
Pentosans 6.2 — — 1.7 0.9 4.9 7.5 3.3

5.8–6.6 1.2–2.1 0.5–1.4 1.4–7.6 4.4–11.0 1.8–4.9
Cereal Grains
Millets
Compound, % Rye Groats Triticale Pearl Foxtail Finger Proso Barnyard Kodo
Nonfibrous Carbohydrates
Starch 66.3 53.5 53 60.5 59.0 59.0 56.1 62.0 72.0
59.3–73.4 43.0–64.0 56.0–65.0 56.0–62.1 57.0–61.0 52.1-60.0
Amylosea 25.0 25.2 25.0 21.1 17.5 16.0 21.0 20.0 24.0
19.4–30.1 16.8–29.4 24.0–26.0 17.0–22.0 6.0–18.0 12.0–28.0
Soluble Sugars 3.2 1.3 — 2.7 1.7 0.7 0.6 — —
1.1–1.4 2.0–5.4 0.5–2.9 0.6–0.7
Dietary fiber
Total 16.1 12.5 18.1 8.5 — — — — —
Chemical Composition of Cereal Grains
10.9–13.9
Soluble 3.8 6.6 — — — — — — —
5.4–7.7
Β-Glucans 2.4 4.6 1.2 — 0.6 — 0.2 0.3 1.1
1.9–2.9 2.5–6.6 0.4–0.7
Pentosans 6.4 3.2 7.1 2.5 5.5 6.7 0.2 0.2 0.2
2.6–9.6 6.2–7.2
Source: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 1996. Quimica, Almacenamiento e Industrialización de los Cereales. AGT editor, S.A., Mexico, D.F., Mexico; and Serna-Saldivar, S.O.
and Rooney, L.W. 1995. Chapter 4 in Sorghum and Millets: Chemistry and Technology, D.A.V. Dendy (ed.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St.
Paul, MN.
a Expressed as percentage of total starch in grains with regular endosperm. The rest of the starch is composed of amylopectin. In the specific case of maize, rice,
sorghum, barley, and some millets, there are waxy types that contain less than 5% amylose or more than 95% amylopectin.
89
90 Cereal Grains
Cereals are considered a good source of dietary fiber. From the health view-
point, the importance of dietary fiber and consumption of whole grains has greatly
increased during the past years. The dietary fiber is viewed as therapeutic for people
with diabetes, high cholesterol, and gastrointestinal problems (Chapter 17). Both
insoluble and soluble dietary fibers have positive health benefits. The insoluble fiber
increases the peristaltic movement or transit of the digested food throughout the gas-
trointestinal tract, increases the fecal bulk, and prevents constipation, hemorrhoids,
diverticulosis, and colon cancer. On the other hand, the soluble fiber has recently
received more attention because it reduces blood cholesterol and lowers the sudden
increase in blood glucose levels. Both types of fibers have the ability to bind bile
acids, decreasing cholesterol. However, it has been documented that the insoluble
dietary fiber reduces mineral bioavailability. Oats is the cereal that has received the
most attention due to the quality of its dietary fiber. It is the only cereal grain that
has a good ratio between insoluble and soluble fiber. The soluble fiber is particularly
rich in β‑glucans and arabinoxylans.
The chemical composition of insoluble and soluble dietary fibers is quite differ-
ent. The insoluble fiber is mainly formed of cellulose and lignin (Figure 3.4). These
chemical components are mainly located in the glumes (lemma and palea), pericarp,
and endosperm cell walls. Cellulose is the major building block of the cell wall and
is usually associated with other structural components, such as hemicelluloses and
pectin. The cellulose may contain up to 10,000 β 1-4-linked glucopyranose units.
Unlike the other fibrous components, lignin is not a carbohydrate. It is formed from
cinnamyl alcohols that first form phenyl-propane units, which, by a further com-
plex polymerization, form lignin. Lignin is viewed as a three-dimensional molecule
formed by the aromatic hydroxyphenyl, guaiacyl, and springyl moieties. As cellu-
lose, lignin is the main structural component of plant tissues. It is considered one of
the most resistant molecules found in nature because it is extremely resistant to both
chemical and enzymatic degradation.
The soluble fiber is mainly formed of hemicellulose, arabinoxylans, and β-glucans
(Figure 3.4). Hemicellulose is a branched polymer consisting of different sugar
moieties (xylose, arabinose, galactose, gluconic acid, and glucose). Their molecu-
lar weight and water solubility varies according to composition and chain length.
β-Glucans are glucopyranosyl polymers joined by β-1‑4 or 1‑3 bonds. The ratio of
1‑4 to 1‑3 bonds is approximately 3 to 2. Linear d-glucans are linked by β-1-3 or
1-4 bonds that occur in larger amounts in barley and oats. The β-glucans composed
entirely of glucose units have affinity for water and are within the soluble dietary
fiber fraction. β-glucans readily ferment in the hind gut and are considered hypocho-
lesterolemic. On the other hand, the arabinoxylans are heteropolysaccharides consist-
ing predominantly of arabinose and xylose residues. The d-xylopyranose molecules
are generally linked by β-1-4 bonds, while the bonds with l-arabinofuran are linked
to carbon 3, or less frequently, to carbon 2. They are commonly named pentosans
because the polysaccharides are mainly constituted of five carbon monosaccharides.
β‑Glucans and pentosans have high affinity for water, therefore they are most often
known as gums. These are considered as prebiotics because they readily ferment in
the hind gut, and as nutraceuticals because they prevent colon cancer and diabe-
tes. In addition, the hydrolysis of soluble fibers yields organic acids and short-chain
O O O
O O
OH OH OH
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
O O O HO HO
O O O
OH OH OH
n
O
HO HO HO HOH2C
OH OH
n
(a) (b)
COOCH3 COOH COOH

O O O
O OH O OH O OH O
HO HO HO
n
(c)
H OH CH2OH
H H O
HO O
H2
O OH
H O O H
CH2OH H OH CH2OH CH2OH H OH
H O H H
O O
H OH H H
OH H H OH H
H H O O H
H OH CH2OH H OH
(d)
CH2OH
CH
CH
CH2OH CH2 –
CH CHOH
H3CO
O
CH CH2
CH2OH OCH3
H3CO HC O
O CH
O
(e)
Figure 3.4 Chemical structure of the main insoluble and soluble dietary fiber components
generally associated with cell walls. (a) Cellulose. (b) Hemicellulose. (c) Arabinoxylans. (d)
β-Glucans. (e) Lignin.
92 Cereal Grains
volatile fatty acids that are known to inhibit HMG CoA reductase, considered the
key hepatic enzyme for endogenous cholesterol synthesis. That is the main reason
why soluble dietary fiber is also considered hypocholesterolemic (Chapter 17). Water
solubility depends on the chain size and ramifications. The higher molecular weight
and branched moieties are usually less water soluble. The dietary fiber components
are usually associated with phenolic compounds such as ferulic acid that fluoresce
when exposed to ultraviolet light. The positive health effects are due to the synergis-
tic effect between dietary fiber, phenolics, and other antioxidants.
The soluble dietary fiber is not measured in the proximate analysis because crude
fiber is the residue obtained after the food sample is subjected to sequential hydro-
lyses with acid and alkali. The crude fiber clearly underestimates values when com-
pared with other methods of analysis such as dietary fiber and detergent fiber. The
acid and neutral detergent fiber analyses were developed to estimate hemicellulose,
cellulose, and lignin of forages.
The official method of fiber analysis for labeling purposes consists of emulating
the pass of the food throughout the human gastrointestinal tract. Ground samples
are treated with proteases and amylases, and washed with solvents to remove pro-
tein, starch, and fat-soluble compounds. The residue obtained after filtration is the
insoluble fiber, whereas the recovered filtrate that contains the soluble fiber is treated
with warm alcohol. The alcohol precipitates soluble fiber that is recovered by filtra-
tion and gravimetrically measured after oven-drying.
3.4 Proteins
The amount of protein present in cereal grains differs according to species and even
within the same species due to genetics and environment. The protein concentration
varies due to environmental conditions during grain development and maturation in
the field. The factors that affect protein concentration the most are nitrogen fertiliza-
tion and water availability during grain development. Oats and rice are the cereals
with the highest and lowest protein contents, respectively. Among the different wheat
classes, the soft wheats have been bred to contain the lowest protein content; there-
fore, they contain the weakest gluten (Table 3.1). Hard and durum wheats usually
contain from 10.5% to 14% protein. The gluten of durum wheat is usually stron-
ger but less extensible compared to the gluten of hard wheats. As in other cereals,
the protein is distributed in the different anatomical parts of the grain. The germ
and aleurone layers contain the highest concentration; however, since the starchy
endosperm is the largest anatomical part it contains approximately 70%–80% of the
total protein.
Proteins are classified according to solubility. The water and weak salt solution
soluble fractions are called albumins and globulins, respectively. These two frac-
tions are mainly concentrated in the germ and are composed of enzymes, nucleopro-
teins, and glycoproteins. These proteins are considered biologically active and play
an important role during grain germination. Nutritionally, these proteins have the
best amino acid balance and quality because they are well digested and contain high
amounts of lysine and other essential amino acids. Among cereals, oats contain the
highest amounts of these protein fractions (Table 3.3).
Table 3.3
Distribution of Protein Fractions in Cereal Grains
Protein Fractions
Albumin Prolamins
+Globulins
Cereal (%) Simple (%) Bound (%) Glutelins
Maize
Normal 7 41 14 30
High lysine 18 15 20 40
Rice
Brown 18 3 3 79
White 15 3 3 82
Wheat
Soft or 16 45 45 35
hard
Durum 15 49 49 32
Barley
Normal 19 40 40 40
Hiprolya 25 22 45
Sorghum
Normal 15 26 27 27
High lysine 22 14 20 37
Rye
32 25 25 35
Triticale
20 40 40
Oats
Groats 67 9 9 23
Millets
Pearl 25 28 3 24
Foxtail 12 42 42 35
Finger 20 31 3 21
Proso 11 53 53 28
Barnyard 6 6 6 8
Kodo 37 25 25 5
Source: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 1996. Quimica, Almacenamiento e Industralizacion

de los Cereales. AGT editor, S.A., Mexico, D.F., Mexico.
a Balaravi et al (1976).
94 Cereal Grains
Approximately 80% of the cereal proteins are considered as reserve or storage. In

most cereals the most abundant protein fraction is the prolamin (Table 3.3). These
reserve proteins are synthesized in the protoplastids during grain development. The
environmental conditions and soil fertility affects the amount of prolamins. In gen-
eral, a high nitrogen fertilization level increases the amounts of prolamins that are
stored in protein bodies distributed throughout the endosperm cells. They are water
insoluble but have good solubility in alcohol. This protein fraction has different
denominations according to the cereal grain: rice, oryzin; maize, zein; wheat, glia-
din; sorghum, kafirin; rye, secalin; and barley, hordein. From the nutritional view-
point, prolamins are the poorest in terms of essential amino acid balance. These are
rich in nonessential amino acids such as glycine, glutamic acid, and aspartic acid,
and very poor in lysine and tryptophan. Table 3.4 shows the average amino acid
composition of the different cereal grains. In some cereals such as sorghum, the
prolamins are highly cross-linked due to disulfide bonds; therefore, reducing agents
such as mercaptoethanol are required in order to improve the extraction rate.
The glutelins are more difficult to extract due to their high molecular weight and
presence of disulfide bonds. These proteins are extracted with detergents, alkalis,
and/or mercaptoethanol. The glutelins are the main structural endosperm proteins.
They are basically located in the protein matrix. The nutritional quality of glutelins
is better than prolamins. In quality protein maize, the proportion of glutelins and
albumins/globulins are higher, and consequently the amount of prolamins is signifi-
cantly reduced (Table 3.3).
When proteins are completely digested or hydrolyzed they yield their building
blocks or amino acids. Cereals contain high quantities of leucine, proline, aspar-
tic acid, and glutamic acid. (Table 3.4). Figure 3.5 depicts the chemical structure
of the essential amino acids for humans. These amino acids have unique proper-
ties. For instance, lysine possesses two amino groups. The epsilon amino group,
which is highly reactive, is used for the synthesis of other amino acids, and is
critically important for the synthesis of enzymes, peptidic-hormones, antibodies,
and muscle mass. Tryptophan is important as a precursor of the neurotransmit-
ter serotonin, the B-vitamin niacin, and the nicotinamide containing coenzymes
NAD and NADP. The aromatic amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine are
important because they are converted into the thyroid hormones and the pig-
ment melanin, and are key neurotransmitters such as dopamine. Phenylalanine
can be converted to tyrosine in the body and this is the reason why the require-
ment of phenylalanine can be spared by tyrosine. Methionine can be converted
to cysteine in the body and to S-adenosyl methionine, which is an important
donor of methyl groups in transmethylation reactions required for the synthesis
of phospholipids. As with tyrosine, cysteine removes the methionine require-
ment. The branched amino acids leucine, isoleucine, and valine have relevant
implications in metabolism because they are the most important source of nitro-
gen for the muscle synthesis of glutamine and alanine. Additionally, these amino
acids can synthesize other important and relevant proteins. On the other hand,
the hydroxyl-containing amino acid threonine can be phosphorylated and trans-
formed to serine. These amino acids have important implications in brain devel-
opment and functioning.
Table 3.4
Amino Acid Composition of Cereal Grainsa
Maize Rice Wheat Barley Sorghum
Amino Acid High High High
(g/100 g Protein) Normal Lysine Brown White Hard Durum Regular Lysineb Normal Lysine
Essential
Phenylalanine 4.8 4.3 5.2 5.2 4.6 4.1 5.2 3.9 5.1 4.9
Histidine 2.9 3.8 2.5 2.5 2.0 1.9 2.1 3.1 2.1 2.3
Isoleucine 3.6 3.4 4.1 4.5 3.0 3.6 3.6 1.8 4.1 3.9
Leucine 12.4 9.0 8.6 8.1 6.3 7.0 6.6 1.8 14.2 12.3
Lysine 2.7 4.3 4.1 3.9 2.3 2.2 3.5 4.5 2.1 3.0
Methionine 1.9 2.1 2.4 1.7 1.2 0.9 2.2 1.3 1.0 1.6
Threonine 3.5 3.9 4.0 3.7 2.4 2.9 3.2 2.8 3.3 3.3
Tryptophan 0.5 0.9 1.4 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.5 ND 1.0 0.9
Valine 4.9 5.6 5.8 6.7 3.6 4.6 5.0 3.7 5.4 5.1
Nonessential
Aspartic ac. 6.4 7.7 9.3 9.8 4.7 4.7 6.0 8.1 6.4 7.5
Glutamic ac. 19.2 17.1 17.3 19.3 30.3 32.3 25.5 18.2 20.6 20.1
Alanine 7.7 6.3 5.8 5.8 3.1 4.8 2.1 3.5 8.6 8.4
Arginine 4.8 6.9 9.5 8.8 4.0 3.5 4.6 7.8 3.5 4.5
Cystine 1.4 1.4 2.3 2.2 2.8 1.4 1.8 2.1 1.6 1.5
Glycine 3.8 5.0 4.8 4.8 3.8 6.5 3.9 4.1 2.9 3.5
Proline 8.2 9.1 5.0 4.0 10.1 13.4 11.6 6.4 7.9 7.6
Serine 4.6 4.7 5.3 4.3 4.2 5.7 3.8 3.3 4.1 4.2
Tyrosine 4.2 3.5 4.2 5.0 2.7 2.0 2.8 3.4 3.2 4.2
— continued
95
96
Amino Acid Composition of Cereal Grainsa
Oat Millets
Amino Acid
(g/100 g Protein) Rye Triticale c Oats Groats Pearl Foxtail Finger Proso Barnyard Kodo Tef
Essential
Phenylalanine 5.0 4.9 5.4 4.2 5.2 5.5 5.2 5.2 5.9 5.8 5.7
Histidine 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.2 2.2 2.9 2.2 2.2 1.9 1.8 3.2
Isoleucine 3.7 3.5 4.2 3.9 4.4 5.9 4.4 4.6 4.5 3.1 4.0
Leucine 6.4 7.2 7.5 7.4 11.0 14.1 9.5 12.9 11.5 8.6 8.5
Lysine 3.5 3.4 4.2 4.2 2.9 2.2 2.9 2.2 1.7 3.2 3.5
Methionine 1.6 1.3 2.3 2.5 2.0 2.6 3.1 2.0 1.8 1.7 4.1
Threonine 3.1 3.6 3.3 3.3 3.9 4.3 4.2 3.3 2.7 2.9 4.3
Tryptophan 0.8 1.2 1.4 1.3 2.3 1.4 1.5 0.9 1.0 0.8 1.4
Valine 4.9 4.5 5.8 5.3 5.7 5.1 6.6 5.1 6.1 4.2 5.5
Nonessential
Aspartic ac. 6.7 6.0 9.2 8.9 8.6 6.9 6.5 5.7 6.1 6.3 6.6
Glutamic ac. 24.7 30.7 21.6 23.9 20.7 18.8 20.3 20.4 23.9 23.1 24.8
Alanine 2.4 3.7 5.1 5.0 8.5 8.9 6.2 10.7 9.3 5.5 5.7
Arginine 5.9 5.1 6.4 6.9 5.3 2.8 4.5 3.2 3.6 3.6 5.0
Cystine 2.0 2.1 1.7 1.6 2.1 1.4 2.6 1.6 2.7 1.0 0.9
Glycine 4.0 4.3 5.1 4.9 3.3 2.9 4.0 2.2 2.3 3.8 3.8
Proline 9.1 9.1 5.7 4.7 6.6 10.6 7.0 7.2 10.1 7.2 5.5
Serine 4.1 4.5 4.0 4.2 4.9 5.8 5.1 6.3 5.6 4.1 5.2
Tyrosine 2.6 2.9 2.6 3.1 3.2 2.6 3.6 2.4 2.4 3.8 3.9
Cereal Grains
Source: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 1996. Quimica, Almacenamiento e Industrializacíon de los Cereales. AGT editor, S.A., Mexico, D.F., Mexico; Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2003.
Pages 1027–1033 in Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition. B. Caballero, L. Trugo and P. Finglas (eds.). Second edition. Academic Press, London;
Anonymous (1988); McGregor and Bhatty (1993); Robbins et al. (1971); Olson and Frey (1987); Wrigley and Bietz (1988); Merona et al. (1987); National
Research Council (1989); USDA (2009).
a The requirements of essential amino acids (g/100 g protein) for children are: lysine 5.44; methionine + cysteine 3.52; threonine 4.0; leucine 7.04; phenylalanine + tyrosine
6.08; histidine 1.4 and tryptophan 0.96. Tyrosine and cystine are not essential amino acids, but they spare the requirement of phenylalanine and methionine, respectively.
b Merola et al. (1987).
c National Research Council (1989), USDA (2009).
97
98 Cereal Grains
C CH2 CH COOH
CH2 (CH2)3 CH COOH CH NH2
N
NH2 NH2 H
(a) (b)
CH3 S CH2 CH COOH CH3 CH CH CH COOH
NH2 OH NH2
(c) (d)
H3C H
CH2 CH COOH CH C COO
NH2 H3C +NH

3
(e) (f )
H
CH3 CH2 CH C COO
CH3 +NH
3
(g)
H
HC C CH2 C COO
H3C H
HN NH +NH
3
CH CH2 C COO
C
H 3C +NH H
3
(h) (i)
Figure 3.5 Chemical structure of the essential amino acids. (a) Lysine. (b) Tryptophan. (c)
Methionine. (d) Threonine. (e) Phenylalanine. (f) Leucine. (g) Isoleucine. (h) Valine. (i) Histidine.
A diet based exclusively on cereals only provides about 50% of the protein
requirement for growing infants. The most limiting amino acid in all cereals is lysine
(Chapter 17). The second limiting amino acid for maize is tryptophan, whereas it is
threonine in the rest of cereals. The high-lysine cereal types of maize, sorghum, and
barley possess better nutritional value due to improved protein quality or essential
amino acid balance (Anonymous, 1988, Balaravi et al. 1976).
3.5 Lipids
Cereals have low amounts of fat soluble compounds. However, lipids play an impor-
tant role from the stability, shelf-life, and processing viewpoints. The milling pro-
cesses are aimed towards the removal of the pericarp and germ tissues. The selective
removal of the germ, or degermination, is key because the oil rich in polyunsaturated
fatty acids is highly susceptible to oxidation or rancidity. More than 80% of the
total lipids are located in the germ. The maize germ is used commercially as raw
material for the production of refined maize oil. The main reason is that the germ
is comparatively larger compared to commercial cereals and efficiently obtained
after dry and wet milling processes (see Chapters 7 and 8). These germs contain
approximately 30%–36% oil. Lipids are divided into saponifiable and unsaponifi-
able compounds. The saponifiable are subdivided into nonpolar (triglycerides) and
polar (monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and glycolipids). Phytosterols,
tocopherols, waxes, policosanols, and carotenoids belong to the unsaponifiable frac-
tion (Figure 3.6). Indisputably, the most abundant fraction is triglycerides because
they comprise more than 95% of the total lipids. During malting or germination and
respiration the triglycerides are gradually hydrolyzed by lipases yielding free fatty
acids. Faulty grain storage activates the grain, which synthesizes lipases that break-
down triglycerides releasing free fatty acids. Free fatty acids are more susceptible to
oxidization or prone to rancidity, and therefore yield off-odors and flavors. Most of
the fatty acids that constitute the triglycerides are unsaturated; approximately 70%
are oleic (18:1) and linoleic (18:2). Palmitic acid (16:0) is the main saturated fatty acid
and generally constitutes 15%–25% of the total amount (Table 3.5). The polar lipids,
phospholipids and glycolipids (Figure 3.6), are present in small quantities. However,
they have important metabolic functions.
From the functionality viewpoint, phospholipids, monoglycerides, and diglycer-
ides are considered natural emulsifiers. These compounds are especially important
in the baking industry because they act as dough conditioners and prolong the tex-
tural shelf life of baking goods.
Carotenoids are polyisoprenoids containing 40 carbons that are subdivided into
two groups: carotenoids and xanthophylls. Carotenoids are the biosynthetic precur-
sors of the oxygenated derivatives or xanthophylls. These molecules are conjugated
polyene chains that act as antioxidants. Carotenoids are very minor constituents in
cereals grains (Chung and Ohm 2000). They are mainly present in yellow endosperm
cereals such as yellow maize, yellow sorghum, and durum wheat. The maize glu-
ten meal is especially rich in both carotenoids and xanthophylls. This coproduct is
widely used by the poultry industry to achieve the degree of pigmentation in egg
yolks or broiler skins (see Chapter 18). The β-carotenes (Figure 3.6) are precur-
sors of the active form of vitamin A (Chapter 17). Upon ingestion, the β-carotene
is transformed into retinol in the human body. On the other hand, the xanthophylls,
zeaxanthin (Figure 3.6), and lutein are considered important nutraceuticals due to
their implication in human health, vision, and eye integrity (Chapter 17).
The tocol derivatives (tocopherols and tocotrienols) are responsible for the vita-
min E activity of plant tissues. Cereals can contain up to eight different tocol deriva-
tives being the β-tocopherols and β-tocotrienols, which are most abundant in wheat,
rye, and triticale. Conversely, the γ-tocol derivatives are present in maize, rice, and
millets. Barley contains both β- and γ-tocol derivatives. Tocol derivatives are mainly
located in the germ, and therefore migrate with the crude oil after mechanical or sol-
vent extraction.
Phytosterols are divided into three major categories: 4-demethysterol, monom-
ethylsterol, and 4-4´dimethylsterols being the first group the most relevant in
cereal grains (Chung and Ohm 2000). β-Sitosterol (Figure 3.6) is the primary ste-
rol in all cereal grains, followed by stigmasterol. Other important phytosterols are
100 Cereal Grains
1. COOH
COOH CH2 O C (CH2)nCH3
2.
(CH2)nCH3 C O CH O
3. COOH O CH2 O C (CH2)nCH3
COOH
4. O
(a) (b)
O
R’ C O CH2 O
O H C O C R”
HOH2C
O H2C O C (CH2)nCH3 CH2
O
C O CH2 O
CH3 (CH2)n O HO
OH
CH2 O P O (CH2)CH2N(CH3)2
OH HO
(c) (d)
OH
HO
(e) (f )
(g)
CH3 CH3
CH3 CH3
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
CH3
O CH3 O
HO HO CH3
CH3 CH3
(h) (i)
Figure 3.6 Chemical structure of the main fat soluble compounds associated with cereal
grains. (a) 1. Palmitic, 2. oleic, 3. linoleic, and 4. linolenic fatty acids. (b) Triglyceride.
(c) Phospholipid, (phosphatidyl choline). (d) Glycolipid. (e) Carotenoid (β-carotene).
(f) Xanthophyll (zeaxanthin). (g) Phytosterol (β-sitosterol). (h) Tocopherol (Vit. E). (i)
Tocotrienol.
campesterol, avenasterol, and brassicasterol. These are considered important nutra-

ceuticals because they compete for the same sites that absorb cholesterol, therefore
lowering dietary cholesterol absorption.
The coarse grains, maize and sorghum, contain significant amounts of wax
associated with the epicarp and germ tissues. The wax layer serves as a protective
Table 3.5
Fatty Acid Composition of Cereal Grains
Fatty Acidsa
Cereal 14:0 16:0 16:1 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3
Maize
Regular — 11.9 — 1.9 29.3 55.5 1.0
Dent
Popcornb 11.4 1.6 27.0 60.4 —
Rice
Brown 0.7 23.9 0.1 1.8 42.2 29.9 1.0
White 0.9 24.0 0.1 2.5 29.6 41.2 1.1
Wheat
Hard 0.3 23.0 0.3 1.3 19.0 54.5 2.1
Soft 23.5 — 1.3 17.6 54.5 2.5
Barley
0.4 23.0 1.1 — 16.0 54.0 6.5
Sorghum
— 14.3 1.0 2.1 31.0 49.0 2.7
Oat
Husked 0.6 18.9 — 1.6 36.4 40.5 1.9
Groats 0.4 18.8 — 2.2 39.4 37.9 1.3
Rye
0.1 14.8 1.2 0.8 17.1 57.7 7.4
Millets
Pearl — 20.0 0.6 4.5 25.3 45.6 3.5
Foxtail — — 8.3 3.3 14.5 69.0 2.7
Finger — 24.7 — — 49.8 24.2 1.3
Proso — 11.3 — — 21.4 64.9 2.5
Kodo — 19.2 — 0.5 38.2 42.3 —
Source: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 1996. Quimica, Almacenamiento e Industralizacion de los Cereales. AGT
editor, S.A., Mexico, D.F., Mexico.
a 14:0 myristic; 16:0 palmitic; 16:1 palmitoleic; 18:0 stearic; 18:1 oleic; 18:2 linoleic; 18:3 linolenic.
b Data from Borras et al. (2006).
mechanism to prevent dehydration. Chemically, the wax is defined as esters of fatty

acids and aliphatic alcohols. In maize, the wax is generally removed by fractionation
or winterization from the refined oil because it produces a cloudy appearance. The
policosanols have been recently studied because of their potential health benefits
that include lowering blood cholesterol and helping prevent arteriosclerotic lesions
(Chapter 17). These constitute high molecular weight molecules of aliphatic alcohols
102 Cereal Grains
with a hydroxyl group positioned in one of the terminal ends. The most common
are octacosanol (28 carbons) and triacontanol (30 carbons). The policosanols are
synthesized from short chain or volatile fatty acids that are first reduced to aldehydes
and then to alcohols. The maize germ and related coproducts obtained from dry and
wet-milling processes are the main sources of policosanols.
3.6 Minerals and Vitamins

Cereals are considered an adequate source of certain minerals and vitamins. The
germ and aleurone layer are the anatomical parts that contain the highest concentra-
tions of these nutrients. The various types of milling systems yield refined products
that contain lower amounts of vitamins and minerals. This is the main reason why
these products are generally enriched with iron, zinc, vitamins B1 and B2, niacin,
and folic acid (Figure 3.7). The average mineral composition of the different types
of cereals is summarized in Table 3.6. Cereals are considered a poor source of cal-
cium, which is the mineral required in the largest amount by the human system.
The addition of lime or calcium hydroxide and, in some instances, of wood ashes to
maize, sorghum, and millets in Africa (Tô) and Latin America (tortillas and related
nixtamalized products) provides important amounts of bioavailable calcium to con-
sumers. Phosphorus is the macromineral found in the highest concentrations in all
cereal grains. Most of this essential mineral is bound to phytic acid (myoinositol
hexaphosphoric acid, Figure 3.8) and phytin (potassium and magnesium salts of
phytic acid). Phytic acid has several relevant physiological functions such as anti-
oxidant protection during dormancy, storage of phosphorus and cations, and serving
as a precursor of cell walls. In addition, phytic acid plays an important and critical
role during germination. Approximately 80% of the total phosphorus is bound to
phytates in wheat, rice, and maize. Most phytic acid is found in the aleurone cells,
although in the special case of maize, 80% of the phytates are located in the germ.
The phosphorus bound to phytates has a low bioavailability (40%–80%) and binds
other minerals such as Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu, and Fe, lowering their availability. The avail-
ability of phosphorus and other minerals improves after germination or malting and
fermentation due to the production of phytases.
Most magnesium is located in the aleurone layer and is commonly bound to phytates.
Therefore, most of the magnesium is lost during milling processes (Table 3.6). Cereals
are also considered an important source of potassium, but they are practically devoid
of sodium. Most of the iron, zinc, and copper are in the pericarp, germ, and aleurone;
therefore, considerable amounts are lost during milling operations.
Cereals are considered one of the best sources of B-vitamins thiamin, riboflavin,
niacin, pyridoxine, and folates, but a poor source of fat-soluble vitamins and vitamin
B12. Most B-vitamins are associated with the aleurone. The niacin associated with
cereals is found in free and bound forms. Bound niacin is not well utilized by the
human system. Interestingly, the alkaline treatment of maize for production of torti-
llas and other traditional food products increases niacin bioavailability because the
alkali and heat treatment breaks the glycosidic bond that binds free niacin with the
other components (Chapters 9 and 17).
H O
C N C
CH3 C C C NH
CH3 C C C C O
C N N
H CH2
H COH
H COH
H COH
CH2OH
(a)
NH2 H
C C S
N C CH2 N OH
H3C C CH C C CH2 CH2

N
CH3
(b)
CH2OH
HO CH2OH COOH
H3C
N N
(c) (d)
OH
O
N
N CH2 N C N CH CH2 CH2 COOH
H H
H2N COOH
N N
(e)
Figure 3.7 Chemical structure of B-vitamins found in cereal grains. (a) Thiamine. (b)
Riboflavin. (c) Pyridoxine. (d) Niacin. (e) Folic acid.
104
Table 3.6
Mineral and Vitamin Composition of Cereal Grains
Rice Wheat
Nutrient Maize Brown White Hard Durum Barley Sorghum
Minerals
Ca, % 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04
P, % 0.29 0.25 0.12 0.35 0.51 0.56 0.35
Phytic acid, % 0.71 0.56 — 0.97 — 1.06 0.77
K, % 0.37 0.17 0.10 0.36 0.49 0.50 0.38
Na, % 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.04 — 0.02 0.05
Mg, % 0.14 0.19 0.03 0.14 0.17 0.14 0.19
Fe, ppm 30.0 28.0 19.0 40.1 47.8 36.7 50.0
Co, ppm 0.10 0.07 0.01 0.05 — 0.04 3.10
Cu, ppm 4.0 4.2 2.0 4.9 5.6 15.1 10.8
Mn, ppm 5.0 24.0 12.0 40.0 33.5 18.9 16.3
Zn, ppm 20.0 18.0 10.0 30.9 41.0 23.6 15.4
Vitamins (mg/100 g)
Thiamin 0.38 0.34 0.07 0.57 0.67 0.44 0.46
Riboflavin 0.14 0.09 0.03 0.12 0.11 0.15 0.15
Niacin 2.80 4.62 1.60 7.40 11.10 7.20 4.84
Pyridoxine 0.53 0.92 0.45 0.35 0.43 0.44 0.59
Pantothenic 0.66 1.35 0.75 1.36 — 0.57 1.25
Folic acid 0.03 0.02 0.02 — — 0.04 0.02
Carotenes 0.58 — — 0.01 0.15 0.01 0.28
Tocopherols 0.60 1.70 0.14 0.45 0.28 0.48 0.12
Cereal Grains
Mineral and Vitamin Composition of Cereal Grains
Oats Millets
Nutrient Rye Triticale Oats Groats Pearl Foxtail Finger Proso Kodo Tef Fonio
Minerals
Ca, % 0.05 0.04 0.11 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.33 0.01 0.01 0.17 0.03
P, % 0.36 0.36 0.38 0.54 0.35 0.31 0.24 0.15 0.32 0.45 0.18
Phytic acid, % 0.97 ND 1.80 — 0.25 — — 0.32 — — —
K, % 0.47 0.33 0.47 0.44 0.44 0.27 0.43 0.21 0.17 0.31 0.16
Na, % 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02
Mg, % 0.11 0.13 0.13 0.18 0.13 0.13 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.18 0.40
Fe, ppm 38.0 25.7 62.0 47.2 74.9 32.6 46.0 33.1 7.00 14.9 36.0
Co, ppm — — 0.05 — 0.50 0.02 0.10 — — 0.06 3.30

Cu, ppm 9.0 4.6 4.7 4.8 6.2 9.2 0.3 8.3 — 4.4 15.0
Mn, ppm 58.4 32.1 45.0 46.0 18.0 21.9 7.5 18.1 — 2.50 30.0
Zn, ppm 32.2 34.5 37.0 35.8 29.5 21.4 15.0 17.2 — 6.70 30.0
Vitamins (mg/100 g)
Thiamin, 0.69 0.94 0.77 0.72 0.38 0.48 0.48 0.63 0.32 0.45 0.30
Riboflavin 0.26 0.25 0.14 0.16 0.22 0.12 0.12 0.22 0.05 0.10 0.10
Niacin 1.52 1.69 0.97 1.23 2.70 3.70 1.30 1.32 0.70 2.00 3.00
Pyridoxine 0.34 0.48 0.12 0.31 — — — — — — —
Pantothenic 0.73 1.32 1.36 1.23 1.09 0.82 — 1.10 — — —
Folacin 0.05 0.07 0.06 — — 0.02 — — — — —
Tocopherols 0.40 0.90 0.21 0.30 0.19 0.31 0.22 — — — —
Source: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 1996. Quimica, Almacenamiento e Industrialización de los Cereales. AGT editor, S.A., Mexico, D.F., Mexico; and Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2003.
Pages 1027–1033 in Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition. B. Caballero, L. Trugo and P. Finglas (eds.). Second edition. Academic Press, London.
105
106 Cereal Grains
O OH
OH O P
P
O
OH
O
HO P HO
OH
O O
P O
O OH
P O O
HO OH P
HO OH
O
Figure 3.8 Chemical structure of phytic acid.
Self-Evaluation
1. Fill the following table with proximate compositions of wheat, maize, rice,
barley, oats, and pearl millet.
Crude
Cereal Moisture Protein Fat Fiber Ash NFEa
Wheat
Maize
White rice
Barley
Oats
Pearl
Millet
a Nitrogen-free extract. Indicates the amount of nonfibrous carbohydrates.
2. What are main differences between insoluble and soluble dietary fibers?
Give at least two examples of chemical constituents of each type of fiber.
3. What are the first and second limiting amino acids of maize, wheat, rice,
sorghum, and oats?
4. What is a protein fraction? What are the four major types of protein frac-
tions typically found in cereal grains? Which protein fractions are asso-
ciated with the germ and which ones with the endosperm? Nutritionally,
which protein fractions contain a better amino acid balance?
5. Which amino acid is the most prevalent in all cereal grains? In which pro-
tein fraction is this amino acid mainly found?
6. What are differences between polar and nonpolar lipids, and saponifiable
and nonsaponifiable lipids? Give at least one example of each class of lipids
7. In which anatomical part of the cereal caryopses are found most of the fat-
soluble compounds?
8. What are the two most predominant fatty acids in cereal grains? Which
fatty acid is considered as essential in human nutrition? Why?
9. Which cereal is the most prone to oxidation? Why?
10. Explain why cereals with a yellow endosperm have provitamin A activity?
How are β-carotenes transformed into the active form of vitamin A in the
human body?
11. What is the major difference between carotenes and xanthophylls?
Investigate what kind of xanthophylls can be found in cereal grains and
their nutraceutical properties.
12. Why do most refined milled fractions contain lower amounts of vitamins
and minerals compared to their respective whole grains?
13. What are the main metabolic and health promoting properties of thiamin,
riboflavin, niacin, and folic acid? What is the only B-vitamin that is not
found in cereal grains?
14. What is the main function of waxes and policosanols in cereal grains? Why
are policosanols considered important nutraceuticals?
15. What is the most abundant mineral in all cereal grains? Which major min-
eral is practically missing in all cereal grains? Identify at least two cereal
processes that increase the quantity of this mineral.
16. What is the main function of phytic acid in cereal grains? What is the avail-
ability of phytic acid for humans and monogastric domestic animals?
References
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Balaravi, S.P., Bansal, H.C., Eggum, B.O., and Bhaskaran, S. 1976. Characterisation of induced
high protein and high lysine mutants in barley. J. Sci. Food Agric. 27: 545–552.
Bock, M.A. 2000. Minor constituents of cereals. Chapter 15 in Handbook of Cereal Science and
Technology. K. Kulp and J.G. Ponte (eds.). Second edition. Marcel Dekker, New York.
Borras, F., Seetharaman, K., Yao, N., Robutti, J.L., Percibaldi, N.M., and Eyherabide, G.H.
2006. Relationship between popcorn composition and expansion volume and discrimi-
nation of popcorn types by using zein proteins. Cereal Chem. 83(1):86–92.
Chung, O.K., and Ohm, J.B. 2000. Cereal lipids. Chapter 14 in Handbook of Cereal Science and
Technology. K. Kulp and J.G. Ponte (eds.). Second edition. Marcel Dekker, New York.
Chung, O.K., and Pomeranz, Y. 1985. Amino acids in cereal proteins and protein fractions.
Chapter 5 in Digestibility and Amino Acid Availability in Cereals and Oilseeds. J.W. Finley
and D.T. Hopkins (eds.). American Association of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul, MN.
Dendy, D.A.V. 1995. Sorghum and Millets: Chemistry and Technology. American Association
of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul, MN.
Fabriani, G., and Lintas, C. 1988. Durum Chemistry and Technology. American Association of
Cereal Chemists. St. Paul, MN.
Hulse, J.H., Laing, E.M., and Pearson, O.E. 1980. Sorghum and the Millets: Their Composition
and Nutritive Value. Academic Press, London.
Juliano, B.O. 1985. Polysaccharides, proteins and lipids of rice. Chapter. 3 in Rice: Chemistry
and Technology. B.O. Juliano (ed.). Second edition. American Association of Cereal
Chemists. St. Paul, MN.
108 Cereal Grains
Kent, N.L. 1975. Technology of Cereals with Special Reference to Wheat. Second edition.
Pergamon Press. New York, NY.
Kulp, K., and Ponte, J.G. 2000. Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Second edition.
Lasztity, R., and Lasztity, L. 1990. Phytic acid in cereal technology. Chapter 5 in Advances
in Cereal Science and Technology. Vol. X., Y. Pomeranz (ed.). American Association of
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cies of Eragrostis (Graminae). Cereal Chem. 58:113–115.
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methods for identification. Chapter 12 in Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology.
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and Technology,. K. Kulp and J.G. Ponte (eds.). Second edition. Marcel Dekker, New York.
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and Technology. Y. Pomeranz (ed.). Third edition. American Association of Cereal
4 Grain Development,
Morphology, and
Structure
4.1 Introduction
Cereals are one-seeded fruits of the grass family (Gramineae) that contain nutri-
ents which are stored and later on utilized and modified during germination and
early development of the seedling and plant. The storage of nutrients in the seed is
properly organized and protected by physical and chemical barriers against external
biotic agents. This package of nutrients is critically essential for germination, which
leads to plant development and reproduction. Reproduction is the most critical phase
of the plant’s life cycle because it is responsible for the evolutionary continuum of the
species. One single kernel can lead to the formation of hundreds and even thousands
of kernels whose main function throughout generations is to provide the means for
both maintenance of the species and evolution. The exchange of chromosomes dur-
ing pollination and reproduction has been critical for the formation of new varieties
and hybrids adapted to different ecosystems with more yield potential, disease resis-
tance, and functional properties.
Plants of the Gramineae family belong to the Angiosperms (subdivision of
the Spermatophyta) that form seeds borne in an ovary. All cereal plants produce
protected or covered fruits. The kernel, which is botanically named caryopsis,
is a monocotyledon. The caryopsis consists of a pericarp (fruit coat) and a true
seed. The seed consists of a germ, and endosperm and a seed coat or testa. Some
cereal grains such as oats, rice, and barley retain the glumes (floral envelopes)
after harvesting, and consequently are commonly called husked grains. The rest
of the cereals are commonly known as naked caryopses because during harvest-
ing they generally lose the ventral and dorsal glumes known as lemma and palea,
respectively.
In order to understand the important changes that cereals undergo during process-
ing, it is essential to comprehend the macro and micro structure, physiology, bio-
chemistry, and composition of each anatomical part of the caryopsis. The structure
and the appearance of cereals have been modified by breeding. Within each type of
cereal, important variations exist in endosperm hardness due to the different propor-
tions of vitreous and floury endosperm types, pericarp color and thickness, type of
starch, and kernel size.
109
110 Cereal Grains
4.2 Pollination, Fertilization, and Grain Development

The typical life cycle of a cereal plant starts when mature kernels germinate to
form a new plant that gradually grows and develops to form the inflorescence that
encloses the male and female reproductive organs. After flower differentiation and
development, the sexual gametes fuse due to pollination and fertilization to form
a new caryopsis that develops and matures in preparation for the new generation.
The inflorescence or flowers are specialized modified leaves borne or arranged
on the stem. The vegetative apex is induced to form the reproductive organs. The
differentiation of the apex is accompanied by elongation of the main stem and
the differentiation and growth of the flag leaf. Awns emerge at the base of the
flag leaf and eventually develop into the inflorescence. There are two types of
inflorescence in cereals: spikes or panicles. In the spike, the flowers are arranged
along a rachis or axis, whereas the flowers of the panicle are positioned on the
multiple branches of the inflorescence. Wheat, rye, triticale, and barley produce
spikes, while rice, sorghum, oats, and all millets make panicles. Maize is unique
among cereals because the female and male organs are located in different parts
of the plant (monoecious), and the female organ is considered a central axis or
fused panicle. The ancestors of maize (teosinte) produced panicles that somehow
fused into the typical ear we know today. The central cylindrical part of the cob
used to be the central axis, whereas the external rows were kernels which were
attached to the branches.
Typically, the germination process lasts 3 to 7 days under favorable conditions,
and then the seedling forms the new plant that continues to grow for 3 to 4 months
in preparation for anthesis or flowering and kernel production. During flowering, the
one-ovule-containing ovary develops. The ovule produces four haploid megaspores.
Of these megaspores, only one develops into an embryo sac while the others degener-
ate. The viable megaspore undergoes mitosis three times to give rise to eight nuclei,
three of which move to either end, forming polar nuclei, while two remain in the
center. The nuclei positioned opposite to the micropyle end are known as antipo-
dal cells, while those in the center fuse together to form fusion nuclei containing
diploid cells (2n). Of the three nuclei on the micropyle end, one forms a central egg
nucleus while the other two form the synergids. Simultaneous with the formation of
megaspores in the embryo sac, the differentiation of microspores takes place in the
stamen containing the pollen sacs.
During flowering or anthesis the sexual gametes mature and the critical stage
of pollination occurs. Pollination is defined as the shed of pollen from the male
anthers to the stigma or receptive surface of the gynoecium. If it occurs within the
same flower it is named self-pollination, and if it occurs between two different flow-
ers, cross-pollination. Rice, wheat, rye, barley, oats, triticale, and most millets self-
pollinate, whereas maize, sorghum and pearl millet usually cross-pollinate. These
mechanisms are critically important for plant breeders and production of hybrids.
Regardless of the type of pollination, the male microspores travel to the embryonic
sac to fuse with the ovum, and the two polar nuclei form the seed that matures for
approximately 1 month. The seed is tightly covered by the fruit coat or pericarp
developed from the ovary wall and further protected by the pair of glumes or husks.
Grain Development, Morphology, and Structure 111
In nature, the mature seeds eventually shed from the plant and fall to the soil to wait
for proper conditions for germination, thus reinitiating the life cycle.
The cereal fruit, botanically named caryopsis, develops from the ovary of a single
flower, each containing a single true seed. The caryopsis is the result of the fertil-
ization of the ovum and polar nuclei by the mature pollen or microspores that were
released from the pollen sacs of the anthers. All these sexual gametes have half of
the chromosomes of the species. The pollen rapidly forms a filamentous tube after
it lands on the stigma. The pollen tube usually contains three nuclei: a vegetative
nucleus and two generative nuclei. The vegetative nucleus opens up through the sty-
lar until reaching the hilum or entrance of the embryonic sac; whereas one of the
generative nuclei fuses with the ovum to produce a zygote, while the other with the
two polar nuclei form the endosperm (Figure 4.1). Thus, the entire process involves
two fertilizations. The fertilized ovum will form the diploid (2n) embryo, while the
other male cell and two polar nuclei the triploid (3n) endosperm. For instance, in
Generative Cell Pollen Grain

Pollen Tube
Tube Nucleus
Generative Nuclei
Style
Tube Nucleus
Antipodals
Polar Nuclei
Embryo Sac
Synergeds
Zygote or Embryo (2n)
Hilum
Figure 4.1 A schema of the typical flower of cereal grains and the ovary structure show-
ing the ovum and polar nuclei that, upon fertilization, yield the germ and endosperm tissues.
112 Cereal Grains
barley the male haploid cell containing seven chromosomes will fertilize the ovum
forming diploid cells with half of the genetic load from the female and half from
the male. The other haploid male gamete will fertilize the two polar nuclei to form
triploid endosperm cells with 21 chromosomes. The walls of the embryo sac, 100%
female, will eventually form the pericarp that in the specific case of cereals is firmly
attached to the seed. The first cell divisions of the fertilized ovum will yield axial or
distal and basal cells. The axial cells will form the embryonic axis, while the basal
cells the scutellum or cotyledon.
As mentioned above, the endosperm arises by a triple nucleus fusion to give a trip-
loid tissue; therefore, the genetics of the endosperm cells is dominated by the female
because it contributed 66.6% of the genetic load. The endosperm cells divide dur-
ing the first stages of seed development. Thereafter, these cells synthesize starch and
proteins to fill all the cell space. When the grain matures, the nuclei and other cell
organelles disappear. The external seed coat or testa is formed from the integuments
of the ovule.
The carbohydrates stored in the developing seed are derived from photosynthe-
sis. The plant absorbs solar energy by the chlorophyll (chloroplasts) using carbon
dioxide and water. Therefore, the plant functions as a solar energy converter and
stores an important amount of nutrients in the fruit package. The sugars stored in
the stems before anthesis constitute only 5%–10% of the grain weight. The rest is
photosynthesized by the flag leaf and other neighboring leaves close to the inflores-
cence. During photosynthesis, CO2 present in the air, water, and solar light are used
to form sugars. The main transport carbohydrate is sucrose, which is transported
through the phloem to the developing seed. The caryopsis is attached to the plant
through a hilum or chalaza. The hilum or tip cap acquires a black coloration as the
grain matures. The sucrose is inverted into fructose and glucose before entering the
grain. Once inside the grain the sucrose reforms inside the developing endosperm
cells before it is used as the raw material to produce starch molecules and gran-
ules. Starch is synthesized for one to two months postanthesis in the amyloplasts.
The amyloplasts that synthesize large starch granules form before counterparts that
develop smaller granules.
The aleurone layer differentiates from the rest of the starchy endosperm approxi-
mately 2 weeks after pollination. There is clear evidence that aleurone cells synthe-
size starch granules after fertilization; however, the starch granules disappear and
the cell walls thicken as the grain matures. The cytoplasm of aleurone cells contains
phytic acid bodies, protein bodies, and spherosomes or fat depots. The aleurone cell
walls contain soluble and insoluble dietary fiber, phenolics such as ferulic acid, ara-
binoxylans, and β-glucans that fluoresce when viewed under a microscope equipped
with ultraviolet light.
The developing endosperm cells contain nuclei, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochon-
dria, and proplastids that are easily distinguished after fertilization. The proplastids
synthesize starch granules. Only the proplastids of oats and rice form compound
starch granules. As starch granules are gradually formed, these displace the other
cytoplasm organelles. The starch granules show growth rings that are concentric.
Each ring usually represents one-day growth. The size and structure of the starch
granules varies according to the cereal type and the granules’ position within the
endosperm. Those present and forming the periphery or vitreous endosperm have
angular forms because during growth and maturation they are tightly packed within
the cell. On the other hand, the starch granules present in the floury or soft endosperm
are spherical or ovoid-shaped because they are loosely packed. Compound starch
granules of rice and oats are formed by multiple subunits that constitute a large
granule. When native, both the large granule and the subunits show birefringence or
crystallinity. Generally, these subunits have angular shapes.
Morphologically, the starch granules are highly organized structures (French
1984). The internal structure starts forming days after pollination. It shows a typical
concentric radial arrangement of amylose and amylopectin chains. The resulting
growth rings show layers of high and low crystallinity. Amylose is stored in the
amorphous areas, whereas amylopectin appears in the dense or crystalline zones.
All starch granules have a distinctive dot structure known as the hilum that allows
the entrance of the sugars needed for starch synthesis.
Starch is synthesized via three different enzyme systems: The first forms the lin-
ear glucose chains or polymers, whereas the others form the typical amylopectin
branches. Both types of starches are formed from sucrose, which is first hydrolyzed
into glucose and fructose. Fructose is isomerized into glucose, and this monosaccha-
ride is transformed into glucose diphosphate. The glucose diphosphate is dephospho-
rylated to form glucose 1‑phosphate that activates with mitochondrial ATP to form
diphosphate adenosine‑glucose (ADP-glucose). The ADP‑glucose gradually links to
the forming glucose polymer mediated by the starch synthase system and leaves
ADP as the by-product, which is eventually phosphorylated to reform the ATP that
is used again to elongate the starch chain.
There are two types of starch molecules: amylose and amylopectin. The first type
is formed by a linear chain where glucose units are linked by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds.
About one-fourth of the starch in regular cereals is composed of these linear chains.
The amylopectin or branched starch is mainly formed of glucose units linked by
α-1,4-glycosidic bonds and ramifies every α-1,6-glycosidic bond. This type of starch
is synthesized from amylose chains via an enzymatic system named Q or branching.
The molecular weight of amylopectin is approximately 20 times higher compared to
amylose. Cereals with regular starch contain approximately 75% amylopectin and
25% amylose. Genetically modified waxy starches synthesize almost pure amylo-
pectin, and very small quantities of amylose remain in the starch granule. These
starches usually contain more than 95% amylopectin. There are waxy genotypes of
rice, maize, wheat, barley, and some types of millets. These grains have unique food
uses because they are less prone to retrogradation.
Both the germ and endosperm synthesize protein during grain development and
maturation. The producing organelles are ribosomes via mRNA. Most of the germ
protein and DNA synthesis occur 2 weeks after pollination. The endosperm protein
synthesis takes place biphasically. The first occurs 15 to 25 days postpollination and
is mainly aimed toward the production of key enzymes and structure proteins that
comprise the protein matrix. The second takes place approximately 37 days post-
anthesis, and its main function is to produce reserve protein stores within protein
bodies. The small grains (wheat, triticale, barley, and rye) synthesize protein bodies,
but these are difficult to view in mature caryopses.
114 Cereal Grains
The endosperm cell walls start developing 3 to 5 days postanthesis. Cellulose is

placed in cell walls starting in the periphery and gradually migrates to the central
endosperm part. The mature cell walls of rice, maize, sorghum, and millets are thin-
ner compared to wheat, barley, rye, and triticale.
The germ takes more time to develop compared to the endosperm. The wheat
embryonic axis is observed until approximately 23 days after anthesis.
4.3 Morphology and Structure of the Mature Grain

A cereal grain can be divided into three fundamental anatomical parts: pericarp,
endosperm, and germ (Figure 4.2). In general, these constitute 7%–10%, 82%–85%,
and 3%–10%, respectively. However, the proportions vary among cereal types (Table
4.1). Husked or covered grains retain their glumes after harvesting. The glumes are
not considered part of the caryopsis but rather as floral envelopes. Table 4.2 shows
the main nutrients found in each part of the kernel.
Cutin
S.A. Aleurone
Layer
Corneous E.
Peripheral
Endosperm
Testa
Floury E.
S.
Pericarp
Epidermis
E.A. Hypodermis
Mesocarp
Germ
Cross Cells
Tube Cells
Testa
Aleurone
Layer
Pericarp Peripheral
endosperm
Hilum
Figure 4.2 A schema showing the major anatomical parts of the sorghum caryopsis
(courtesy of C. McDonough and L. W. Rooney, Texas A&M University).
Table 4.1
Percent Amount of the Different Anatomical Parts of Cereal Grains
Starchy
Cereal Glumes Pericarp Aleurone Endosperm Germ
Maize
Dent — 6.0 2.8 78.0 12.0
Flint — 6.5 2.2 79.6 11.7
Popcorn — 7.0 -------------81.0------------ 12.0
Rice
Rough 20.0 --------------4.8-------------- 73 2.2
Brown — --------------6.0-------------- 91.2 3.3
Wheat
Hard — 8.2 6.7 82 3.6
Durum — 12 ---------------86.4--------------- 1.6
Barley
Husked 13.0 2.9 4.8 76.2 3.0
Hull-Less 3.3 5.5 87.6 3.4
Sorghum
6.5 ---------------84.2-------------- 9.4
Rye
— 12.1 11.6 72.8 3.5
Triticalea
— 4.6 ---------------91.1-------------- 4.2
Oats
Husked 25.0 9.0 ----------------63.0--------------- 2.8
Groats — --------------12-------------- 84.0 3.7
Millets
Pearl — 8.4 -----------------75.1--------------- 16.5
Prosob 16.0 3.0 6.0 70.0 5.0
Source: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 1996. Quimica, Almacenamiento e Industrialización de los Cereales. AGT
editor, S.A., Mexico, D.F., Mexico.
a Zeringue and Feuge (1980).
b Black et al. (2006).
4.3.1 Glumes
The glumes are floral structures in the form of leaves that cover the caryopsis.
They protect the kernel during development against external agents such as insects,
molds, and moisture. The glumes consist of two structures: the lemma and the
palea. Generally, the lemma covers the embryo and has a pointed end in small
116 Cereal Grains
Table 4.2
Functionality and Chemical Composition of the Different Anatomical
Parts of Cereal Grains
Anatomical Part Main Functionality Main Chemical Components
Glumes Protects the grain against Insoluble dietary fiber and minerals.
phytopathogens, insects, birds, and The rice glumes or husks contain
weathering. Increases shelf life high amounts of silica.
during storage and keeps grain
viability.
Pericarp
Epicarp–mesocarp Protects the kernel against Insoluble fiber, proteins and
pathogens, insects, and weathering. minerals. The pericarp contains
Prevents grain dehydration. phenolic compounds. Only the
thick pericarp sorghums may
contain starch in the mesocarp.
Endocarp Conformed or cross and tube cells. Insoluble fiber, proteins, and
The first prevents loss of water minerals.
during germination and the second
is the internal pipeline that
conducts water and gibberellins
during germination.
Endosperm
Testa Protects the seed against pathogens, B-vitamins, minerals, phytic acid
insects, and weathering. (phytic bodies), proteins (protein
bodies), and phenolic compounds.
Aleurone layer Produces key enzymes necessary for B-vitamins, minerals, fat depots
germination. (spherosomes), phytic acid (phytic
bodies), proteins (protein bodies),
and phenolic compounds. It is
devoid of starch.
Starchy endosperm Second storage tissue. Provides Starch granules and proteins
energy and nutrients necessary for (prolamins and glutelins).
germination and seedling
development.
Germ
Scutellum First storage tissue. Provides Oil, proteins (albumins and
hormones (gibberellic acid), globulins), soluble sugars,
enzymes, energy, and nutrients vitamins, and minerals.
necessary for germination and
seedling development.
Embryonic axis Upon germination, develops into the Proteins, oil, soluble sugars,
radicle and plumule that will vitamins, and minerals.
originate the new plant.
cereals (e.g., wheat, oat, barley, rye) called the awn. The palea generally covers the
ventral part of small cereal grains. In the sorghum grain, the lemma differs from
the palea in the incision point of the floral structure. The glumes can be short or
medium, and in some varieties they can completely cover the kernel. The glumes
constitute about 20% of the weight of the covered caryopses of rice, barley, and
oats. These structures are high in fiber and ash. The least digestible husks are the
ones associated with rough rice. These structures, rich in lignin and silica, lower
the digestibility and feed value of rice for both monogastrics and ruminants (see
Chapter 18)
4.3.2 Pericarp
The pericarp is the part of the kernel that covers the seed, and it contains several
cellular layers. The main cellular layers are the epicarp, mesocarp, and endocarp.
The endocarp is subdivided into intermediate, cross, and tube cells (Figure 4.3).
Some cereal grains such as maize and sorghum also contain an external wax layer
that has a protective role. The epicarp or epidermis is the outermost layer of the
pericarp. The epicarp cells are elongated rectangles with thin cell walls. The meso-
carp and endocarp vary in thickness and number of layers, depending on the type of
M
S
SC
CC
T
A
20 µm
PL
Figure 4.3 Microphotograph detailing the microstructure of the pericarp and aleurone
layer of the sorghum caryopsis. E = epicarp; M = mesocarp; S = starch granules; CC = epicarp
cross cells; T = epicarp tube cells; SC = seed coat or testa; A = aleurone cells; P = peripheral
endosperm (courtesy of C. McDonough and L. W. Rooney, Texas A&M University).
118 Cereal Grains
cereal. Sorghum can have a thick or thin pericarp; it is the only commercial cereal
that may contain starch in the pericarp. The cross cells, located below the interme-
diate cells, are elongated and cylindrical shaped in a transversal position. These
cells prevent moisture loss when water is transported in the tube cells; therefore,
they act as a seal. The tube cells are approximately the same size as the cross cells
but with the elongated axis being parallel and transverse to the kernel. These cells
are responsible for transporting and distributing the water that is absorbed by the
germ during germination.
The main functions of the pericarp are to protect the kernel against external
agents (e.g., insects, microorganisms), to avoid moisture loss, and to conduct and
distribute water and other nutrients during germination. The pericarp constitutes
between 5%–7% of the kernel weight. The pericarp is high in fiber and ash, and
does not contain starch (with the exception of sorghum cultivars with thick pericarp
or mesocarp). Most of the protective phenolics are also associated with the pericarp
cells. All cells are enclosed by a cell wall. In the case of pericarp and seed coat tis-
sues, the contents of the cell eventually disappear, with only the thick fibrous cell
walls remaining (Stone 2006).
4.3.3 Endosperm
The endosperm is the major part of any cereal grain. Basically, it is the second most
important and most abundant reserve tissue, and it also has a critical metabolic role.
The aleurone generates the enzymes needed for germination.
4.3.3.1 Testa or Seed Coat

The testa firmly adheres to the ventral part of the tubular cells and consists of one
or two layers (Figure 4.3). The color of some cereal grains depends in part on the
presence of pigments in these cells. For instance, the testa of red winter wheat and
sorghum can be highly pigmented, substantially affecting the color and/or appear-
ance of the grains. In these cereals, the presence or absence of this pigmented layer is
genetically controlled. Sorghums express significant amounts of condensed tannins
when the B (presence of pigmented testa) and the spreader S genes are dominant.
These sorghums usually have brown coloration and are classed as Type III. The tan-
nins are bitter or astringent; therefore, these seeds are less susceptible to bird attack
and damage, molding and preharvest germination, or sprouting. On the other hand,
the tannins reduce the nutritional quality of the grain by decreasing protein digest-
ibility and inhibiting digestive enzymes (Chapters 17 and 18).
4.3.3.2 Aleurone
The aleurone layer consists of a single cellular layer in most cereals (Table 4.3,
Figure 4.3). Exceptions are barley, with two to four layers; rice, with up to six;
and oats, with one or two. The composition and structure of the aleurone layer is
quite different from the starchy endosperm. The cells do not contain starch gran-
ules and are high in protein (20%) concentrated as aleurone grains, fat (20%) stored
in the spherosomes, and minerals (20%) mainly associated to phytic acid stored in
phytic bodies. The aleurone cell walls are high in fiber and show fluorescence when
Table 4.3
Properties and Traits of Cereal Caryopses
Starch Granule
Ventral Awns in Aleurone Protein Bodies in
Cereal Grain Caryopsis Crease Inflorescence Type Diameter (µm) Form Layer Mature Kernels
Maize Naked Absent Absent Simple 2–30 Spherical, Single Present
angular
Rice Husked Absent Absent Compound Compound: 7–39 Angular Multiple Present
Simple: 2–9
Wheat Naked Present Present Simple 6–15 Spherical, Single Absent
lenticular,
angular
Barley Husked Present Present Simple 5–30 Lenticular, Multiple Absent
spherical
Sorghum Naked Absent Absent Simple 6–20 Spherical, Single Present
angular
Rye Naked Present Present Simple 6–15 Spherical, Single Absent
Grain Development, Morphology, and Structure
lenticular,
angular
Triticale Naked Present Present Simple 6–15 Round, Single Absent
lenticular,
angular
Oats Husked Present Present Compound Compound: 20–150 Lenticular Multiple Present
Simple: 4–10
Millets
Pearl Naked Absent Absent Simple 6–8 Spherical Single Present
angular
Foxtail or Naked Absent Absent Simple 6–8 Angular, Single Present
Italian spherical
119
—continued
120
Properties and Traits of Cereal Caryopses
Starch Granule
Ventral Awns in Aleurone Protein Bodies in
Cereal Grain Caryopsis Crease Inflorescence Type Diameter (µm) Form Layer Mature Kernels
Finger Naked Absent Absent Compound 3–21 Angular, Single Present
Simple spherical
Proso Naked Absent Absent Simple 1–18 Spherical Single Present
angular
Kodo Naked Absent Absent Simple 7-15 Spherical Single Present
angular
Barnyard Naked Absent Absent Simple 3–20 Spherical Single Present
angular
Fonio Naked Absent Absent Simple 7–8 Spherical Single Present
angular
Tef Naked Absent Absent Compound 5–22 Spherical Single Present
simple angular
Source: Data from Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 1996. Quimica, Almacenamiento e Industralizacion de los Cereales. AGT editor, S.A., Mexico, D.F., Mexico; McDonough, C.M.
et al. 2000. Chapter 6 in Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, K. Kulp and J. Ponte (eds.). Second edition. Marcel Dekker, New York; Rooney, L.W.,
and Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2000. Chapter 5 in Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology. K. Kulp and J. Ponte (eds.). Second edition. Marcel Dekker, New York;
and Serna-Saldivar, S.O., and Rooney, L.W. 1995. Chapter 4 in Sorghum and Millets: Chemistry and Technology. D.A.V. Dendy (ed.). American Association of
Cereal Grains
observed under UV light. The aleurone layer synthesizes the necessary enzymes to
break down the constituents of the endosperm during germination. In the case of pig-
mented maize, the aleurone layer can be red or blue, giving one of these colors to the
mature kernels. In the case of wheat and rice, the aleurone layer is removed during
milling, becoming part of the bran fraction when producing refined flours or white
polished rice (Chapter 7). White soft and hard wheats have been improved to reduce
the amount of pigments in the aleurone layer, producing whole-wheat breads with
improved color and flavor. The aleurone is also rich in B-vitamins and minerals, and
its mechanical removal during milling processes significantly lowers these nutrients
that are critically important in human nutrition. The enrichment program of cereal-
based foods is aimed towards the replacement of these key nutrients (Chapter 17).
4.3.3.3 Peripheral Endosperm

The peripheral endosperm is high in protein and contains starch units that are small,
angular, and compact (Figure 4.3). In some cereals such as sorghum, this layer has
been associated with reduced nutrient digestibility. Some treatments such as steam-
flaking, micronizing, and popping (Chapter 18), disrupt or modify this layer, giving
the digestive enzymes an increased accessibility to the nutrients.
4.3.3.4 Vitreous Endosperm
The mature endosperm contains four main structures: cell walls, starch granules,
matrix, and protein bodies (Figure 4.4). The fibrous cell walls are thin and encase
the rest of the components. The starch granules represent the main proportion of
the endosperm; they are surrounded by a protein matrix that acts as a glue to hold
together the internal cell structure. The protein bodies are round and very small
compared to the starch granules. The protein bodies are dispersed mainly in the
cells surrounding the starch granules. In the vitreous endosperm, the starch granules
are covered by the protein matrix, without air spaces, showing angular (polygonal)
shapes. This endosperm shows a vitreous or translucent appearance because light is
not diffracted.
PB PM
S
PM CW
S
CW
S
S PB
22 µm 22 µm
Figure 4.4 Microphotographs detailing the microstructure of the sorghum endosperm.

S = starch granules; PB = protein bodies; PM = protein matrix; CW = cell wall (courtesy of
C. McDonough and L. W. Rooney, Texas A&M University).
122 Cereal Grains
4.3.3.5 Floury Endosperm

The floury endosperm is surrounded by the vitreous endosperm, being the inner-
most part of the kernel. The floury endosperm contains the same components found
in the vitreous endosperm but the starch granules are bigger and less angular in
shape, the association between the starch granules and the protein matrix is weaker,
and the starch is less surrounded by protein bodies. Furthermore, compared to the
vitreous endosperm, in the floury endosperm the cell walls are thinner and have less
protein content (i.e., less compact structure). Minuscule air spaces give a floury or
opaque-chalky appearance.
The ratio of floury versus vitreous endosperm determines the hardness and den-
sity of the grain, thus affecting the food processing attributes. For instance, grain
hardness affects the efficiency of decortication, dry and wet-milling processes, and
optimum cooking times and conditions.
The cell walls of the starchy endosperm are quite thin (Figure 4.4), whereas the
ones of the aleurone layer are thick and bilayered. The most abundant chemical
component of cell walls is heteroxylans, followed by β-D glucans. Only the cell
walls of pericarp cells, seed coat, and aleurone contain significant quantities of
cellulose. The spatial arrangement in a starchy endosperm cell wall indicates that
cellulosic microfibrils are embedded in a network of noncellulosic matrix poly-
saccharides mainly composed of arabinoxylans and β-glucans (Stone 2006). The
barley cell walls contain more β-glucans compared to wheat and rice. Rice cell
walls are rich in cellulose, glucomannan, β-glucans, and heteroxylans, whereas
more than 90% of the composition of cell walls of wheat and barley are com-
posed of β-glucans and heteroxylans. Two arabinoxylans cross-link with diferu-
late, whereas the cross-linking between a protein and an arabinoxylan occurs due
to a tyrosyl ferulate bond whereas a ditrosyl cross-link between two protein chains
(Stone 2006). The linkages of the cell wall components weaken when the grain
germinates due to the synthesis of cell-wall-degrading enzymes. The hydrolyzed
cell wall allows the entry of other important enzymes that will degrade stored
protein and starch.
4.3.4 Germ
The germ consists of the embryonic axis and the scutellum. It is adhered to the
endosperm by the scutellum, which (together with the epithelium) is the only cotyle-
don of fruits belonging to Gramineae plants. The cotyledon acts as nutrient storage
as well as the communication link between the plant or developing embryo and the
nutrient storage of the endosperm. The embryonic axis results from the differentia-
tion of the embryo into the rootlets and the plumule, which will form the vegetative
part of the plant. The germ does not have starch; in contrast, it is high in oil, protein,
soluble sugars, and ash. Furthermore, the germ is high in B-vitamins and vitamin
E, and generates most of the enzymes involved in the germination process. Among
cereals, pearl millet, maize, and sorghum contain the highest proportion of germ. In
the particular case of maize, the germ is relatively easy to extract (Chapters 7 and 8),
and it constitutes the most important raw material in the oil crushing and refining
industry. Germs from wheat, rice, and sorghum are also commercially extracted,
however, their contributions are very inferior compared to maize oil.
4.4 Physiology and Grain Germination

The physiological event of germination may be defined as the metabolic activation
of the kernel with the posterior emergence of the acrospire (first leaf) and rootlets
(primordial roots) from the embryo. After the proper environmental conditions are
met, the viable seed starts a series of metabolic events that include hormone synthe-
sis, respiration, and breakdown and mobilization of food reserves stored in the germ
and endosperm tissues. There are basically three major activators of germination:
moisture, temperature, and oxygen. Both aerobic and anaerobic respiration pathways
are activated in order to supply energy necessary for differentiation and develop-
ment. By far the most important pathway for cereals is the aerobic, even in rice that
in most instances germinates under flooded paddies (Bewley and Black 1978, Black
et al. 2006, Desai et al. 1997b, Fincher and Stone 1999).
Several plant species, including cereals, produce dormant seeds that fail to
germinate in spite of being provided with the most favorable conditions. These
seeds are dormant due to the presence of inhibitors that gradually disappear after
exposure to cold temperature or chilling, light or storage, or aging. Among cere-
als, barley is the typical crop that produces dormant kernels. Dormancy is crucial
to prevent pregermination or sprouting on the spike but could affect its use for
beer malting purposes (Chapter 14). Fortunately, dried barley normally emerges
or breaks dormancy in less than 3 months. The use of warm storage and treatment
with gibberellins are commercially practiced to shorten dormancy time. In the rest
of the cereals, dormancy inception occurs very early. In fact, embryos are fully
germinable 20 days after pollination.
Seed hydration is an initial essential step towards germination. Most cereals
germinate at moistures of approximately 36%–40%. The water enters the kernel
through the micropylar region of the germ and rapidly hydrates both the embryonic
axis and scutellum. If water continues to diffuse, it is distributed to the rest of the
kernel through the endocarp tube cells. Most of the absorbed water stays associated
with the grain because the endocarp cross cells and the rest of the pericarp tissues
slow down the diffusion of water to the exterior. The water transported through the
tube cells diffuses first to the aleurone layer and later on gradually hydrates from the
outer to the inner starchy endosperm. The hydration process under ideal conditions
lasts 1–2 days. The imbibition of the germ triggers respiration and the secretion of
gibberellins both in the embryo and scutellum. According to Desai et al. (1997b),
gibberellins stimulate production of α-amylase by the aleurone layer only after 8
hours of exposure.
Gibberellins are mainly responsible for triggering the synthesis of key enzymes
that will degrade nutrients stored in the first and second reserve tissues of the germ
and endosperm, respectively. Two gibberellic acids (GA1 and GA3) are the major hor-
mones produced by the embryo. These hormones are later transported along with the
absorbed water to the endosperm through the tube cells, and induce aleurone cells
124 Cereal Grains
to synthesize enzymes such as amylases and proteases. These enzymes catalyze the
depolymerization of stored starch and large proteins.
The enzymes are sequentially synthesized during germination (Table 4.4). First,
the enzymes associated with respiration are produced. Then, phytases, lipolytic,
fibrolytic, proteolytic, and amylolytic enzymes are produced. The main lipoly-
tic enzymes are lipases A1, A2, phospholipases A1, A2, and lipoxygenase. Lipases
release free fatty acids from the triglycerides stored in the spherosomes of the germ
and aleurone layer, whereas the phospholipases hydrolyze fatty acids associated with
phospholipids. The resulting glycerol is metabolized through glycolysis after its oxi-
dation, and fatty acids through the β-oxidation pathway, by sequentially removing
acetyl CoA that enters the TCA cycle for its complete oxidation to carbon dioxide
and water.
Most phosphorus associated with cereal grains exists in the form of phytic acid
(myoinositol hexaphosphate) that is stored in phytic bodies mainly located in the
aleurone layer. These molecules bind potassium, magnesium, and other minerals.
The phytases degrade these compounds to release phosphate, other minerals, and
myoinositol. The myoinositol is a known precursor of sugars associated with cell
wall polysaccharides and a promoter of seedling growth. The free phosphorus is
critically important for synthesis of nucleic acids and phospholipids for cellular
membrane proliferation, and ATP and energy production.
Fibrolitic or cell wall degrading enzymes are constituted by cellulases, hemicellu-
lases, pectinases, xylanases, β-glucanases, and others that synergistically attack cell
walls and enhance the entrance of the other enzymes into the cells. The enzymes are
mainly secreted from the aleurone or scutellum, and therefore approach their sub-
strates from outside the cells of the starchy endosperm. The simple sugars released
from wall polysaccharides make a contribution to the total energy needed for seed-
ling development.
Proteolytic enzymes degrade the different types of protein fractions associated
with the germ (globulins and albumins) and endosperm (prolamins and glutelins)
to generate energy and enhance the susceptibility of starch granules to amylolytic
enzymes. The group of enzymes consists of endopeptidases, carboxypeptidases,
aminopeptidases, and peptide hydrolases, which degrade proteins into small pep-
tides and free amino acids. The endopeptidases cleave proteins mainly associated to
protein and aleurone bodies to yield lower molecular weight polypeptides, peptides,
and amino acids. The aleurone proteins are mainly mobilized to provide amino acids
for the synthesis of important enzymes such as amylases. The free amino acids are
used for protein (enzyme) synthesis or oxidized for energy after deamination or for-
mation of keto acids. Harvey and Oaks (1974) found that the prolamins (zein) and
glutelins of maize stored in protein bodies and the protein matrix, respectively, start
hydrolysis about 20 hours after kernel imbibition, peaking between 3 and 8 days.
Glutamine is the most abundantly free amino acid and is transported through the
scutellum to the developing embryo.
Starch granules stored in the endosperm are degraded by α- and β-amylases into
water-soluble maltose and dextrins. The dextrins are further degraded to glucose
by pullulanase or debranching enzymes and amyloglucosidase. Alpha amylase ran-
domly hydrolyzes α-1,4-glycosidic bonds of both amylose and amylopectin, yielding
Table 4.4
Main Enzymes Synthesized during Germination of Cereal Grains
Enzyme Action
Lipases A1 and A2 Attacks triglycerides releasing fatty acids. Lipase A1 hydrolyzes fatty acids
located on the ends of triglycerides, whereas lipase A2 has specificity for
the middle fatty acid. Lipases are mainly produced in the aleurone layer.
Phospholipases (A1 and Specifically attacks phospholipids, liberating fatty acids. Phospholipase A1
A2 and hydrolyzes the fatty acid located on the end of the phospholipid, whereas
lysophospholipase) phospholipase A2 has specificity for the middle fatty acid.
Lysophospholipase frees the fatty acid from lysophospholipids or
phospholipids initially hydrolyzed by phospholipase A1.
Lipoxigenase Enzyme that oxidizes polyunsaturated fatty acids to hydroxyperoxides. It is
produced in the embryo and germ.
Phytases Regulates phosphate release from phytic acid that is critical for
germination.
Cellulases Catalyze the hydrolysis of ß-glucosyl in ß-glucans linked by ß-1,-
glycosidic bonds (cellulose). It is mainly synthesized in the scutellum.
ß-Glucanases Catalyze the hydrolysis of ß-glucosyl linkages in 1-3 or 1-4 ß-glucans
associated to cell walls where the glucosyl residue is substituted at the
C(O) 3 position.
Xylanases (endo and exo) Depolymerize arabinoxylanases associated with cell walls.
Arabinofuranosidases Removes arabinosyl side chains allowing exoxylanase to release xylose.
Endopeptidases Enzymes that cleave polypeptide chains within the chain at any susceptible
point away from the N and C termini. They are subdivided according to
the catalytic mechanism or preference for certain amino acids into serine,
aspartic, and cysteine. These enzymes attack proteins producing mainly
smaller peptides. Endopeptidases and carboxypeptidases act
synergistically.
Carboxypeptidases The different types of carboxypepetidases hydrolyze peptide bonds
adjoining COOH terminal amino acids. These enzymes produce small
peptides and free amino acids.
α-Amylase Endohydrolysis that cleaves internal α-1,4-glycosidic bonds of starch in an
essentially random fashion. It is a calcium dependent enzyme. The
enzyme hydrolyzes amylose and amylopectin into linear and branched
dextrins.
ß-Amylase Endohydrolysis that cleaves the penultimate α-glycosidic bonds from the
nonreducing end of α-glucans or dextrins to release maltose and simpler
dextrins. The activity ceases when it reaches an α-1-6 bond. It
complements the action of amylase.
Limit dextrinase Hydrolyzes α-1,6 bonds from starch or dextrins and increases the
abundance of linear α-glucans chains. Also known as debranching
enzyme.
α-Glucosidase Releases glucose from hydrolyzed starch, dextrins, and maltose.
Source: Data from Desai, B.B. et al. 1997a. Chapter 2 in Seeds Handbook. Biology Production,
Processing and Storage. Marcel Dekker, New York; Desai, B.B. et al. 1997b. Chapter 4 in Seeds
Handbook. Biology Production, Processing and Storage. Marcel Dekker, New York; and Fincher,
G.B., and Stone, B.A. 1993. Chapter 6 in Barley Chemistry and Technology. A.W. MacGregor
and R.S. Bhatty (eds.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
126 Cereal Grains
linear and branched dextrins, whereas β-amylase cleaves successive maltose units
starting from the nonreducing end of amylose, amylopectin, and large dextrins. The
catalytic action of β-amylase ceases when it encounters an α-1,6-glycosidic bond
(Robyt 1984). Another enzyme, known as a starch phosphorylase, cleaves glucose
units from the nonreducing end of both types of starches by introducing phosphate
rather than water, thus producing activated glucose-1-phosphate molecules. Maltose
is hydrolyzed to glucose by α-glucosidase. The germinating barley kernel generates
a more favorable and balanced α- to β-amylase ratio compared to sorghum or the
rest of the cereals. Therefore, sorghum malt contains lesser amounts of maltose and
higher amounts of dextrins compared to barley malt (Chapter 14).
All metabolites broken down during germination provide energy needed by the
embryo to form the seedling. These tissues start to appear 2 days after germination.
The primordial roots and vegetative tissues show a strong geotropism and photot-
ropism, respectively. It takes about 5 to 6 days for the primordial leaf to emerge
from the soil. The photosynthetic leaf cells with chloroplasts and chlorophyll eventu-
ally will use the solar energy, environmental carbon dioxide, and water to produce
organic compounds necessary to continue plant growth and development. The plant
will eventually produce new flowers, which, upon pollination and fertilization, will
yield new kernels that will perpetuate the species. However, nearly all these kernels
are harvested in order to provide the most important foods and feeds for humankind
and domestic animals, respectively.
Self-Evaluation
1. Why are cereal grains considered fruits rather than seeds?
2. Explain the mechanism of fertilization of the ovum and polar nuclei? From
which flower structures do the pericarp and glumes develop?
3. Why is it critically important for plant breeders to know that the endosperm
is triploid?
4. Describe the mechanisms for the formation of starch granules and protein
bodies during grain development and maturation.
5. What are the major differences between single and compound starch gran-
ules? List the cereal grains that produce compound starch granules?
6. What is waxy endosperm? Investigate the cereals that could have waxy
endosperm?
7. What is birefringence and its implication in starch granule morphology?
What is the structural and comparative molecular weight between amylose
and amylopectin molecules?
8. Construct a table indicating the percent weight of each of the main anatomi-
cal parts of wheat, maize, rough rice, barley, oats, and pearl millet.
9. Draw the anatomical parts of the pericarp, indicating the average chemical
composition of this major anatomical part.
10. What is the testa? What is its main functionality?
11. Draw the typical microstructure of the aleurone cell and a starchy
endosperm cell.
12. What is the major difference between a starchy endosperm cell from the
floury or soft part and the vitreous or hard part?
13. What are the factors necessary for grain germination? Explain the sequen-
tial steps of grain germination, emphasizing the physiological events that
control this critical process.
14. During grain germination, several types of enzymes are synthesized. In a
table, summarize the sequence of synthesis, indicating the type of substrate
attacked and product yielded by each sort of enzyme.
15. Why do most starch chemists agree that α- and β-amylases complement
each other or act synergistically. Compare the ratio of α- to β-amylases in
barley and sorghum malts.
References
Bechtel, D.B., 1983. New Frontiers in Food Microstructure. American Association of Cereal
Bewley, J.D., and Black, M. 1978. Physiology and Biochemistry of Seeds. Vol. I. Development,
Germination and Growth. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York.
Black, M., Derek Bewley, J., and Halmer, P. 2006. Cereals. Page 68 in The Encyclopedia of
Seeds: Science, Technology and Uses. CABI Publishers, Oxfordshire, U.K.
Briggs, D.E. 1998. Malts and Malting. Blackie Academic & Professional. London.
Darrah, L.L., McMullen, M.D., and Zuber, M.S. 2003. Breeding, genetics and seed corn pro-
duction. Chapter 2 in Corn Chemistry and Technology, P. White and L. Johnson (eds.).
Desai, B.B., Kotecha, P.M., and Salunke, D.K. 1997a. Seed morphology and development.
Chapter 2 in Seeds Handbook. Biology Production, Processing and Storage. Marcel
Dekker, New York.
Desai, B.B., Kotecha, P.M., and Salunke, D.K. 1997b. Seed Germination Chapter 4 in Seeds
Handbook. Biology Production, Processing and Storage. Marcel Dekker, New York.
Fincher, G.B., and Stone, B.A. 1993. Physiology and biochemistry of germination in barley.
Chapter 6 in Barley Chemistry and Technology. A.W. MacGregor and R.S. Bhatty (eds.).
French, D. 1984. Organization of the starch granule. Chapter 7 in Starch: Chemistry and
Technology. R.L. Whistler, J.N. BeMiller, and E.F. Paschall (eds.). Second edition.
Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
Harvey, B.M.R., and Oaks, A. 1974. The role of gibberellic acid in the hydrolysis of endosperm
reserves in Zea mays. Planta (Berl) 121:67.
Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, K. Kulp and J. Ponte (eds.). Second edi-
tion. Marcel Dekker, New York.
Palmer, G.H. 1989. Cereals in malting and brewing. Chapter 3 in Cereal Science and
Technology. G.H. Palmer (ed.). Aberdeen University Press. Great Britain.
Robyt, J.F. 1984. Enzymes in the hydrolysis and synthesis of starch. Chapter 4 in Starch:
Chemistry and Technology. R.L. Whistler, J.N. BeMiller, and E.F. Paschall (eds.).
Second edition. Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
Rooney, L.W., and Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2000. Sorghum. Chapter 5 in Handbook of Cereal
Science and Technology. K. Kulp and J. Ponte (eds.). Second edition. Marcel Dekker,
New York.
128 Cereal Grains
Serna-Saldivar, S.O., and Rooney, L.W. 1995. Structure and chemistry of sorghum and mil-
lets. Chapter 4 in Sorghum and Millets: Chemistry and Technology. D.A.V. Dendy (ed.).
Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 1996. Quimica, Almacenamiento e Industrialización de los Cereales.
Stone, B.A. 2006. Cell walls of cereal grains. Cereal Foods World 51(2):62–65.
Zeringue, H.J., and Feuge, R.O. 1980. Comparison of the lipids of triticale, wheat and rye
grown under similar ecological conditions. JAOCS. 57(11):373–376.
5 Storage of Cereal Grains
5.1 Introduction
The problem of feeding the increasing world population can be solved by protect-
ing already-produced grain. Storage of cereal grains is therefore critical to human
survival and food security. About 900 million metric tons of grains are in storage
throughout the world at any given time (Jayas et al. 1995). This represents about 40%
of the total annual cereal production. Most of the world storage capacity is located in
the United States (590 million tons). About 58% of this grain storage capacity is on
farms and the other 42% in commercial elevators. Storage is a key step in the com-
plex logistics of moving grain from producers to processors, and grain products from
processors to consumers. The main purpose is to equilibrate supply and demand.
Since the invention of agriculture men have inevitably stored cereal grains.
Prehistoric nomads became sedentary when they learned to plant, harvest, and pre-
serve grains. Historically, there is clear evidence that humans have stored and pre-
served grains since the Neolithic era in the Stone Age (8000 years bc). Archeological
research has revealed that large reed baskets or clay jars embedded in soil were
archetypes of granaries used by Neolithic Egyptians of the Nile Delta. Granaries
during the first dynasty comprised cylindrical earthen silos with a roof opening and
two square apertures at different heights. During the Middle Kingdom (2000 bc) and
New Kingdom (1300 bc) cylindrical chambers with a vaulted roof were common
(Levinson and Levinson 1989).
Most cereal grains have to be stored because they are harvested in specific
seasons of the year and are gradually utilized by the various industry segments.
Generally, imported grains are also stored for significant periods of time because
they are usually acquired in large quantities so as to keep low costs and large inven-
tories. Properly engineered and managed systems for preserving harvested cereal
grains should be aimed towards providing wholesome foods, free of insect and mold
damage, mycotoxins and pesticides, insect fragments, and rodent filth. The ultimate
goal is to manage stored grain wisely with minimal loss while maintaining its nutri-
tional quality.
The Food Agriculture Organization (FAO) has estimated that grain storage losses
in several developing countries, mainly located in tropical and subtropical areas of
the globe, reach 50%. Grain losses are higher in these areas because the climate
favors grain activation and the presence of insects, molds, and rodents. The scarce
economic resources in these countries do not allow investments to build grain eleva-
tors. Therefore, there is a great opportunity to upgrade storage systems in order to
diminish losses and assure food for the most needed. If new and better storage facili-
129
130 Cereal Grains
ties are built, the world can save at least 15% more of the total cereal production
(more than 300 million tons).
The storage of cereals is mainly aimed towards the preservation of grain quality,
but it also involves the standardizing, classifying, and selecting of grains for trading
purposes. The value of the harvested grain depends mainly on the moisture content,
foreign material, and grain physical properties (Chapter 2).
Cereal grains deteriorate due to intrinsic and/or extrinsic causes. The intrin-
sic deterioration is due to respiration, whereas the extrinsic damage is mainly
caused by insect, molds, and rodent infestations. Regardless of the sort of dam-
age, grains lose quality, nutritional, and economic value as raw materials. From a
health viewpoint, the consumption of mold-infested grains could lead to animal or
human mycotoxicosis. The toxins of greatest concern are aflatoxins because they
are potent carcinogens. Other harmful mycotoxins that are getting more attention
both in the food and feed industries are ochratoxins, fumonisins, and zeralenone
(Chapter 6).
The key for proper grain storage is the control of the grain moisture. Theoretically,
control of moisture is easy, but in real terms it is a complicated task because the grain
has to be protected from rainfalls and can absorb moisture from the surrounding air.
In practical terms, the first can be prevented by designing good facilities, whereas
the second is more difficult to control. Grain moisture is controlled by grain rotation,
aeration and, in extreme cases, artificial drying. There are many different designs
of grain storage facilities. The type of design is affected by grain volume, available
funds, average environmental conditions, labor requirements, and location. Cereal
grains can be stored for long periods of time, providing that the grain moisture is
maintained below the critical moisture content, and insects, molds, and pests are
controlled. In fact, viable grains hundreds of years old have been found in caves and
archeological sites.
5.2 Grain Deterioration
Cereals like any other living organism are prone to decay in time. The prolongation
of their storage life and quality requires an understanding of the deterioration pro-
cess and its multiple causal factors. The key to maintain the grain under optimum
conditions is the control of its moisture content. When the grain moisture exceeds the
permissible level, it activates or loses latency due to respiration. Stored cereals have
latency or a practically nonexistent respiration or metabolic rate when maintained
under their critical moisture content. Below the critical moisture, pests have more
problems with reproduction and survival because the moisture is bound, lowering
water activity (less than 0.7). The temperature and air relative humidity are the most
important environmental factors affecting grain deterioration and insect and mold
growth (Figure 5.1). A high grain moisture content, environmental temperature, and
air relative humidity increases both the grain metabolic activity and enhances the
growth and development of insects and molds. For example, Reed (2006) compared
the development of lesser grain borer, flour beetles, and other weevils at two differ-
ent temperatures (30°C–35°C and 10°C) and concluded that these insects developed
in 25–40 days versus 125–175 days, respectively.
Storage of Cereal Grains 131
Sound and Viable

Grains
Storage
High Air Relative Humidity

(> 75%)
High Moisture Grain

(>16% Moisture) Carbon Dioxide,
Water and Heat
Loss of Grain Latency

(Intrinsic Deterioration, High Loss of Viability
Respiration Rate)
Loss of Dry Matter Degraded Components
and Grain Quality (High Enzyme Activity)
Insect Deterioration
(Grain > 15.5% Moisture)
Loss of Viability
Loss of Dry Matter
and Grain Quality
Insect Fragments Mold Deterioration
(Grain > 17.5% Moisture)
Mycotoxins
Deteriorated and Loss of Viability

Dead Grains
Figure 5.1 Progressive deterioration process of stored cereal grains.
5.2.1 Intrinsic Deterioration
The intrinsic grain deterioration is caused by the metabolic activity resulting from
respiration. The grain activates due to its high moisture when the environmental con-
ditions, mainly in terms of temperature, are adequate. The grain generates energy
or heat, carbon dioxide, and water. The activation of the grain due to respiration
produces important enzymes that breakdown lipids, starch, and proteins (Chapter 4),
yielding carbon dioxide as the end-respiration product. In general terms, the intrinsic
grain deterioration favors the extrinsic because most pests require water as one of the
most important substrates. The air relative humidity plays an important role in the
susceptibility of the grain to deterioration. The grain can surpass its critical moisture
content when it is exposed at a high air relative humidity (more than 70%). When the
grain exceeds its critical moisture content (14%), it activates and generates heat that
catalyzes the respiration process. This is the most common way adequately stored
grains lose latency and progressively deteriorate. When the grain exceeds its critical
moisture content and is undergoing intrinsic deterioration, it also contains important
quantities of free water that could be available for insect and mold growth. In other
words, the respiration process that generates heat, CO2, and water attracts insects
and mold infestations. Insects and molds generally damage kernels that contain 1.5%
and 4% more water above the critical moisture (14% for cereal grains).
132 Cereal Grains
Intrinsic deteriorated grains have stored components broken down due to the
catalytic activity of various enzyme systems discussed in Chapter 4. These simpler
and hydrolyzed compounds in most instances lower the functionality and negatively
affect the quality of end products. The wheat processing industry is especially sus-
ceptible to intrinsically deteriorated grains. Damaged wheat kernels and flours yield
sticky doughs that are less machinable and functional, yielding products with consis-
tently lower color values, volume, and organoleptic properties.
5.2.2 Extrinsic Deterioration
Extrinsic deterioration is the most important negative condition in terms of grain
losses. It is mainly caused by insects, followed by molds. Insects can proliferate at
relatively lower grain moisture contents or water activities than molds. Rodents and
birds also play an important role in extrinsic grain deterioration, especially in open
storage facilities. All these biotic agents cause direct and indirect loses. The indirect
damage is due to insect fragments, rodent hair, insect and rodent feces, and bird
droppings that can contaminate a given lot of grain with pathogenic bacteria.
5.3 Grain Moisture and Hysteresis

The grain moisture content is the most important factor to control in grain elevators
because it is the most closely related to respiration rate. Grains tend to equilibrate
with the environmental moisture and are hydroscopic when exposed at high relative
humidities. The best way to manage grain moisture is through the use and interpreta-
tion of isotherm curves. The isotherm curve relates grain moisture and air relative
humidity at a given temperature (generally 20°C or 25°C) because grains absorb or
desorb water according to the surrounding air relative humidity (Bell and Labuza
2000). In addition, natural temperature fluctuations throughout the day can cause air
moisture condensation that enters the grain, affecting its stability. Generally speak-
ing, grain elevators located in tropical areas are the most difficult to manage because
of the high temperatures and air relative humidities (McFarlane et al. 1995). A high
relative humidity also favors the growth of molds that thrive above 65%.
The hydroscopic capacity, equilibrium moisture content, and isotherm behavior
of different cereal grains kept at 70% relative humidity and 25°C is approximately
14% (Figure 5.2). Thus, this is the critical moisture content for all cereal grains
in which the moisture is bound or unavailable for respiration, insects, and molds.
Grains stored at higher relative humidities will tend to gradually absorb air moisture,
break latency, and increase respiration rate. Cereals with 16% moisture will dete-
riorate twice as fast compared with counterparts stored at 15% moisture. Figure 5.2
depicts the typical isotherm curve of cereal grains stored at 25°C. The isotherm
curve moves slightly downward or upward when the grain is exposed to higher or
lower temperatures, respectively. The understanding and adequate use of the iso-
therm curve is of utmost importance in the management of cereal grains. Important
decisions of when to aerate or ventilate stored grains can be made based on isotherm
graphs (Sauer 1992).
Isotherm at 25°C
30
y = 0.258 + 47.9x – 82.02x2 + 58.34x3
25
Equilibrium Grain Moisture (%)
20
15
10
Average
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Water Activity (Aw)
Figure 5.2 Typical isotherm curve for cereals stored at 25°C.
5.4 Management of Stored Grains

Harvested grain is seldom immediately consumed by humans or domestic animals.
Therefore, it is preferable to store the grain in weather- and pest-proof storage
structures so that its viability, food energy, nutritional quality, and marketability
at a future date can be assured. Grain elevators are centers where the grain is con-
centrated, and they have the main aim of preserving and, in some instances, even
improving the grain condition or value (Anonymous 1973, 1992, Fan et al. 1976,
Hagstrum and Subramanyan 2006, McFarlane et al. 1995, Parker et al. 1985, Puzzi
1986, Reed 2006, Sinha and Muir 1973, Sauer 1992). Figure 5.3 shows the differ-
ent management steps usually practiced in grain elevators. The most critical seg-
ment is the one related to testing the quality or condition of incoming lots of grains
because it will affect the value of the grain and will determine other important
management decisions such as grain drying, cleaning, blending or commingling,
and end-use.
5.4.1 Sampling
Sampling is a crucial grain handling operation because if it is not performed prop-
erly it can cause important economic loses. There are different instruments or
apparatus used to obtain a representative sample of grain loads. The sampling
method will vary according to the type of delivery system (trucks, trains, barges,
ships), amount of grain, and unloading method. The most common way to deliver
grain to elevators is via trucks or trains, although there are grain elevators suited to
load and unload barges and ships. The most common sampling method for grains
transported in trucks, trains, barges, and ships is the partitioned grain trier made
of aluminum or brass. It consists of a long double brass tube (70 cm to 2 m long)
134 Cereal Grains
Incoming Cereal
Grains
Quality Control Lab.

Reception - Moisture
(Sampling and Weighing) - Dockage
- Test Weight
- 1,000 Kernel Weight
High Moisture Grain Grain Unloading and - Protein (NIRA)
(> 17% Moisture) Conveying - Diastatic Activity
- Mycotoxins
- Color
Artificial Drying Regular Grain
(Batch or Continuous Dryers) (< 16% Moisture)
Grain Cleaning
Shrinkage Dockage
(Air Aspiration, Sifting, Magnets)
(Moisture Loss)
Grain Management. Storage Facilities

- Quality Control: Temperature (Flat, Bins, Silos)
(Heat Spots), Grain Moisture,
Insect Counts, Mycotoxins.
- Cleaning of Silos
Grain Grading and Loading
- Application of Pesticides
and Rodenticides
- Aeration or Ventilation
- Rotation or Turning. Exiting Cereal
- Grain Dust Control. Grains
Figure 5.3 Basic management operations of cereals grains during storage.
divided into compartments for sampling at specific depths. The probe or trier
should be introduced at a 10° angle with the compartments closed and facing up.
Then the handle is twisted to open the doors to sample the grain and finally closed
to enhance the correct sampling at different depths. For depths larger than 2 m,
the ideal sampling method is the deep cup or bin probe that consists of various 1
m long segments.
The number of subsamples will depend on the size and heterogeneity of the grain
lot. For truck or trainloads, the grain is generally subsampled in six different places,
whereas for moving grain it is recommended to obtain subsamples after unload-
ing every 12 tons of grain. Subsamples should be immediately placed inside sealed
plastic bags so as to avoid moisture changes. When the sample size is too large, it is
generally subdivided using a Boerner divider. The ideal size of the subsample is of
approximately 2.5 kg (Parker et al. 1985, Sauer 1992).
The diverter mechanical sampler draws a sample from a grain flow at the end of
the belt or within a spout. It consists of a diverting arm that sweeps across the moving
stream of grain. This sampling method is considered the most accurate because
representative cross sections are withdrawn and composited therefore minimizing
human sampling error (Parker et al. 1982). The pelican sampler is widely used to
obtain representative samples from a free-falling stream of grain, particularly from
one that is being spouted into railcars, barges, or vessels.
5.4.2 Grading
There are a number of factors that affect the commercial value of the grain and its
stability throughout storage. Cereal grains are inspected before unloading, during
storage, and the moment they leave the storage facilities, with the aim of determin-
ing quality and commercial value, and to establish management practices during
storage. In the U.S. and other exporting countries, the grain is classed and sub-
classed to determine grade and class (Chapter 2). After sampling, most grain lots
are inspected and graded by licensed inspectors or by experienced employees. This
operation is especially performed for export purposes in order to prevent trade
controversies. The main grading factors are grain moisture, test weight, dockage,
heat damage, and other types of damages (Anonymous 1992). Grading is critically
important for trade purposes and to make other important decisions beforehand,
such as the need of artificial drying, grain pre-cleaning, and commingling with
other lots of grains.
The objective quality control parameters most frequently used are moisture, test
weight, amount of foreign material, broken kernels, damaged kernels, and mycotox-
ins. Wheat is also commonly tested for protein, hardness, and 1000-kernel weight
(Chapter 15). Moisture is generally determined with the electronic moisture meter or
a near infrared apparatus (NIRA). The first determines moisture via electric conduc-
tivity, whereas the second scans whole or ground kernels in the infrared spectrum.
These instruments determine moisture in a matter of seconds without destroying
the sample but need to be frequently calibrated. There are other more sophisticated
electronic testers that can also predict test weight. The main advantage of the NIRA
equipment is that it usually determines both moisture and protein contents in the
same run (Paulsen et al. 2003).
Test weight meters determine the apparent grain density, which is the most widely
used parameter. This test is very simple to perform and relate to the condition of the
grain,and therefore its commercial value. The main problem with the determination
of test weight is that values change according to grain moisture. Generally, grains
with low moisture have higher test weights. The Winchester bushel test meter is the
most widely used. Test weights are especially important in the wheat and maize mill-
ing industries because they correlate with true density, endosperm hardness, milling
yields, and quality of milled products.
Foreign material and shriveled, broken, unfilled, and other damaged kernels are
generally separated from whole and healthy kernels using sieves. The most common
way to perform this task is using the Universal Dockage test meter equipped with
a different set of sieves for each specific type of grain. Heat- or insect-damaged,
moldy, and/or sprouted kernels are visually identified and manually removed and
quantified. The higher the amount of damaged kernels, the lower the grade and com-
mercial grain value (Parker et al. 1982, Sauer 1992).
136 Cereal Grains
One of the main concerns in grain elevators is the acquisition and merchandis-
ing of mycotoxin-contaminated kernels. This is because domestic and export mar-
kets have strong federal regulations regarding the maximum allowable amounts
of these metabolites. In most countries, the maximum aflatoxin permitted level
for direct human and animal use is 20 and 200–300 ppb, respectively. Needless
to say, when grains exceed 20 ppb or 0.02 ppm and contain less than 250 ppb,
they have to be sold as animal feed at a discounted price. Grain elevators rou-
tinely test for mycotoxins, especially aflatoxins. Suspected grains are usually first
observed under ultraviolet light to see if they fluoresce. This practical test does
not determine the type of mold nor the mycotoxin level; however it is used as a
preliminary or screening test to decide if the sample needs to be analyzed further
with a quantitative assay.
The most common assay to determine mycotoxins is based on a quick solvent
extraction (methanol-water, ethanol, chloroform, etc.) of the mycotoxin. The extract is
then filtered and quantified via ELISA (enzyme-linked immunoassay) columns. The
use of minicolumns is the most common because it is fast, repeatable, and reliable,
and requires little expertise to run the assay. The test usually takes 5 minutes, so it
allows processors to make important decisions about the acquisition and economic
value of the grain. Other more time-consuming and complicated tests are thin-layer
chromatography or other chromatographic techniques based on fluorescence or UV
detectors. The main advantage of these tests is the identification of specific types of
mycotoxins.
5.4.3 Weighing
Truck shipments are usually weighed on platform scales in the roadway approaching
the unloading pit. The trucks are weighed both before and after unloading. In other
grain storage facilities, the dumper platform itself is the scale platform. Sometimes
the pit into which grain is dumped is the hopper scale, or else the grain is elevated
into a hopper scale. Boxcar loads of grain are usually weighed on platform scales
incorporated into the railroad tracks at the elevator or by conveying the grain into a
hopper scale. This last method requires more labor but is considered the most accu-
rate (Parker et al. 1985, Sauer 1992).
5.4.4 Unloading
The weighed grains that pass the established quality control guidelines are unloaded
for drying and cleaning, or are simply conveyed to silos. There are special unloading
systems for truck loads, trains, barges, or ships. Trucks are usually unloaded or emp-
tied into receiving underground bins via gravity. Most grain elevators are equipped
with a hydraulic platform that positions the locked truck at an angle so as to speed up
the unloading process and to assure the complete removal of the grain.
A similar system is used to unload trainloads. The train wagon, usually contain-
ing up to 80 tons of grain, is moved to the unloading zone and positioned. The gate or
bottom door is then opened to discharge the grain directly into the underground bin.
Discharged grains are elevated or conveyed using screw conveyors or buckets. The
grain contained in ships or barges is usually unloaded with bazookas that deliver the
grain at a high velocity or pressure. The low-capacity grain elevators usually load or
unload with mobile-inclined screw-conveyors (Parker et al. 1982, Sauer 1992).
5.4.5 Grain Cleaning
Grain cleaning is a common operation before grain storage, especially when the
grain is going to be directly channeled for human foods. Cleaning can improve
grade, increase uniformity of grain lots, and reduce the number of damaged grains
and mycotoxin-laden kernels. The grain with a lower foreign material content will be
more stable during storage because the extraneous matter contains high amounts of
insect eggs and mold spores. It is well known in the industry that grains with higher
dockage are more prone to insect infestation (Sauer 1992).
Cleaned kernels will have a better economic value because they will yield higher
amounts of intermediate and finished products. Moreover, kernels free of stones and
metallic impurities will not cause mechanical damage to processing equipment. The
cleaning system of grain elevators usually consists of air aspirators, sifters, and grav-
ity tables equipped with magnetic systems to trap metals. Generally the grain is first
subjected to air aspiration and then to a sieving system or a milling separator. Air
aspiration removes most of the light contaminants such as plant material (pieces of
stalks, cobs, sticks and leaves), as well as glumes and empty kernels that are lighter
than the grain. The principle of the air aspiration system is that these particles are
suspended and removed by a countercurrent air flow. Milling separators are designed
to remove contaminants that are larger and smaller than the grain. The separators
generally consist of two or more sieves positioned one on top of the other on an oscil-
lating or vibrating frame. The sieves are inclined so the feed material flows by grav-
ity. The top sieve, called the first head, allows the passage of the grain being cleaned,
and separates larger particles such as larger kernels, sticks, stones, pieces of cobs,
etc. The second sieve or head has smaller openings that allow the passage of bro-
ken kernels, small seeds, and other small particles. Therefore, the incoming unclean
grain is separated into at least three different streams (large contaminants, cleaned
or classified grain, and small contaminants). Most sifters contain magnets to trap
metals and some have an integrated air aspiration system. Some grain elevators also
use gravity tables to remove stones and damaged kernels. These tables contain only
one inclined sieve positioned at a certain angle, and operate under high vibration.
The incoming grain, usually from sieves or milling separators, flows through this
sieve and is separated according to density. This cleaning system is ideally suited to
remove stones with the same size and form as the kernel. Alternatively, gravity tables
are used to sort out damaged kernels (insect and mold damaged) with lower density.
These cleaning machines have been successfully used to lower aflatoxins in maize.
The complete cleaning of the grain by air aspiration, sieves, and gravity tables
reduces to practically nil the amount of foreign material and assures processors the
best possible grain stability during storage. Other cleaning apparatus seldom used by
grain elevators but frequently used by milling industries include disk separators and
color sorters. These are described in Chapter 7.
138 Cereal Grains
5.4.6 Grain Drying
Some cereal grains, such as paddy rice, are harvested at high moisture contents
and therefore need artificial drying before storage. The value of these grains is usu-
ally lower because of the excess moisture and the energy required for drying. The
amount of weight lost during the drying operation is commonly known as shrink.
For instance 1 ton of paddy rice harvested at 24% moisture that requires drying to
14% moisture has a shrink of 11.6%. The aim of drying is to lower the grain moisture
content to levels adequate for storage (generally 14% for cereals), to maintain grain
viability, and to keep grain physical damage, such as stress cracks, to a minimum.
This is especially important for paddy rice, which is generally harvested at moisture
contents above 22%. Drying temperatures of up to 45°C are generally safe, although
higher temperatures may be used for cereals meant for feed. Drying of paddy rice is
more elaborate than other cereals because of its high susceptibility to stress cracks
or fissures (Bakker-Arkema et al. 1977, Champagne 2004).
There are many different types of dryers and drying conditions. Traditional solar
drying is still widely practiced in developing countries around the globe because it
requires the least expenditure. The most important factor to control in sun drying is
the depth of the grain bed and the frequency of grain movement. The areas used for
drying should have protection against rainfall, rodents, and birds.
Artificial drying is the most common and practical way to lower moisture content
of cereal grains. There are many differences in mechanical design among dryers,
but the most important basis for the classification is the relative direction of the flow
of the grain and air. There are three basic types: cross flow, concurrent flow, and
counter flow. Dryers may consist of one of these types or a combination of the dif-
ferent mechanisms of air flow. There are batch and continuous dryers. Batch dryers
are the simplest. Regardless of the method, the main factors to control are drying air
temperature and relative humidity, airflow or velocity, the depth of the grain, and the
rate of grain dehydration. Air is electrically or gas heated and injected at a flow rate
of approximately 1 m3 per ton. The most common way to dehydrate the grain is by
forced air. In a batch type, relatively dry air is blown through a layer of grain until the
desired moisture content is achieved. The method is simple and well suited for small
storage facilities. The most popular batch drier is the Bin type (Bakker-Arkema et al.
1977, Kunze and Calderwood 1985, Sauer 1992).
In batch dryers the grain is placed inside a large shallow drying bin that has
a perforated base where heated air is forced to move up through the bed of grain
and discharged to the atmosphere. For the air flows and pressures generated by
typical fans the grain depth is generally 15 to 50 cm. The continuous dryers are
the most common ones because they are suitable for large facilities. They usually
operate at higher temperatures than batch dryers in order to decrease dehydration
time. The most popular continuous dryers are the continuous flow bin dryers and
column dryers. In counter-flow dryers, the hot air enters the driest part of the bed
and leaves from the wettest, whereas in concurrent flow dryers the air moves in the
same direction as the grain. The continuous flow bin dryer is usually a bin equipped
with a perforated floor, fan, grain spreader, and an auger that conveys the exiting
grain to cooling and storage. The grain flow is automatically controlled to prevent
under- or over-drying. High-temperature grain dryers generally consist of multiple

vertical columns that hold the grain while the heated air is forced through the bed
of grain. The airflow varies from 80 to 100 mt3 per ton per min, with drying tem-
peratures that in some instances reach up to 80°C. In concurrent flow dryers, the
air and the grain flow downward through the column. The hottest air dehydrates the
wettest incoming grain. Most continuous dryers are vertically positioned, although
horizontal equipments exist in the market (Bakker-Arkema et al. 1977, Kunze and
Calderwood 1985, Sauer 1992).
5.5 Storage
There are many types and designs of grain storage facilities. Regardless of the sort
of facility, it should provide a safe place until the grain is sold or processed. The
facilities should protect the grain from weather, insects, molds, rodents, and birds.
The storage facilities should be designed to facilitate grain management and con-
tain cleaning, drying, and aeration equipment. Facilities range from a simple pile of
unprotected grain on the ground, to expensive storage bins or elevators. The latter
storage facilities are commonly known as elevators because the incoming grain is
usually dumped into underground pits, and then elevated with buckets attached to
a belt and discharged into bins. The best designed grain elevators provide facilities
for sorting, cleaning, drying, and fumigation, and the means of transferring grain
to trucks, railcars, barges, and ships (Fan et al. 1976, Hagstrum and Subramanyan
2006, McFarlane et al. 1995, Puzzi 1986, Reed 2006, Sinha and Muir 1973, Sauer
1992).
5.5.1 Types of Storage Facilities

There are many types of storage facilities ranging from simply piling the grain on
the ground to modern facilities where the grain is maintained under controlled gas
atmospheres (Sauer 1992).
5.5.1.1 Piling Grain on the Ground

This is the simplest method and the one that requires the lowest economic inputs in
terms of facilities. It is widely used as short-term or transitional storage, especially
after harvesting. However, since the grain is exposed to the air, it is susceptible to
weather conditions and biotic infestations. The grain is simply unloaded and con-
veyed to the prepared ground, resulting in the typical hill configuration. The slope
and form of the grain hill is critically important to minimize losses due to rain.
The slope of the grain hill should minimize the penetration of the rainwater, and
the ground floor of the pile should also help to absorb water. When the grain pile is
exposed to rainfall, a 5-cm-deep external grain layer forms, protecting the rest of the
grain. The ground systems can be improved by building a circular containment wall,
approximately 1 m tall, with grain bags; by placing ventilation or aeration ducts on
the ground before grain unloading; and by covering the surface or external part of
the stored grain with polyvinyl or other types of plastic covers (Sauer 1992).
140 Cereal Grains
5.5.1.2 Underground Storage
Underground storage is considered one of the oldest practices to store a surplus of
grains. The method protects the grain from unfavorable environmental conditions
and inhibits pests due to the lower oxygen and high carbon dioxide concentration that
diminishes both intrinsic and extrinsic grain deterioration (Sauer 1992).
5.5.1.3 Grain Elevators
Grain elevators are the most popular way to store cereal grains (Figure 5.4). They
are called elevators because the unloaded grain is conveyed or elevated into the top
of the storage bins and discharged by gravity. The grain is loaded from the top and
unloaded to its final destination from the bottom. The elevators’ main function is to
accumulate grain, and release it for shipment by trucks, railroad cars, barges, and
ships. They usually have sophisticated and large-scale equipment for drying, clean-
ing, and ventilation or grain conditioning. There are some terminal elevators with
a storage capacity of half a million tons. There are many different types of grain
elevators. The most widely distributed throughout the world are the flat bins and
silos built from concrete or steel (Fan et al. 1976, Hagstrum and Subramanyan 2006,
McFarlane et al. 1995, Puzzi 1986, Sinha and Muir 1973, Sauer 1992).
Flat or horizontal storage bins are usually built wider and lower than silos to
reduce cost and side pressures. There are round steel bins and also bins built from
concrete and bricks. These bins are designed to store the maximum volume of grain.
They have concrete floors and their roofs tend to follow the slope of the pile of grain.
They usually have fixed loading and unloading mechanical systems. The grain is
usually elevated with screw conveyors (auger) or bucket elevators and discharged in
the central part of the flat bin. Flat bins are generally designed to store from 14,000
to 30,000 tons (Figure 5.4) (Sauer 1992).
Upright silos are round, hexagonal, or even square-shaped concrete or steel bins,
usually constructed in rows so that one straight conveyor can service a whole series
of bins (Figure 5.4). The most common form is round, because it is the most resistant
and designed to take advantage of the interstitial spaces in order to increase storage
capacity. The main characteristic of upright silos is their height (24–43 m). Each silo
has the capacity to store from 50 to 1000 tons of grain. They are often built on two
or more rows of cylindrical bins with diameters ranging from 2 to 10 m. The grain is
usually elevated by a leg consisting of an endless vertical belt equipped with attached
buckets, which conduct the grain to the silos. The inferior part of the silo is usually
conical to aid in grain unloading and facilitate cleaning operations (Sauer 1992).
5.5.1.4 Controlled Atmosphere Storage

Ancient civilizations learned to preserve grains in underground airtight pits where
depletion of oxygen occurred to a level inhospitable to insects and molds. The grad-
ual oxygen depletion occurred from grain and pest respiration. The principle of
controlled atmosphere storage is increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in
airtight storage facilities so as to reduce or inhibit grain respiration rate and growth
of insects and molds. Recently there has been a marked interest in the use of airtight
facilities, especially in high capacity grain export elevators. Most species of insects
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
Figure 5.4 (a) Ground piling (courtesy Francisco Wong, University of Sonora). (b) Flat or
horizontal storage (exterior view) and (c) interior view (courtesy Francisco Wong, University
of Sonora). (d) Upright concrete silos. (e) Silos capable of receiving grains from barges and
trains (photograph by Kelly Martin, 2006).
142 Cereal Grains
that infest stored grains will perish when the oxygen concentration is less than 2%.
Fungi can still grow at a lower oxygen concentration (0.2%) but infestations will
occur only if the lot is stored at moisture contents above 16%. In order to achieve air-
tightness, special welded metal silos or flexible bags (butyl rubber or PVC-supported
in metal mesh cages) are usually used.
For successful storage, the silo should be completely filled as quickly as pos-
sible so that the oxygen-free conditions can soon become established and to ensure a
minimum of free air space. Generally, the silo is fitted with pressure release valves
or with a breather bag placed in the head space above the grain. This bag opens only
to the outside air, and by expanding or collapsing can respond to pressure changes.
The oxygen-free conditions can be created by the use of carbon dioxide or nitrogen
gases. Carbon dioxide is more effective than nitrogen for killing insects. The gases
are injected from cylinders or by the addition of dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) to a
silo before sealing. The major potential advantage of using controlled atmosphere
storage is the reduction or nil use of pesticides for controlling insects (Hyde and
Burrell 1982).
5.6 Grain Rotation or Turning

Turning is the process of moving bulk stored grains with conveyors within the stor-
age facilities (from one bin to another). This grain operation is practiced in order
to break hot spots, facilitate insect control, and make the aeration or ventilation
operation more efficient. In addition, the lot of grain homogenizes after grain turn-
ing. The movement of grain alleviates hot spots and allows the grain to equilibrate
with the environmental temperature. If the air relative humidity is appropriate, the
grain can even lose moisture. Insecticides can be effectively applied during rotation,
and if fumigation is necessary, tablets of aluminum phosphide can be distributed
throughout the grain mass. The main disadvantage of grain turning or rotation is that
moving and reloading grain increases kernel damage and the incidence of broken
kernels that are more susceptible to extrinsic deterioration. Kernels usually break
during conveying and unloading, so processors have to check and maintain convey-
ing equipment in good condition (Fan et al. 1976, Hagstrum and Subramanyan 2006,
McFarlane et al. 1995, Sauer 1992).
5.7 Aeration or Ventilation
Aeration is defined as the movement of air through a bed of stored grain. It is the
most generally recognized practice for maintenance of market quality of stored
cereals without turning. Aeration is applicable to all types of storage, but it is espe-
cially pertinent to flat storage where it is difficult to turn or rotate the grain. In fact,
without aeration, longtime storage in flat structures is impractical. The main advan-
tages of aeration are that the quality is maintained without moving the grain; there
is significant reduction of wear and tear on both the grain and handling machin-
ery; and the suitability and effectiveness in applying fumigants. The distribution
of fumigants is more uniform and the dosage required less compared to gravity
methods.
Most grain elevators have aeration systems that pull outside air downward through
the grain as needed, exhausting it through the fan. In some areas and environments
there may be some advantages in forcing the air upward through the bed of grain.
Most fans can be changed to either pull or force air. The aim of aeration is primar-
ily to equalize stored grain temperature to prevent moisture migration from warmer
to cooler grain, remove sour and off-odors caused by molding and rancidity, and
cool the grain to prevent or minimize insect and mold growth. When the air relative
humidity is less than 70%, some grain drying occurs.
High moisture and grain temperature will increase respiration rate and intrinsic
deterioration. Moreover, if the grain is not aerated or returned to latency, it could
gradually contaminate the rest of the grain, augment the volume of heat spots, and
boost the activity of molds and insects. Continuous aeration removes heat gener-
ated by mold growth, the main source of heat. It is usually advisable to ventilate
grain with air having relative humidities below 75%, because the aeration with air
containing higher humidity may increase the grain moisture content. Most aeration
systems consist of perforated air ducts placed on the bin floor before the bin is filled.
The ducts are usually positioned in X or Y configurations or simply along parallel
lines. It is critically important to strategically place the aeration ducts so as to avoid
blind spots. The ducts are fed with outside air by axial flow (propeller) or radial flow
(centrifugal) fans placed on the external walls of the bins. The common airflow rate
ranges from 0.06 to 0.11 m3 per ton of grain/minute. At these air flow rates, the time
required to cool the grain is about 80, 120, and 160 hours for the summer, fall, and
winter seasons, respectively.
After the first equilibration, the fan operation in both flat and upright facilities is
intermittent. These rates are generally adequate for reducing insect and mold activ-
ity and for keeping moisture migration and accumulation within acceptable limits.
The air exits the perforated ducts and breaks the micro atmosphere that surrounds
the stored grain, decreasing water condensation and the generation of heat spots.
Aeration is considered the least costly preventative measure and preservation pro-
cedure to prevent grain deterioration (Baur 1992, Bern et al. 2003, Fan et al. 1976,
Hagstrum and Subramanyan 2006, McFarlane et al. 1995, Puzzi 1986, Sinha and
Muir 1973, Sauer 1992).
5.8 Explosion in Grain Storage Facilities

One of the most critical problems of grain elevators is the potential danger of fires
and dust explosions. Every year there are accidents that result in a high number of
victims and cause large economic losses due to partial or total facility destruction.
Lai et al. (1981) reported that in the United States during the years 1958–1975 there
were eight explosions in grain elevators per year, leaving a total of 36 dead and 211
wounded. The year 1977 was especially tragic, because two explosions in Louisiana
and Texas killed 53 people. More recent statistics indicate that during the years
1979–1980, 45 grain explosions occurred. These types of accidents happen world-
wide and have been reported since 1785, when a huge blast took place in Turin, Italy.
The incidence of fires in grain elevators is approximately 45 times greater than the
frequency of explosions.
144 Cereal Grains
Basic and applied research has demonstrated that several elements are necessary
to produce explosions in grain elevators: grain dust with low moisture content in
suspension, ignition source, presence of air, and confined space. The main cause of
grain explosions are the dust or suspended air particles produced during the move-
ment and management of the grain. The ultrafine airborne particles (91 µm, with an
average density of 1.49 g/cm3) are especially problematic because they tend to stay
suspended for longer periods of time and are more prone to trigger the blast. The
ideal conditions for a blast are the existence of suspended dust particles in enclosed
facilities, an oxidizing atmosphere, and a source of ignition that starts the chain reac-
tion. The explosion occurs when the airborne dust particles are present in adequate
concentrations. Finer and drier particles are more susceptible to ignition. Normally,
the explosion takes place in two sequential stages. The first starts when a spark of
an ignition source burns the airborne dust particles. causing an important change
in pressure. The resulting pressure change resuspends sedimented dust particles
located on floors and walls, creating new combustion material that causes a second
and more intense explosion. The heat spots caused by grain respiration and molds
release pyrolic gases (methane) that are highly reactive when exposed to an ignition
source such as sparks.
The main causes for dust explosions are: the use of welding equipment for repair
or maintenance of bins and related equipment; the use of hand lamps; and the gen-
eration of sparks in transformers, electric equipment, and interrupters. The best pre-
ventive measures are grain aeration, grain cleaning or removal of foreign material,
protection of all electric circuits and motors, and the control of static electricity.
Some grain elevators continuously monitor suspended dust particles by light atten-
uation instruments, or use special air filters to reduce airborne particles. In some
instances the grain is treated with additives or emulsified oil to reduce both friction
during handling and the generation of dust particles (Lai et al. 1981, Sauer 1992).
5.9 Chemical and Physical Changes Incurred

During Grain Deterioration
Cereal grains suffer countless numbers of physical and chemical changes during
deterioration that translate into dry matter and quality losses. The losses are mainly
due to insects, molds, and rodents. These quality alterations are the main criteria for
grading grains (Anonymous 1992). The changes in color, appearance, and off-odors
are highly related to grain condition. More specific changes include fat acidity, the
presence of live and dead insects, molds, and mycotoxins. Damaged kernels lose
quality due to important chemical changes in the starch, lipids, proteins, and other
chemical grain components.
5.9.1 Dry Matter Losses

Grains tend to lose weight during deterioration due to respiration and/or the matter
consumed by insects, molds, and rodents. Deteriorated kernels are also more prone
to break during handling, transportation, and distribution. Dry matter losses due to
respiration are mainly the result of the breakdown of organic compounds into simpler
moieties, including volatile compounds and carbon dioxide. During the first stages of
deterioration the grain tends to increase its weight due to the absorbed water from the
surrounding air and the water produced from the hydrolysis of organic compounds.
This is followed by a loss of weight due to the loss of organic matter. Insect-infested
grains regularly lose 50% or more of their dry matter weight (Sauer 1992).
5.9.2 Changes in Carbohydrates
The intrinsic grain and the potent mold enzymes breakdown starch into dextrins,
maltose, and other simpler carbohydrates. The most common assays to monitor starch
damage are falling numbers and diastatic activity. These methods indirectly deter-
mine the α-and β-amylase activities by measuring the viscosity of a slurry that has
been previously gelatinized or heat treated. Damaged starch produces less viscous
suspensions compared to starch from sound grains. The most popular and efficient
instruments to determine diastatic activity are the falling number apparatus and the
Brabender and rapid viscoamylographs described in Chapter 15. The starch damage
is of utmost importance because it affects the functionality of wheat, barley, and
maize for bread, malting/fermentation, and wet-milling, respectively. In addition,
damaged kernels have higher amounts of reducing sugars due to starch hydrolysis.
These sugars can lower the nutritional value and color of thermal-processed products
(i.e., bakery goods, breakfast cereals, snacks, etc.) due to Maillard reactions (Sauer
1992).
5.9.3 Changes in Nitrogenous Compounds

The protein fraction is the least prone to changes due to faulty storage. The protein
content determined with the Kjeldahl method either does not change or, if changes
are seen, they are due to carbohydrate losses from respiration. However, damaged
grains have a higher concentration of enzymes, soluble nitrogen, free amino nitro-
gen, and free amino acids, usually quantified via the free amino nitrogen assay. The
protein solubility of the different fractions is also slightly altered. This is especially
important in wheat because deteriorated kernels have lower gluten quality and func-
tionality (Sauer 1992).
5.9.4 Changes in Lipids
The most evident changes during grain deterioration occur in the lipid fraction.
Grains undergoing intrinsic and/or extrinsic deterioration tend to contain a lower
fat content and the fat is seriously damaged (Sauer 1992). There are two major types
of changes in the lipid fraction: production of free fatty acids due to breakdown of
lipids and oxidative rancidity. Cereal grains contain significant quantities of natural
antioxidants (i.e., tocopherols, phenolic compounds, and carotenoids) that protect
or at least delay undesirable oxidative reactions during storage. However, storage
of milled or processed products generally results in a more rapid oxidative rancid-
ity, especially when the products are whole. The triglycerides, phospholipids, and
146 Cereal Grains
related compounds are very susceptible to intrinsic lipases (lipase A1, lipase A2,
phospholipase A1, phospholipase A2) generated in deteriorated grains or produced
by contaminating molds. These enzymes hydrolyze ester bonds yielding free fatty
acids (Sauer 1992).
A high grain moisture content and environmental temperature increase both fungi
growth and activity of most enzymes. The hydrolysis of fats occurs at a faster rate
than carbohydrates or proteins. Therefore, measurements of lipid damage via titrat-
able acidity, pH, or free fatty acids are the most sensitive indexes to determine grain
condition or soundness. These tests correlate with the evaluation of off-odors widely
practiced by federal grain inspectors (Anonymous 1992) (Chapter 2).
Self-Evaluation
1. What is the average grain loss incurred during storage in the United States and
India? Why are these losses quite different? Give at least three reasons why.
2. What are the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic grain deterioration?
3. Why is grain moisture the most critical factor to control in grain elevators?
4. Investigate how an isotherm curve is experimentally constructed in the
laboratory and its use in the practical management of stored cereal grains.
What is the effect of environmental temperature on the isotherm of a given
cereal grain?
5. What are the three most common operations to preserve grains in grain
storage facilities? Briefly describe the principle of each operation.
6. Why is it critically important to thoroughly clean the grain and facilities
prior to storage?
7. Calculate the shrinkage of 120 tons of rough rice that arrives at a grain
elevator at 23% moisture and is dehydrated to 11% moisture.
8. Describe at least three different types of grain storage facilities, indicating
advantages and disadvantages of each.
9. Describe the typical way sound grains with adequate moisture content can
deteriorate throughout prolonged storage.
10. What is a heat spot? How are heat spots monitored in grain elevators? What
is usually done when heat spots are detected?
11. Mention and describe at least three ways to sample grains from trucks, train
loads, and barges/ships.
12. What is the main difference between grain ventilation or aeration and dry-
ing? When are these management practices generally applied?
13. What are the advantages and disadvantages of controlled atmosphere storage?
14. Describe the necessary and optimum conditions for grain explosions or
fires. How can you prevent these catastrophes?
15. Build a table to explain chemical changes that occur in carbohydrates, pro-
teins, and fats of deteriorated grains. In the same table include a column
with the main quality control parameters that you can implement to monitor
changes of the chemical compounds described before.
16. Calculate the maximum amount of maize with a test weight of 56 lb/bu or
oats with an average of 30 lb/bu that can be transported in a cube-shaped
truck container with the following dimensions: width 3 m, length 9 m, and
a height of 3 m. Express results in pounds and metric tons.
References
Anonymous. 1973. Management of On-Farm Stored Grain. University of Kentucky, College
of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service, Kentucky.
Anonymous. 1992. Israel-Cyprus Grain Grading, Storage and Handling Short Course.
International Grains Program, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS.
Bakker-Arkema, F.W., Brook, R.C., and Lerew, L.E. 1977. Cereal grain drying. Chapter 1
in Advances in Cereal Science and Technology, Vol. II., Y. Pomeranz (ed.). American
Baur, F.J. 1992. Insect Management for Food Storage and Processing. Fourth printing.
Bell, L.N., and Labuza, T.P. 2000. Moisture Sorption. Practical Aspects of Isotherm
Measurement and Use. Second edition. Eagan Press, St. Paul, MN.
Bern, C.J., Quick, G., and Herum, F.L. 2003. Harvesting and postharvest management. Chapter
4 in Corn Chemistry and Technology, P. White and L. Johnson (eds.). Second edition.
Champagne, E.T. 2004. Rice Chemistry and Technology. Third edition, American Association
Fan, L.T., Lai, F.S., and Wang, R.H. 1976. Cereal grain handling system. Chapter 2 in Advances
in Cereal Science and Technology, Vol. I., Y. Pomeranz (ed.). American Association of
Hagstrum, D.W., and Subramanyan, B. 2006. Fundamentals of Stored-Product Entomology.
Hyde, M.B., and Burrell, N.J. 1982. Controlled atmosphere storage. Chapter 13 in Storage
of Cereal Grain and Their Products. C.M. Christensen (ed.). American Association of
Jayas, D.S., White, N.D.G., and Muir, W.E. 1995. Stored Grain Ecosystems. Marcel Dekker,
New York.
Kunze, O.R., and Calderwood, D.L. 1985. Rough rice drying. Chapter 6 in Rice Chemistry and
Technology. Third edition, American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
Lai, F.S., Pomeranz, Y., Miller, B.S., Martin, C.R., Aldis, D.F., and Chang, C.S. 1981.
Status of research on grain dust. Chapter 5 in Advances in Cereal Science and
Technology. Vol. IV, Y. Pomeranz (ed.). American Association of Cereal Chemists,
St. Paul, MN.
Levinson, H.Z., and Levinson, A.R. 1989. Food storage protection in ancient Egypt. Boletin de
Sanidad Vegetal Fuera de Serie 17:475–482.
McFarlane, J.A., John, A.E., and Marder, R.C. 1995. Storage of sorghum and millets: includ-
ing drying for storage, with particular reference to tropical areas and the mycotoxin
problem. Chapter 6 in Sorghum and Millets: Chemistry and Technology. D.A.V. Dendy
(ed.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, USA.
Parker, P.E., Bauwin, G.R., and Ryan, H.L. 1982. Sampling, inspection and grading of grain.
Chapter 1 in Storage of Cereal Grains and Their Products, C.M. Christensern (ed.).
Third edition. American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
quality. Chapter 5 in Corn Chemistry and Technology, P. White and L. Johnson (eds.).
148 Cereal Grains
Puzzi, D. 1986. Abastecimento e Armazenagem de Graos. Instituto Campineiro de Ensino

Agricola, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brasil.
Reed, C.R. 2006. Managing Stored Grain to Preserve Quality and Value. AACC International,
St. Paul, MN.
Sauer, D.B. 1992. Storage of Cereal Grains and Their Product. Fourth edition. American
Sinha, R.N., and Muir, W.E. 1973. Grain Storage: Part of a System. AVI Publishing,
Westport, CT.
6 Grain Storage Pests
6.1 Introduction
Since the beginning of agriculture, farmers have had to compete with pests for crop
products grown for human consumption. Insects, molds, rodents, and even birds are
the major organisms that damage stored grains and related products. In addition to
direct losses, these biotic agents cause indirect damage because they leave important
contaminants such as feces, urine, hair, body parts, or exoskeletons, causing off-
odors. More important, molds are a potential source of secondary metabolites or
mycotoxins that can harm and even cause death to humans and animals.
6.2 Insects
There are more than six million species of insects but cereals are the substrate for
approximately 300. However, only 20 to 30 of these are relevant for stored grains
(Table 6.1, Figures 6.1, and 6.2). The temperate/cold environments inhibit species
activity, whereas the tropical and subtropical areas are the preferred habitat for these
species. The tropical zones have all the essential elements for their survival and
proliferation: food, favorable conditions of relative humidity, and warm and ade-
quate temperatures throughout the year (Garcia-Lara 2007). Most insects have the
capacity to hibernate and cause important damage during the seasons that favor their
biology.
Insects are the main cause of grain losses in the world. Besides the direct losses,
insects contaminate grains and processed products with fecal material, uric acid,
web-like material, and body fragments. Some types also have the ability to attack
and damage packaging materials and the structure of grain elevators (Baur 1992,
Bulla et al.. 1977, Cotton and Wilbur 1982, Garcia-Lara et al. 2007, Hagstrum and
Subramanyan 2006, Mason and Storey 2003, Metcalf and Flint 1977, Puzzi 1986,
Reed 2006, Sauer 1992, Sinha and Muir 1973, USDA 1978).
Insects are classified as primary or secondary pests according to their habits and
characteristics. Primary insects are more harmful because they have the ability to
damage sound or healthy grains. They usually perforate the grain for feeding and
reproductive purposes. These insects mainly consume the kernel’s endosperm and
germ tissues, and use the grain as the ideal site for oviposition and the future growth
and development of the larvae. Secondary insects are opportunistic because they
attack grains that have already been damaged by primary insects or processed prod-
ucts such as flours, grits, or food products. Both primary and secondary insects use
the stored grains as the ideal place to complete their life and reproductive cycle.
Furthermore, they obtain from the grains their substrate and food as well as the ideal
149
150
Table 6.1
Biology and Habits of the Most Common Insects That Infest Cereal Grains and Their Products
Common/Scientific Order/
Name Family Biology, Habits, and Type of Damage
Angoumois grain moth Lepidoptera This cosmopolitan insect is known as Angoumois because it was reported for the first time in this province of France in
Sitotroga cerealella Gelechidae 1736. Adults measure 7.6-mm-long and 12-mm-wide (extended wings). The front and back wings are yellow and
grey-colored, respectively. The hind wings have a characteristic pointed tip with posterior hairs. The female lays 40–300
eggs over the grain surface or near it. The newly hatched larvae tunnel into the kernels where they complete their life
cycle. The 5-mm-long larvae are white-colored caterpillars with three pairs of legs on the thorax and very short prologs
on the abdomen. Before pupating, the larvae prepare a thin escape hole through which the moths emerge. During
development, the larvae consume up to 50% of the grain. Larvae develop in a brown pupa after 2–3 weeks. The 5 week
or longer cycle is completed when the moth emerges through the perforation made by the larvae. The infestation is
characterized by the extensive webbing over the surface of the grain.
Indian meal moth Lepidoptera This is a cosmopolitan insect that in the adult stage measures 5–10 mm long. The basal and distal halves of the front and
Plodia interpunctella Phycitidae hind wings are light and dark-coppery colored, respectively. The 13-mm-long larvae differ in color, and can be white,
yellow, pink, or green. The larvae primarily feed on the germ. Adult moths lay clusters of 12–30 eggs on the grain surface
depositing a total of 60–300 during their life cycle. Eggs hatch 2 to 14 days afterwards into larvae, which is the
destructive stage. The larvae usually come to the outside of the kernels to spin cocoons and pupate. The adult emerges
from the pupa and, under optimum conditions, has a 4–8 week cycle. The adults die after oviposition. The infested grain
usually has a messy appearance due to fecal pellets, and the characteristic webbing of damaged kernels.
Mediterranean flour moth Lepidoptera This insect is recognized as one of the most important for the wheat milling industry. However, modern pest control
Anagasta kuehniella Pyralididae measurements have reduced its importance. The adult is light gray-colored, measuring 0.6 to 1.25 cm long. The wings
are distinctively marked with two black zigzag lines. The female moth lays eggs on flours and crevices. The eggs hatch 3
to 6 days afterwards into measure worms that produce the characteristic silk. The full grown larvae, which measures 1.5
cm long, can differ in color from white, to yellow, to pink. The larvae pupate in silk cocoons for 8–12 days. The adult
emerges from the pupa and has a life cycle of 9–10 weeks during warm weather.
Cereal Grains
Maize weevil Coleoptera These insects are the most destructive of stored cereal grains. The head has a pair of antennae and a prolonged snout. The
Sitophilus zeamais Curculionidae granary weevil is brown or black and does not have functional hind wings. The maize and rice weevils are reddish brown
Rice weevil to black and have two light spots on each front wing. The hind wings function as flight wings. Female adults (5 mm long)
Sitophilus oryzae perforate the grain to lay one egg. The perforation is concealed with a sealed gelatinous plug material. Each female may
Granary weevil lay from 300 to 400 eggs, which hatch 5 to 15 days afterwards. The legless larva develops inside the grain and gradually
Sitophilus granarium consumes the grain for 15 to 40 days. The life cycle under optimum conditions lasts 4–5 weeks.
Lesser grain borer Coleoptera This is a cosmopolitan insect that in the adult stage measures 2.5 mm long. The brown or black beetle has a cylindrical
Grain Storage Pests
Rhizopertha dominica Bostrichidae shape and is capable of flying. Both the larvae and adults are destructive. Females lay 2–30 eggs outside the grain. The
cream colored larva with dark head and three pairs of legs perforates the grain and develops inside in approximately 60
days. The larva passes through multiple stages and transforms into a pupa before becoming an adult. The second
generation adults emerge from damaged kernels 35 to 110 days after eggs are laid. Both the larva and adults excrete fecal
material with a characteristic off odor (sweet-moldy).
Larger grain borer Coleoptera The larger grain borer is a small, dark brown, elongated cylindrical beetle about 4.2 mm long. It originated in Central
Prostephanus truncatus America or Mexico and was accidentally introduced into Africa. It is similar in appearance to the lesser grain borer, but it
is larger and has a comparatively smooth and polished surface. It is considered one of the most harmful tropical pests,
especially in maize granaries.
Confused beetle Coleoptera Both of these secondary beetles are brown/reddish and are approximately 3.6 mm long. They are very similar but differ in
Tribolium confusum Tenebrionidae the shape of the antennae. The antennal segments of the confused beetle gradually increase in size toward the tip,
Red flour weevil whereas the antennae of the red beetle end with three abruptly enlarged segments. In addition, the confused weevil does
Tribolium castanum not have the ability to fly. They are considered the most destructive insects in processed grain products and flours. Under
favorable conditions, the female lays 400 or more sticky eggs (6–12 per day) on sacks, cracks, or processed grain
products. The eggs hatch in 5 to 12 days into a white colored, cylindrical, and worm-like larva approximately 1.5 mm
long. Both the adults and larva feed on flour, grain dust, damaged kernels, or grain-based processed products. The larvae
pass through 5–12 molting stages before becoming pupae. The pupa emerges into an adult 1 to 2 weeks later. The life
cycle varies from 1 to 4 months. These insects leave many contaminants such as feces, dead bodies, cast skins,
exoskeletons, and excrete quinones that produce off odors and change the color of the flour.
—continued
151
152
Biology and Habits of the Most Common Insects That Infest Cereal Grains and Their Products
Common/Scientific Order/
Name Family Biology, Habits, and Type of Damage
Sawtoothed grain beetle Coleoptera The reddish-brown sawtoothed and merchant beetles are relatively small insects (2.5 mm long) with six tooth-like
Oryzaephilus Cucujidae projections on each side of the thorax. The sawtoothed beetle’s head is bigger compared with that of the merchant beetle.
surinamensis Generally, these beetles feed on damaged grains, flour, and processed foods. The adult female usually oviposits 50–300
Merchant grain beetle eggs singly or in small clusters on grains over 5–6 days. Eggs hatch in 3–7 days into slender, brown-headed and white
Oryzaephilus mercator larvae that, after 2–4 development stages, measure 3.2 mm and last from 14 –70 days. The larva constructs a pupa with
food material and oral secretions. The adult emerges after 24–30 days under favorable conditions.
Khapra beetle Coleoptera These beetles are of economic importance in warm and dry regions worldwide. The Khapra beetle has been eradicated
Trogoderma granarium Dermestidae from the United States. The oval-shaped, reddish/brown- or black-colored beetle measures from 1.8 to 3 mm long. The
female lays up to 126 eggs that hatch in approximately 8 days at 32°C. The young 1.5-mm-long larvae with a brown/
yellow coloration are covered with pubescence molts 4–7 times to a 4.2-mm-long larvae. The pupa stage averages 6 days
at 32°C and the fly-less adults emerge to mate and lay eggs.
Cadelle Cadelle is one of the largest (1.5 cm long), most destructive, and longest lived (up to 3 years) insects that attack stored
Tenebroides mauritanicus grains. The ventral part, antennae, and legs are reddish/brown. The body narrows between the prothorax and wings. The
female lay from 1000 to 3400 eggs during a lifetime. The white eggs are laid in clusters on the grain and hatch in 7–10
days in warm weather. The 1.5–2.5-cm-long larva is cream with black head. The larvae molt 3–4 times and pupate inside
the perforated tunnels in wood and other materials. The pupal stage lasts 8–25 days, depending on the environmental
conditions. Adults are capable of hibernating in storage facilities. Both adults and larvae prefer to eat the kernel’s germ,
processed flours, and grain-based foods.
Flat grain beetle Coleoptera Flat grain, rusty grain, and flour mill beetles and their larvae are so much alike in behavior and appearance that distinction
Cryptolestes pusillus Cucujidae is rarely made between them by people in the grain and milling industries. These are the smallest of the major pests of
Rusty grain beetle stored cereal grains (1.6 mm long). The reddish/brown-colored beetles have flattened bodies with characteristic antennae
Crystolestes ferrugineus as big as the body itself. Both adults and larvae damage high moisture grains. Females oviposit up to 200 eggs on the
grain crevices or drop them loosely in flour or on other cereal-based products. The adult emerges 5–9 weeks after eggs
are laid.
Cereal Grains
Yellow mealworm Coleoptera The cosmopolitan yellow mealworm is one of the largest secondary pests that infests stored cereal products. The
Tenebrio molitor Tenebrionidae 1.2-cm-long black beetles are capable of flying. The dark mealworm has an opaque color, whereas the yellow a shiny
Dark mealworm appearance. Adults lay white, bean-shaped, and sticky eggs from 276 (yellow mealworm) to 462 (dark mealworm) in a
Tenebrio oscurus period ranging from 22 to 137 days. The eggs hatch in about 14 days into cylindrical-slender larvae with a yellow or
dark-brown color and measure up to 3 cm long. The larva stage lasts up to 60 days and the life cycle 10–24 months.
Source: Data from Anonymous. 1973. Management of On‑Farm Stored Grain. University of Kentucky, College of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service. Kentucky;
Grain Storage Pests
Baur, F.J. 1992. Insect Management for Food Storage and Processing. Fourth printing. The American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN; Bulla, L.A. et
al. 1977. Chapter 2 in Advances in Cereal Science and Technology. Vol. II. Y. Pomeranz (ed.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN; Cotton,
R.T., and Wilbur, D.A. 1982. Chapter 9 in Storage of Cereal Grains and Their Products. C. Christensen (ed.). Third edition. American Association of Cereal
Chemists, St. Paul, MN; Garcia-Lara, S. et al. 2007. Manual de Plagas en Granos Almacenados y Tecnologias Alternas para su Manejo y Control. CIMMyT,
México, D.D. Mexico; Jayas, D.S. et al. 1995. Stored Grain Ecosystems. Marcel Dekker, New York; Mason, L., and Storey, C.L. 2003. Chapter 6 in Corn Chemistry
and Technology, P. White and L. Johnson (eds.). Second edition. American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN; Metcalf, C.L., and Flint, W.P. 1977.
Insectos Destructivos e Insectos Utiles. Translated by A. Blackaller V. Compañia Editorial Continental, S.A. México, D.F.; and USDA (United States Department
of Agriculture). 1978. Stored-Grain Insects. Agricultural Research Service. Agriculture Handbook No 500. Washington, D.C.
153
154 Cereal Grains
(a1) (a2)
(b1) (b2)
(c1) (c2)
Figure 6.1 Main stored-grain moths of the Lepidoptera order. Angoumois grain moth
(Sitotroga cerealella), (a1) Illustration, and (a2) Life insect (courtesy of Garcia-Lara 2007).
Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella). (b1) Illustration. (b2) Life insect (courtesy of
Garcia-Lara 2007). Mediterranean flour moth (Anagasta kuehniella). (c1) Illustration. (c2)
Life insect (ICI America S., Inc.; USDA 2006). (Compilation adapted from Anonymous.
1973. Management of On-Farm Stored Grain, University of Kentucky, College of Agriculture,
Cooperative Extension Service; and Metcalf, C.L., and Flint, W.P. 1977. Insectos Destructivos
e Insectos Utiles. Translated by A. Blackaller V. Compañia Editorial Continental, S.A.
México, D.F.)
Grain Storage Pests 155
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
Figure 6.2 Main stored-grain weevils and beetles of the Coleoptera order. (a) Rice wee-
vil (Sitophilus oryzeae). (b) Granary weevil (Sitophilus granarium). (c) Lesser grain borer
(Rhizopertha dominica). (d) Larger grain borer (Prostephanus truncates). (e) Confused beetle
(Tribolium confusum). (Adapted from: Anonymous. 1973. Management of On-Farm Stored
Grain, University of Kentucky, College of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service.)
156 Cereal Grains
(f ) (g) (h)
(i) (j) (k)
Figure 6.2 (Continued) Main stored-grain weevils and beetles of the Coleoptera order.
(f) Red flour beetle (Tribolium castanum). (g) Merchant grain beetle (Oryzaephilus mercator).
(h) Sawtoothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis). (i) Khapra beetle (Trogoderma gra-
narium). (j) Cadelle (Tenebroides mauritanicus). (k) Flat grain beetle (Crypotolestes pusil-
lus). (Adapted from Anonymous. 1973. Management of On-Farm Stored Grain, University of
Kentucky, College of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service.)
(l)
(m)
(n)
Figure 6.2 (Continued) Main stored-grain weevils and beetles of the Coleoptera order.
(l) Yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor). (Adapted from: Anonymous. 1973. Management of
On-Farm Stored Grain, University of Kentucky, College of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension
Service.) (m) Maize kernels heavily damaged by maize weevil (courtesy of Garcia-Lara 2007).
(n) Maize cob heavily damaged by larger grain borer (courtesy of Garcia-Lara 2007).
158 Cereal Grains
environmental conditions of temperature and relative humidity. Both types of insects

lower grain viability or germination capacity, food value, and grain quality as raw
material for mills and terminal food industries.
According to their feeding habits, insects are classified as monophages or
polyphages. The first only feeds from one specific grain, whereas the second type is
adapted to consume various types of grains. The biology, ecology, and phenology*
of stored grains are detailed by Baur (1992), Bulla et al. (1978), Cotton and Wilbur
(1982), Metcalf and Flint (1977), Sauer (1992), and USDA (1978). Table 6.1 depicts
the biology, habits, and main characteristics of the main stored-grain insects. Five
primary pests cause most of the insect damage. These are the granary, rice, and
maize weevils, the lesser grain borer, and the Angoumois grain moth. The large
grain borer is of economic importance in tropical areas around the globe (Garcia-
Lara et al. 2007). Practically all insects that specialize in attacking stored grains
belong to either the coleoptera or lepidoptera orders. Most species belong to the
coleoptera order, which includes beetles, grain borers, and weevils. The lepidoptera
order, which consists of all butterflies and moths, contributes with three important
cosmopolitan species: the Angoumois grain, Indian meal, and the Mediterranean
flour moths (Table 6.1, Figure 6.1).
Grain moisture is the most important factor that affects insect growth and devel-
opment. A high grain moisture content and adequate temperature conditions favor
a rapid growth in the insect population. In general terms, 1.5% moisture above the
critical cereal grain moisture content favors reproduction and results in important
losses if insects are not controlled. The granary, maize, and rice weevils are inca-
pable of reproducing when kernels contain less than 9% moisture.
Temperature is the most important environmental factor affecting insect devel-
opment and reproduction. Most insects do not reproduce at temperatures lower
than 12°C or higher than 34°C. The optimum temperature for reproduction is
about 26°C.
The presence of foreign material, dockage, and damaged kernels enhances insect
development, growth, and reproduction. Kernels containing more than 14% moisture
will have a higher respiration rate, will produce heat spots, and will encourage insect
and mold growth. These interactive effects will increase the stored grain temperature
and moisture, making grain more prone to further damage. The gradual temperature
increase will increase insect metabolism and the reproduction rate until a point is
achieved in which the excess temperature will inhibit or even inactivate insects.
Insect-damaged kernels will lose 25%–60% of their weight and nutrients. Insects
leave important contaminants such as bodily parts, cocoons, feces, and eggs. The
presence of these contaminants is highly penalized by government agencies because
they are closely related to the grain sanitary quality (Anonymous 1992).
Some insects, such as the confused and red flour beetles that usually feed on flours
and processed products, secrete odoriferous and irritant compounds, such as ethyl,
methyl toluquinone. These substances also produce a pinkish off-coloration on white
* Phenology is the branch of entomology that studies how insect life cycles are influenced by the envi-
ronment and variations in climate.
flours. Other insects such as the worms or larvae of the Indian and Mediterranean
flour moths leave silken threads and webs that ruin the appearance of flours.
6.2.1 Prevention
The prevention of insect development and reproduction is the most recommended
practice and most economical way to prevent grain deterioration in storage facili-
ties. Grain elevators should be thoroughly cleaned, and then approved insecticides
applied on surface contact areas. Special care should be taken in those facilities that
have perforated aeration floors because the grain residues accumulate in false floors
and ducts. It is recommended to spread insecticides on both interior and exterior con-
tact areas to prevent insect proliferation and contamination. In addition, all equip-
ment used to convey and handle grains should be frequently cleaned and treated with
insecticides such as methoxychlor (1:10 water), 6% pyrethrins mixed with pipero-
nyl butoxide at 60% (0.8:10 water), or 57% malathion (0.5:10 water) (Harein 1982).
Grain cleaning is also critical because broken and damaged kernels and dockage or
filth are important sources of contamination. It is recommended to avoid the com-
mingling of old lots of grains with new incoming lots because the first are usually
a source of contamination. High-moisture kernels are more prone to insects and
molds; therefore, these grains should be artificially dried before storage. The hot
drying air (40°C) significantly reduces insect population and egg viability (Baur
1992, Bulla et al. 1977, Cotton and Wilbur 1982, Garcia-Lara et al. 2007, Hagstrum
and Subramanyan 2006, Mason and Storey 2003, Sauer 1992, USDA 1978).
6.2.2 Control
6.2.2.1 Chemical Control
There are two basic ways to protect grain from insect infestations: liquid or dust
insecticides and fumigants. Both are widely used in storage facilities. The main
advantage of the use of insecticides is their comparatively longer-lasting effects that
make them more suitable for contact areas. In addition, insecticides are easier to
apply, less dangerous, and can be used both as preventive measures and to control
established insect populations. Dust or talc insecticides utilize diatomaceous earths,
silica, magnesium oxide, or acid-activated clays (bentonites) as carriers. These agents
are abrasive and absorb lipids that are essential for insect survival. The combination
of these carriers with insecticides such as malathion is very effective; however, these
abrasive materials can gradually wear out machinery.
Malathion (O,O-dimethyl phosphorodithiodate of diethyl mercaptosuccinate) is
one of the most effective insecticides due to its relatively high insect toxicity and low
human toxicity. In addition, it is effective against all insects and has a long lasting
effect or good residual power that makes it ideally suited to treat surface areas of
grain elevators and machinery (Harein 1982). This organophosphorus insecticide is
usually applied in an emulsified liquid or with solid carriers and is used in concentra-
tions of 8–10 ppm. High moisture grains (>15%) lower its effectiveness, and therefore
the dosage should be adjusted.
160 Cereal Grains
Natural (pyrethrolone esters of carboxylic acid extracted from chrysanthemum)

and synthetic pyrethrins such as permethrin and bioresmethrin are popular insecti-
cides due to their low toxicity to mammals and safe use for food and feed. They are
fast-acting insecticides and are particularly effective against adult insects. Pyrethrins
are generally applied in combination with piperonyl butoxide as an air spray (0.5%
pyrethrin and 5% piperonyl butoxide) in order to increase the effectiveness or act-
ing power. Although pyrethrins rapidly lose toxicity, they maintain their repellent
power for a long time. Other insecticides such as methoxychlor, ethylene dichloride
(2,2-dichlorovinil dimethyl phosphate), and cyfluthrin are used to protect contact
surfaces and equipment in grain elevators (Mason and Storey 2003, Harein 1982).
Fumigants are chemicals that produce gas at ambient temperature and therefore
can reach practically all areas of the storage facilities including dead spaces. They
generally kill all insect populations due to their excellent distribution and toxic effect
on the insect’s nervous system. The fumigants are used to treat infested lots of grains
due to their fast action and low residual power. The main disadvantages of fumigants
are that they should be applied in hermetically closed areas, require special equip-
ment for their application, and are dangerous for the applying personnel. The ideal
characteristics for a fumigant are long shelf life, nontoxic for humans, high volatility
and insect toxicity, easy to detect via a characteristic odor, anticorrosive, nonexplo-
sive, and inflammable. In addition, they should not harm seed viability and leave
undesirable off-odors and flavors.
Methyl bromide (CH3Br) is a fumigant that has been widely used since the 1930s,
and is highly toxic and efficient against all adult insects and larvae. Methyl bromide
remains effective as a grain fumigant, although it requires greater expertise and
more capital investment than phosphine. The insecticide can achieve a complete kill
in 24 hours and therefore is of particular importance in the international grain trade
at points of export and import. It is highly toxic for humans because it is absorbed
through the skin and lungs. The main toxic effects are conjunctivitis, abnormal
vision, respiratory paralysis, and heart arrest. Thus, it is highly recommended that
this insecticide is applied only by well-trained personnel. Methyl bromide is banned
in several parts of the world because it produces cancer in laboratory animals and
is implicated in the depletion of the protective atmospheric ozone layer. However,
economic toxicology studies have determined that the prohibition of CH3Br will
increase storage grain losses and negatively impact food security, especially in
developing countries around the globe.
Another popular fumigant is phosphine gas (PH3) produced by tablets of alumi-
num phosphide mixed with ammonium carbonate and paraffin. These pellets are
usually administered as the grain is being conveyed for storage or by injecting it into
binned stored grain using special metal probes. The tablets gradually decompose
in approximately 36 h at a temperature of 25°C. Three gases are gradually released
when the tablet contacts the grain and air moisture: phosphine, carbon dioxide, and
ammonia. These are fumigant, inflammable, and warning (odorous) gases, respec-
tively (Harein 1982). Phosphine is one of the most toxic fumigants due to its rapid
diffusion through the grain, and one of the preferred insecticides because it is ideally
suited for easy application in confined storage facilities, train and truck grain loads,
and ships and barges. Phosphine is also toxic for humans; its inhalation can cause
reactions from a simple headache to convulsion and death. However, the harmful
effects are minimized when it is applied in pellets. Phosphine can also be applied
with methyl bromide.
Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) is a liquid fumigant usually applied with other insec-
ticides. The most widely used liquid fumigant mixture for treatment of bulk stored
grain consists of carbon tetrachloride and carbon disulfide in an approximate ratio of
4:1 percent by volume. Another common fumigant mixture is 3:1 ethylene dichloride
and carbon tetrachloride. Trained personnel should apply it, even though its toxicity
is lower than other insecticides. In order to optimize its effectiveness, higher dosage
and contact times are usually required.
Other less popular fumigants are liquid carbon disulfide (CS2) and chloropicrin
(CCl3CS2). Carbon disulfide is considered an effective liquid grain fumigant, espe-
cially when mixed with carbon tetrachloride, but represents a dangerous fire hazard.
Chloropicrin is highly toxic for both insects and humans. It is an extremely irritat-
ing tear gas and corrosive to metals. Chloropicrin is heavily absorbed by grain and
requires long periods of ventilation to remove its characteristic odor. In addition, it
adversely affects grain germination (Baur 1992, Bulla et al. 1977, Cotton and Wilbur
1982, Hagstrum and Subramanyan 2006, Harein 1982, Mason and Storey 2003,
Sauer 1992, USDA 1978).
6.2.2.2 Controlled Atmospheres and Cold Storage

Insects can be killed by the modification of the interior conditions of the storage
facilities. These methods are not practical nowadays, but are ecologically and
environmentally friendly. These methods require special facilities and there-
fore higher investments. There is evidence that Neolithic men (5000 years bc)
stored grains in sealed underground pits. Then with the discovery of working
tools, men built underground silos. These rudimentary silos are still used by
primitive men in the sub-Sahara, India, and Asia. Grains were also commonly
stored in closed containers or vessels. By using these preserving techniques, the
active grain gradually consumed the oxygen present in the head and interstitial
spaces and produced carbon dioxide, thus creating anaerobic conditions. The
high carbon dioxide concentration inhibited grain respiration and inactivated
insects and molds.
This same principle is used in current times to design modern storage facilities
in grain-export countries such as Australia and Argentina. The key for success is
to build sealed facilities that minimize the loss of internal gases or modified atmo-
spheres. Insects are controlled when the internal gas composition contains less than
2% oxygen. Grain preservation in atmospheres rich in carbon dioxide or nitrogen is
highly effective and has the main advantage of leaving the grain free of chemical
residues (Calderon and Barkai-Golan 1990, Sauer 1992).
Grain refrigeration is another alternative, although it is less viable due to high-
energy costs. In order to achieve good insect control, the temperature should be
lowered to 5°C–10°C and maintain the air humidity below 70%. Kernels will absorb
environmental moisture and will be prone to mold infestations if the surrounding air
humidity is high (Sauer 1992).
162 Cereal Grains
6.2.2.3 Irradiation and Sonication

Irradiation energy and sound waves have also been used for insect control. These
treatments cause mutations, sterilization, and death, depending on intensity, fre-
quency, and exposure time. The gamma rays are the most effective and promising
but their use is expensive today.
6.2.2.4 Biological Control
The use of beneficial insect pheromones and growth regulators has been studied as
possible alternatives for insect control. Among the most promising biological control
techniques are the use of predators and the release of sterile insects. Within this
category the most promising insect is Xylcoris flavipes (Reuter) of the Hemiptera
order. This insect mainly attacks the red flour beetle (Sithophilus castanum Herbs)
and other species of beetles, larvae, and eggs of grain moths. Sterile insects treated
with mutating agents can considerably lower grain infestations, especially when the
treated insects belong to the Lepidoptera order. The main disadvantage of the use of
beneficial insects is that they leave body casts, exoskeletons, and other insect resi-
dues (Garcia-Lara 2007).
Pheromones are chemical agents secreted by insects as sexual attractors. These
chemicals are used to attract insects and predict populations. Pheromone traps are
used to catch insects, especially when the numbers of insects infesting the grain
are low. This gives the opportunity to detect and control insect populations before
they cause economic damage. The use of pheromones when insect populations are
reduced also lowers their reproduction rate because these chemicals confuse insects.
The use of growth agents and hormones that are essential for metamorphosis has
potential in insect control programs. These chemical compounds inhibiting impor-
tant physiological processes are specific and have a very low toxicity for mammals.
6.3 Molds
After insects, grain molds are the most important biotic agents affecting grain stor-
age. Grains usually come contaminated from the field. Molds reduce seed viability,
as well as the quality and functionality of grain, and therefore its economic value.
Molds also cause primary and secondary damage. The first is due to the potent
lipolytic, amylolytic, and proteolytic enzymes that degrade stored nutrients; and the
second is due to mycotoxins and changes in grain quality (off-colors, odors, and fla-
vors). In general terms, molds are divided into field and storage molds. The first gen-
erally require higher moistures and grain water activity compared to storage molds.
The most important and relevant genus of storage molds are Fusarium, Aspergillus,
and Penicillum (Bulla et al. 1977, Krogh 1987, MacFarlane et al. 1995, Mirocha et
al. 1980, Sauer 1992, Sinha and Muir 1973) (Table 6.2).
Field molds, such as Fusarium, usually contaminate the grain during develop-
ment and maturation and require relatively higher moisture (20%–25%) compared to
storage molds. Field contamination mainly occurs when maturing grains are exposed
to excessive rainfalls and moisture. Storage molds usually infest grains when their
moistures are in the range of 16%–20%, and require relative humidities higher than
Table 6.2
Characteristics and Toxicological Effects of the Main Mycotoxins That Occur in Cereal Grains and Their Products
Mycotoxin Causal Agent Main Occurrence Toxicological Effects on Humans and Domestic Animals
Aflatoxins Aspergillus flavus, Maize (field and There are several types of aflatoxins; the most important and toxic in grains is
Aspergillus stored); all cereals B1. Other important metabolites are B2, G1, G2, M1, and M2. There are some
Grain Storage Pests
parasiticus aflatoxins that are partially modified during metabolism; the typical examples
are M1 and M2 present in milk. These metabolites are of great importance
because they cause toxicity at very low concentrations (10 ppb). The most
common aflatoxins in cereal grains are B1 and B2. Aflatoxins G1 and G2 are
sometimes found in maize infested with Aspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxins
produce acute hepatitis, widespread hemorrhages, poor immunological
response, and are potent carcinogens and mutagenic agents. B aflatoxins are
approximately 10 times more toxic than G types.
Ochratoxin Aspergillus Maize Ochratoxicosis has been documented for several centuries in regions of the
ochraceus, Balkans where maize is a staple and the crop has been exposed to unusual
Penicillium rainfalls during maturation. Chemically, isocoumarin derivatives are bound to
verrucosum phenylalanine. Most ochratoxicosis is related to field contaminated maize due to
excess rainfall before harvesting or to storage of high-moisture maize. In
humans, the toxicosis involves progressive renal failure and atrophia, anemia,
polyuria, anorexia, headaches, and uremia. In most instances, the disease is
fatal. The microorganisms living in the stomach of ruminants cleave the
ochratoxins into nontoxic metabolites. However, monogastrics are severally
affected with similar symptoms such as those observed in humans. Laboratory
rats fed with high concentrations of ochratoxins develop cancer, and their
progeny have teratogenic defects.
—continued
163
164
Characteristics and Toxicological Effects of the Main Mycotoxins That Occur in Cereal Grains and Their Products
Mycotoxin Causal Agent Main Occurrence Toxicological Effects on Humans and Domestic Animals
Fumonisin Fusarium Maize Fumonisins were recently discovered and are the group of toxins that have
moniliforme, received the most attention lately. Fumonisins are toxic because they interfere
Fusarium with the synthesis of sphingomyelins, inhibit the enzyme ceramide synthase,
verticilloides, and modify cell proliferation, increasing the production of cytokinines.
Fusarium Fumonisins are highly toxic to livestock, mainly horses or equines, and have
proliferatum, harmful effects on humans and other monogastrics. In humans, fumonisins have
been related to esophageal cancer and interference with folic acid metabolism.
Therefore, they can exacerbate fetal malformation such as neural tube defects.
Contaminated feeds can cause death in horses several hours after ingestion.
Equines show the classic symptoms of “leukoencephalomalacia,” characterized
by disorientation and death. In swine, fumonisins cause pulmonary edema and
hepatotoxicity.
Zeralenone and Fusarium Maize; all cereals Chemically, zeralenone is an acid lactone with a phenolic resorcyl configuration.
Zeralenol graminearum These toxins have caused problems in humans and other monogastric animals.
Swine are the most affected animals. The toxins cause the “estrogenic syndrome”
or animal feminization, characterized by vulvovaginitis, vaginal prolapse, and
infertility in sows, and testicular atrophy, infertility, and swelling of the
mammary glands in boars. In high concentrations, zeralenone lowers fertility,
ovulation, fetal development, and litter survival rate, and induces thymic atrophy.
Most cases are related to contaminated maize or feed produced from maize,
although the presence of zeralenone has been documented in other cereal grains.
Cereal Grains
Trichothecenes Fusarium Barley Approximately 180 trichothecenes are known. High moisture cereals are
(T-2 toxin) Wheat frequently contaminated with these toxins, considered as potent protein
Maize synthesis inhibitors and immune suppressors. Trichothecenes can produce the
fatal syndrome named “alimentary toxemia” characterized by leucopenia
(reduced white blood cell counts), multiple hemorrhages, loss of bone marrow,
and esophageal cancer. In addition, the consumption of these toxins causes
vomiting and reduces the efficiency of feed conversion in swine due to the
Grain Storage Pests
considerably lower feed intake. In poultry, they cause hemorrhagic syndrome

and other related problems that lower performance.
Deoxynivalenol (DON) Fusarium Maize Vomitoxin is a deoxynivalenol derivative. The toxin causes feed refusal,
Vomitoxin graminearum Wheat vomiting, and lower feed efficiency. The brewing industry is especially
Barley concerned about these toxins because they may contaminate beer when infested
barley or malt is used.
Ergot Alkaloids Claviceps purpurea Rye Historically, there is evidence to indicate that ergot poisonings have affected
(Ergotamine and Barley man and domestic animals for centuries. Ergotism is no longer prevalent due
Ergotine) Wheat to improvements in preventing contaminated grains from entering the food
chain. Two types of ergotisms are recognized: convulsive and gangrenous.
Convulsive is characterized by a tingling sensation under the skin, itching,
numbness of the hands and feet, twitching and muscle cramps, convulsions,
and hallucinations. Postmortem findings include bleeding and softening of the
brain and spinal cord lesions. The full mental recovery for affected victims is
rare. In gangrenous ergotism, the fingers and toes become necrotic and in the
most severe cases the feet and entire limbs shrivel and drop off (Van Rensburg
and Altenkirk 1974). In animals, the ergot alkaloids cause reduced feed intake
and efficiency of feed conversion.
165
166 Cereal Grains
70% and temperatures of at least 25°C. These fungi are more destructive when the
air relative humidity and temperatures are 85% and 25°C–30°C, respectively. The
main harmful effects of storage fungi are lower seed viability, grain discoloration,
nutrient degradation, mycotoxin production, grain heating, and generation of musty
off-odors. By far, the most important concern related to mold infestations is the
risk of mycotoxin production. Most mycotoxins have the potential to cause serious
diseases and even deaths in humans and domestic animals (Bulla et al. 1977, Krogh
1987, MacFarlane et al. 1995, Mirocha et al. 1980, Sauer 1992, Van Rensburg and
Altenkirk 1974).
6.3.1 Mycotoxins
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites secreted by fungi and molds. Diseases
related to the consumption of mycotoxins have been known for hundreds of years.
There were well-documented cases of ergotism in the 17th century and ochra-
toxicosis during the Middle Ages. The first clear mention of ergotism was made
by Adam Lonicer of Frankfurt in 1582, although other references to ergot may
still be uncovered (Miller and Tenholm 1994). However, it has been only 50 years
since mycotoxicosis became relevant and has greatly affected grain trade. It wasn’t
until the 1960s when the potent effects of aflatoxins produced by Aspergillus fla-
vus were recognized. Peanut flour contaminated with aflatoxins caused the death
of approximately 100,000 turkeys in England. Later on, aflatoxins were recog-
nized as one of the most potent natural-occurring carcinogens in nature. Since
then, aflatoxins and the other sorts of mycotoxins have received attention, and
their presence is monitored by regulatory government health agencies around the
globe. For example, during the past decade, fumonisins have received special
attention because of their potent harmful health effects on equines and humans
(Table 6.2).
There are several types of aflatoxins, the most important and toxic in grains is
B1 (Table 6.2, Figure 6.3). Other important metabolites are B2, G1, G2, M1, and M2.
The B and G aflatoxins could be present in contaminated grains, whereas M1 and
M2 are counterparts in milk produced by lactating animals or women that consumed
mycotoxin-contaminated grains or products. These are derived from aflatoxins B1
and B2, respectively. These metabolites are of great importance because they cause
toxicity at very low concentrations (10 ppb). The most common aflatoxins in cereal
grains are B1 and B2, produced by Aspergillus flavus (Link). Aflatoxins G1 and G2
are sometimes found in maize infested with A. parasiticus (Speare). The presence
of fungi does not necessarily indicate the existence of toxins. For example, A. fla-
vus do not produce aflatoxins when they grow at relatively low temperatures. The
probability of toxin production increases when the mold is stressed due to lack of
water and high ambient temperatures. Most mycotoxins fluoresce when exposed to
conventional ultraviolet light. For instance, aflatoxins fluoresce at 350 nm. G afla-
toxins fluoresce blue-greenish and are more polar than B aflatoxins, which fluoresce
blue (Figure 6.3). Both are potent carcinogens and mutagenic agents, although the G
toxins are approximately ten times less toxic compared to B counterparts (Krishna
and Sinha 1991, Sauer 1992).
O O O O
O O
O O OCH3 O O OCH3
(B1) (B2)
O O O O
O O O O
O O OCH3 O O OCH3
(G1) (G2)
O O O O
O O
OH OH
O O OCH3 O O OCH3
(M1) (M2)
Figure 6.3 Chemical structure of the different types of aflatoxins. Aflatoxins B and G
occur in infested grains, whereas M aflatoxins are found in the milk of lactating animals fed
contaminated feedstuffs.
Undoubtedly, maize is the most susceptible cereal to mold infestation and myco-
toxins (Krogh 1987, Krishna and Sinha 1991, Mirocha et al. 1980, Sauer 1992). This
is because the cob is covered with husks creating an ideal and protective environ-
ment for molds. Research has demonstrated that fungi can penetrate the cob through
previous damage caused by ear worms (Heliothis zea). The presence of aflatoxins in
maize has created problems in grain elevators because in most countries the maxi-
mum level allowed is 20 ppb for humans and 200 ppb for animals. In milk, the
maximum level is only 0.5 ppb.
Ochratoxins (Table 6.2, Figure 6.4) are another important group of mycotoxins
mainly produced by Aspergillus ochraceus, or in some instances by Penicillium ver-
rucosum. Ochratoxicosis produces the Balkan endemic nephropathy first described
in Bulgaria. Chemically, ochratoxins are isocoumarin derivatives bound to phenyla-
lanine. The most common and relevant is ochratoxin A or OTA. Most ochratoxicosis
is related to field-contaminated maize due to excess rainfall before harvesting or
168 Cereal Grains
O
H
O
O
R4 O OH O C OC2H5
O N
H
R1 R3
H
R2 Cl
(a) (b)
COOH
COOH
C O
O
OH
O OH NH2
C O H
H H
O
OH
O
COOH O
O H
CH2OH
COOH OAc
(c) (d)
H
HO
N
H O
N
N O
H O
O OH N
H
O
O
HO OH HN
(e) (f )
Figure 6.4 Chemical structure of most common grain mycotoxins. (a) Zeralenone. (b)
Ochratoxin A or OTA. (c) Fumonisin. (d) Trichothecenes or T-2. (e) Deoxynivalenol or DON.
(f) Ergotamine.
to maize stored at high moisture. These toxins produce progressive nephropathy or

renal dysfunction and, in severe cases, death. Ochratoxicosis has been documented
for several centuries in regions of the Balkans. (i.e., Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Rumania)
where maize is the main staple. Swine and poultry are severely affected with similar
symptoms as the ones observed in humans. Laboratory rats fed with high concentra-
tions of ochratoxins develop cancer and progeny have teratogenic defects or malfor-
mations (Krogh 1987, Mirocha et al. 1980, Sauer 1992)..
Several species of the genus Fusarium produce an array of toxins with impor-
tant health implications in both humans and domestic animals. The most impor-
tant are zeralenone, T-2 toxin, tricotecenes, vomitoxin, and fumonisin (Table 6.2,
Figure 6.4).
Fumonisins were recently discovered and are the group of mycotoxins that have
received the most attention in recent times. This is due to their high toxicity in live-
stock, mainly horses, and the harmful effect in humans. Unlike other mycotoxins,
fumonisins are highly water soluble and do not possess an aromatic structure that
facilitates analytical detection (Figure 6.4). In humans, fumonisins have been related
to esophageal cancers in China and South Africa, as well as causing interference
with folic acid metabolism. Therefore, they can exacerbate fetal malformation such
as neural tube defects (Hendricks 1999, Marasas et al. 2004). Fumonisins are pro-
duced by Fusarium moniliforme or F. proliferatum. Contaminated feeds can cause
death in horses several hours after ingestion. Equines show the classic symptoms of
encephalomalacia, disorientation, and death. In swine, fumonisins cause pulmonary
edema.
Zeralenone is an acid lactone with a phenolic resocycle configuration (Figure 6.4).
Zeralenone toxicosis is primarily related to contaminated maize, although it has been
documented due to ingestion of other cereal grains. These toxins were first identified
in the 1960s. They have caused problems in humans and other monogastric animals.
Swine are the most affected animals. Zeralenones cause estrogenic syndrome or
animal feminization, characterized by vulvovaginitis, prolapsed uterus, and infer-
tility. In boars, zeralenone causes testicular atrophy, infertility, and swelling of the
mammary glands. Zeralenone fluoresces greenish-blue when exposed to ultraviolet
light (260-275 nm) (Bulla et al. 1977, Krogh 1987, MacFarlane et al. 1995, Mirocha
et al. 1980).
Trichothecenes or T-2s are the other type of toxins generally associated with zer-
alenone and fusarium infestations (Table 6.2, Figure 6.4), although several types of
Trichoderma also produce these toxins. Maize is the most common cereal affected
by these fungi, especially when it is stored where there is high-moisture content.
Trichothecenes can produce the fatal syndrome known as alimentary toxemia, char-
acterized by leukopenia (abnormal decrease of white blood cells), multiple hemor-
rhages, loss of bone marrow, and esophageal cancer. In addition, the consumption of
these toxins cause vomiting and reduces the efficiency of feed conversion in swine
due to a considerably lower feed intake. In poultry, trichothecenes cause hemor-
rhagic syndrome and other related problems that lower performance (Krogh 1987,
Mirocha et al. 1980, Sauer 1992).
Vomitoxin is a deoxynivalenol or DON derivative (Figure 6.4) generally pro-
duced by Fusarium. Its main occurrence is in maize, although it also infests wheat
170 Cereal Grains
and barley, especially in wet or rainy years. The brewing industry is concerned
about this toxin because it migrates to wort used in beer making when contam-
inated barley malt is used. As with trichothecenes, vomitoxins causes vomiting,
lower feed intake, and inefficiency of feed conversion (Krogh 1987, Mirocha et al.
1980, Sauer 1992).
Ergotism, also known as St. Anthony’s Fire, is the oldest known human toxicosis.
The name is due to the miraculous cures reported by afflicted pilgrims paying hom-
age to St. Anthony’s shrine in France during the Middle Ages. Rye is the cereal crop
most susceptible to this parasitic fungus. The infested kernels turn black and are
harder and larger than normal counterparts (Krogh 1987, Mirocha et al. 1980, Sauer
1992, Van Rensburg and Altenkirk 1974) (Table 6.2, Figure 6.4). Ergot produces a
couple of alkaloids named ergotamine and ergotine that, upon ingestion, cause con-
vulsions, muscle cramps, hallucinations, and gangrene in fingers and toes. In severe
cases, affected patients die of suffocation due to paralysis of rib cage muscles (Van
Rensburg and Altenkirk 1974).
There are several laboratory tests to detect the presence of molds and mycotoxins.
The simple observation of a representative sample of grain under ultraviolet light
will indicate the possible presence of mycotoxins. Official tests are based on solvent
extraction (i.e., ethanol, methanol, chloroform/water), followed by filtration, separa-
tion, and detection, generally via fluorescence or ultraviolet detectors. Thin-layer
chromatography was widely used to detect different types of mycotoxins. Nowadays,
HPLC systems equipped with fluorescence or ultraviolet detectors are commonly
used. However, the most frequent and popular way to quantify mycotoxins are via
the use of ELISA columns. These are accurate and fast, so they are widely used
as a screening and analytical tool in grain elevators. The ELISA consists of first
extracting a representative sample of the grain with aqueous solvents, such as aque-
ous methanol, followed by filtration. The key step is passing an aliquot of the extract
through a mini column that contains monoclonal antibodies for the specific toxin.
Therefore, the column specifically binds the toxin of interest. Then, the column is
washed and the recovered mycotoxin concentration read in a fluorometer. The fluo-
rometer is previously calibrated with standards containing known concentrations of
the mycotoxin.
6.4 Rodents
Rats and mice are the most destructive vertebrates on the planet. They consume
and harm millions of tons of food every year. Damage by rodents occurs during all
stages of food production, processing, and utilization. Field losses of rice, maize, and
other cereals are particularly serious, especially in tropical regions around the globe.
Postharvest losses are also very important, especially when grains are open-stored
or kept in nonrodent-proof facilities. In addition, rats and mice damage facilities and
cause secondary damage because they contaminate grains and their products with
hair, droppings, and urine (Sauer 1992).
The main reasons why these mammals cause huge economic losses are their wide
range of adaptation, high reproduction rate, and the complexity of their control. For
instance, there are more than 100 million rats in the United States, causing economic
losses of approximately $10 each. It is estimated that 3.5% of the total world cereal
production is lost due to rodents. In India, field and storage losses account for 25%
and 25%–30%, respectively (Harris and Bauer 1982).
Rodents are highly destructive because they daily consume about 10% of their
body weight. More grain and grain products are lost due to contamination with hair,
feces, and urine. In one year, one single rat is capable of consuming 12.25 kg of grain
and excretes 25,000 fecal pellets weighing 1 to 2 kg. Needless to say, these grains
have to be sold at a discount price to the feed industry or thoroughly cleaned in order
to remove contaminants.
6.4.1 Biology
Rodents are very destructive pests because of their high reproduction rate. Rats
achieve sexual maturity when they reach 2–3 months old; dams produce litters con-
sisting of 9–12 pups, and the gestation period is only 22–29 days. Under optimum
conditions, a couple of adult Nordic rats have the potential to produce a yearly prog-
eny of 1,500 individuals. The reproduction rate will mainly depend on food and
water availability, internal competition, presence of predators, and control measure-
ments. Rats and mice are mainly active during the night, although some species also
feed during daylight hours (Harris and Bauer 1982).
The most common rodents present in grain storage facilities are the Norway
rat (Rattus norvegicus), roof rat (R. rattus), and house mice (Mus musculus L)
(Figure 6.5). The Norway rat is more common in temperate and urban areas and is
considered as a burrowing rodent. Morphologically, they are large (adults weigh 300
g or more), robust, and omnivorous animals with small eyes and ears and a short and
Norway Rat (Rattus norvegicus)
Roof Rat (Rattus rattus)
House Mice (Mus musculus L)
10 cm
Figure 6.5 Comparative morphology of the main rodents of storage facilities.

172 Cereal Grains
blunt nose; their coats are usually dark colored. The most distinctive characteristic
is that the tail is shorter than the body (20–25 cm versus 15–20 cm long). The adults
are aggressive, dominant, and consume an average of 28 g food/day or about 10 kg
per year. The adult female or dam has the capacity of producing up to seven litters
per year of 8–12 pups each.
Comparatively, the roof rat is smaller, but it adapts better to tropical regions and
its color varies from black to grayish-white. Two distinctive characteristics are that
the ventral or abdominal part is lighter than the rest of the body, and that the tail
is longer than the body length. In addition, the rat has larger eyes and ears, and a
pointed nose. Roof rats can climb and live in overhead areas, especially when they
coexist with Nordic rats. The Nordic rat dominates the roof rat, especially when they
compete for food and space.
House mice are small cosmopolitan rodents common to human environments
and dwellings. They also have a longer tail compared to the body (7.6–10 cm versus
6.3–8.9 cm long). The house mouse only weighs 15 g. The light brown or gray-col-
ored animal has a pointed nose, small eyes, and long ears. Females give birth to up to
eight litters per year of 9–12 pups each. They specialize in consuming cereal grains,
and the control program should consider that these animals are excellent climbers
(Harris and Bauer 1982, Sauer 1992).
The key for good rodent control is their detection. It is difficult to detect these
mammals because they are mainly active at night, are evasive, and avoid humans.
The best way to detect their presence is by looking for nests in double ceilings
or walls, fresh fecal pellets, footprints along the walls, and chewed or gnawed
materials. The size and form of droppings are the best indicator of the type of
infestation. The Norway rat excretes larger (1.9 cm long) fecal pellets with blunt
ends compared to the roof rat (1.2 cm long with pointed ends). The house mouse
droppings average 0.6 cm long with pointed edges A good way to detect foot-
prints is to use flour as a dusting agent and apply it in those places where rats
frequently transit, such as corridors and floor areas adjacent to walls. Another
way to recognize rodent infestations is by detecting urine using ultraviolet light.
The urine fluoresces when exposed to ultraviolet light. This is one of the most
common ways to detect rodent infestations by regulatory agencies (Harris and
Bauer 1982).
6.4.2 Control
The control of rodents is difficult because they have nocturnal habits and are cau-
tious. Rodents basically need three major conditions to proliferate: nesting sites, food
availability, and absence of predators. The most economical way to control rodents is
to implement preventive actions. One of the most effective and economical methods
of control is to construct rodent-proof storage facilities and establish a permanent
preventive rodent control program. Facilities should be built to avoid the entrance
of, establishment of, and reproduction of rats. The general principles for building
rodent-proof facilities are the design of an adequate foundation, use of materials
(i.e., metal, concrete) resistant to the gnawing of rodents, and covering all openings
(pipes, plumbing, electric wire conduits with protective doors, gratings, or screens.
The gap between doors and floors should be less than 0.65 cm wide. In addition, all
ventilation walls and ducts should be covered with woven wire mesh (holes <0.65 cm
diameter). The loading and unloading areas should be designed to avoid or minimize
the entrance of rodents with metal screens and navy stairs or ladders, etc. The use of
double walls and ceilings, spaces in staircases, and dead spaces should be avoided in
order to minimize potential nesting sites. Other important preventive measurements
are the use of traps on the periphery of the storage facilities, keeping grass mowed,
and training all personnel to detect infestations.
There are three basic ways to control rodents: (1) use of traps, (2) application
of rodenticides or poison baits, and (3) fumigation. Traps are commonly used
because the use of poisonous rodenticides is avoided; they can give an indication
of the degree of infestation; and they avoid the formation of the putrefactive off-
odors of dead corpses. There are different types of traps: baited snap, expanded
platform snap, steel-jaw, steel, and glue that can be placed with or without a food
attractant or bait. Spring traps are more effective for rats compared to mice. When
the trap is used without a food attractant, they should be placed where rodents
usually transit. Traps with food attractants are usually placed perpendicularly to
the wall with the bait side closer to the wall. The most effective food attractants
are bacon, peanut butter, bread, cheese, and apples. Glue traps are increasing in
popularity because they are practical, effective, and the dead animal can easily
be disposed of. The animal generally suffocates because the glue clogs the mouth
and nostrils.
The use of rodenticides is dangerous because, if consumed by other mammals,
including natural predators and humans, they can cause death. In order to mini-
mize accidents, these rodenticides should be placed inside boxes designed to allow
only the entrance of rats and clearly marked to indicate that they house dangerous
poisons. Two basic types of rodenticides are available for use around grain storage.
They are acute toxicants and chronic poisons. Acute toxicants are designed for initial
cleanout of well-established infestations, whereas chronic toxicants, most commonly
known as anticoagulants baits, have been the mainstay for most rodent control and
preventive programs.
The use of toxic fumigants is the most efficient way to control rodents, especially
in places where populations are out of control and the other control practices are not
effective. In order to be successful, experts with proper clothes and protection should
apply the fumigant in hermetically sealed facilities. The most popular acute fumi-
gants are the different phosphide forms (zinc, aluminum, magnesium). These release
toxic phosphine gas that produces mortality within 4 to 6 hours after exposure. Other
important fumigants are hydrogen cyanide, calcium cyanide, and methyl bromide.
The last fumigants are commonly and widely used to terminate grain insects (Harris
and Bauer 1982).
The most popular chronic poisons or rodenticides are coumarin (warfarin,
fumarin, and racumin), fluoroacetamide, and strychnine or arsenic trioxide usually
placed as an adequate amount of bait. The selection of the proper bait is key to mask
off-odors and off-flavors associated with most poisons. The most popular baits are
maize flour mixed with rolled oats, and oil and sugar or syrup. The food attractant
can be offered as a solid pellet, or even in a liquid base. The last option is effective
174 Cereal Grains
in those places where the availability of water is scarce. These poison baits should
be placed in special boxes designed to allow the entrance of rodents and protected
from the rain and other animals. The venom station should be properly labeled with
the poison sign and placed in strategic places outside and inside the grain storage
facilities (Anonymous 1973, Harris and Bauer 1982, Sauer 1992).
Self-Evaluation
1. What are the differences between insects that belong to the Lepidoptera and
Coleoptera orders? Most insects that commonly attack stored grains belong
to which order?
2. Which environmental factors and grain characteristics favor the growth and
high insect populations in grain elevators?
3. Why is it important to recognize the specific type of insect that is infest-
ing stored grains? How can you differentiate a red flour beetle from a
confused beetle?
4. Besides the direct damage, what other types of damages encourage the
infestation of insects, molds, and rodents?
5. What is the difference between an insecticide and a fumigant? Why do
regulatory agencies frequently monitor the amount of residual pesticides
present in processed grain products?
6. Investigate the toxicological effects of methyl bromide, malathion, and
pyrethrines to insects and humans. Which of these insecticides persist more
in nature?
7. What is a pheromone? What are their commercial uses in grain storage
facilities?
8. Briefly discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the following control meth-
ods: biological control, controlled atmosphere, irradiation, and sonication.
9. What are the basic differences between field and stored-grain molds?
10. What are mycotoxins? Why are they important? In a table, list at least five
mycotoxins, indicating the causal agent, effects on human and animals, and
the preferred assay for their analysis.
11. What are the morphological differences between the two main rats that
infest grain elevators? How can you detect if there is an infestation of
rodents in grain elevators?
12. Why are rodents difficult to control?
13. How can you build rodent-proof storage facilities?
14. What are the most effective ways to prevent and control rodents?
15. Investigate the main toxicological effects of warfarin, fluoroacetamide, and
arsenic trioxide.
References
Anonymous. 1973. Management of On‑Farm Stored Grain. University of Kentucky, College
of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service. Kentucky.
Anonymous. 1992. Israel-Cyprus Grain Grading, Storage and Handling Short Course.
International Grains Program, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS.
Baur, F.J. 1992. Insect Management for Food Storage and Processing. Fourth printing. The
Bulla, L.A., Kramer, K.J., and Speirs, R.D. 1977. Insects and microorganisms in stored grain
and their control. Chapter 2 in Advances in Cereal Science and Technology. Vol. II.Y.
Pomeranz (ed.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
Calderon, M., and Barkai‑Golan, R. 1990. Food Preservation by Modified Atmospheres. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Cotton, R.T., and Wilbur, D.A. 1982. Insects. Chapter 9 in Storage of Cereal Grains and Their
Products. C. Christensen (ed.). Third edition. American Association of Cereal Chemists,
St. Paul, MN.
Garcia-Lara, S., Espinosa Carrillo, C., and Bergvinson, D.J. 2007. Manual de Plagas en
Granos Almacenados y Tecnologias Alternas para su Manejo y Control. CIMMyT,
México, D.D. Mexico.
Hagstrum, D.W., and Subramanyan, B. 2006. Fundamentals of Stored-Product Entomology.
Harein, P.K. 1982. Chemical control alternatives for stored-grain insects. Chapter 10 in Storage
of Cereal Grains and Their Products. C. Christensen (ed.). Third edition. American
Harris, K.L., and Bauer, F.J. 1982. Rodents. Chapter 11 in Storage of Cereal Grains and Their
Products. C. Christensen (ed.). Third edition. American Association of Cereal Chemists,
St. Paul, MN.
Hendricks, K. 1999. Fumonisins and neural tube defects in South Texas. Epidemiology
10:198–200.
Jayas, D.S., White, N.D.G., and Muir, W.E. 1995. Stored Grain Ecosystems. Marcel Dekker,
New York.
Krishna, S.B., and Sinha, K.K. 1991. Aflatoxins: their biological effects and ecological sig-
nificance. pp. 59–85 in Mycotoxins in Ecological Systems. Bathnagar, D., Lillehoj, E.B.,
Arora, D. K. (eds.). Marcel Dekker, New York.
Krogh, P. 1987. Mycotoxins in Foods. Food Science and Technology. A Series of Monographs.
Academic Press. San Diego, CA.
MacFarlane, J.A., John, A.E., and Marder, R.C. 1995. Storage of sorghum and millets:
Including drying storage, with particular reference to tropical areas and the mycotoxin
problem. Chapter 6 in Sorghum and Millets: Chemistry and Technology. D.A.V. Dendy
(ed.). American Association of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul, MN.
Marasas, W.F.O., Riley, R.T., Hendricks, K.A., Stevens, V.L., Sadler, T.W., Gelineau-van Waes,
J., Missmer, S.A., et al. 2004. Fumonisins disrupt sphingolipid metabolism, folate trans-
port, and neural tube development in embryo culture and in vivo: A potential risk factor
for human neural tube defects among populations consuming fumonisin-contaminated
maize. J. Nutr. 134:711–716.
Mason, L., and Storey, C.L. 2003. Effect and control of insects affecting corn quality. Chapter
6 in Corn Chemistry and Technology, P. White and L. Johnson (eds.). Second edition.
Metcalf, C.L., and Flint, W.P. 1977. Insectos Destructivos e Insectos Utiles. Translated by A.
Blackaller V. Compañia Editorial Continental, S.A. México, D.F.
Miller, J.D., and Trenholm, H.L. 1994. Mycotoxins in Grain: Compounds Other Than Aflatoxin.
Eagan Press. St. Paul, MN.
Mirocha, C.J., Pathre, S.V., and Christensen, C.M. 1980. Mycotoxins. Chapter 5 in Advances
of Cereal Science and Technology. Vol. III. Y. Pomeranz (ed.). American Association of
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Puzzi, D. 1986. Abastecimiento e Armazenagem de Grâos. Instituto Campineiro de Ensino

Agrícola. Campinas, Sâo Paulo, Brasil.
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7 Dry-Milling Operations
7.1 Introduction
Dry-milling of cereal grains is one of the oldest industries recorded. Prehistoric men
first pounded and crushed grains upon flat stones and later on upon the still-used
saddle stones. After that, bur mills or stone mills gradually developed, in which
kernels were ground between a stationary (circular flat stone) and a rotating counter-
part. The gap between the stones determined the degree of grind. Regardless of the
ancient milling technique, the objective was to grind cereals into a more palatable,
digestible, and convenient meal.
The dry-milling industry has existed for centuries in order to provide milled frac-
tions for various types of foods. Today, the characteristics of cereal-based foods
greatly depend on the quality of the raw materials used for their production. Most
bakery products (Chapter 10), breakfast cereals (Chapter 11), and snack foods
(Chapter 12) utilize cereal refined fractions because they are rich in starch and low in
fiber and fat. Nowadays, most industrial milling processes are modern, highly auto-
mated, and very versatile in terms of the arrays of products produced. The resulting
fractions have a certain particle-size distribution or granulation and a long shelf life
due to their low moisture and fat contents. The low fat is mainly due to the removal
of the germ. In addition, these products are usually highly refined due to the removal
of glumes or husks in the case of covered caryopses, such as rough rice, oats, and
barley, as well as pericarp or bran in all cereal grains.
Dry milling consists of the separation of the different grain anatomical parts
with the aim of obtaining the endosperm as whole, in pieces or grits, or as meals or
flours. These raw materials are in high demand for the manufacture of a wide array
of bakery products, breakfast cereals, snacks, and beer. The dry-milling processes
for maize, rice, and wheat have different objectives and product yields. The rice-
milling industry focuses on obtaining high yields of white polished or head rice,
whereas maize millers focus on an array of grits, meals, and flours. The wheat-mill-
ing industries obtain semolina from durum wheat and different sorts of flours from
hard and soft wheats. The processing of oats for human foods generally requires
the dehulling of the grain to produce groats, which are thermally treated in order
to inactivate lipases that negatively affect the odor and flavor of ground products.
Most groats are flaked or rolled for production of breakfast cereals, or ground into
meals or flours for the production of bakery items. Sorghum dry milling consists of
removing the outer layers by means of pounding or mechanical decortication. The
resulting pearled or decorticated kernels are further milled into grits, meals, and/or
flours. These products are the base for the production of many traditional foods
(Chapter 16) prepared in Africa and Asian households. Undoubtedly, the quality of
177
178 Cereal Grains
the refined products is highly related to the quality of the finished products and also
affects processing conditions.
7.2 Traditional Milling

It is well documented that primitive men used different artifacts for grinding cereal
grains. There is clear archeological evidence of the use of flat milling saddle stones
or concave bedstones where grains were ground with a handheld stone. The result-
ing ground or crushed grains were easier to masticate and convenient because they
required less energy and time for cooking. Primitive milling evolved with more effi-
cient stone mills where the work energy first provided by humans evolved with the
utilization of the force generated by domestic animals, water, or wind. The bur or
quern stone mills developed next, in which kernels were ground between a station-
ary (circular flat stone) and a rotating complement. A gigantic step forward occurred
when crushed kernels were subjected to winnowing to remove light bran particles,
or somehow sifted with cloth or other primitive sieves, giving birth to refined
milled fractions. This practice improved the shelf life of resulting products and also
enhanced the color, texture, and organoleptic properties of prepared foods.
There are still many places around the globe where traditional milling is widely
practiced. In these places, cereal grains are still ground using saddle stones or larger-
scale stone mills moved with domestic animals, river flows, or wind currents. In
India, the implements most widely used for traditional milling are stone hand mills
consisting of two round stones rotating horizontally against each other.
Stone mills evolved into continuous, more efficient systems thanks to the Egyptian
and Roman cultures (Figure 7.1). The Egyptians introduced carving or grooving of
the stones and the use of sifting cloths. On the other hand, the Romans invented the
Grain Input
Hollow
Lever Mobile Stone
(Driven by man
or domestic
animals) Grain Being
Milled
Ground Flour Collector
Conical Ribbed
Static Stone
Figure 7.1 Schema of antique stone mill moved by domestic animals or men.

Dry-Milling Operations 179
two-round-stone grinding system or quern where one of the stones was static and
served as the base for positioning the other grinding stone that was moved by domes-
tic animals or men. It was operated by pouring kernels through the cone-shaped axle
orifice located at the top of the mill. A handle was used to rotate the capstone on the
stationary stone. The kernels were gradually milled due to the friction taking place
along the grooves in the interior of the grinding stones. Ground kernels fell into a tub
surrounding the quern. These mills became more versatile when different grooving
designs were invented; millers controlled the pressure or gap between the grinding
stones and the degree of refinement by sifting. These designs were adapted centuries
later to work with wind or water. Windmills or water mills are still used in some
parts of the world to obtain whole flours from wheat, rye, barley, and even maize.
In pioneer America, the early settlers used the hominy block built from hard-
wood hollowed on the top. A wood pestle or block was tied on a springy limb to
facilitate grinding. The hominy block was operated by repeatedly plunging the wood
pestle into the hollow stump until kernels had been sufficiently ground into a meal
(Duensing et al. 2003). A similar system is still extensively practiced in Africa where
sorghum, millets, and maize are ground into meals and flours using the traditional
wood mortar and pestle. This chore is labor intensive and usually performed by
women. The wood mortar and pestle is used for two main purposes: grain deco-
rtication, and milling of whole or decorticated kernels into whole or semirefined
meals or flours, respectively. Optimal decortication is achieved by careful pounding
of preferably hard or flint kernels. Normally, small quantities of water are used to
optimize pearling. The resulting decorticated kernels are separated from the bran by
winnowing, sifting, or water flotation, and the cleaned kernels are milled into meal
or flour by direct crushing. For example, in Senegal, one person spends 4–6 h daily,
pounding kernels into flours for one-day food preparation.
7.3 Grain Cleaning
A rigorous cleaning of the kernels precedes all modern milling processes. The aim
of cleaning is to separate all foreign material and protect milling and processing
equipment via the removal of stones and metal contaminants. The typical cleaning
operation consists of several sequential operations.
7.3.1 Air Aspirators
Air aspirators are usually the first cleaning step. The air aspirator blows air at a con-
trolled speed countercurrently to the grain flow (Figure 7.2). During the quick pass
through, the equipment dust, fines, stalk pieces, and other vegetative contaminants
are selectively removed.
7.3.2 Sieves or Size Separators

Size separators are the most universal equipment used to clean grains (Figure 7.2).
The separators consist of at least two interchangeable sieves positioned one on top
of the other. The inclined positioned sieves are continuously shaken to enhance
180 Cereal Grains
(a)
Dirty Grain Air Air
Dust, Chaff and

Light Material
Stones, Large
Seeds, Sticks
Head Sieve
Soil and Small Seeds
Second Head
Sieve
Clean Grain
(b)
Figure 7.2 Universal cleaning equipment used in the various milling industries. (a) Air
aspirator (courtesy of Buhler AG, Switzerland). (b) Schema of size separator (courtesy of
American Association of Cereal Chemists).
(c)
Input
Window
Pneumatic
System
Low Density High Density

Product (Damaged Product
Grain)
Major Flow
(Clean Grain)
(d)
Figure 7.2 (Continued) Universal cleaning equipment used in the various milling indus-
tries. (c) Schema of disc separator. (d) Schema of gravity separator (courtesy of American
Association of Cereal Chemists).
182 Cereal Grains
(e)
Figure 7.2 (Continued) Universal cleaning equipment used in the various milling indus-
tries. (e) Color sorter (courtesy of Buhler AG, Switzerland).
movement, distribution, and separation of kernels. The top sieve, commonly known
as the first head, removes larger particles such as coarse foreign material, stones,
other extraneous kernels, pieces of glass, and vegetative materials such as pieces of
stalks and sticks, etc. The second head sieve allows the passage of broken kernels,
small seeds, and small particles. Thus, an incoming lot of grain is partitioned into at
least three streams: coarse foreign material, fine extraneous material and broken ker-
nels, and cleaned kernels. Most size separators also contain magnets to trap metals,
rust chips, and other ferrous particles, and some also contain air aspirators to remove
light or low-density particles. The ferrous contaminants are considered a physical
risk by most food regulatory agencies.
7.3.3 Gravity Separators
Gravity separators are used to remove stones, glass, and nonmagnetic metals that are
of the same grain size but have different density (Figure 7.2). These machines usually
contain only one sieve positioned in inclined angles in both axes. The gravity table
works under high-intensity vibration that enhances the separation of particles based
on density. Most gravity separators are used to selectively remove stones. Another
important use is to sort insect and mold-damaged kernels that have lower density
compared to sound grains. Gravity separators are effectively used to decrease myco-
toxins and insect fragments in grains, mainly maize.
7.3.4 Disc Separators
Disc separators are specifically designed to perform length separation. They are
widely used to clean small elongated cereals such wheat, oats, barley, rye, triticale,
and rice. They consist of a horizontal shaft on which is mounted a series of vertical
disks with indented pockets (Figure 7.2). The indentations on both sides of the rotat-
ing disks (56 rpm) selectively pick up kernels that are lifted and then thrown out of the
pockets by centrifugal force to a collecting hopper running along the entire length of
the machine. The larger particles that do not fit into the pockets are conveyed down
the separator through an outlet at the tail end. Generally, at least two separate disc
separators work in tandem. The first one contains discs that pick up larger particles,
whereas the second is equipped with discs that lift smaller contaminants.
7.3.5 Color Sorters
The color sorting of grains is especially applied in the rice-milling industry. Grains
are separated from the bulk based on differences in their color, using electronic sen-
sors. The color sorters are composed of four basic parts: the feeding mechanism, the
background, the sensors, and the ejector. The incoming kernels are fed individually
through the detection unit equipped with photocell sensors and a source of light.
The sensors are directed against the background, which can be adjusted to the color
of the flowing material. Off-colored kernels reflect the light that is detected by the
photocell differently, causing an automatic jet blast of compressed air that removes
defective kernels (Posner and Hibbs 2005). Color sorters are very expensive and are
normally used only in large-capacity mills and food industries.
7.4 Maize Dry Milling

Dry-millers process maize in two ways: by stone grinding the kernels to produce
hominy grits and full-fat whole meals, and by the tempering–degerming or TD pro-
cess (Figure 7.3). The latter process is the one most commonly practiced by the indus-
try and produces highly refined grits, meals, and flours with extended shelf life.
7.4.1 Whole-Meal Milling Processes

Whole maize meals have a rich flavor because of their high oil and germ content.
Some meals are bolted to remove coarse particles of bran and germ. Whole meals
contain higher fiber, ash, and lipids than refined meals, and less functionality for the
manufacture of most food products. In addition, whole meals have a shorter shelf
life, because the oil is prone to rancidity, and therefore have little use in producing
snacks.
Stone-ground whole meals are obtained by a nondegerming process consisting of
grinding with millstones. Normally, the whole kernel is milled into a meal, although,
in some cases, small amounts of bran pieces are removed by bolting or sifting. The
main disadvantage of whole meals is their reduced shelf life because of the high fat
content, larger surface area, and the action of intrinsic germ enzymes that promote
184 Cereal Grains
Maize
100 kg, 12–14% Moisture
Cleaning Dockage, Foreign

Magnets, Air Aspirator, Material, Broken
Gravity Tables, Stoner Kernels
Cleaned Maize
97 kg 12–14% Moisture
Water Tempering
14 kg 111 kg, 24% Moisture/3 hr
Degerming Tails 24%

(Beall Degerminator, Impact Mills) Moisture
Moisture
Drying/Cooling
15 kg
Dried Tails
96 kg, 12% Moisture
Bran
Air Aspirator 6–7 kg, 12% Moisture
Germ + Endosperm
Fractions
Germ
Gravity Separator 11–12 kg, 12%
Moisture
Endosperm Fractions
77–79 kg, 12% Moisture
Grading/Classification
Plansifter/Purification
Grits Coarse Coarse Regular Maize Maize

Cones
#6 Fraction Grits #40 Grits #60 Meal Flour
Roll Milling/Classification
Figure 7.3 Flowchart of the tempering–degerming (TD) dry-milling process of maize.

Photograph depicts clockwise maize kernels, bran, flour, brewing grits, flaking grits and germ.
rancidity. Whole meals can be enriched with selected minerals and vitamins or sup-
plemented with sodium bicarbonate and chemical leavening agents to yield enriched
and self-rising products.
7.4.2 Tempering–Degerming Milling Process

The detailed TD process for maize has been described by Duensing et al. (2003).
The milling process involves adding moisture to the maize kernels to facilitate the
removal of the germ and pericarp. U.S. No. 2 yellow dent maize is the type most
frequently used by millers. Kernel hardness, endosperm texture, and/or density and
freedom from stress cracks are the major grain quality criteria. The optimum ker-
nel characteristics are high test weight (72.3–76.1 kg/hL), density (1.30 g/cm3), and
1000-kernel weight (> 290 g); uniform and clean color; low-diastatic activity; low
incidence of damaged kernels; and freedom from mycotoxins. All mills carefully
examine incoming lots of grain for insect damage, grain molds, and mycotoxins.
The industry prefers field-dried kernels because they have fewer incidences of stress
cracks. If artificial drying is used, kernels should be dehydrated at temperatures lower
than 65°C, preferably at 40°C. High-temperature drying creates stress cracks that
lead to breakage during handling. Milling quality decreases linearly with increasing
drying temperature. Hard genotypes have better milling characteristics compared to
soft-textured counterparts.
The objective of dry milling is to produce the maximum percentage of refined
grits, containing minimum fat, fiber, and specks from the hilum or tip cap, and to
recover the maximum percentage of clean germ with maximum oil content and larg-
est particle size.
7.4.2.1 Cleaning
Maize kernels are thoroughly cleaned before milling. The grain usually passes
through magnets, air aspirators, the size separator, and gravity separators or deston-
ers. In some operations, the cleaned kernels are further passed through a gravity sep-
arator to remove insect- and mold-damaged kernels, washed with water to remove
dust, and passed through electrostatic separators to selectively remove rodent fecal
pellets of approximately the same size and density as the grain.
7.4.2.2 Tempering and Degerming

Tempering helps in fractionating and separating the maize kernel into its anatomical
components because the texture, density, and grinding characteristics of the peri-
carp, germ, and endosperm are different, and tempering exacerbates these differ-
ences. The tempering moisture enters the kernel through the tip cap and diffuses into
the crown through the tube cells, seed coat, and aleurone layer, and then moves into
the germ. This is the reason why tempering time is critically important. Generally,
cleaned maize kernels are conditioned to 20% to 23% moisture, using screw con-
veyors equipped with water sprayers, and placed in a tempering bin for 1 to 3 h.
Tempering is usually achieved in three sequential steps. First kernels with 13%–
14% moisture are conditioned to 18%–20% moisture with 30°C water for about 1
h. Then kernels are further conditioned to 20%–22% moisture with warm water for
186 Cereal Grains
60–90 additional minutes. The last tempering step is performed with warmer water
or steam for 5–15 min to achieve a final moisture content of 23%–24%. The first two
phases are aimed toward the hydration of the germ so that it detaches more freely
from the rest of the disrupted kernel components, whereas the second step is per-
formed to allow the clean separation of the bran or pericarp. The water temperature
should be controlled in order to avoid thermal stress that increases endosperm stress,
crack, or fissures, and to enhance the yield of large grits. The aim of conditioning
is to toughen the germ and bran in order to facilitate subsequent milling operations.
Tempering also hydrates the endosperm so that maximum grit yields with minimum
flour is achieved.
Degerming is the most critical step for efficient dry milling. There are different
degerminators used worldwide: the Beall, impact or Entoleter, disc, and other types
of impact degerminators. The most common and the mainstay of the industry is
the Beall, patented more than a century ago. It is the leader because it produces
better-quality grits and separates the germ and pericarp more efficiently. Its main
disadvantage is that it requires kernels conditioned to higher moisture compared
to other degerming systems. However, there are some current milling operations
designed to operate Beall degerminators with nonconditioned kernels. The Beall
degerminator consists of a conical knobbed rotor and a stator shell that is knobbed
on the lower convex surface and slotted on the upper surface (Figure 7.4). The gap
between the rotor and the shell is adjustable but is generally set at 1.3 cm. The
tempered kernels are broken by the attrition force created by the 1 cm knobs that
usually rotate at 700 rpm. The friction increases the grain temperature by about
10°C. The degerminator is adjusted to achieve a clean separation of the germ and
pericarp that exit the equipment through a sieve positioned at the end of the coni-
cal mill.
The degerminator is set to produce large, clean pieces of endosperm known as
hominy tails. Two streams of ground maize exit the degerminator: tail stock mainly
composed of large endosperm pieces, and the through stock made of germ, pericarp,
and smaller endosperm pieces that pass through the orifices of the housing. With
the Beall degerminator, most of the germ and pericarp are removed (Brekke 1970,
Duensing et al. 2003, Serna-Saldivar 2008).
Other less popular degerminators are the Buhler decorticator–degerminator con-
sisting of an eccentric rotor and a special perforated screen design; the Satake verti-
cal degerminator in which tempered kernels are ground with a rotating degerming
roll; and impact mills such as the Entoleter. This mill consists of a horizontal disc-
type rotor with vertical spins turning within a stationary housing. The kernels are
subjected to impact between the moving and stationary pins, releasing the germ and
pericarp tissues. The Entoleter impact mill does not necessarily require conditioned
kernels, although degerming is slightly improved with tempering. These impact
mills are popular in Africa (Duensing et al 2003, Serna-Saldivar 2008).
7.4.2.3 Drying and Sizing

The tail and thru stock streams are then immediately dehydrated to decrease the
moisture to approximately 14%. At this moisture, the refined grits and their prod-
ucts and coproducts will have prolonged shelf life. The drying operation is usually
Dry-Milling Operations
Sieve
Maize Stator
Shell
Conical
Knobbed
Rotor
Milled Grain
Discharge
(a)
Figure 7.4 Maize degerminators. (a) Schema and photograph (courtesy of Buhler AG, Switzerland) of conical-knobbed maize degerminators.
187
188
Static
Pin
Rotor Pin
Rotor
(b)
Figure 7.4 (Continued) Maize degerminators. (b) Schema (courtesy of American Association of Cereal Chemists) and photograph of impact or
Entoleter degerminator (www.mills-windfield.com).
Cereal Grains
performed in rotary dryers operating at 60°C. Then the fractions are cooled down
to ambient temperature using a countercurrent cooling system. The tail stock with
a moisture content of 13%–14% is then classified into products and coproducts by
the use of air aspiration, sizing separator, and gravity separator. Most pericarp is
separated by air aspiration, whereas the germ is separated by gravity separators.
The array of refined endosperm fractions are classified by plansifters equipped with
a set of sieves ranging from U.S. No. 6 to U.S. No. 100, or sent to roller mills for
further reduction. The coarse particles that do not meet particle-size standards are
milled into finer particles by these mills. The thru stock is also aspirated to remove
pericarp pieces and then moved to gravity tables to separate germ from endosperm
pieces. The thru endosperm pieces have higher amount of contaminants such as
small pieces of germ, pericarp, and tip caps, and they become a coproduct named
standard meal. Endosperm fractions are finished in purifiers designed to remove
fine pieces of pericarp and hilum (black specks), and are packaged at a moisture
content of approximately 12% (Brekke 1970, Duensing et al. 2003). Most dry-mill-
ing operations obtain flaking grits (U.S. No. −3.5 to +6), coarse grits (U.S. No. −10
to +18), brewing grits (U.S. No. −12 to +30), fine grits or snack meal (U.S. No. −20
to +40), maize meal (U.S. No −30 to +60), cones (U.S. No −40 to +80), regular flour
(−60), and fine flour (−100) (Serna-Saldivar 2008). The mean chemical composition
of maize kernels, grits, whole and refined meals, and bran are detailed in Table 7.1.
The principles of milling described have been recently adopted by fuel ethanol
processors. Maize is fractionated into coproducts and refined endosperm pieces that
are further milled into a meal adequate for ethanol processing. The advantage of
using fractionated milling is that the coproducts have added value because they are
more stable compared to wet-distilled grains and have higher ethanol yields from the
refined endosperm fractions used in the biorefineries (Chapter 14).
The bran is usually channeled to animal feeds, although recently it has started to
be further milled and sized for direct food applications. The germ is usually chan-
neled to oil-crushing industries where the oil is mechanically expelled and/or chemi-
cally extracted with hexane. The pericarp, germ cake, standard meal, and broken
kernels are usually combined and hammer milled to produce hominy feed (Chapter
18).
7.4.2.4 Dry-Milled Fractions and Coproducts

Typical yields of dry-milled fractions vary according to kernel characteristics and
mill settings. According to Brekke (1970), the average U.S. maize yields 12% flak-
ing grits, 15% coarse grits, 23% regular grits, 3% coarse meal, 3% dusted meals, and
4% flour. In addition, about 35% of hominy feed is regularly obtained. The refined
endosperm products from dry milling, ranging from large grits to flour, are widely
used by the snack, breakfast, baking, and brewery industries (Table 7.2)
7.4.3 Production of Precooked Arepa Flour

Arepa is considered the national bread in Venezuela and Colombia. Approximately 1
million tons of maize is processed into Arepa flour in Venezuela (Cuevas et al. 1985).
Arepas are manufactured from white or yellow maize using both traditional (Chapter
190
Table 7.1
Milling Yields and Chemical Composition of Dry-Milled Products of Maize
Refined Dry Milled
Raw White Yellow Hominy Degermed Whole
Nutrient Grain Grits Grits Grits Meal Meal Bran
Water, g 10.37 10.00 10.00 10.48 11.59 10.91 4.71
Energy, kcal 365 371 371 347 366 361 224
Protein, g 9.42 8.80 8.80 8.53 8.48 6.93 8.36
Tryptophan, g 0.067 N/A 0.062 — — 0.049 —
Lysine, g 0.265 N/A 0.247 — — 0.195 —
Methionine, g 0.197 N/A 0.184 — — 0.145 —
Lipids, g 4.74 1.20 1.20 1.36 1.65 3.86 0.92
Saturated, g 0.667 0.155 0.155 0.260 0.225 0.543 0.13
Monounsaturated, g 1.251 0.300 0.300 0.200 0.412 1.018 0.243
Polyunsaturated, g 2.163 0.516 0.516 0.680 0.710 1.759 0.421
Carbohydrates, g 74.26 79.60 79.60 79.16 77.68 76.85 85.64
Dietary Fiber, g 7.3 1.6 1.6 4.8 7.4 9.6 79.0
Calcium, mg 7 2 2 4 5 7 42
Iron, mg 2.71 1 1 3.52 1.10 2.38 2.79
Sodium, mg 35 1 1 2 3 5 7
Thiamine, mg 0.385 0.130 0.130 0.580 0.140 0.246 0.01
Riboflavin, mg 0.201 0.040 0.040 0.330 0.050 0.080 0.10
Niacin, mg 3.627 1.200 1.200 4.810 1.000 1.900 2.735
Folate, mcg 19 — — N/A 48 25 4
Vitamin E, mg 0.49 N/A N/A N/A 0.15 0.42 0.42
Source: USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). 2005. Nutrient Data Laboratory. Agricultural Research
Cereal Grains
Service. Electronic page: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp.

Table 7.2
Main Food Uses of Refined Dry-Milled Fractions of Maize
Maize
Dry-Milled Particle Size
Fraction U.S. Sieve Food Uses
Flaking grits 3.5 to 6 Used for the production of breakfast cereals such as corn flakes and
corn pops. In Brazil, flaking grits are used to produce Canjica
(Chapters 11 and 16).
Coarse grits 10 to 14 Used for the production of extruded breakfast cereals (i.e., extruded
flakes and puffs), and second-generation (i.e., puffs) and third-
generation (i.e., pellets) snacks (Chapters 11 and 12).
Medium grits 14 to 28 Used as brewing adjuncts and for the production of extruded
breakfast cereals (i.e., extruded flakes and puffs), and second-
generation (i.e., puffs) and third-generation (i.e., pellets) snacks
(Chapters 11, 12, and 14).
Fine grits 50 to 75 Used as brewing adjuncts, raw material for production of maize
porridges, production of extruded breakfast cereals (i.e., extruded
flakes and puffs), and second-generation (i.e., puffs) and third-
generation (pellets) snacks (Chapters 11, 12, and 14).
Cones 50 to 80 Used as raw material for production of cornbread, extruded breakfast
cereals (i.e., CheeriosTM), and second-generation (i.e., puffs) and
third-generation (i.e., pellets) snacks (Chapters 10, 11, and 12).
Meal 50 to 75 Used for production of breadings and batters for maize-based bakery
items (pancakes, muffins, biscuits, waffles, and cornbread) (Chapter
10).
Flour −75 Used for production of breadings and batters, thickening agents,
baby foods, meat extenders, and maize-based bakery items
(pancakes, muffins, biscuits, waffles, and cornbread) (Chapter 10).
Source: Data from Brekke, O.L. 1970. Pages 269–291 in Corn Culture, Processing, Products. G.E.
Inglett (ed.). AVI Publishing Co., Westport, CT; Duensing, W.J. et al. 2003. Chapter 11 in Corn
Chemistry and Technology. P.J. White and L.A. Johnson (eds.). Second edition. American
Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN; Rooney, L.W., and Serna‑Saldivar, S.O. 2003.
Chapter 13 in Corn Chemistry and Technology. P. White and L. Johnson (eds.). Second edition.
American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN; and Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2008. Chapter
2 in Industrial Manufacture of Snack Foods. Kennedys Publications, London.
16) and industrial processes. Today, most Arepa flours are industrially produced
using refined dry-milled maize grits that are cooked or pregelatinized and processed
into shelf-stable precooked flour (Figure 7.5, Cuevas et al. 1985). Selected maize
kernels are milled into grits using the dry-milling principles described in Figure 7.3.
The refined maize fractions are conditioned for 1–2 h to approximately 15% mois-
ture in preparation for cooking. The tempered grits are steamed cooked and flaked
using hot rolls (>90°C) to pregelatinize the starch. This step is considered the most
critical or important because it determines flour functionality, water absorption, and
dough-handling properties. The precooked flakes are dried, ground, and sifted to
192 Cereal Grains
Maize
100 kg, 14% Moisture
Germ
15 kg
Bran D-T Dry Milling Process
9 kg (Refer to Fig. 7.3)
Flour and Meal
11 kg
Maize Grits
65 kg
Conditioning
(15% Moisture Content/
35–40°C/ 1–2 Hours)
Flaking
Steam-Cooking
Hot Flaking Rolls (>90°C)
Flakes
(65 kg)
Drying and Cooling Roller Milling
Sifting/Classification
Enrichment Premix,
Flour Formulation Additives and Salt
1 kg
Water
90 kg Instant Arepa Flour
64 kg, 10% Moisture
Arepa Dough Forming into Discs

Kneading or Mixing 154 kg, 63% Moisture (7–10 cm Diameter and
1 cm Thick)
Water Loss
Steam Cooking/Baking
3 kg
Arepa
Figure 7.5 Flowchart of the precooked Arepa flour process.

meet a certain granulation. The Arepa flour is enriched with selected vitamins and
minerals and packaged. About 63 kg of precooked flour with 10%–12% moisture are
obtained from 100 kg cleaned maize (14% mb) (Cuevas et al 1985).
Arepas are prepared by mixing the precooked flour with warm water to yield
dough pieces that are molded into 7–10-cm-diameter and 1-cm-thick discs. The discs
are steam-cooked or simply baked. With these precooked flours the preparation of
Arepas only takes 30 min (Cuevas et al. 1985) instead of the 12 h for the traditional
process. Arepas are usually cut in the middle in order to place fillings such as meat
stews, cheeses, butter, jellies, and other prepared foods. Deep-fat-fried and stuffed
Arepas are known as Hallaquitas or Empanadas. The typical composition of pre-
pared Arepas is 58%–64% moisture, 4% protein, 0.7% fat, 38% carbohydrates, 0.2%
fiber, and 1% minerals.
7.5 Rice Milling
Rice is almost always consumed as a dehulled, decorticated, and degermed prod-
uct. Yearly, more than a half billion metric tons of paddy rice is transformed into
white rice by the milling industry. Most of the milling capacity is located in Asia.
Rice milling consists of a series of higvhly mechanized and complex operations
that have the aim of producing high yields of unbroken kernels that meet particle
size, color, and shelf-life specifications. The milling process basically consists of
six operations: drying, grain cleaning, dehulling, decortication, polishing, and
sizing.
7.5.1 Drying
Yields of unbroken white rice are affected mainly by management practices during
harvesting and drying. Paddy or rough rice is usually harvested at moistures ranging
from 20%–24%, and therefore, it should be carefully dehydrated to lower its moisture
to around 11%–13%. This moisture is optimum for prolonged storage and milling.
Harvesting and drying should be performed with the aim of minimizing mechanical
damage to the endosperm structure that results in stress cracks, fissures, and broken
kernels that decrease milling yields. Rough rice is solar or artificially dehydrated.
Natural sun drying is the least expensive operation and produces the best-quality
rice. However, it takes a long time and depends on the environmental conditions, so
it is less flexible, especially during the rainy season. In addition, solar-dried paddy
rice is more prone to infestation with insects and other pests. Nowadays, most paddy
rice is artificially dehydrated in driers that have strict controls of temperature, rela-
tive humidity, and air-flow rate. Rough rice kernels are more prone to stress cracks
and fissures when dehydrated at relatively high temperatures. For this reason, drying
is considered the most critical step of the milling operation. When artificially dried,
rough rice is usually dehydrated to a moisture of about 12%, preferably at tempera-
tures around 50°C (Bond 2004, Kunze and Calderwood 1985, Serna-Saldivar 2008,
Siebenmogen and Meullenet 2004).
Commercial rice dryers are usually continuous flow or multipass. The first is com-
monly used in large operations and consist of an upright structure into which rough
194 Cereal Grains
rice is conveyed to the top. The rice flows down by gravity and is subjected to the
drying air during its descent. There are two types of continuous-flow dryers: drying
column or nonmixing type, and mixing dryers. In the first the rice flows downward in
a straight path, whereas in the second the kernels are diverted by baffles. Rice flows
between two parallel screens about 20 cm apart. The central section of the dryer
serves as a hot air plenum from which the heated air flows horizontally through the
rice column. This permits a high air flow, and rates of 112–262 m3/min/ton are com-
monly used. Drying air temperatures are often less than 54°C. The mixing type dryer
consists of vertical compartments across which rows of baffles are installed. One
end is open, whereas the second is closed. Alternate rows are open to heated air, and
intervening rows are open to the exhaust plenum. These dryers are usually operated
at airflow rates of 44 m3/min/ton and air temperatures of 66°C. In multipass drying,
the rough rice flows through the dryer several times with a tempering or equilibrating
period between each of the passes. During equilibration, the moisture inside the ker-
nels diffuses from the inner to the outer part of the grain. In typical operations, rice
is exposed to heated air for 15–20 min for each pass, and moisture is reduced 2%–3%
each time. Between passes, the rice is moved to a bin for 4–48 h equilibration. Total
residence time of the rice in the dryer seldom exceeds 2 h. The ideal moisture content
of rough rice for storage and milling is 13% (Kunze and Calderwood 1985, Serna-
Saldivar 2008). The most used quality-control measurements of rough rice related to
milling yields and white rice quality are class (length/width ratio), moisture, dockage,
amount of empty kernels, incidence of stress cracks, and the laboratory rice-milling
test (Chapter 15). Stress cracks and fissures are observed in randomly selected grain
samples positioned on top of a light box, whereas milling yields are determined by
first subjecting a sample to the sample sheller and the resulting brown rice to the
McGill Rice Miller. The yield of hulls, rice bran, white rice, and broken kernels
is calculated. The small sample of white rice could be further analyzed in terms
of chemical composition (amylose, amylopectin, fat, ash), color, and cooking tests
(water absorption during cooking, elongation, cooked rice texture, etc.) (Bond 2004,
Kunze and Calderwood 1985, Siebenmogen and Meullenet 2004).
7.5.2 Cleaning
Paddy rice is optimally cleaned with air aspiration to remove light contaminants
such as free glumes, empty kernels, and vegetative contaminants, followed by clean-
ing with size separators. This equipment continuously separates foreign material
larger than rough rice on top of the first sieve, and broken kernels and small contami-
nants that are capable of passing the second sieve. Some tables have an aspiration
system integrated into the cleaner. The last step is passing the cleaned grain through
a gravimetric table with the aim of removing foreign material with the same size
but different density than the clean rough rice. This equipment is used to remove
damaged–unfilled–shrunken kernels and stones that have lower and higher densities,
respectively, compared to sound paddy rice kernels. During these cleaning steps,
kernels are usually passed through magnets integrated into the cleaning devices
described earlier in order to remove ferrous metals that can damage the milling
equipment and compromise the quality of the end product (Bond 2004).
7.5.3 Dehulling
Paddy rice is dehulled to selectively remove the glumes or husks to yield brown
rice. During this operation, about 20% of the paddy rice weight is lost (Figure 7.6).
Rough or paddy rice is rich in insoluble fiber and minerals (Juliano and Bechtel 1985)
(Table 7.3). Dehulling is accomplished by passing the cleaned rough rice through a
rubber-roll huller consisting of a couple of plastic-covered rolls that counterrotate
at different speeds. The gap between the rolls is carefully adjusted for the different
classes of rice (short, medium, or long) so as to dehull approximately 90%–95% of
the kernels and minimize kernel breakage. The speed differential creates an abrasive
mechanical action that removes most of the glumes or husks (Figure 7.7). The other
type of dehulling device is the disc huller consisting of two abrasive discs horizon-
tally positioned. The lower disc rotates below the upper stationary disc (Figure 7.7).
Rough rice flows vertically through an orifice located in the central part of the
upper stationary disc and is dehulled by the abrasive action of the discs. Since these
dehullers are usually adjusted to an efficiency of 90%–95%, the output is first passed
through an aspiration system to remove the detached glumes and then through a
gravimetric sorter or paddy table to separate the less dense rough rice from the more
dense brown kernels. The paddy rice is recirculated, while the brown rice is chan-
neled to the decorticators (Bond 2004).
7.5.4 Decortication/Polishing
Decortication/polishing or whitening is, after drying, the most critical milling step,
because most of the broken kernels are generated during this mechanical operation.
During this stage, the pericarp, germ, and aleurone layers are removed. There are
two types of systems normally used by rice millers. In both, the outer layers are
progressively removed by abrasion or friction to produce white rice. These tissues,
commonly known as rice bran, make up about 12% of the brown rice weight and are
rich in protein, fat, and minerals. The abrasive system is the oldest one and consists
of a vertical conical stone that is encased inside a perforated metal frame. Brown
rice is fed through the gap existing between the rotating stone and the static metal
frame. Decortication is mainly achieved by the abrasive action of the external part of
the stone and the metal mesh. The milling stone generally rotates at 800 m/min. The
clearance between the stone and the screen can be adjusted by lifting or lowering
the vertical shaft or cone assembly. This adjustment largely controls residence time
and machine capacity. The finely ground rice bran passes through the metal screen,
whereas the white kernels exit at the bottom of the milling machine. The cylindri-
cal decortication system consists of a horizontally positioned hollow cylindrical roll
encased inside a metal mesh. The coating used for the abrasive machines is based
on silicon carbide. Brown rice is gradually decorticated by the abrasion of the rotat-
ing roll and the friction among kernels. The efficiency of the mill can be improved
when calcium carbonate (3.3 g/kg brown rice) is used. The degree of decortication is
adjusted by controlling the gap between the rotating roll and the fixed metal mesh.
Rice polishing is accomplished with the same cylindrical mill, but the rotating roll
is usually covered with leather. In some instances, decorticated white kernels are
196 Cereal Grains
Green Paddy Rice

Drying: Solar or Artificial (37°C) Moisture

86.4 kg, 12% Moisture 13.6 kg
Cleaning
Magnets, Aspirators, Screening, Foreign Material
Disk Separators and Gravity Tables 2.2 kg
Clean Paddy Rice

84.2 kg, 12% Moisture
Husk
Aspiration
Sheller Hulls or Glumes
Disk or Rubber Roll Dehuller 16.8 kg
Paddy Machine
Paddy Rice Rough Rice Separator
Brown Rice
67.4 kg
Whitening/Polishing Bran, Germ and

Whitening Cone, Double Pass Abrasive Whitener Aleurone Layers
8.4 kg
Milled Rice Grading/Classification

59 kg Disk Separator, Grading Cylinder, Color Sorter
Head Rice Second Heads Large Brokens Small Brokens

47 kg 4.5 kg 6 kg 1.5 kg
Roller Milling
Classification
Plansifter, Sizing Separator
Coarse Grits Rice Grits Rice Flour
Figure 7.6 Flowchart of the typical dry-milling process of rice. Photograph depicts, from
top to bottom and left to right, rough rice, rice hulls, brown rice, bran, head rice, second head,
broken rice and rice flour.
mixed with magnesium silicate in order to produce a bright coloration and a shiny
gloss (Bond 2004, Serna-Saldivar 2008).
Rice bran has little use as a source of dietary fiber unless the fat is removed with
hexane. Rice bran is approximately 20% oil rich in monounsaturated and polyun-
saturated fatty acids (Table 7.3). These unsaturated fatty acids are prone to oxidative
rancidity. In Asia and other rice-producing regions, rice oil is frequently obtained
from rice bran.
Table 7.3
Milling Yields and Chemical Composition of Dry-Milled Products of Rice
Raw Grains Refined
Nutrient Paddy Brown Grits Flour Bran
Water, g 14.00 10.37 11.62 11.89 6.13
Energy, kcal 379 370 365 366 316
Protein, g 6.75 7.94 7.13 5.95 13.35
Tryptophan, g — 0.101 0.083 0.072 0.108
Lysine, g — 0.303 0.258 0.207 0.650
Methionine, g — 0.179 0.168 0.144 0.306
Lipids, g 1.90 2.92 0.66 1.42 20.85
Saturated, g — 0.584 0.180 0.386 4.17
Monounsaturated, g — 1.056 0.206 0.442 7.55
Polyunsaturated, g — 1.044 0.177 0.379 7.46
Carbohydrates, g 68.40 77.24 79.95 80.13 49.69
Dietary fiber, g — 3.50 1.3 2.4 21.0
Calcium, mg 45 23 28 10 57
Iron, mg 3.70 1.47 4.31 0.35 18.54
Sodium, mg 43 7 5 — 5
Thiamine, mg 2.9 0.401 0.576 0.138 2.753
Riboflavin, mg 0.9 0.093 0.049 0.021 0.284
Niacin, mg 42 5.091 4.192 2.590 33.995
Folic Acid, mcg 300 20 223 — 63
Vitamin E, mg 0.15 1.20 0.11 0.11 4.92
Source: Data from USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). 2005. Nutrient Data Laboratory.
Agricultural Research Service. Electronic page: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp; and
Juliano, B.O., and Bechtel, D.B. 1985. Chapter 2 in Rice: Chemistry and Technology, B.O.
Juliano (ed.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
7.5.5 Sizing/Classification
After whitening, a mixture of white rice and broken kernels is obtained. Ideally,
the yield of refined fractions should be approximately 68%–70% (Figure 7.6). The
proper adjustment of the milling equipment and the quality of the rough rice are key
elements in obtaining high-milling yields of head rice. The broken kernels are clas-
sified as second heads, half kernels, and brewers grits. Second head rice is the one
that loses the tip of the kernel and is approximately three-quarters of the total length
of intact kernels. These refined particles are classified according to their particle
size with sieves or cylindrical sizing systems. The rotating grading cylinder, also
known as a trieur, is composed of a slowly rotating cylinder provided with numer-
ous indents. Each indent has the ability to catch a grain or broken particle, which is
then lifted and discharged by gravity to a catch trough. Depending on the required
degree of grading, a number of trieurs are used. For instance, if processors like to
grade the white rice into head rice, second head, half rice and brewers grits, three
198 Cereal Grains
Feed Roller
Hopper
Pair of Rollers
Rubber Coated
Pressure
Adjustment System
for Rolls
Dehulled
Rice
(a)
Feeding
Abrasive
Rotating Wheel
Fix Wheel
Abrasive Stones Dehulled

Force Rice Exit
Mechanism
Adjustment System
between the Stones
(b)
Figure 7.7 Equipment commonly used in rice-milling operations. (a) Schema of rubber

roll dehuller (courtesy of American Association of Cereal Chemists). (b) Schema of abrasive
disc dehuller (courtesy of American Association of Cereal Chemists).
Feed Control
Valve
Weight, Lever
and Plate
Metal Roll
Abrasive
Roll Perforated Metal Cylinder
Regulating the Output
Material
(c1)
(c2) (d)
Figure 7.7 (Continued) Equipment commonly used in rice-milling operations. (c) Schema

(courtesy of American Association of Cereal Chemists) and photograph (courtesy of Buhler
AG, Switzerland) of rice polisher. (d) Whitener (courtesy of Buhler AG, Switzerland).
200 Cereal Grains
trieurs with decreasing indentations are used so as to remove the fine brokens first,
half brokens in the second step, and second head rice from head rice in the third
trieur (Bond 2004).
7.5.6 Dry-Milled Fractions and Coproducts

Conventional rice mills usually produce screenings from the cleaning operation,
hulls, rice bran, and an array of white rice fractions with different lengths. Head
rice is the main product in terms of economic value and direct food use. Generally,
the economic value of head rice is three times higher than broken rice. It is mainly
used for in the home preparation of cooked rice, breakfast cereals (oven puffed,
flakes, shredded, gun puffed), snacks, and in the canning industry. Second head rice
is usually blended with head rice (i.e., 15:85), especially in developing countries.
Rice halves and fine brokens are usually reduced in particle size to produce grits
highly demanded by brewers and snack processors (Chapters 12 and 14). Broken
kernels are generally reduced in particle size with the use of roller mills to produce
top-quality brewing grits. The resulting particles are classified to meet particle-size
specifications. The rice grits most in demand have particle sizes from U.S. mesh 40
to 60. Brokens can also be ground into a fine flour that could be used to produce rice
noodles and bakery products.
The advantage of rice grits is that they are light colored, high in starch, low in fat,
and practically free of fiber (Chapter 14; Table 7.3). These grits have a high expan-
sion rate, so they are ideally suited for production of direct-extruded puffs (Serna-
Saldivar 2008, Chapter 12).
Rice hulls are rich in cellulose, lignin, and silica and have low nutritional
value even for ruminants (Chapter 18). As a result, rice hulls are usually used for
combustion-pyrolysis in rice mills and parboiling plants. The hulls are less efficient
than coal in terms of energy released and produce more ash, which requires a more
sophisticated grating system. Hulls are also used as poultry litter, although other lit-
ters are considered to be of better quality. The pure silica obtained from rice hulls is
used to produce solar cells and microchips.
Rice bran, consisting of the pericarp, seed coat, germ, and aleurone tissues,
accounts for 7%–10% of the rough rice weight. The bran is rich in protein, fat, miner-
als, and B-vitamins (Juliano and Bechtel 1985) (Chapter 18). In Asia, rice bran is used
as a raw material for production of rice oil. Both mechanical expellers and hexane
extraction systems are used. Solvent extraction usually yields 16%–18% oil and
defatted rice bran with less than 1% residual oil, whereas mechanical pressing leaves
around 10% oil, yielding partially defatted rice bran prone to oxidation. Recently,
whole stabilized and defatted rice bran has been viewed as a source of important anti-
oxidants and nutraceuticals with health-promoting effects. In Europe and America,
rice bran is mainly used as poultry, cattle, and swine feed (Chapter 18).
7.5.7 Parboiling
Parboiling is defined as a hydrothermal process applied to rough rice in order
to achieve high milling yields (Amato and Silveira 1991, Battacharya 1985). The
advantages of this process were accidentally found many centuries ago in India.
Parboiling brings clear benefits in terms of head rice yields, especially when
low-quality rices are parboiled. In addition, parboiled white rice contains higher
amounts of vitamins and nutrients compared to regularly milled rice. However,
parboiling is only practiced for about 15% of the rice produced worldwide because
it demands energy, additional equipment, and labor. There are many types of par-
boiling methods (Amato and Silveira 1991); however, the operation consists of
three basic sequential steps: conditioning, heating, and drying. The rough rice is
usually tempered to 30%–35% moisture to enhance starch gelatinization during
the following thermal process. The conditioned and drained kernels are normally
subjected to a thermal treatment that could be wet or direct steam (conventional
or pressure cooked) or dried (hot air treatment) for short periods of exposure (2–5
min). During these operations, the gelatinized starch acts as glue, sealing microfis-
sures or stress cracks. Then the parboiled kernels are dehydrated to decrease the
moisture to approximately 13%–14%. Parboiling modifies the appearance and
culinary properties of the milled rice and its physical, chemical, and nutritional
characteristics. Milled kernels are slightly shorter and broader than milled raw
rice. Upon parboiling, kernels become somewhat glassy, translucent, and slightly
discolored (light yellow or amber). One of the most notorious effects of parboiling
is grain hardening and the retention of higher amounts of essential minerals and
B-vitamins. This is due to the leaching of these nutrients located in the aleurone
cells to the inner part of the starchy endosperm. The harder kernels are also less
susceptible to insects and more stable during storage. However, parboiled rough
rice loses its viability or germination capacity. Parboiled milled rice has a different
cooking quality and textural properties because of its lower cooking-water uptake.
Cooked parboiled rice retains its shape, is firmer, fluffier, and less sticky compared
to regular rice. In addition, parboiled rice loses fewer solids into the cooking water
(Battacharya 1985).
7.6 Wheat Milling

Most wheat is milled into flour or semolina using the conditioning-roller milling
process (Figure 7.8). The objective of the industry is to obtain the maximum flour
yield when soft and hard wheat are milled, or semolina when durum wheat is pro-
cessed. The by-products of these industries are bran and shorts and, sometimes,
germ. Conventional milling consists of cleaning, tempering, roll milling, and par-
ticle separation to obtain refined products and by-products.
7.6.1 Cleaning
The milling process starts when selected wheat is thoroughly cleaned to remove met-
als, chaff, glumes, stones, and other foreign material, including other grains. Cleaning
operations include use of magnets, air aspiration, milling separator, gravity separator,
and disc separators. The last step of the cleaning process is the pass of the wheat kernels
through a scourer. In this device, the wheat is subjected to friction in order to separate
impurities adhering to the kernel’s surface. In other words, it has a polishing effect. The
202 Cereal Grains
Wheat
Cleaning Foreign
Magnets, Air Aspiration, Disk Separators, Material
Screening, Gravity Tables and Entoleter 2.5 kg
Cleaned Wheat
Water
Tempering/Conditioning Tempering Conveyor
3.5 kg
Tempered Wheat
Tempering Bins 16 hrs Conditioning
Horizontal Scourer/Aspiration Beeswings of Pericarp

1.5 kg
Break Roll System 4–6 Units Corrugated Rolls,

Speed Differential 2.5 to 1.5:1
Bran Classification/Purification Break Flour

+35 US Mesh Gyrating Sifter and/or Purifier –100 US Mesh
Sizings Middlings Additives

Break Scalper Reel –35 to +60 US Mesh –60 to +100 US Mesh Vitamins
Minerals
Bran Reduction Roll System
Throughs
9 kg 8–12 Smooth Rolls, Speed Differential 1 to 1.5:1
Ingredient
Feeder
Hammer Milling Classification/Purification
1.2 mm Screen Gyrating Sifter and/or Purifier
Ground Red Dog Shorts Reduction

Middlings
Bran 1.5 kg 15 kg Flours
Whole Wheat Flour Straight Grade Flour

83 kg, 14% Moisture 74 kg, 14% Moisture
Enriched Straight Grade Flour

Figure 7.8 Flowchart of the typical dry-milling process of wheat. Photograph depicts
clockwise wheat kernels, bran, refined flour, and shorts.
scourer consists of a rotor and a cylindrical woven steel wire. The rotor bounces the ker-
nels against the perforated cylindrical wall, causing small impurities to pass through the
screen (Bass 1988, Posner and Hibbs 2005, Serna-Saldivar 2008). Cleaning is critical in
protecting the milling equipment and producing the best-quality flour or semolina.
7.6.2 Tempering
The cleaned grain is conditioned before milling, with the aim of a more efficient bran
separation, to soften the endosperm so as to enhance its gradual reduction in particle
size, and to improve sieving efficiency. Wheat is usually tempered with water sprayed
on the grain being conducted in a conveyor. The water is evenly distributed on the
surface of the grain by the mixing action of the screw conveyor. Then the wheat
is transported into a tempering bin for conditioning for several hours. During this
time, kernels absorb the water, which concentrates in the external part of the grain
(germ and pericarp). When kernels are hard or vitreous, such as durum, and kernels
contain low moisture, the tempering operation is performed in two sequential steps.
The different classes of wheat are tempered for different times and final moisture
content. Hard wheat requires more moisture and conditioning time than soft wheat.
Generally, hard wheat is conditioned for 12–24 h and 16.5% moisture, and soft for
5–15 h and 15%–15.5% moisture. Durum requires the highest moisture (17%–17.5%)
and tempering times of 12–24 h (Bass 1988, Posner and Hibbs 2005, Serna-Saldivar
2008).
7.6.3 Roll Milling and Classification

After tempering and equilibration, kernels are first passed through an abrasive
machine equipped with an air aspiration system with the aim of eliminating impu-
rities located on the pericarp, as well as break-damaged kernels. The kernels are
transported in between a pair of inverted conic-shaped devices. One of the cones
is static, and the other moves creating the abrasive action. The sound and damaged
exiting grains are separated in a cylindrical metal sieve. This operation allows mill-
ers to decrease the number of insect fragments in flours.
Milling is accomplished in two types of roller mills: break and reduction roller
mills. These mills consist of pairs of horizontal, parallel iron cylinders rotating in
opposite directions (Figure 7.9). They pull the stock down between the rolls into the
nip, which is considered the grinding zone. The separation or classification of result-
ing particles is usually performed with plansifters and purifiers. The aim of the break
roll system is to open the wheat kernel and remove the endosperm and germ from
the pericarp with the least amount of contamination and obtain a particle-size dis-
tribution of maximum large middlings with a minimum of flour. The bran should be
detached from the kernel in flakes and without any adhered endosperm. The break
rolls consist of a pair of corrugated metal rolls that counterrotate at different speeds.
The rpm differential (1.5–3.0:1) and corrugation enhance the abrasive action and
removal of the bran in large pieces. A typical mill has between 4 and 6 break rolls
operating in battery. The break material is classified to obtain the bran (U.S. Mesh
+ 35), sizings (U.S. mesh + 70), middlings (U.S. mesh + 100), and break flour (U.S.
mesh − 100). Sizings are the coarsest separation of the endosperm, whereas mid-
dlings are finer particles of endosperm that require further reduction in order to
yield the flour. The bran obtained from the break system is usually passed through a
bran finisher consisting of a beater that frees endosperm from the pericarp by impact
and friction. The beaters are steel bars on a rotating shaft enclosed in a cylindrical
perforated screen cage (Figure 7.9).
The two most common ways to separate stocks from the break and reduction rolls
are the plansifter and purifiers (Figure 7.9). The plansifter consists of a gyrating bolt-
ing device consisting of a set of sieves (up to 30) positioned vertically that gyrate in
204 Cereal Grains
(a)
Feed Roll
Feed Rolls
Corrugated Rolls Smooth Rolls
Adjustment for
Rolls
Roll Cleaners Roll Cleaners
(b1)
Figure 7.9 Equipment commonly used in wheat-milling operations. (a) Photograph of

horizontal wheat scourer. (b1) Schema of a roller mill (courtesy of American Association
of Cereal Chemists).
(b2)
(c)
Figure 7.9 (Continued) Equipment commonly used in wheat-milling operations. (b2)

photograph (courtesy of Buhler AG, Switzerland) of roller mills. (c) Plansifter (courtesy of
Buhler AG, Switzerland).
206 Cereal Grains
Feed Stroke Inlet Aspiration Channels

Air Aspiration
Supplier
Separation by Particle Size
Tailings
Purified Particles Composite Particles

(d1)
(d2)
Figure 7.9 (Continued) Equipment commonly used in wheat-milling operations. (d1)

Schema (courtesy of American Association of Cereal Chemists) and (d2) photograph (cour-
tesy of Buhler AG, Switzerland) of purifier.
a horizontal plane. It is the primary sifter used to classify particles by size. The puri-
fier consists of a reciprocating sieve enclosed in an airtight container with controlled
airflows passing through the screen. It is ideally suited for the removal of unattached
bran from middlings and, at the same time, classifies the middlings into several frac-
tions. Purifiers can remove bran and classify middlings, which is not possible with
the plansifter alone. The less dense particles of about the same size are removed by
controlled air current. Therefore, purifiers are used to produce more refined flours
with lower ash content and better color scores (Posner and Hibbs 2005).
The intermediate fractions are usually purified before further milling in the
reduction rolls. The objective of the reduction system is to reduce sizings and mid-
dlings into flour, minimizing starch damage. The reduction roll system consists of
smooth rolls that generally operate at the same rpm or with a small speed differential
(<1.5:1). The reduction roll system consists of 6–10 mills in battery. These mills work
with an integrated particle classification system that segregates flours that meet the
desired granulation (U.S. mesh − 100) and coarser particles that are further milled.
At the end of the milling operation, several break and reduction flours are obtained.
These flours have different colors, degree of damaged starch, and ash content. The
mixture of all flours yields the straight-grade flours, whereas the combination of
approximately 80% of the best-quality flours yields patent flours. The worst-quality
flours taken away from patent flours are usually denominated clear flours. The clear
flour is usually obtained from the last reduction mills and has lower color, higher
amounts of mechanically damaged starch, fat, and ash content. The term extraction
rate commonly used by millers refers to the amount of flour produced from a given
amounts of wheat. Generally, the extraction rate varies from 72%–78% (Figure 7.8).
Lower-quality flours are obtained (higher ash, lower color score, etc.) when the mill
is set to obtain higher extraction rates (Bass 1988, Posner and Hibbs 2005, Serna-
Saldivar 2008).
Although it is not widely used, air classification of flours allows the production
of at least two contrasting daughter flours with different granulation and chemical
composition. Air classification is more frequently used by wheat millers because one
of the flour streams has higher protein and the largest particles, whereas the other
has higher starch and finer particles. Air-classified soft flours yield a low protein
and finer flour suited to special cake mixes. Air-classified hard wheat flours yield a
fraction with higher protein and stronger gluten compared to the parent flour. The
higher-protein flour has better functionality for high-quality yeast-fermented breads
(Posner and Hibbs 2005).
7.6.4 Post-Milling Treatments

Flours are commonly treated with additives and enrichment premixes to standard-
ize quality and meet regulations. The treatments commonly consist of flour bleach-
ing, maturing or aging, enzyme supplementation, and addition of the enrichment to
supplement selected minerals and vitamins. Hard wheat flours are, in some instances,
oxidized with azodicarbonamide, ascorbic acid and/or, in some countries, with potas-
sium bromate in order to improve functionality. Soft wheat flours are in some instances
chlorinated to produce bleached cake flours. The normal range of chlorination ranges
208 Cereal Grains
from 1000 to 2300 ppm, which is usually accomplished on a continuous basis by

injecting chlorine gas into a stream of freshly milled flour. Since hydrochloric acid is
produced during chlorination, the reduction in the flour pH provides a reliable tool to
monitor the extent of chlorination. Most chlorinated soft wheat flour has a pH ranging
from 4.5 to 5.2. The most common bleaching agents that mainly oxidize carotenoids
and xanthophylls are azodicarbonamide, benzoyl peroxidase, and chlorinated gas for
hard, soft, and cake flours, respectively. Flours can naturally be bleached during bulk
storage. Flour from sound or undamaged kernels usually require amylase supplemen-
tation in the form of barley malt flour or commercial preparations. Flours are usually
standardized to a certain falling number before shipping. Iron, zinc, thiamin, ribofla-
vin, niacin, and folic acid are commonly added to flour to replace amounts lost during
milling (Chapter 17). The level of enrichment varies around the globe, but in general
terms, 44 mg iron, 20 mg zinc, 6.4 mg thiamin, 4 mg riboflavin, 53 mg niacin, and
1.5 mg folic acid are added per kilogram flour. The enrichment premix is generally
diluted in flour and automatically dosed with powder feeders or high-speed air cur-
rents into flour agitators before storage and packaging.
7.6.5 Types of Flours and Coproducts

The by-products of the milling system are bran, shorts (inseparable mixture of bran
endosperm and germ that remains after flour extraction), germ, and red-dog flour (a
low-grade flour consisting of endosperm and bran taken from the tail of the mill).
Due to its high dietary fiber content and relatively low amounts of lipids, wheat bran
is preferred over other sources of dietary fiber for the production of many prepared
foods (Table 7.4).
There are several types of commercial wheat flours: hard, soft, chlorinated-soft, and
all-purpose. The main differences among these flours are protein content (Table 7.5)
and dough rheological properties. The hard wheat flour usually contains from 10.5%
to 12.5% protein, and the dough has strong gluten suitable for the production of yeast-
leavened breads. The soft wheat flour contains from 7% to 10% protein, and the dough
has weak but extensible gluten appropriate for the production of cookies and related
chemically leavened products. The soft chlorinated flours are treated with chlorine
gas to bleach the flour, lower its pH, and produce a weaker gluten structure ideally
suited to cake production. The all-purpose or family flours are usually produced from
a mixture of hard and soft wheats and contain about 10%–10.5% protein (Table 7.5)
and intermediate dough rheological properties. These flours are used for the produc-
tion of donuts, crackers, flour tortillas, and most products described earlier.
The wheat bran, rich in dietary fiber, is one of the most popular sources of feed-
stuffs for ruminants (Chapter 18). Some of the wheat bran is used to produce whole
wheat flour or ground to produce meals with different granulations. These products
are used to produce high-fiber bakery products such as breads, cookies, and break-
fast foods. Wheat bran is a rich source of insoluble dietary fiber and important anti-
oxidants and phenolic compounds such as ferulic acid. Unfortunately, wheat bran
contains negligible amounts of soluble dietary fiber (Chapter 17).
The other by-product of the milling industry is shorts. This product contains small
pieces of pericarp, germ, aleurone, and even low-grade flours. Therefore, shorts are
Table 7.4
Chemical Composition of the Different Classes of Wheat and Its Dry-Milled Products
Raw Grain Refined Products
Hard Hard Hard- All- Soft-
Soft White Red Red Bread Purpose Cookie Durum
Nutrient Soft Red (Club) Spring Winter Durum Flour Flour Flour Semolina Bran
Water, g 12.17 10.42 12.76 13.10 10.94 13.36 11.92 12.51 12.67 9.89
Energy, kcal 331 340 329 327 339 361 364 362 360 216
Dry-Milling Operations
Protein, g 10.35 10.69 15.40 12.61 13.68 11.98 10.33 8.20 12.68 15.55
Tryptophan, g — — 0.195 0.160 0.176 0.139 0.127 0.118 0.162 0.282
Lysine, g 0.315 — 0.404 0.335 0.303 0.231 0.228 0.285 0.243 0.600
Methionine, g 0.174 — 0.230 0.201 0.221 0.210 0.183 0.138 0.198 0.234
Lipids, g 1.56 1.99 1.92 1.54 2.47 1.66 0.98 0.86 1.05 4.25
Saturated, g 0.289 0.368 0.314 0.269 0.454 0.244 0.155 0.127 0.150 0.630
Monounsaturated, g 0.178 0.227 0.303 0.200 0.344 0.140 0.087 0.073 0.124 0.637
Polyunsaturated, g 0.656 0.837 0.765 0.627 0.978 0.727 0.413 0.379 0.430 2.122
Carbohydrates, g 74.24 75.36 68.03 71.18 71.13 0.31 76.31 78.03 72.83 64.51
Dietary fiber, g 12.5 12.7 12.2 12.2 — 2.4 2.7 1.7 3.9 42.8
Calcium, mg 27 34 25 29 34 15 15 14 17 73
Iron, mg 3.21 5.37 3.60 3.19 3.52 0.90 1.17 7.32 1.23 10.57
Sodium, mg 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2
Thiamine, mg 0.394 0.410 0.504 0.383 0.419 0.080 0.120 0.892 0.280 0.523
Riboflavin, mg 0.096 0.107 0.110 0.115 0.121 0.060 0.040 0.430 0.080 0.577
Niacin, mg 4.800 4.766 5.710 5.464 6.738 1 1.250 6.790 3.310 13.578
Folic acid, mcg 41 41 43 38 43 — — 138 72 79
Vitamin E, mg — 1.01 1.01 1.01 — 0.40 0.06 0.02 — 1.49
Source: USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). 2005. Nutrient Data Laboratory. Agricultural Research Service. Electronic page: http://www.nal.usda.
gov/fnic/foodcomp.
Note: All-purpose flours, also named family flours, are obtained by blending soft and hard wheats prior to milling.
209
210 Cereal Grains
Table 7.5
Classification of Wheat Flours According to Main Food Uses
Type of Flour/
Semolina Characteristics Food Uses
Whole wheat Made by grinding cleaned wheat into Whole wheat items. Whole hard
granular flour without the removal of wheats are used for yeast-leavened
pericarp and germ. Usually, kernels are whole breads, whereas whole soft
milled into flour that later on is mixed with wheats are used for various types
bran. Hard, intermediate, and soft whole of cookies. The intermediate
wheat flours are commercially available. protein whole wheat flour is used
Whole white wheat flours are also for whole wheat crackers and flour
available in the market. tortillas.
Refined straight Refined hard, soft, or all-purpose wheat See uses of hard, soft, and
grade flours obtained after mixing all flour all-purpose flours.
streams produced by break and reduction
rolls. The yield of straight-grade flour is
generally 74%–76%.
Hard or bread Refined wheat flours obtained from hard The flour is used for the production
wheats. Flours usually contain from 10.5% of yeast-leavened breads such as
to 12.5% protein and, upon hydration and French, pan, hearth, Arabic or Pita,
mixing, yield strong gluten doughs. crispy pizza crusts, and sweet
yeast-fermented goods.
Patent Obtained by selecting a combination of flour Patent flours are mainly demanded
streams from the front or end of the mill by the baking industry to produce
(approximately 80% of the best flours in yeast-fermented breads in highly
terms of color, ash content, and damaged mechanized systems.
starch).
Clear Low-quality wheat flour obtained in the last Clear flours are usually sold at a
stages of the milling process. The flour has discounted price and are in demand
lower quality in terms of color and for the production of batter and
mechanically damaged starch, and higher breading mixes and pet foods.
amounts of ash and fat. When a patent
flour is fabricated, the clear flour is
removed from the straight-grade flour.
All-purpose or Flour produced from a mixture of hard and The flour is used for the production
family soft wheats so as to obtain intermediate of yeast-leavened donuts,
dough rheological properties. The refined wheat-flour tortillas, crackers/
flour contains approximately 10.0%–10.5% saltines, oriental noodles, Chinese
protein and 0.40% ash. steamed bread, pretzels, soft pizza
crusts, and gravies. It is also used
to produce breakfast cereals, and
snacks.
Soft or cookie Refined wheat flours obtained from soft The flour is used for the production
wheats. Flours usually contain from 8% to of chemically leavened bakery
10% protein, smaller average particle size items such as cookies, hot cakes,
compared to hard flours and, upon muffins, biscuits, wafers, and
hydration and mixing, yield weak and coffee cakes, or chemically
extensive gluten doughs. leavened donuts.
Classification of Wheat Flours According to Main Food Uses
Type of Flour/
Semolina Characteristics Food Uses
Chlorinated or Refined soft wheat flours treated with The flour is used for the production
cake chlorine. Chlorination breaks disulfide of chemically leavened low-ratio
bonds, weakens the gluten, lowers pH, and and high-ratio cakes and Angel
bleaches the flour. Flours usually contain food cakes and related products.
from 7.5% to 10% protein and, upon
hydration and mixing, yield weaker gluten
doughs compared to regular soft flours.
Durum flour Refined flours obtained from durum wheats, The flour is used in Italy for the
although rarely produced. Most flours are production of yeast-leavened
yellow pigmented due to carotenoids and breads.
xanthophylls.
Durum Name of the refined milled fraction that has Semolina is used for the production
semolina a coarser particle size compared to flour. of short and long pasta products
Most semolinas are yellow pigmented due and couscous.
to carotenoids and xanthophylls. Semolina
is obtained from durum wheats and has a
range of particle-size distribution of U.S. +
60 to + 100.
an important source of protein, oil, dietary fiber, B-vitamins, and phytochemicals.

Most of the shorts are blended with bran for animal feed. They are also used to feed
poultry and other monogastrics (Chapter 18). Small quantities of shorts are directly
used in human foods because of their high susceptibility to rancidity.
7.7 Milling of Durum Wheat, Rye, and Triticale

The rye or triticale milling process follows the same principles described ear-
lier for the milling of wheat. Rye and triticale usually have a softer endosperm
compared to hard or durum wheat and therefore are tempered to lower moisture
contents.
Durum wheat is usually milled into a granular product called refined semolina
for pasta production (Table 7.5). Semolina is coarser than flour and is classified
depending on average particle-size distribution into coarse, middle, or fine semo-
lina. The average extraction rate is in the range of 65%–70%, and particle-size dis-
tribution is in the range of −60 to +100 U.S. mesh. No more than 3% of the particles
should pass a No. 100 sieve (Bizzarri and Morelli 1988, Kill and Turnbull 2001).
The basic principles of flour milling are applied to the production of durum
semolina. However, durum milling is different from conventional wheat milling,
especially in terms of the usage of more break roll passes and number of purifiers
used. The refined semolina contains more ash compared to refined flours from
soft or hard wheats. Durum semolina is evaluated based on speck count, protein
and mineral contents, color and diastatic activity (Chapter 15). In addition, the
212 Cereal Grains
semolina is yellow colored because the endosperm has significant amounts of

carotenes and xanthophylls (Bizzarri and Morelli 1988, Kill and Turnbull 2001).
7.8 Milling of Oats

The processing of oats for human food generally requires the dehulling of the grains
to produce naked caryopses known as groats. The general steps in oat processing are
cleaning, dehulling, thermal treatment (drying and steaming), and flaking or milling
to produce a meal or flour (Figure 7.10).
7.8.1 Cleaning
Oat cleaning operations include the use of magnets, air aspiration, gravity tables,
and disc separators. In the cleaning process, dust, chaff, foreign seeds, and other
impurities are selectively removed with receiving separators equipped with sieves,
and an aspiration system and disc separators similar to the ones used in the wheat-
milling industry. Then oats are classified according to width or thickness in a width
sizer that consists of a slowly rotating horizontal cylinder with round or rectangu-
lar perforations. The incoming lot of grain is separated into two streams: thinner
and plumper kernels. The equipment is provided with a vibrating conveyor located
under the cylinder. It is common to use magnets in the cleaning and sizing steps to
remove ferrous metal particles (i.e., nuts, bolts, rivets, etc.) from the oats (Deane and
Commers 1986).
7.8.2 Thermal Treatments
The cleaned and sized oats are then thermally treated in order to inactivate lipases
and lipoxygenases, and prevent the development of rancidity, off-flavors, and off-
odors. Heating can be performed in pan dryers or the more modern radiator col-
umns, which consist of a vertical column that houses horizontal radiators arranged
down the height of the column. Heat treatment is usually performed at temperatures
ranging from 88°C to 93°C. During this operation, about 60% of the lipases are inac-
tivated, and heating allows for better removal of the glumes during the subsequent
step of dehulling (Deane and Commers 1986).
7.8.3 Dehulling
In modern milling facilities, dehulling is usually accomplished in impact dehullling
machines that consist of a high-speed rotor that expels the oats against a carborundum
ring fixed to the machine housing (Figure 7.11). The speed of the rotor is adjusted
to detach the groats from the hulls and minimize breakage of groats. Normally,
the rotor speed is between 1400 and 2000 rpm and adjusted to achieve a dehulling
efficiency of 90%–95%. According to Doehlert and Wissenborn (2007), oats with
higher bulk density dehulled more efficiently at slower rotor speeds. The dehulling
machine produces a mixture of groats, free hulls, unhulled oats, broken kernels, and
fines. The fines and hulls are removed by air aspiration, whereas unhulled oats are
Oats
Cleaning Magnets,
Aspirators, Screening, Disc Foreign Material
Separators and Gravity Tables 3.0 kg
Cleaned Oats Thermal Treatment - Drying Moisture

97 kg, 14% Moisture (88–93°C) (5–6 kg)
Cooling Heat-Treated Oats

91–92 kg, 7–9% Moisture
Dehulling (Impact Dehuller,

Rotor Speed 1400–2000 rpm)
Hulls/Fines
Unhulled Oats Air Aspiration/Disc Separator (23–24 kg)
Groats
Cutting (Rotary Granulator)

Roll or Hammer Milling
(2 to 4 Uniform Pieces)
Coarse
Particles
Sizing Classification Sizing Classification
Groat Pieces Fines Groat Meal or Flour
Figure 7.10 Flowchart of the typical dry-milling process of oats. Photograph depicts, from
top to bottom and left to right, whole oats, groats, hulls, groat pieces, flour, and rolled oats.
removed by sizing in disk separators and/or by density in gravity separators. The

recovered oats are conveyed once again to the dehulling machines. Optimally, the
yield is 75% groats and 25% hulls (Deane and Commers 1986).
7.8.4 Milling and Flaking

The separated groats are then cut and flaked for the production of rolled oats or sent
to a milling unit to be ground into meal or flour. Rolled oats constitute the main end
product. Whole groats yield large flakes that are difficult to handle, store, and pack-
age. Therefore, groats are usually cut into uniform pieces before flaking. The groat is
cut into two or four pieces. The cutting operation is performed with rotary granulators
(Figure 7.11) consisting of rotating drums perforated with countersunk round holes
through which the groats align themselves endwise and fall against stationary knives
214 Cereal Grains
Feeding Hopper
(Oats)
Decortication-Polisher
Cone
Abrasive Surface
Sieve
Hulls Discharge
Adjustable Axis
Groats Discharge
(a)
Motor
Speed Control Unit
Feeding
Blade Rotor
Carborundum Ring
Discharge of Milled Oats
(b1)
Figure 7.11 Equipment commonly used in oat milling operations. (a) Schema of impact
dehulling device (courtesy of American Association of Cereal Chemists). (b1) Schema of oat
dehuller rotary granulator (courtesy of American Association of Cereal Chemists).
(b2)
Figure 7.11 (Continued) Equipment commonly used in oats milling operations. (b2)
photograph (courtesy of Buhler AG, Switzerland) of oat dehuller rotary granulator.
that are arranged around the bottom and outside of the drum. The sharpness of the
knives influences the amount of fines, so a well-maintained rotary granulator pro-
duces 1%–2% fines. In contrast, badly maintained granulators can produce up to 10%
fines. Some millers prefer to steam the groats immediately ahead of cutting, rather
than after granulation and just prior to flaking. In other mills, groats are tempered
15–30 min before cutting. The cut groats are then steamed in the traditional way
immediately ahead of flaking. The fines are removed in a sifter and generally used
as animal feed. The cut groats are separated from whole groats by a length-sizing
operation on a disk separator that lifts the cut pieces and rejects the whole kernels.
The uncut groats are then recycled back to the granulator. In order to produce instant
flakes, the groats are conditioned and steamed before flaking (Chapter 11). Oat meal
or flour can be alternatively produced by reducing the particle size of the cut and
steamed pieces of groats with break roller mills and/or hammer mills. The resulting
meal is usually sifted, and coarse particles recycled to the mills (Deane and Commers
1986). The average chemical composition of groats and milled products is given in
Table 7.6. Oats have been traditionally known as one of the best sources of both solu-
ble and insoluble dietary fiber, which exert health benefits (Chapter 17).
216 Cereal Grains
Steam Addition (Integrated

in Upper Steamer Section)
Steamer
Lower Steamer Section
Roll Feeder
Roll Preheater Flaking Roller Mill with Steamer
(c)
Figure 7.11 (Continued) Equipment commonly used in oats milling operations. (c)
Photograph (courtesy of Buhler AG, Switzerland) of oat flaking mill.
7.9 Milling of Sorghum and Millets

In most food uses, sorghum and most millets are abrasively decorticated and, in
some cases, degerminated. A wide array of refined or semirefined milled fractions
could be obtained, varying among decorticated kernels, grits, meals, and fine flours
(Figure 7.12). These are used for the preparation of most traditional foods (Chapter
16). Traditionally, sorghum and millet meals are produced by hand pounding
using a wood pestle and mortar. The smallest-seeded millets such as tef and fonio
are practically impossible to decorticate for the production of refined fractions.
Therefore, they are ground as whole for the production of full fat meals and flours.
This process is still practiced in rural households but is declining. Indian villages
still use stone mills to produce a coarse meal that is used for roti and other tradi-
tional foods. In recent years, mechanized milling processes have been developed
Table 7.6
Chemical Composition of Dry-Milled Fractions of Oats
Nutrient/100 g Oatsa Groatsb Hullsa
Water, g 14.0 8.2 8.0
Energy, kcal 286 389 —
Protein, g 14.7 16.7 5.7
Tryptophan, g 0.282 0.234 0.700
Lysine, g 0.600 0.701 0.273
Methionine, g 0.234 0.312 0.086
Lipids, g 5.50 6.90 2.30
Saturated, g 0.97 1.22 —
Monounsaturated, g 1.73 2.18 —
Polyunsaturated, g 2.02 2.54 —
Carbohydrates, g 53.32 66.3 —
Dietary Fiber, g — 10.6 —
Ash, g 2.75 1.72 6.90
Calcium, mg 60.0 54.0 130.0
Iron, mg 6.2 4.7 12.8
Sodium, mg 2.0 2.0 —
Thiamine, mg 0.66 0.76 0.60
Riboflavin, mg 0.12 0.14 0.15
Niacin, mg 0.83 0.96 0.70
Folic acid, mcg 52 56 —
a Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 1996. Quimica, Almacenamiento e Industralizacion de los

Cereales. AGT editor, S.A., Mexico, D.F., Mexico.
especially for the grain sorghum. The most common process is abrasive decortica-
tion followed by reduction of particle size via hammer milling (Figure 7.12). The
use of roller milling is limited because of the cost and poor separation of grain
components. These problems are attributed to a friable pericarp, a large germ,
and a highly variable array of endosperm textures or grain hardness. Most com-
mercial operations use mills equipped with abrasive disks or carborundum stones
to progressively remove the sorghum outer layers rich in pericarp, germ, testa, and
aleurone tissues. The aim is to obtain pearled or decorticated sorghum with a light
coloration, low in fiber, fat, and ash, and rich in starch (Munck 1995, Rooney and
Serna-Saldivar 2000).
7.9.1 Cleaning
The kernels are usually passed through magnets, air aspirators, sifters, and gravity
separators in order to remove extraneous materials and other seeds (Munck 1995,
Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2000).
218 Cereal Grains
Grain Sorghum
Foreign Material Cleaning Magnets, Aspirators,

3.0 kg Screening, and Gravity Tables
Cleaned Grain Sorghum

97 kg, 14% Moisture
Mechanical Decortication
(Abrasive Disc Dehuller)
Abraded Pericarp
Screening/Air Aspiration and Germ
(14.5–20 kg)
Decorticated Sorghum
(77–82.5 kg)
Hammer Milling/Pin Milling Roller Milling
Germ
Classification
Sorghum Meal or (6 kg)
Plansifter, Sieving, Gravity Table
Flour
(77–82.5 kg)
Regular Grits Fine Grits Meal Flour
Roller Milling
Classification Flour
Plansifter, Screening (71–76.5 kg)
Figure 7.12 Flowchart of the typical dry-milling process of sorghum or millets. Photograph

depicts clockwise whole sorghum kernels, decorticated bran, and decorticated sorghum.
7.9.2 Decortication
Cleaned kernels are usually mechanically decorticated to remove 10%–30% of the
grain weight, and then the abraded bran and other tissues are removed by air aspira-
tion and sifting (Figure 7.13). Most commercial operations use mills equipped with
abrasive disks or carborundum stones to progressively remove the outer layers rich in
pericarp, germ, testa, and aleurone tissues. The decortication time varies according
to the desired extent of decortication and grain physical properties. Most mechanical
dehullers are batch type, although the use of semicontinuous units is gaining in pop-
ularity in developed countries. These mechanical dehullers seldom process tempered
grain. The resulting mixture of abraded bran and decorticated kernels is usually
Feeding Hopper
Winnowing
of Bran Abrasive
Discs (Inside)
Decorticated
Grain Discharge
Figure 7.13 Abrasive disc decorticator commonly used in sorghum- or millet-milling

processes (courtesy of Intermech Engineering Ltd., Morogoro, Tanzania).
separated via air aspiration and/or sifting (Munck 1995, Reichert 1982, Rooney and
Serna-Saldivar 2000). According to Kebakile et al. (2007), average extraction rates
of 12 African sorghums traditionally and commercially milled were 74.2%–75.7%.
For hand-pounded and mechanically abrasive decortications, the ideal sorghum ker-
nel should be uniform in size, with a high 1000-kernel weight (>28 g), and a high
hardness or resistance to the TADD (tangential abrasive dehulling device).
7.9.3 Milling and Classification

The decorticated kernels are reduced in particle size with hammer or roller mills. The
use of roller mills allows for better control of the particle granulation of the semire-
fined fractions and the potential to remove the germ in gravity separators later on.
However, hammer milling is most commonly used; especially when meals or flours
are produced. Hammer milling is less expensive and easier to apply; however, most
flour particles have rough edges, imparting a sandy texture to products (Munck 1995,
Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2000, Serna-Saldivar and Rooney 1995). The resulting
decorticated sorghum is usually reduced in particle size to different types of grits,
coarse meals, or fine flours (Figure 7.12).
7.9.4 Dry-Milled Fractions
Decorticated kernels are used in Africa and India for the preparation of boiled,
parched, or steamed products, whereas refined sorghum grits are used as brewing
220 Cereal Grains
Table 7.7
Chemical Composition of Dry-Milled Fractions of Sorghum and Millets
Milling Systems
Mechanical
Decorticated
Whole and Hammer-
Sorghum Hand-Pounded Milled Roller-Milled
Extraction rate, % 100 74.1 77.4 83.5
Protein (N × 6.25), % 12.6 14.4 13.8 14.1
Oil, % 3.98 1.98 2.46 2.64
Ash, % 1.41 0.95 1.18 1.29
Lightness, L 73.1 83.2 84.6 82.4
Chroma, C*ab 11.6 10.6 10.8 11.6
Hue*ab 75.6 68.8 70.5 68.6
Source: Data from Kebakile, M.M. et al. 2007. Cereal Foods World 52(3):129–137.
Note: Average of 12 sorghum types with diverse physicochemical properties. Light-colored meals have
higher L and hue*ab values. C*ab values were positively correlated to bran contamination and ash
content.
adjuncts for clear beers in different parts of the world (Munck 1995, Reichert 1982,
Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2000). The meals and flours are used for the preparation
of many traditional foods such as fermented and unfermented flat breads, Injera,
couscous, and thin and thick porridges (Rooney et al. 1986, Chapter 16). Recently,
refined flours from white sorghums have been used for the preparation of bakery
mixes aimed at special dietary groups such as celiac or gluten-intolerant patients.
The average chemical composition of decorticated sorghum, pearl millet, and other
milled products is in Table 7.7. The decorticated kernels have lower amounts of pro-
tein, fat, dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins compared to whole kernels (Serna-
Saldivar and Rooney 1995).
Self-Evaluation
1. What are main differences between dry and wet-milling processes?
2. Traditional dry-milling processes are still widely practiced around the
world. Investigate and describe at least three different traditional milling
systems applied to different cereal grains.
3. Define the following terms widely used in dry-milling operations:
(a) Tempering (b) Classification (c) Middlings
(d) Shorts (e) Patent flour (f) Extraction rate
4. What are the physical grain properties that favor most dry-milling opera-
tions in terms of product yields and quality of dry-milled fractions?
5. Why are grain cleaning operations critical to any milling process? List at
least five reasons why it is critically important to thoroughly clean grains
before milling.
6. What are the differences between a miller (sifting) and gravity separators?
7. What is a color sorter? How does it work?
8. What are the optimum tempering requirements for maize in preparation
for the degerming–tempering process? Explain how the Beall and Entoleter
degerminators work.
9. During maize dry milling, an array of refined fractions are obtained. What
are their particle sizes and main uses? Which of the refined dry-milled
products is the most expensive? Why?
10. What kind of considerations in terms of raw materials and changes in the
corn dry milling process would you make in order to optimize yields of
flaking grits (U.S. No. 6)?
11. What is considered the most critical or important operation in rough rice
dry milling? Why?
12. In a flowchart, describe the milling steps commonly used to produce white pol-
ished rice. How do different rice classes and parboiling affect rice milling?
13. What is parboiling? Why is parboiling still widely practiced around the
world? Why is parboiled rice considered to have more nutritional attributes
compared to normal rice?
14. Why are hammer mills not used by dry millers to obtain refined wheat flour
and maize grits?
15. Why is it necessary to temper or condition wheat before dry milling? What
are the tempering and conditioning time requirements of the three major
classes of wheat?
16. Explain how large quantities of grain are conditioned or tempered in com-
mercial operations.
17. If you want to temper to 16.5% moisture 50 tons of cleaned hard wheat with
an original moisture content of 13.2%, how much tempering water would
you add?
18. What are the main differences between break and reduction roller mills in
terms of equipment design and operation?
19. What are the differences between plansifters and purifiers in terms of
equipment design and sorting particles with different sizes?
20. What is, and how can you calculate, extraction rate? What are the differ-
ences among straight grade, patent, and clear flours?
21. How are whole wheat flours produced?
22. What is the operational principle of an air classification system used to
produce flours?
23. What are the nutrients generally added to enrich refined wheat flours and
dry-milled fractions? Why were these nutrients chosen?
24. Why are oats considered the most difficult cereal to process by dry millers?
Draw a flowchart of the oat milling process.
222 Cereal Grains
25. Sorghum is a staple for many regions of Africa and Asia. Explain and com-
pare the traditional and mechanized dry-milling processes, indicating the
main uses of the refined milled fractions.
26. What would happen to the chemical composition and yield of decorticated
kernels of a high-tannin sorghum subjected to abrasive decortications to
remove 25% of its weight? Remember that most brown sorghums have a
soft or floury endosperm texture.
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in Rice: Chemistry and Technology. B.O. Juliano (ed.). American Association of Cereal
Kebakile, M.M., Rooney, L.W., and Taylor, J.R.N. 2007. Effects of hand pounding, abra-
sive decortications-hammer milling, roller milling and sorghum type on sorghum meal
extraction and quality. Cereal Foods World 52(3):129–137.
Kill, R.C., and Turnbull, K. 2001. Advances in durum milling. Chapter 3 in Pasta and Semolina
Technology. Blackwell Science, Oxford, U.K.
Kunze, O.R., and Calderwood, D.L. 1985. Rough rice drying. Chapter 6 in Rice: Chemistry and
Munck, L. 1995. New milling technologies and products: Whole plant utilization by mill-
ing and separation of the botanical and chemical components. Chapter 8 in Sorghum
and Millets: Chemistry and Technology. D.A.V. Dendy (ed.). American Association of
Posner, E.S., and Hibbs, A.N. 2005. Wheat Flour Milling. Second edition. American
Reichert, R.D. 1982. Sorghum dry milling. Page 547 in Sorghum in the Eighties. Vol. II.
ICRISAT, Patancheru, A.P., India.
Rooney, L.W., Kirelis A.W., and Murty, D.S. 1986. Traditional foods from sorghum: Their
production, evaluation and nutritional value. Chapter 7 in Advances in Cereal Science
and Technology. Y. Pomeranz (ed.). Vol. VIII. American Association of Cereal Chemists,
St. Paul, MN.
and Technology. K. Kulp and J.G. Ponte (eds.). Second edition. Marcel Dekker, New York.
tions. Chapter 13 in Corn Chemistry and Technology. P. White and L. Johnson (eds.).
Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 1996. Quimica, Almacenamiento e Industralizacion de los Cereales.
Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2008. Manufacturing of cereal-based dry milled fractions, potato flour,
dry masa flour and starches. Chapter 2 in Industrial Manufacture of Snack Foods.
Kennedys Publications, London.
Serna-Saldivar, S.O., and Rooney, L.W. 1995. Structure and chemistry of sorghum and mil-
lets. Chapter 4 in Sorghum and Millets: Chemistry and Technology. D.A.V. Dendy (ed.).
American Association of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul, MN.
Siebenmogen, T.J. and Meullenet, J.F. 2004. Impact of drying storage and milling on rice qual-
ity and functionality. Chapter 12 in Rice: Chemistry and Technology. E.T. Champagne
(ed.). Third edition. American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). 2005. Nutrient Data Laboratory. Agricultural
Research Service. Electronic page: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp.
8 Wet-Milling Operations
8.1 Introduction
One of the most important uses of cereals is as raw material for the production
of refined starches. The various types of wet-milling industries aim toward the
extraction of the maximum possible amount of native or undamaged starch gran-
ules. By far, maize is the main source of refined starch in the world because of its
availability, cost, high starch content (>70%), and value of its by-products: gluten,
germ, and bran. It is estimated that more than 80% of the world’s starch comes
from maize. In the year 2000, approximately 45 million tons of maize were wet
milled in the United States for the production of sweeteners (high-fructose corn
syrup and glucose), fuel and beverage alcohol, and industrial starches (Johnson
and May, 2003).
Historically, the use of wheat starch by the ancient Egyptians as an adhesive of
papyrus and as an aid to harden the cloth material that covered the mummies is well
known. A procedure for starch production was given in some detail in a Roman
treatise by Cato in about 184 bc. Briefly, the grain was steeped in water for 10 days,
pressed and mixed with fresh water, and the resulting slurry was filtered on a linen
cloth. The filtrate, rich in starch, was allowed to settle, washed with water, and solar
dehydrated (Whistler et al. 1984). The industrial production of wheat starch started in
England in the 17th century and soon reached the United States. The first American
wheat starch processing plant was established in New York around 1807. Nearly 40
years later, the same plant started to process maize starch.
The aim of the starch-milling industry is to obtain the highest possible yield of
undamaged starch that meets specifications for color, functional properties, and
maximum amount of protein. The starch is further modified to obtain modified
starches (Chapter 13) with different functionalities, bioconverted into an array of
syrups (Chapter 13), or in some instances, fermented into bioethanol (Chapter 14).
In the particular case of wheat, the wet-milling industry aims toward the produc-
tion of both vital gluten and refined starch (BeMiller and Whistler 2009). The
first is in high demand in the baking and meat industries to upgrade bread quality
and the second as an extender for meat-processed foods. In contrast to the vari-
ous dry-milling industries described in Chapter 7, wet millers separate the grain
chemical compounds (starch, gluten, oil, fiber). Starches from regular and waxy
maizes, wheat, and potato are the preferred and most frequently used industrially.
These starches have different amylograph properties, pasting behavior, and func-
tionality; therefore, they are frequently used to impart different characteristics to
cereal-based foods (BeMiller and Whistler 2009).
225
226 Cereal Grains
8.2 Maize Wet Milling

Most of the industrially produced starch is obtained from yellow dent maize. The
optimum grain physical properties for wet milling are soft-textured dent kernels
with test weights of 70 kg/hL and 1000-kernel weights greater than 300 g. These
kernels contain higher amounts of starch, and their starch granules are easier to
extract. In addition, the soft endosperm structure of the kernels hydrate faster dur-
ing the critical step of steeping, considered the bottleneck of the manufacturing
process. The industry also selects those lots of sound grains with high 1000-kernel
weight because they favor the ratio of endosperm to germ and pericarp (Johnson and
May 2003, May 1987, Serna-Saldivar 2008, Watson 1984). Yellow-colored grains
are preferred because they generally cost less and favor the production of highly
pigmented gluten demanded by the poultry and feed industries (Chapter 18).
8.2.1 Cleaning
The cleaning process of the shelled grain includes the use of air aspirators to remove
dust, chaff, and other light particles, followed by screening to remove pieces of cob,
sand, stones, and other undesirable extraneous material. The cleaning operation also
includes the use of magnets and gravity separators to remove ferrous contaminants
and stones of approximately the same size as maize kernels (Johnson and May 2003,
May 1987, Watson 1984).
8.2.2 Steeping
The most critical wet-milling step is the steeping of the kernels in a warm solution
(48°C–50°C) containing 0.1%–0.2% sulfur dioxide (Figure 8.1). This reducing agent
softens the endosperm structure, avoids germination, and promotes the development
and growth of Lactobacillus bacteria. The synergistic effects of the sulfur dioxide
(SO2) treatment and the proteolytic action of the bacteria break the disulfide bonds,
weakening the protein matrix that engulfs or traps the starch granules. The SO2-
steeping operation is carried out countercurrently in 6 to 12 tanks positioned in bat-
tery. The oldest SO2 solution rich in Lactobacillus treats the new incoming kernels,
while the new and stronger solution treats the exiting kernels. Steeping usually lasts
from 30 to 48 h. During this time, the grain with original moisture of 12%–14%
gradually absorbs the SO2 solution, increasing the moisture to 48%–50%. Most of
the SO2 solution is absorbed during the first 15 h of steeping. The activity of the
Lactobacillus also breaks the endosperm cell walls, improving the efficacy of the
SO2. During this operation, about 5%–7% of maize solids are solubilized. The solids
of the steep liquor are mainly constituted of albumins and globulins, lactic acid,
minerals, phytic acid, and B-vitamin kernels (Johnson and May 2003, May 1987,
Serna-Saldivar 2008, Watson 1984).
Recently, several investigators have proposed the use of fiber-degrading and/or
proteolytic enzymes on preground SO2-steeped kernels in order to lower steeping
times without sacrificing yields of prime starch (Eckhoff and Tso 1991, Johnston
Wet-Milling Operations 227
Yellow Dent Maize

Water Sulfur
Cleaning Dockage
Combustion (Magnets, Air Aspirator, Foreign Material
Gravity Tables, Stoner) Broken Kernels
Sulfur Dioxide Steep Tanks Countercurrent

Solution flow, 36–48 h., 48–50°C
0.1–0.2% Steep Solution with
Soluble Solids
Steeped Maize Kernels
149 kg, 48% Moisture Evaporation
Degerminator Steep Liquor Solids

Disc or Plate Mills 7.7 kg, 10% Moisture
Hydrocyclones Germ
Entoleter Mill
Drying
Bran Sieving
Germ
Drying 10.5–12 kg, 10–12%
Endosperm
Moisture
Pieces
Dried Bran
7 kg, 10% Moisture Wet Grinding Starch-Gluten
Plateor Disc Mill Suspension
Continuous Centrifugation
Gluten Semi Purified

Suspension Starch Suspension
Gluten Concentration
Hydrocyclones in Water
Battery
Water Drying
Purified Starch Starch
Suspension Drying Water
Gluten Meal Concentration
(<0.3% protein)
12 kg, 12% Moisture Prime Starch
61 kg, 12% Moisture, <0.3% Protein
Figure 8.1 Flowchart of the wet-milling process for the production of maize starch.
and Singh 2001, Ling and Jackson 1991, Mezo-Villanueva and Serna-Saldivar 2004,
Moheno-Perez et al. 1999, Serna-Saldivar and Mezo-Villanueva 2003).
8.2.3 Grinding and Fractionation

After steeping, the resulting kernels are wet milled in plate or disc attrition mills
equipped with pins that counterrotate at a speed up to 1800 rpm (Figure 8.2). During
this first milling step, the discs are equipped with fewer pins and adjusted to mill the
maize into coarse chunks because the aim is to release the germ. The ground par-
ticles diluted in water are transported into a series of hydrocyclones to separate the
less dense rubbery germ from the rest of the kernel components. Multiple passes may
be used to attain clean separations. The germ has a lower density because it contains
228 Cereal Grains
Grain
Input
Rotating Disc with

Pins
Static Disc with
Pins
Discharge of
Ground Grain
(a)
Light Particles
Feed Direction of Light

Particles (Germ
and/or Gluten)
Direction of Dense
Particles (Starch)
Heavy Material
(b)
Figure 8.2 Equipment commonly used in wet-milling operations. (a) Disc-attrition mill.

(b) Hydrocyclone (courtesy of American Association of Cereal Chemists).
(c)
Figure 8.2 (Continued) Equipment commonly used in wet-milling operations. (c)
Nozzle bowl centrifuge (photograph courtesy of Alfa Laval).
most of the kernel’s oil (d = 0.9), and does not contain any starch (d = 1.4–1.6 g/cm3).
The resulting germ stream is dewatered with a press filter and then dehydrated so
that it can be channeled for oil extraction and refining of kernels (Johnson and May
2003, May 1987, Serna-Saldivar 2008, Watson 1984).
The denser endosperm chunks still associated with the pericarp tissue are milled
in an Entoleter or impact mill in order to release the pericarp in flakes. Pericarp
pieces are separated in a metal sieve (U.S. mesh 18–20) positioned at a 120° angle.
The endosperm particles that pass the sieve are milled into a fine slurry with plate or
attrition disc mills equipped with more pins and operated in such a way as to release
the starch granules from the protein matrix. The aim of these grinding operations
is to release the starch granules, causing minimal mechanical damage. The next
steps are aimed at separating the less-dense gluten from the denser starch granules.
This is accomplished by first passing the starch–gluten slurry in a series of continu-
ous centrifuges (Figure 8.2), followed by a secondary purification using a series of
hydrocyclones (10–14 units). Most of the protein is removed in the centrifuges, but
these yield starch with 2.5%–5% residual protein. The rest of the protein or gluten is
removed in hydrocyclones so that, at the end of the process, the starch contains less
than 0.35% protein. The resulting refined starch is continuously dehydrated in drying
230 Cereal Grains
tunnels to drop its moisture to about 6%. The gluten stream is first dewatered in bas-
ket centrifuges, concentrated with a vacuum filter, and dehydrated to 12% moisture
in rotary or drum driers (Watson 1984). The yield of prime starch and gluten meal
from unclean maize is about 61% and 12%, respectively (Figure 8.1).
8.2.4 Starches and Coproducts

Starch is the primary product and is generally sold as native. It should be at least 99%
pure with protein content no more than 0.3%. Three types of native starches can be
produced: regular, waxy, and high-amylose. The last two are considered specialty
starches commanding premium prices. These starches contain around 75%, 1%, and
20%–50% amylopectin, respectively, and the rest is amylose. As a result, the various
types of maize starches have different viscoamylograph properties and functional-
ities. The major uses of starch include the production of syrups, as a source of brew-
ing adjuncts, and as a thickener in the canning industry, starch-based confectionary
products, and bakery applications. Nonfood industrial applications include produc-
tion of adhesives, textile and paper coatings, packaging materials, and fuel ethanol
(Johnson and May 2003).
The wet milling of maize yields an array of coproducts that contribute to the
economy of the process. The solids of the steep liquor rich in nutrients are gener-
ally used by pharmaceutical industries as a growth media for molds and other
microorganisms to produce antibiotics and related products. The germ is gener-
ally channeled to the oil industry where the oil is mechanically and/or solvent
extracted, refined, and dewaxed, and the protein meal is sold to the feed industry.
The pericarp or bran is generally used by the feed industry, although more of this
fiber is being ground for the production of human food supplements. The glu-
ten, rich in protein and yellow pigments (carotenoids and xanthophylls), is in high
demand in the poultry industry (Chapter 18). The yellow gluten meal is used as a
source of protein and pigments are required to naturally color egg yolk and the
skin of broilers.
8.3 Rice Wet Milling

The commercial production of rice starch is limited due to the relatively high cost of
the rice compared to other cereals and the difficulty to extract the starch due to the
endosperm structure. However, rice starch is unique in terms of properties and niche
functionalities. Rice produces compound starch granules that, upon milling, release
tiny angular-shaped starch subunits that only measure 3 to 10 μm). Starch is mainly
used as a cosmetic dusting powder and as a pudding, especially for the production of
baby foods (Juliano 1984). The wet milling process is summarized in Figure 8.3.
8.3.1 Steeping in Sodium Hydroxide

Most rice starch is obtained from broken white kernels (Chapter 7). These broken
kernels are treated with sodium hydroxide because most of the endosperm proteins
Broken White Rice

Sodium Hydroxide Steep Tanks

Solution 24 hr, 50°C
0.3–0.5% NaOH
Steep Solution with
Soluble Solids
1 kg Solids
Steeped Rice
149 kg, 48% moisture
Wet Grinding
Water Disc or Attrition Mill
Water
Starch-Gluten Resting/Screening
Suspension For 10–24 hr Drying
Fiber
Addition Continuous Centrifugation 3.5 kg, 10% Moisture
of Acid
Gluten Suspension Starch Suspension

pH 6.4
Gluten Concentration and Water

Water Drying Washing
Rice Protein Purified Starch Suspension

7.5 kg, 12% Moisture (<0.3% protein)
Rice Starch Starch Concentration and Water

85 kg, 10% Moisture Drying
Figure 8.3 Flowchart of the wet-milling process for the production of rice starch.
are high-molecular-weight glutelins. The alkali enhances the solubilization of the

endosperm proteins and the softening of the vitreous endosperm (Juliano 1984). The
broken rice is generally steeped at 50°C for one day in a weak alkali solution (0.3%–
0.5% NaOH) (Figure 8.3).
8.3.2 Grinding and Fractionation

The steeped stock is fed to disc or attrition mills, and the starch suspension is allowed
to rest for 10–24 h. The fiber is removed by screening, and the starch is recovered
by centrifugation. The starch is washed with water to remove excess alkali and then
dried (Juliano 1984). Protein could be recovered from the steeping and centrifuga-
tion effluents after first adjusting the pH to 6.4. The protein is recovered via the use
of filter presses or centrifuges (Figure 8.3).
232 Cereal Grains
8.3.3 Drying
The starch is washed with water to remove excess alkali and is then dried to drop its
moisture content to about 10% (Juliano 1984).
8.4 Wheat Wet Milling

Wheat wet milling is usually performed with two main objectives: the production of
vital gluten and the extraction of the starch (Figure 8.4). The European countries, the
United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand channel important quantities of
Wheat Flour
100 kg, 13% Moisture,
69% Starch
Water Continuous Mixer or

55–65 kg Blender
Wheat Dough
155–165 kg, 44–47% Moisture
Rest Hooper
Water Extractor
Semipurified Starch Insoluble Gluten Protein

Slurry 43.8 Kg, 70% Moisture
Continuous Dewatering Water

Effluent Centrifugation Roll Pressing 27.4 kg
12.7 kg Solids,
47% Starch
Hydroclones Dewatered Vital Gluten
Secondary Starch Purified Starch Slurry
Slurry Drying Water
40–49°C 7.9 kg
Water Drying (Flash Drier)

7.9 kg 40–49°C Vital Gluten
12.4 kg, 8% Moisture,
Milling 70% Protein
Milling
Secondary Starch Prime Starch
5.4 kg, 8% Moisture, 60 kg, 8% Moisture,
1% Protein 0.3% Protein
Vital Gluten Meal
14.3 kg, , 8% Moisture, 80%
Protein
Figure 8.4 Flowchart of the wet-milling Martin process for the production of wheat
starch and vital gluten. (Adapted from Knight, J.W., and Olson, R.M. 1984. Chapter 15 in
Starch: Chemistry and Technology, R.L. Whistler et al. (eds.). Second edition. Academic
Press, Orlando, FL.)
wheat to wet-milling industries. Vital gluten is a food additive used in the baking and
meat-processing industries, whereas the starch has analogous uses as maize starch.
There are several industrial processes to obtain wheat starch. The most important
is the denominated Martin process aimed toward the production of vital gluten and
starch (Knight and Olson 1984). The others are the Halle, Fesca, Alfa Laval/Raiso
System, and acid processes (Cornell and Hoveling 1998, Knight and Olson 1984).
8.4.1 The Martin Process

The Martin or dough ball process was proposed in Paris about 1835 and is still con-
sidered the most widely practiced (Figure 8.4). This method uses wheat flour as the
raw material and starts when refined wheat flour is mixed with water in a 2:1 ratio
to form a dough. Hard-wheat flours require more water compared to lower-protein
flours. The flour and water are mixed and kneaded until attaining a uniform, consis-
tent, properly developed, and smooth dough. The starch is simply extracted by wash-
ing the dough with water. The washing step gradually releases the starch granules
without breaking the gluten into small particles. The industry uses several washing
devices such as a rotary drum, mixers with twin screws, and mixers equipped with
a couple of sigma blades that counterrotate at different speeds. Regardless of the
equipment, the water extracts most of the starch granules and some soluble pro-
teins (albumins and globulins). The insoluble part stays on the screens, and consists
mainly of wet gluten (prolamins or gliadins and glutelins). Excess gluten water is
removed by compression through a pair of rolls, and the resulting gluten is dehy-
drated to 8%–10% moisture in vacuum or drum driers. The starch suspension with
approximately 10% solids is first passed through a set of vibrating screens in order
to remove small pieces of gluten and other contaminants. The denser starch is easily
separated from contaminants such as soluble proteins with continuous centrifuges
and/or hydrocyclones (Figure 8.2). The resulting starch is dewatered and dried to
drop its moisture content to about 10%. The industrial specification for prime wheat
starch does not allow more than 0.3% protein. The Martin process yields about 65%
starch and 14% vital gluten (Figure 8.4). The rest is inseparable starch, moisture, and
other solids lost during washing and centrifugation (Knight and Olson 1984).
8.4.2 The Fesca Process

The products of the Fesca process are starch and nonvital gluten. Wheat flour is
mixed with water to form a thin batter that is dispersed by shearing to prevent gluten
development. The batter is centrifuged in order to separate the starch from a protein
concentrate. The starch is resulurried, refined, and dried. The protein concentrate
can be spray dried. The main advantage of this process is that water usage is mini-
mized and solids recovery is nearly 100%. The use of ammonium hydroxide in the
Fesca process was proposed in 1969. The modified process allows better separation
of the starch but has a detrimental effect on the amino-acid residues of the protein
concentrate (Knight and Olson 1984).
234 Cereal Grains
8.4.3 The Alfa Laval Raiso System

In this process, wheat flour is blended with water and the resulting dough is screened
and passed to a splitter decanter that separates the starch from the gluten. The advan-
tage of this system is the savings in the consumption of water (Cornell and Hoveling
1998).
8.4.4 The Acid (SO2) Process

Whole wheat can be wet milled following the same principles described for maize.
Because of SO2 steeping, the gluten is nonvital or nonfunctional. Steeping time
requirements are significantly reduced compared to maize. Steeped wheat kernels
are wet milled, followed by screening to remove bran and germ. The slurry con-
taining starch granules and proteins is next sent to a series of hydrocylones. The
endosperm particles are steeped for a second time to free starch from gluten, and
these products are separated in centrifuges and hydrocylones. The resulting starch
and gluten slurries are concentrated before drying. According to Knight and Olson
(1984), prime starch yields, based on unclean wheat, vary from 53% to 59%.
8.4.5 Products and Coproducts

Wheat starch may be considered as a by-product in the manufacture of vital gluten.
Most of the starch is sold in unmodified form, mainly to the food and paper indus-
tries. The thickening power of wheat starch is less than that of maize starch, but paste
texture, clarity, and strength are about the same. The lower gelatinization tempera-
ture of wheat starch gives it an advantage over maize starch for use as adhesive. The
wet milling of wheat yields either vital or nonvital glutens and other by-products,
such as germ and bran, when whole kernels are used as raw materials. Vital gluten
has a high market value because it is extensively used to increase the gluten content
of flours. Most formulations of whole-wheat baked products contain vital gluten to
compensate for the loss of functionality. Vital gluten is also used to produce more
functional flours, especially in Europe and Japan. Nonvital gluten, bran, and germ
are generally channeled to the feed industry (Chapter 18).
8.5 Sorghum Wet Milling

Sorghum can be used as a raw material for the production of starch. The wet-mill-
ing process of sorghum is practically identical to the one used for maize (Munck
1995, Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2000). The major difference between maize and
sorghum is the difficulty of separating sorghum starch and gluten (Moheno-Perez
et al. 1999, Mezo-Villanueva and Serna-Saldivar 2004, Serna-Saldivar and Mezo-
Villanueva 2003). As a result, sorghum usually yields less prime starch compared
to maize, and the starch contains higher protein. Other comparative disadvantages
of sorghum are that it contains a smaller germ and produces a cream-colored gluten
instead of the characteristic highly pigmented yellow coloration. In addition, the sor-
ghum pericarp is more fragile, and its pigments (phenolic compounds) can leach into
the starch imparting an off-coloration (Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2000). However,

the properties of regular and waxy sorghum starches are similar to those of maize
starch (Moheno-Perez et al. 1999, Mezo-Villanueva and Serna-Saldivar 2004, Serna-
Saldivar and Mezo-Villanueva 2003).
8.6 Properties of Starches

Most plants store energy in starch granules. These granules contain the linear
and branched starches named amylose and amylopectin, respectively. Amylose
is essentially a linear polymer composed of glucose units linked with α-1,4-
glycosidic bonds, whereas amylopectin also has several α-1,6-glycosidic bonds.
In amylopectin, only 4%–5% of the total glycosidic bonds are α-1,6. Amylose
is usually composed of approximately 1,500 glucose units, whereas amylopec-
tin is a larger molecule containing up to 600,000 glucose units. The ratio of
amylose:amylopectin in regular starches is generally 25:75, whereas waxy starches
are composed of more than 95% amylopectin. Although amylose is called linear
starch, the molecules form helixes. The helicoidal conformation allows amylose
to complex with iodine, free fatty acids, alcohols, and emulsifiers. One important
characteristic of amylose is that it stains purple with iodine and is the most impor-
tant molecule related to retrogradation and formation of cohesive gels (BeMiller
and Whistler 2009, Serna-Saldivar 2008).
Native starch granules are water insoluble and swell reversibly when placed in
water. The most important feature of native starches is that they show birefringence
when exposed to the polarized light plane (Chapter 4). This phenomenon occurs due
to the high organization within starch granules that makes these structures behave as
pseudocrystals. As indicated earlier, amylopectin is the predominant starch molecule
and is much larger than amylose. Due to its larger size and more complex structure,
amylopectin stains brownish red with iodine. It has a low retrogradation, and forms
weak and sticky gels ((BeMiller and Whistler 2009, Serna-Saldivar 2008) Shelton
and Lee 2000, Shuey and Tipples 1982, Snyder 1984, Zobel 1984).
The comparative physical and viscoamylograph properties of various types of
starches are shown in Table 8.1. The properties of wheat starch are similar to those of
maize starch; however, maize starch is a better thickener than wheat starch. Among
cereal starches, rice has one of the smallest starch granules, varying in size from 3 to
10 μm. The forms of the granules are polyhedral or pentagonal dodecahedron. The
main industrial use of rice starch is in the cosmetic industry. However, it has unique
viscoamylographic properties that make it ideal for use in extrusion processes. Potato
starch differs from maize and wheat starches and, therefore, has other applications.
Potato produces the largest starch granules and, when heated, produces the highest
peak viscosity. The most important characteristics of potato starch are low gelatini-
zation temperature, high consistency or viscosity on pasting, high decrease in viscos-
ity when further heated and stirred, and excellent flexible film formation and binding
capacity ((BeMiller and Whistler 2009, Serna-Saldivar 2008) Shuey and Tipples
1982, Serna-Saldivar 2008).
236
Table 8.1
Comparison of the Physical and Viscoamylograph Properties of Main Starches
Maize Rice
Regular Waxy Wheat Regular Waxy Potato Tapioca
Type of Granule Single Single Single Compound Compound Single Single
Granule shape Round, Round, Round, Polyhedral, Polyhedral, Lenticular Round, egg
angular angular angular pentagonal, pentagonal, or oval shaped
dodecahedron dodecahedron
Granule size (µm) 5–30 5–25 5–35 1.6–8.7 1.9–8.1 10–100 3–28
Granule diameter (µm) 13.8–14.5 13.9–14.2 16.4–16.6 — 5.4–5.6 34–36 13.8–14.2
AMY:AMP 25:75 1:99 25:75 19:81 1:99 20:80 17:83
Paste temperature (°C) 73 69 77 79 78.5 61 59
Peak viscosity (BU) 470 1000 65 420 — 2500 1400
Viscosity at 95°C, BU 470 400 60 400 — 850 520
Viscosity hold at 95°C/30 min, BU 350 250 60 350 — 340 280
Viscosity at 50°C, BU 830 390 300 840 — 600 500
Viscosity hold at 50°C/30 min, BU 760 370 270 760 — 630 510
Retrogradation High Low High Medium Low Medium Medium
Tests were conducted with 35 g starch/500 mL. 60 min holds at 95° and 50°.
Source: Data from Huang, D.P., and Rooney, L.W. 2001. Chapter 5 in Snacks Foods Processing. E. Lusas and L.W. Rooney (eds.). Technomic Publishing,
Lancaster, PA; Jacobson, M.R. et al. 1997. Cereal Chem. 74(5):511–518; Shuey, W.C., and Tipples, K.H. 1982. The Amylograph Handbook.
American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN; Snyder, E.M. 1984. Chapter 22 in Starch: Chemistry and Technology, R.L. Whistler,
J.N. et al. (eds.). Second edition. Academic Press, Orlando, FL; and Zobel, H.F. 1984. Chapter 9 in Starch: Chemistry and Technology. R.L.
Whistler, J.N. et al. (eds.). Second edition. Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
Cereal Grains
Self-Evaluation
1. What are the optimum maize properties and characteristics for wet milling
or starch production?
2. Why is most of the commercial prime starch used worldwide extracted
from maize?
3. What factors related to grain affect optimum SO2 steeping time? Investigate
alternative processes to significantly reduce steeping time without affecting
starch yield and quality.
4. List at least three by-products of the maize wet-milling industry, indicating
chemical composition and main industrial or feed uses.
5. What are the three main functions of sulfur dioxide in wet-milling opera-
tions? Why does the lactic acid generated by Lactobacillus act synergisti-
cally with the sulfur dioxide?
6. Why does the germ from wet milling have more oil compared to the germ
obtained from dry-milling operations?
7. In a flowchart, summarize all the sequential operations used by the oil-
refining industry to convert crude oil into refined oil. Why is maize oil
usually winterized before consumption?
8. Explain the operational principle of a hydrocyclone.
9. Why is maize gluten meal in high demand in the poultry industry?
10. Compare flowcharts and processes commonly used to obtain prime starch
from maize, wheat, and rice?
11. What is the difference between vital and nonvital gluten?
12. What is the main industrial use of rice starch?
13. Compare the viscoamylographic properties of regular maize starch, waxy
maize starch, wheat starch, and rice starch. Why are waxy starches highly
demanded by the food industry?
14. Starch slurries from wet-milling industries can be used for fuel ethanol pro-
duction. What is the conversion rate? What are the advantages and disad-
vantages of using starch?
References
BeMiller, J.N., and Whistler, R.L. 2009. Starch: Chemistry and Technology. Third edition.
Academic Press, Orlando, FL, USA.
Cornell, H.J., and Hoveling, A.W. 1998. Wheat Chemistry and Utilization. Technomic
Publishing Co., Lancaster, PA, USA.
Eckhoff, S.R., and Tso, C.C. 1991. Starch recovery from steeped corn grits as affected by dry-
ing temperature and added commercial protease. Cereal Chem. 68:319–320.
Huang, D.P., and Rooney, L.W. 2001. Starches for snack foods. Chapter 5 in Snacks Foods
Processing. E. Lusas and L.W. Rooney (eds.). Technomic Publishing, Lancaster, PA.
Jacobson, M.R., Obanni, M., and Bemiller, J.N. 1997. Retrogradation of starches from differ-
ent botanical sources. Cereal Chem. 74(5):511–518.
Johnson, L.A., and May, J.B. 2003. Wet milling: The basis for corn biorefineries. Chapter 12 in
Corn: Chemistry and Technology. P.J. White and L. A. Johnson (eds.). Second edition.
238 Cereal Grains
Johnston, D.B., and Singh, V. 2001. Use of proteases to reduce steep time and SO2 Requirements
in a corn wet milling process. Cereal Chem. 78(4):405–411.
Juliano, B.O. 1984. Rice starch: Production, properties and uses. Chapter 16 in Starch:
Chemistry and Technology, R.L. Whistler, J.N. Bemiller and E.F. Paschall (eds.). Second
edition. Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
Knight, J.W., and Olson, R.M. 1984. Wheat starch: Production, modification and uses. Chapter
15 in Starch: Chemistry and Technology, R.L. Whistler, J.N. Bemiller and E.F. Paschall
(eds.). Second edition. Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
Ling, D., and Jackson, D.S. 1991. Corn wet milling with a commercial enzyme preparation.
Cereal Chem. 68:205–206.
May, J.B. 1987. Wet milling: Process and products. Chapter 12 in Corn Chemistry and
Technology, S.A. Watson and P.E. Ramstad (eds.). American Association of Cereal
Mezo-Villanueva, M., and Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2004. Effect of protease addition on starch
recovery from steeped sorghum and maize. Starch/Starke. 56(8):371–378.
Moheno-Perez, J.A., Almeida-Dominguez, H.D., and Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 1999. Effect of
fiber degrading enzymes on wet milling and starch properties of different types of sor-
ghums and maize. Starch/Starke 51:16–20.
Munck, L. 1995. New milling technologies and products: Whole plant utilization by milling
and separation of the botanical and chemical components. Chapter 8 in Sorghum and
Millets: Chemistry and Technology. D.A.V. Dendy (ed). American Association of Cereal
Rooney, L.W., and Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2000. Sorghum. Chapter 5 in Handbook of Cereal
Science and Technology. K. Kulp and J.G. Ponte (eds.). Second edition. Marcel Dekker,
New York.
Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2008. Manufacturing of cereal-based dry milled fractions, potato flour,
Serna-Saldivar, S.O., and Mezo-Villanueva, M. 2003. Effect of cell wall degrading enzymes
on starch recovery and steeping requirements of sorghum and maize. Cereal Chem.
80(2):148–153.
Shelton, D.R., and Lee, W.J. 2000. Cereal carbohydrates Chapter 13 in Handbook of Cereal
Science and Technology, K. Kulp and J.G. Ponte (eds.). Second edition. Marcel Dekker,
New York.
Shuey, W.C., and Tipples, K.H. 1982. The Amylograph Handbook. American Association of
Snyder, E.M. 1984. Industrial microscopy of starches. Chapter 22 in Starch: Chemistry and
Technology, R.L. Whistler, J.N. Bemiller and E.F. Paschall (eds.). Second edition.
Watson, S.A. 1984. Corn and sorghum starches: Production. Chapter 12 in Starch: Chemistry
and Technology, R.L. Whistler, J.N. Bemiller and E.F. Paschall (eds.). Second edition.
Zobel, H.F. 1984. Gelatinization of starch and mechanical properties of starch pastes. Chapter
9 in Starch: Chemistry and Technology. R.L. Whistler, J.N. Bemiller and E.F. Paschall
9 Milling of Maize into
Lime-Cooked Products
9.1 Introduction
Lime-cooking or nixtamalization of maize was a key factor in the development of
pre-Columbian cultures such as the Aztec and Mayan, and was critically important
in enhancing the nutritional value of this staple grain. The maize plant played such
an important role in the rise of Mesoamerican civilizations that many scriptures,
ceremonials, and traditions were closely related to the grain. The Aztecs worshiped
the Maize god named Centeotl and goddess Chicomecoatl, which represented the
welfare of the population. Likewise, the Mayans deified a god of maize and vegeta-
tion, Yum Kaax (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990, Paredes-López et al. 2000).
The traditional method to process maize into tortillas consists of cooking maize
kernels in an alkaline (calcium hydroxide) solution, followed by stone grinding to
produce masa, sheeting it, and forming it into thin discs and then baking into tor-
tillas. The ancient nixtamalization process is nowadays adapted to high process-
ing manufacturing procedures aimed toward the production of fresh and dry masa
flours widely used for manufacturing table tortillas, corn chips, and tortillas chips
(Figure 9.1). This chapter focuses on the principles of milling maize into lime-cooked
products and the industrial production of table tortillas. The industrial production of
nixtamalized snacks and the quality control of lime-cooked foods are covered in
Chapters 12 and 15, whereas traditional food uses and nutritional values are covered
in Chapters 16 and 17, respectively.
Archeological evidence suggests that wood ashes were the first source of alkali
used in the process of making tortillas. It is also well documented that, in pre-Colum-
bian times, Indians obtained alkali from cremated shells or from natural limestone
mined from local sources. Maize kernels were cooked for 10–40 min, followed by
overnight steeping for 8–16 h. The lime-cooked maize or nixtamal was hand washed
to remove excess lime and the pericarp, and then stone ground with a mano and
metate to transform it into a dough commonly known as masa (Chapter 16). Small
portions of masa were hand shaped into flat discs that were immediately baked on
a hot clay griddle for 30–60 s on each side. Soft tortillas and related products were
the main staple for the ancient Aztec and Mayan cultures, and continue to be the
main source of calories for the Mexican and Central American cultures. The Aztecs
also produced totopochtli, an ancient prototype of fat-free tortilla chips, by toast-
ing tortillas on a hot griddle or comal. This product had an increased shelf life and
was carried as food by travelers or soldiers during wars (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990,
Paredes-López et al. 2000).
239
240 Cereal Grains
Clean Maize
Lime or
Calcium Oxide
Lime Cooking, Steeping
and Washing
Water
Nixtamal
Lime-cooked Kernels
Tempering
Grinding Drying
Deep-fat Frying
Dough or Masa
Sifting and Blending
Salting/Seasoning
Forming Sheeting/Forming Additives (Preservatives,

Extruder Gums, Emulsifiers) and
Corn NutsTM Enrichment Mix
Chapter 12 Baking
Deep-fat Frying
Masa Mixing
Deep-fat Frying
Salting/Seasoning Dry Masa
Water Flour
Salting/Seasoning
Corn Chips Table
Chapter 12 Tortillas
Tortilla Chips
Chapter 12
Figure 9.1 Flowchart of industrial processes for the manufacture of table tortillas, corn
chips, tortilla chips, and dry masa flour.
Latin Americans living in the southwestern states first introduced tortilla prod-
ucts in the United States in the middle of the past century. The rapid and exponential
growth in the production and sales of lime-cooked snacks took place mainly during
the last two decades of the twentieth century.
Tortillas represent 30% of all baked product sales in the United States and con-
tinue to be the most popular food in Mexico and Central America. Approximately,
120 million tortillas are consumed yearly in the United States, making these the
second most popular baked product after white bread. An average Mexican con-
sumes more than 80 kg of maize tortillas annually. Today, derived products such
as flat tostadas and tortilla chips are extensively sold as snacks and in the prepara-
tion of fast foods (Chapter 12). Tostadas are the base for the preparation of a wide
array of meals. Taco shells are the American version of tostadas, the only differ-
ence being that they are usually fried bent (U form) and rarely colored. Regular
and low-fat tostadas and taco shells are available in grocery stores in Mexico and
the United States.
Milling of Maize into Lime-Cooked Products 241
There are basically two ways to produce table tortillas and related snacks: from
fresh masa or dry masa flour (Figure 9.1). In Mexico, more than 4.8 million tons of
dry masa flour are annually produced, yielding close to 9 million tons of table tor-
tillas. The flour provides about 40% of the total tortilla market. In the United States
and other parts of the world, dry masa flour is the preferred way to produce related
foods. The dry masa flour manufacturing process originated in Mexico in the middle
of the twentieth century and has rapidly expanded to many countries around the
globe. Precooked dry flours for different applications are rapidly growing worldwide
because of their convenience and versatility. Flours are convenient because they have
a shelf life up to one year in dry storage and require only water to reform or reconsti-
tute the masa. The major advantage of using dry flour is product flexibility (Rooney
and Serna-Saldivar 2003, Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990). Masa flours for the production
of white and yellow table tortillas, restaurant-style chips, tortilla chips, corn chips,
and tamales are available. Additionally, these can be easily blended with other dry
ingredients (i.e., preservatives, gums, enrichment mixes, etc.) before processing.
9.2 Key Ingredients for Nixtamalization

Maize kernels, lime, and water are the basic ingredients used in alkaline cooking
for making masa and table tortillas. Other additives are commonly used, especially
when processing dry masa flours. Hydrocolloids or gums, emulsifiers, acidulants,
preservatives, and enrichment mixes are used. These additives improve microbial
and textural tortilla shelf life and nutritional properties.
9.2.1 Maize Kernels

The quality and physical properties of maize kernels play the most important and
critical role in the manufacturing of tortillas and lime-cooked snacks because they
affect product quality and strongly influence processing parameters. Most processors
contract food-grade maize, nongenetically modified organism (NON-GMO), which is
sold with a small premium, especially in the United States. The ideal characteristics
are bright yellow or white dent kernels with intermediate texture from white cobs.
Kernel size should be intermediate to large (1000-kernel weight of 320 g), and it
should have a rounded crown and a shallow unwrinkled dent. Optimally, the kernels
should have a test weight of 72 kg/hL and a density of 1.3 g/cm3. A high proportion of
hard or glassy to soft or floury endosperm is required, but flint maize is not desirable,
and is rarely used. Kernel hardness, density, and test weight are important charac-
teristics because they are closely related to dry-matter loss and product yield. Soft-
textured kernels cook faster but break easily during handling and processing. The
pericarp should be easily removed during the first steps of nixtamalization. A good
food-grade maize should tolerate overcooking and abuse during handling and indus-
trial manufacturing. Table tortillas are preferably made from white maize, although
yellow maize is also used. Corn chips and tortilla chips are generally produced from
white-colored kernels or blends of white and yellow kernels. The utilization of 100%
yellow maize generally yields off-colored and off-flavored snacks due to carotenoid-
xanthophyll destruction (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990). Tortilla color is the result of corn
242 Cereal Grains
kernel and cob color, the amount of lime used during cooking, the extent of washing,
and the final pH. Kernels from red cobs can yield off-colored tortillas because the tis-
sue that remains after threshing is high in pigments (Rooney et al. 1995).
9.2.2 Lime
Archeological evidence suggests that wood ashes were the first source of alkali used
for nixtamalization. In time, different forms of lime mined from local sources were
used instead of wood ashes. In pre-Columbian times, lime was also obtained by cre-
mation of shells or from natural limestone quarries. Food-grade lime, such as quick-
lime and hydrated lime, consists principally of calcium oxide and generally contains
less than 5% magnesium oxide. The lime should be food grade to assure that it is free
of heavy metals. The concentration of lime used most frequently in alkaline cook-
ing is 1%, based on raw kernel weight. Lime addition facilitates pericarp removal
during cooking and steeping, controls microbial activity, and affects texture, fla-
vor, aroma, color, shelf life, and nutritional value (Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2003,
Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990).
Calcium oxide affects the maize kernel by breaking down the bonds holding
the hemicelluloses together in the cell walls, allowing the pericarp to be easily
removed. The degraded pericarp acts as a hydrocolloid and imparts desirable tex-
tural properties to table tortillas. Lime provides important amounts of highly bio-
available calcium and improves niacin bioavailability, but negatively affects the
nutraceutical value of nixtamalized products because cooking enhances the leach-
ing of carotenoids, phenolics, and other important antioxidants and B-vitamins into
the steep or waste water commonly known as nejayote (De la Parra et al. 2007; Del
Pozo-Insfran et al. 2006, 2007). In addition, lime disrupts fiber components during
cooking, yielding products with lower dietary fiber (Serna-Saldivar and Amaya-
Guerra 2008).
9.2.3 Water
Water acts as the main medium to transfer heat to kernels during cooking and
steeping, and causes starch gelatinization and protein denaturation. The lime is
partially solubilized in the water during cooking. For the production of fresh
masa, maize is generally cooked with three parts water and 1% lime, based on
grain weight. Kernels absorb about 28%–30% water during cooking, and 10%–
15% more during steeping (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990). Water absorption is closely
related to the degree of starch gelatinization. For fresh masa operations, extra
water (2%–4%) is added to the masa during stone grinding. The amount of water
absorbed depends upon the extent of cooking, which varies with the type of prod-
uct and the desired masa texture. The pH of the water and the minerals that it
carries can affect the color of the final product. Moisture is a key critical control
point in processing operations because it affects dough machinabilty, regulates
oil uptake during frying, and the subsequent quality of the snacks (McDonough
et al. 2001).
9.2.4 Preservatives and Acidulants

Table or soft tortillas are highly susceptible to microbial spoilage because of their
high moisture content (42%–46%) and water activity (Aw > 0.96). Most tortillas in
Mexico are consumed within a couple of days after production; therefore, there is no
need to add antimicrobial formulations. However, the life expectancy of table torti-
llas in the U.S. market is at least one week, and up to three weeks on unrefrigerated
shelves. Therefore, tortillas are usually produced using strict sanitation procedures
and with preservative formulations. Most preservative formulas consist of an acidu-
lant, usually mixed with one or more antimicrobial agents. The most popular anti-
mycotic compounds are propionate and sorbate salts. These are converted to the free
and active acids when hydrated, turning the tortilla system acidic. The pH is usually
decreased to levels of 4.8 to 5.9. Generally, higher shelf lives are achieved at lower
pHs at the expense of the characteristic tortilla flavor and aroma. Both propionates
and sorbates are recognized as safe ingredients, and their antimicrobial activity is
optimized at pH 4.5 to 5.5, but they also have the advantage of being reasonably
effective at pH as high as 6.5. Potassium sorbates are considered more effective than
calcium or sodium propionates in table tortillas. The suggested and common usage
level ranges from 0.05% to 0.3%, based on flour weight. Fumaric acid is the most
common acidulant used in tortillas because it is comparatively cheaper and mini-
mizes off flavors. It is commonly added from 0.1% to 0.3% of the original maize
weight. These additives are more easily incorporated into dry masa flour than into
fresh masa. In fresh masa operations, the dry powder mixture can be metered using
an automatic dosing machine during stone grinding or thoroughly blended with the
masa before sheeting and forming. The addition of preservatives during grinding is
more difficult but is preferred because it does not introduce an additional step in the
process (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990).
9.2.5 Gums or Hydrocolloids and Emulsifiers

Staling or the progressive loss of tortilla texture is recognized as one of the major
problems in the industry. This is due to starch retrogradation, which starts immedi-
ately after baking. There are basically two approaches to reduce tortilla staling: use
of hydrocolloids and/or emulsifiers. Gums bind large amounts of water and interact
with food components such as gelatinized starch, and therefore act as stabilizers.
Additionally, hydrocolloids counteract the effects of natural variations in ingredi-
ent characteristics, reduce the sticking of packaged tortillas, improve freeze–thaw
stability, and increase tortilla yield. The most popular gum used by the industry is
carboxy-methyl-cellulose or CMC. The gum increases water absorption, improves
tortilla reheatability, and delays staling. The level commonly used varies from 0.05%
to 0.3% based on flour weight.
Emulsifiers also improve the textural shelf life of table tortillas. They help delay
staling and produce softer and more rollable tortillas. The most effective emulsifier is
sodium-stearoyl-2-lactylate or SSL. This linear-shaped emulsifier has the ability to bind
inside amylose helixes, retarding retrogradation. Commercial lecithin and monoglyc-
erides are also used alone or in combination with SSL (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990).
244 Cereal Grains
9.2.6 Enrichment with Vitamins and Minerals

Dry masa millers in Mexico commonly enrich flours with iron, zinc, thiamin, ribo-
flavin, niacin, and folic acid. The levels used per kilogram flour are 40 and 20 for
iron and zinc, and 5, 3, 35, and 2 mg for thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and folic acid,
respectively (Serna-Saldivar and Amaya-Guerra 2008). However, fresh masa pro-
cessors do not enrich their products because of the difficulty of performing this
task in small, low-tech plants. Dunn et al. (2007, 2008) described a commercial
process for micronutrient fortification of tortillas prepared from fresh masa. The best
approach to enrichment of industrially prepared nixtamal tortillas was determined
to be a dosification system that incorporates a micronutrient premix powder into
the nixtamal feed stream as it passes into the grinding stones during milling. The
dry dosification system proved to be readily adaptable in most conventional mills,
yielded consistent fortification levels, and gave sensory properties similar to unfor-
tified tortillas. Additionally, the method is cost effective, easy to use, has minimal
impact on the existing process, produces tortillas of comparable quality to currently
unfortified counterparts, and results in a dramatic improvement in nutrient content.
The dosification system is also being used to add additives such as emulsifiers, gums,
and preservatives to masa and tortillas.
9.3 Industrial Production of Fresh Masa and Tortillas

The modern lime-cooking processes use the same principles as the old traditional
procedure first used by ancient Mesoamerican civilizations, but the equipment and
procedures have been mechanized to improve efficiency and production (Figure 9.2).
The three major operations for tortilla production are lime cooking, stone grind-
ing, and tortilla baking. Lime cooking is considered the most important part of the
process because it affects functionality and product characteristics. Stone grinding
also plays a key role because it disrupts swollen starch granules and distributes the
hydrated starch and protein around the ungelatinized portions of the endosperm,
forming masa with a given granulation. Cooking and the degree of grinding dictate
the type of masa produced. Fine grinding produces masa suitable for table tortillas,
while coarse masa is preferred for fried snacks (Serna-Saldivar 2008b, Chapter 12).
Masa is transformed into tortillas after a baking step that forms the typical tortilla
structure. In addition, baking inactivates all microorganisms and affects the color
and sensory properties of tortillas. Generally, approximately 146 kg of table tortillas
with 44%–46% moisture are obtained from 100 kg of cleaned maize (Figure 9.2).
9.3.1 Lime-Cooking and Steeping

Important process variables are cooking time, temperature, kind and concentration
of lime, and type of cooking equipment (size, agitation, and heating system). Maize
is industrially cooked with three basic types of equipment. Open vats are generally
used by small processors in the United States and are the most common type of
equipment in Mexico (Figure 9.3). The method is energy inefficient and labor inten-
sive because the cooking vat is open, and the mixture is manually agitated. Heating
Maize
12–14% Moisture, 103 kg
Dockage
Foreign Material Cleaning (Magnets, Air
Broken Kernels Aspirator, Sifting, Gravity Tables)
3 kg
Cleaned Maize
Water Lime Cooking Open Vessel,

Food-grade Lime
300 L Steam Kettle, Vertical Cooker
Ca(OH)2, 1 kg
85–100°C, 15–45 min
Steeping
Cooking or Holding Vats
8–16 hr
Nejayote (Pericarp,
Draining/Washing Drum
Water Solubles, Excess Lime)
or Lowboy Washer, Screening
7 kg Solids
Enrichment
Additive Premix Nixtamal
Powder Dosifier 156 kg, 48–50% Moisture
Water Stone Grinding

26 kg Volcanic or Synthetic Stone Grinder
Masa Forming
186 kg, 56–58% Moisture Sheeting/Forming or Mixer-extruder
Baking Water Vapor

Three Tier Gas Fired Oven 40 kg
280–300°C for 30–60 sec.
Cooling Open Tiers

3–5 min., Final Temperature of 30°C
Table Tortillas
Figure 9.2 Flowchart of industrial processes for the manufacture of table tortillas from
fresh masa.
is accomplished with gas burners, although steam injector sparge tubes can be sub-
stituted for the burners, making cooking more energy efficient. These vessels gener-
ally hold 180 to 900 kg of grain (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990). The two more advanced
systems are steam-jacketed kettles and vertical cookers (Figure 9.3). Steam-jacketed
kettles are heated indirectly by steam and agitated mechanically. Maize is gener-
ally cooked at or near boiling temperature and immediately transferred into tanks
for steeping. Vertical cookers employ direct steam injection to heat and agitate the
kernels and lime solution. The tank serves for both cooking and steeping. Additional
agitation can be accomplished with compressed air. The latter system is designed for
cooking at temperatures well below boiling (i.e., 85°C). Thus, cooking time is gener-
ally longer than in steam kettles. The capacity of steam-kettle and vertical cookers
246 Cereal Grains
(a)
(b) (c)
(d)
Figure 9.3 Equipment commonly used for the industrial production of table tortillas.
(a) Open cooking vessel (courtesy of Casa Herrera, Inc.). (b) Vertical cooker. (c) Nixtamal
washer (courtesy of Heat and Control, Inc.). (d) Commercial stone grinder.
(e)
(f ) (g)
(h)
Figure 9.3 (Continued) Equipment commonly used for the industrial production of table
tortillas. (e) Commercial sheeting-forming device (courtesy of Dr. Guillermo Arteaga, Gruna).
(f) Extruding forming tortilla head. (g) Three-tier tortilla baking oven. (h) Cooling rack.
248 Cereal Grains
varies from 136 to 270 kg and 1360 to 2730 kg, respectively. These two systems are
temperature controlled and can provide consistent results and high efficiency (Serna-
Saldivar et al. 1990).
Maize is generally cooked with 2.5–3 parts water and 1% food-grade lime (may
vary from 0.8% to 5% lime), based on grain weight (Figure 9.1). Cooking time varies
greatly from a few minutes to 1 h, with 15 to 45 min as the time range most often
cited. In general, temperatures above 68°C are thought to be required for cooking
to occur. Cooking depends on the characteristics of the maize and the interaction
of temperature, time, lime concentration, size of cooking vessel, and frequency of
agitation. Optimum cooking and steeping are determined subjectively by evaluat-
ing the extent of pericarp removal (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1991), kernel softening,
and overall appearance of the nixtamal. For table tortillas, longer cooking times are
required, and nixtamal is steeped without quenching. Nixtamal for corn and tortilla
chips is cooked to a lesser extent either by decreasing cooking time or by quenching
the steeping liquor to approximately 68°C by addition of water (Serna-Saldivar et al.
1990, 1993a).
9.3.2 Nixtamal Washing
After steeping, the nixtamal and steeping liquor are pumped or dropped by gravity
to mechanical washers. Washing in commercial processes is done in two types of
equipment: the drum washer and the lowboy system (Figure 9.3). A drum washer
consists of a conveyor that transports the nixtamal into a rotating perforated cyl-
inder with internal flights and water sprayers located within the cylinder. The low-
boy system consists of a receptacle equipped with internal screens and sprayers.
The washed nixtamal is continuously removed from the bottom by an inclined
belt conveyor. The nejayote (pericarp and excess lime) is washed away from the
nixtamal. Pumping of lime-cooked kernels increases dry matter losses during
washing, especially when poor quality, stress-cracked, or chipped kernels are
used (Almeida-Dominguez et al. 1996, Jackson et al. 1988, Pflugfelder et al. 1988,
Rooney and Suhendro 2001). In Mexico, some tortilla factories do not extensively
wash the nixtamal in order to keep the hydrolyzed fiber that helps produce more
flexible tortillas.
9.3.3 Stone Grinding

The clean and wet nixtamal is ground using a system of two matching carved stones:
one is stationary, and the other rotates at 500–700 rpm (Figure 9.3). Volcanic and
synthetic (aluminum oxide) stones are widely used by tortilla processors. Synthetic
stones have the advantage of lasting longer and require less recarving, but they can-
not be manually dressed in the tortilla plant. The typical stone is 10.2 cm thick, 40.6
cm in diameter, and is carved radially. The grooves become progressively shallower
as they approach the perimeter of the stone. The number, design, and depth of the
grooves vary with the intended product. For example, stones carved for table tor-
tillas contain more shallow grooves so that a finer dough can be produced. Stones
for corn and tortilla chips contain fewer and deeper grooves. The grinding opera-
tion consists of forcing the nixtamal through a center opening in one of the stones,
which conducts the mixture into the gap between the stones. The material is ground
and kneaded while moving outwards. Upon further kneading, the masa becomes
more plastic and cohesive. Water added during grinding cools the stones, prevents
excessive wear, reduces masa temperature, and increases the moisture level in the
masa. Stone grinding disrupts the nixtamal and promotes the plastic and cohesive
properties in the masa. The larger nixtamal pieces are held together by a colloidal
dispersion of fine particles. Masa particle size is the result of several interacting fac-
tors: (1) degree of nixtamal cooking, (2) carving design of the grinding stones, (3)
pressure between stones, (4) amount of water added during milling, and (5) type of
maize. The yield of masa depends on the stones used, grinder capacity, and type of
masa being produced (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990). Grinders capable of milling 40 kg
masa/HP/h are commonly used (Mehta 2001).
9.3.4 Tortilla Forming and Baking

With the exception of in Mexico, masa is formed into tortillas using a head that con-
sists of two rotating, smooth, Teflon-coated rolls that automatically press the masa
into a thin sheet approximately 2 mm thick (Figure 9.3). The gap between the rolls
determines product thickness and weight. The resulting sheet of masa is cut by an
attachment located underneath the front roll. A set of cutting wires also helps in dis-
charging the pieces of dough onto the conveying belt that feeds the oven. Different
interchangeable cutter configurations are used for the production of various products
(Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990). Sheeting heads that cut from one to twelve rows of tor-
tillas exist in the market (Mehta 2001).
In Mexico, most tortillas are formed with CelorioTM machines that consist of a
mixer, extruder, and former. The extrusion system forces the masa through a slot at
the bottom of the unit. A gate cutter controls the discharge and regulates the shape
and size of the masa product. The Celorio is exclusively used for table tortillas and
requires a finely ground masa with higher moisture. The masa is usually hydrated
to a larger extent (60% moisture). Tortillas extruded and formed with the Celorio
unit generally puff during baking and retain their textural properties longer (Serna-
Regardless of the type of forming device, the formed masa pieces are baked
into tortillas on a triple-pass gas-fired oven (Figure 9.3) at temperatures ranging
from 280°C to 302°C for 30–60 s. These ovens are built with atmospheric gas
combustion or proportional mix burners. The baking belts are either slat type or
woven wire. The most popular oven has three tiers with an atmospheric combus-
tion system and slat belts. One side of the tortilla bakes twice as long as the other
side. During baking, about 10%–12% moisture is lost from the masa. Baking
causes starch gelatinization, protein denaturation, color development due to
Maillard or browning reactions, and the inactivation of microorganisms (Serna-
250 Cereal Grains
9.3.5 Cooling and Packaging

The baked tortillas are cooled for 3–5 min through a series of open tiers that dis-
charge into the packaging area (Figure 9.3). Tortilla shelf life greatly depends on
the effectiveness of cooling. Improper cooling before packaging causes microbial
problems, sticking of stacked and packaged tortillas, and moisture condensation
inside the package. In modern factories, tortillas are counted, stacked, and packed in
polyethylene bags by automated machines. A mechanical counterstacker generally
counts tortillas with switch sensors, integrated circuits, or photoelectric detectors.
Automated counting reduces cross-contamination and saves labor (Serna-Saldivar
et al. 1990).
9.4 Industrial Production of Dry Masa Flour

The use of dry masa flour is rapidly growing because of its convenience.
Approximately 1.6 million metric tons of dry masa flour are annually used to manu-
facture 30% of the table tortillas produced in Mexico, and the rest are produced from
nixtamal or fresh masa. Dry masa flour use eliminates the tedious, labor-intensive
cooking, washing, and grinding of lime-cooked maize or nixtamal, and eliminates
steep water and waste disposal problems related to cooking. In addition, processors
do not have to manage the selection of suitable maize and invest in cooking equip-
ment. However, dry masa flour costs more and does not have the flavor of freshly
cooked masa products.
Industrial production of pregelatinized dry masa flours is accomplished by lime
cooking, washing, and grinding the nixtamal to produce masa. This is followed by
drying, sieving, regrinding coarse particles, resieving, classifying, and blending to
meet certain requirements (Gomez et al. 1987, Almeida-Dominguez et al. 1996)
(Figure 9.4). The dried masa is formulated into flours with carefully controlled par-
ticle-size distribution, water absorption, and other characteristics such as pH and
supplementation of different additives.
9.4.1 Lime Cooking
Most dry masa flours currently produced are processed using highly mechanized
continuous procedures. The lime (0.5%–1.5% based on maize weight) is mixed
with equal parts of water and maize in a large reactor equipped with a screw con-
veyor fitted with steam jets. The maize kernels cook in the different segments of
the reactor while moving along the conveyor. Generally, the maize is cooked for
30 min at temperatures ranging from 75°C to 95°C (Rooney and Serna-Saldivar
2003, Rooney et al. 2004, Serna-Saldivar and Rooney 2003, Serna-Saldivar et
al. 1990).
9.4.2 Nixtamal Washing and Grinding

The nixtamal, with approximately 36%–38% moisture, is washed to remove peri-
carp and excess lime and then stored in a bin before grinding with a special type
of hammer mill into a coarse masa. In some instances, stone or plate-attrition mills
are used (Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2003, Rooney et al. 2004, Serna-Saldivar and
Rooney 2003, Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990, Serna-Saldivar 2008a,b).
9.4.3 Drying
The ground particles are then dried. Drying is the most critical operation and is gen-
erally performed in large tunnels or drying towers in which warm air flows counter-
current to the pieces of masa. The first drying step is flash in which masa pieces are
dehydrated at high temperatures for few seconds with the aim of removing most of
the free water (reducing masa moisture from 36% to approximately 20%). Then, par-
ticles are dehydrated at a lower temperature with the aim of avoiding overgelatiniza-
tion and removing residual moisture. The particles are dried to a moisture content
of about 10% (Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2003, Rooney et al. 2004, Serna-Saldivar
and Rooney 2003, Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990, Serna-Saldivar 2008a).
9.4.4 Classification and Flour Formulation

The dehydrated particles are air aspirated and sized or sifted. Air aspiration is
aimed at removing pericarp pieces. Particles are classified in plansifters equipped
with a set of sieves generally ranging from 20 to 100 U.S. mesh. The large par-
ticles are reground and classified again. The second grind is usually performed
by roll or hammer mills. Various flour streams with different particle sizes are
selected and blended to produce dry masa flours with optimum particle-size dis-
tribution for different applications. Usually, from 100 kg maize, approximately 93
kg of dry masa flour is obtained (Figure 9.4; Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990, Serna-
Saldivar 2008a).
9.4.5 Additives and Enrichment

Flours are usually supplemented with hydrocolloids, acidulants, preservatives,
bleaching agents, and selected vitamins and minerals before packaging. These
additives are used to enhance microbial and textural shelf life, optimize color, and
improve the levels of micronutrients checked by regulatory agencies (Rooney and
Serna-Saldivar 2003, Serna-Saldivar and Rooney 2003, Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990,
Serna-Saldivar 2008a, Serna-Saldivar and Amaya-Guerra 2008).
9.4.6 Types of Dry Masa Flours

Masa flours designed especially for production of white and yellow table tortillas,
restaurant-style tortilla chips, tortilla chips, corn chips, and tamales (Chapter 16)
are available. Some companies offer more than 25 different masa flours formulated
to meet certain color, pH, particle-size distribution, water absorption, and viscosity
requirements. In terms of particle-size distribution, three major classes of dry masa
flours are recognized: for table tortillas, for corn chips, and for tortilla chips. Table
tortillas are usually manufactured from fine flours, whereas corn and tortilla chips
252 Cereal Grains
Maize
12–14% Moisture, 103 kg
Dockage
Cleaning
Foreign Material
(Magnets, Air Aspirator,
Broken Kernels
Gravity Tables, Stoner)
3 kg
Clean Maize
Water
100 kg, 12–14% Moisture Food-Grade Lime
200–300 L
Ca(OH)2, 1 kg
Lime Cooking
Continuous Reactor
85–100°C, 15–30 min
Pericarp, Solubles,
Water Draining/Washing Excess Lime,
3 kg Solids
Nixtamal Grinding
132 kg, 36% Moisture Hammer Mill
Drying Water Vapor

Two-step Drying: Flash Followed by 38 kg
Countercurrent Air-drying
Ground Dried Nixtamal

Aspiration and Sifting Pericarp
94 kg, 10% Moisture
(US mesh 20, 35, 60, 100) 3 kg Solids
Coarse Particles Medium Size Particles Fine Particles

> 35 US Mesh < 35 US to > 60 US Mesh Sieve < 60 US Mesh Sieve
Grinding
Roll or Hammer Milling Blending
Enrichment
Additive Premix
Dry Masa Flour
91 kg, 10% Moisture
Figure 9.4 Flowchart of the milling process for the production of dry masa flour.
are made from medium and coarse flours, respectively (Table 9.1). In general, the
particle-size distribution is coarser for snacks, taco shells, and tostadas because pores
are needed to vent steam generated during baking and frying (Almeida-Dominguez
et al. 1996, Gomez et al. 1987, Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990, Serna-Saldivar 2008a;
Chapter 12).
Blue- and purple/red-colored varieties are currently processed into instant flour
for tortilla production in Mexico. Processing parameters for the production of these
products significantly vary according to the physical properties of the genotypes.
Generally, blue maize has a softer endosperm than white counterparts, and there-
fore requires less cooking and steeping. In addition, the concentration of lime in the
cooking liquor and extent of nixtamal washing significantly affects the color of blue
maize products since it greatly affects the final pH of the food system. These torti-
llas, with their unique characteristic flavor and high anthocyanins and antioxidant
Table 9.1
Average Particle-Size Distribution of Dry Masa
Flours for Table Tortillas, Corn Chips, and Tortilla
Chips
Particle Table Tortilla Corn Chips Tortilla Chips
Size (%) (%) (%)
U.S. Mesh Sievea

+40 1.4 4.4 54.3
+60 33.8 37.5 22.8
+100 28.9 23.2 11.2
−100 36.1 34.9 12.2
Source: Serna‑Saldivar, S.O. et al. 1990. Chapter 4 in Advances in

Cereal Science and Technology. Vol. X., Y. Pomeranz (ed.).
a Number of perforations in one square inch. + indicates overs, and
– throughs particles that stayed or passed the sieve, respectively.
capacity are being viewed as a nutraceutical food (Del Pozo-Insfran et al. 2006,
2007; De la Parra et al. 2007). In the United States, blue corn tortilla chips are usu-
ally produced from fresh masa and sold in specialty markets. Blue corn products
have a unique and characteristic flavor and currently have a special niche among
organic and functional products (Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2003).
Selected high-yielding quality protein maize (QPM) varieties and hybrids are cur-
rently processed into enriched dry masa flour for tortilla production in Mexico with
the aim of upgrading protein value and supplement selected minerals and vitamins.
The new high-yielding varieties and hybrids are practically identical to the best regu-
lar white genotypes, and produce QPM tortillas with similar organoleptic properties
as regular tortillas (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1992, Serna-Saldivar et al. 2008). QPM
tortillas contain approximately twice as much lysine and tryptophan compared to
regular counterparts, and clearly favor growth and physiological and brain develop-
ment of laboratory animals and humans (Amaya-Guerra et al. 2004, 2006; Serna-
Saldivar and Amaya-Guerra 2008).
Dry masa flours are currently being supplemented with common bean (Phaseolus
vulgaris) and cactus (Opuntia spp.) flour. Both beans and cactus flours are rich
sources of dietary fiber. The green-colored cactus supplemented tortillas, rich in
both soluble and insoluble dietary fiber, are mainly consumed by diabetic and hyper-
cholesterolemic people to lower glycemic index and blood cholesterol.
Table tortilla flours are usually treated with acidulants, bleaching agents, preser-
vatives, emulsifiers, gums, and enrichment premixes. These additives are used to
enhance tortilla color, texture, reheating capacity, and shelf life. Dry masa flour has
a long shelf life because of its low moisture content, water activity, and inactivation
of insects and molds early in the process. However, chemical and physical changes
occur during prolonged storage (Carrillo et al. 1989).
254 Cereal Grains
9.4.7 Reconstitution or Hydration of Dry Masa Flour

At processing plants, dry masa flour is simply reconstituted with tap water to pro-
duce masa. The correct addition of water and adequate mixing are the most critical
steps for obtaining the best masa properties. Volumetric tanks are used to measure
the amount of water. The flour is blended with water in a slow and gentle manner for
5–10 min. The recommended mixer speed is 15–25 rpm, and the most appropriate
mixing attachment is a sigma blade. The amount of water commonly required to
hydrate masa flour for tortilla production is 1.2–1.3 L per kilogram of dry masa flour,
whereas for snacks, 1–1.1 L per kilogram of dry masa flour is needed (Serna-Saldivar
et al. 1990, Gomez et al. 1987, Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2003). The purpose is to
rehydrate the solids without causing stickiness due to excessive mechanical work.
The resulting masa is then processed into table tortillas or chips (Chapter 12), fol-
lowing exactly the same forming, baking, and cooling procedures described for fresh
masa products.
9.4.8 Alternative Processing Technologies for Dry Masa Flours

Alternative methods for producing dry masa flours have been proposed. These meth-
ods attempt to produce flours continuously, faster, and more efficiently in terms of
labor, energy, and floor space. Extrusion cooking has been proposed as one of the
feasible methods. The key to the extrusion process is to avoid excessive starch gelati-
nization and extrudate puffing by controlling grit size, moisture content, screw con-
figuration, speed, and heat input. Generally, maize grits or corn meal are mixed with
0.2%–0.3% lime and conditioned with water to reach 34% moisture. The tempered
blend is continuously fed into the extruder and exits at a moisture content of approxi-
mately 18%–20%. The additional 10% moisture is removed by a continuous drying
operation at 65°C. The extrudate with 10% moisture is hammer- or roll-milled into
flour, which is further classified by particle size and reblended (Serna-Saldivar et al.
1990, Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2003).
Self-Evaluation
1. Define the following terms widely used in masa operations: nixtamal,
nejayote, masa, lime.
2. What are the ideal physical grain properties for nixtamalization? How do
grain properties relate to dry matter losses incurred during lime cooking
and steeping?
3. Why is white dent maize generally preferred for the production of masa and
dry masa flour?
4. What are the major chemical changes that occur during lime-cooking,
steeping, and tortilla baking?
5. Compare typical flowcharts of fresh masa and dry masa operations. What
are the major processing changes?
6. How does lime-cooking affect the nutritional value of maize? Why is pella-
gra virtually unknown in Mexico and other tortilla-consuming countries?
7. What are the major differences between dry masa flour for table tortillas
and tortilla chips, in terms of degree of starch gelatinization, granulation,
and supplemented additives?
8. Investigate the nutritional and nutraceutical properties of blue maize and
quality protein maize tortillas.
9. What are the effects of alkaline or lime cooking on mycotoxins such as
aflatoxins?
References
Almeida-Dominguez, H.D., Cepeda, M., and Rooney, L.W. 1996. Properties of commercial
nixtamalized corn flours. Cereal Foods World 41:624–630.
Amaya-Guerra, C., Serna-Saldivar, S.O., and Alanis-Guzman, M.G. 2006. Soybean fortifica-
tion and enrichment of regular and quality protein maize tortillas affects brain develop-
ment and maze performance of rats. Br. J. Nutr. 96:161–168.
Amaya-Guerra, C., Alanis-Guzman, M.G., and Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2004. Effects of soybean
fortification on protein quality of tortilla-based diets from regular and quality protein
maize. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 59(2):45–50.
Bressani, R. 1990. Chemistry, technology, and nutritive value of maize tortillas. Foods Rev.
Int. 62(6):225–264.
Carrillo, E., Serna‑Saldivar, S.O., and Rouzaud, O. 1989. Effect of storage conditions and
packaging materials on the physico-chemical, microbiological and sensory properties of
corn dry masa flour. J. Food Proc. Preserv. 13:335–353.
De la Parra, C., Serna-Saldivar, S.O., and Liu, R.H. 2007. Effect of processing on the phy-
tochemical profile and antioxidant activity of corn for production of masa, tortillas and
tortilla chips. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55(10):4177–4183.
Del Pozo-Insfran, D., Serna-Saldivar, S.O., Brenes, C.H., and Talcott, S.T. 2007. Polyphenolics
and antioxidant capacity of white and blue corns processed into tortillas and chips.
Cereal Chem. 84(2):162–168.
Del Pozo-Insfran, D., H. Brenes C., Serna-Saldivar, S.O., and Talcott, S.T. 2006. Polyphenolic
and antioxidant content of white and blue corn (Zea mays L.) products. Food Res. Int.
39(6):696–703.
Dunn, M., Serna-Saldivar, S.O., Sanchez, D., and Griffin, R.W. 2008. Commercial evaluation
of a continuous micronutrient fortification process for nixtamal tortillas. Cereal Chem.
85(6):746–752.
Dunn, M., Serna-Saldivar, S.O., and Turner, E.A. 2007. Industrial approaches to micronutrient
fortification of traditional nixtamal tortillas. Cereal Foods World 52(5):240–248.
Gomez, M.H., Rooney, L.W., Waniska, R.D., and Pflugfelder, R.L. 1987. Dry corn masa flours
for tortilla and snack food production. Cereal Foods World 32:372–377.
Jackson, D.S., Rooney, L.W., Kunze, O.R., and Waniska, R.D. 1988. Alkaline processing
properties of stress cracked and broken corn (Zea mays L). Cereal Chem. 65:133–137.
McDonough, C.M., Gomez, M.H., Rooney, L.W., and Serna‑Saldivar, S.O. 2001. Alkaline
cooked corn products. Chapter 4 (pp. 73–114) in Snack Foods Processing. E. Lusas and
L.W. Rooney (eds.). First edition. Technomic Publishing, Lancaster, PA.
Mehta, S.P. 2001. Tortilla Chip Processing. Chapter 10 (pp 261-280) in Snack Foods Processing.
E. Lusas and L.W. Rooney (eds.). First edition. Technomic Publishing, Lancaster, PA.
Paredes-López, O., Serna-Saldivar, S.O., and Guzmán-Maldonado, H. 2000. Los Alimentos
Mágicos de las Culturas Indígenas de Mexico -El Caso de la Tortilla. México.
Pflugfelder, R.L., Rooney, L.W., and Waniska, R.D. 1988. Dry matter losses in commercial
corn masa production. Cereal Chem. 65:127–132.
256 Cereal Grains
tions. Chapter 13 (pp. 495–535) in Corn Chemistry and Technology. P. White and L.
Johnson (eds.). Second edition. American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul,
MN.
Rooney, L.W., Waniska, R.D., McDonough, C.M., and Serna‑Saldivar, S.O. 2004. Tortillas.
Pages 290–298 in Encyclopedia of Grain Science. Vol. 3. C. Wrigley, C. Walker, and H.
Corke (eds.). First edition. Elsevier, Oxford, U.K.
Rooney, L.W., Almeida-Dominguez, H.D., Suhendro, E.L., and Bockholt, A.J. 1995. Critical
factors affecting the food quality of corn. Pages 80–96 in 49th Annual Corn and Sorghum
Research Conference of the American Seed Trade Association, December 7–8, 1994,
Chicago, IL.
Rooney, L.W., and Suhendro, E.L. 2001. Food quality of corn. Chapter 3 (pp. 37–72) in
Snack Foods Processing. E. Lusas and L.W. Rooney (eds.). First edition. Technomic
Publishing, Lancaster, PA.
Rubio, M. 1989. La Industria de la Harina y la Tortilla. Su Modernización. In La Industria del
Maíz. Maíz Industrializado Conasupo, Gruma y Grupo Azabache. México, DF.
Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2008a. Manufacturing of cereal-based dry milled fractions, potato flour,
Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2008b. Snacks from alkaline cooked maize products. Chapter 7 in
Industrial Manufacture of Snack Foods. Kennedys Publications, London.
Serna‑Saldivar, S.O., Almeida‑Dominguez, H.D., Rooney, L.W., Gómez, M.H., and Bockholt,
A.J. 1991. Method to evaluate ease of pericarp removal on lime-cooked corn kernels.
Crop Sci. 31:842–844.
Serna‑Saldivar, S.O. and Amaya-Guerra, C.A. 2008a. El papel de la tortilla nixtamalizada
en la nutrición y alimentación. Chapter 3 in Nixtamalización del Maíz a la Tortilla:
Aspectos Nutrimentales y Toxicológicos. Rodriguez Garcia, M., Serna‑Saldivar, S.O.,
and Sanchez Senecio, F (eds.). Universidad de Queretaro, Series Ingenieria. Queretaro,
Mexico.
Serna-Saldivar, S.O., Herrera Macias, P., Amaya Guerra, C.A., Melesio Cuellar, J.L., Preciado
Ortiz, R.E., Terron Ibarra, A.D., and Vazquez Carrillo, G. 2008b. Evaluation of the
lime-cooking and tortilla making properties of quality protein maize hybrids grown in
Mexico. Plant Foods Human Nutr. 63(3):119–125.
Serna‑Saldivar, S.O., and Rooney, L.W. 2003. Tortillas. Pages 5808–5813 in Encyclopedia
of Food Sciences and Nutrition. Second edition. B. Caballero, L. Trugo and P. Finglas
Serna‑Saldivar, S.O., Wansika, R.D., and Rooney, L.W. 1993a. Wheat and corn tortillas. In
Encyclopedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. R. Macrae, R. Robinson,
and M. Sadler (eds.). Academic Press, London.
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L.W. 1993b. A method to evaluate the lime cooking properties of corn (Zea mays).
Serna‑Saldivar, S.O., Gomez, M.H., Islas‑Rubio, A.R., Bockholt, A.J., and Rooney, L.W. 1992.
The alkaline processing properties of quality protein maize. Chapter 16 in Quality Protein
Maize, E.T. Mertz (ed.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
Serna‑Saldivar, S.O., Gomez, M.H., and Rooney, L.W. 2000. Food uses of regular and special-
ity corns and their dry milled fractions. Chapter 11 in Speciality Corns, A.R. Hallauer
(ed.). Second edition. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
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Science. First edition. C. Wrigley, C. Walker, and H. Corke (eds.). Elsevier, Oxford,
U.K.
10 Manufacturing of
Bakery Products
10.1 Introduction
Wheat is the most diverse cereal in terms of food uses and the cereal that is used to
produce the most commercial products. This is because wheat is the only cereal that
has functional gluten and is commercially available in three contrasting classes with
different end uses. The soft, hard, and durum wheats are popular worldwide, espe-
cially in industrialized countries. The first two types are generally milled into flour,
whereas the last is made into semolina (Chapter 7). The main uses of these milled
fractions are for the production of a wide array of yeast- and chemical-leavened
products, and short and long pastas. The major food uses of different wheat flours
and semolina are depicted in Figure 10.1.
10.2 Uses of Whole Wheat

Pounded or decorticated wheat is still widely consumed in southern Europe and the
Middle East. Pounded wheat usually retains the nutrients associated with the germ
and aleurone layer, and is considered a more nutritious food compared to its refined
counterparts. Wheat is first conditioned to 15%–16% moisture, mechanically deco-
rticated, and the bran removed by air aspiration and/or sifting. Decorticated kernels
are naturally or artificially dehydrated. Pounded wheat in its intact form is known
by several names, including dovme, asure, yarma, herish, and grano. It is produced
from either T. aestivum or T. durum, depending upon availability. The type of wheat
affects color, appearance, texture, chewiness, and flavor. Soft pounded wheat is pre-
ferred to produce a traditional dessert (asure) and soups because of its short cooking
time and relatively higher water absorption. Durum pounded wheat has a light yel-
lowish color and hard texture and, due to its high protein, is the preferred source for
kibbe, herisi, and kofte. Pounded wheat is used as an alternative to rice and pasta. It
has a firm and chewy consistency and flavor similar to pasta. Pounded wheat could
be further milled into a coarse (sise) or fine (seferkitel or cerish) grits to prepare an
array of foods such as dolma, soups, and kofte (Bayram 2005).
Bulgur is widely consumed in Turkey, the Middle East, North Africa, and Eastern
Europe. Its production and consumption are increasing in different parts of the
world. Bulgur is produced by cleaning, cooking, drying, tempering, decortication,
grinding, polishing, and classification. The preferred raw material is durum wheat,
but common hard and even soft wheat may also be used. The production of bulgur
recently reached important levels around the world. In Turkey, more than 1 million
259
260
Hard and Soft

Wheats Durum Wheat
Milling Milling
Soft Wheat Hard Wheat All-purpose

Semolina
Flour Flour Flour
Chlorinated Straight- Straight

Patent Flour
Flour grade Flour Grade Flour
Cakes Chemical-leavened Yeast-leavened Yeast-leavened Yeast-leavened Pasta

• High Ratio • Muffins Breads Breads Donuts • Long
• Low Ratio • Hot Cakes • Hearth • Hearth Chinese Bread • Short
• Angel • Biscuits Crackers
• French • Pan Couscous
• Coffee Donuts Noodles
• Arabic • Hamburger Noodles
Cookies • Salt
• Wire-cut • Pan • Hotdog Buns • Alkaline
• Rotary • Bagels
Tortillas
• Die Cut • Hamburger
• Hot-press
• Deposit • Hotdog Buns
• Die-cut
• Wafers Pastries
• Hand-stretch
Cakes • Danish
• High-ratio Pretzels
• Sweet Rolls
• Low-ratio Pizza Crusts
• Angel
Pie Crusts
Cereal Grains
Figure 10.1 Major food uses of hard, soft, and durum wheats by the various segments of the baking industry.
Manufacturing of Bakery Products 261
tons are annually produced by approximately 500 processing plants. Of this produc-
tion output, approximately 20% is exported. The United States and Canada produced
about 300,000 tons in 20 plants, whereas other Middle Eastern countries produce
over 200,000 tons.
The amount of bulgur in food-aid programs annually distributed by the United
Nations and the World Food Program (WFP) reached about 80,000 tons. Bulgur is
dried after boiling to get a storable product. The moisture content is reduced by differ-
ent methods. The drying method affects flavor, color, texture, and nutrient retention.
Bulgur is traditionally sun dried or commercially dehydrated with hot air. Traditional
sun-drying methods should be replaced by the more effective and more economic
drying method since open-air sun drying may cause quality degradation and product
infestation. Different milling techniques (stone, disc, roller, etc.) are used to produce
bulgur, and it was reported that they affect its properties (color, shape, size) signifi-
cantly. Milling is aimed toward yielding food products having particles with a certain
granulation. The minimum acceptable particle size is 0.5 mm. The two most popu-
lar milling systems process tempered wheat (15% to 24% moisture for 10–14 h). The
dehulled, cooked, dried, and tempered wheat is milled with a vertical emery stone
dehuller, or disc or hammer mills. Stone milling is the most efficient in terms of yield
of uniform particles, whereas hammer milling is the least acceptable because it causes
the greatest variation in the shape and dimensions of the bulgur particles as well as
lowering acceptability (Bayram and Oner 2005).
Firik is also an ancient staple food product similar to bulgur. It is also called
frikeh, frekeh, or freekah, and is a common food in Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt,
Iraq, Iran, and Syria. About 250,000 to 300,000 tons of firik is estimated to be pro-
duced annually. It is obtained from early-harvested wheat (at milk ripe stage, con-
taining 35% to 50% moisture). Immature durum wheat is the preferred raw material.
The main characteristic of this food is that immature spikes are roasted on flames
to burn off the awns and leafy material. Burning or charring is usually performed
in batch or continuous ovens. Firik is generally home made for domestic consump-
tion, or commercially produced by small-scale manufacturers. The scorched spikes
are dehydrated either naturally (solar) or artificially in tunnel or tray dryers. Then
they are threshed and the resulting roasted kernels separated from the leafy material
and husks in rotary screens and air aspirators in preparation for cracking. Charring
imparts a unique and appetizing smoked flavor to the firik. The price of firik is
two or three times higher than that of bulgur or pounded wheat. Firik is generally
cooked with meat, as in the case of rice and bulgur, in a pilaf. It is generally boiled
in two parts water to one part dried firik (Bayram 2008). It has some unique health-
promoting characteristics that might increase its role as a functional food. As an
immature wheat product, it is high in fructo-oligosaccharides and dietary fiber, and
low in phytic acid.
10.3 Yeast-Leavened Products

Bread is considered the most common food for mankind. Different types of breads
have originated since prehistoric times, and the manufacturing of primitive types
of flat breads is well documented. Bread is a sacred symbol for Christians, Jews,
262 Cereal Grains
Greeks, and Egyptians. There are clear indications of the production of bread by the
Egyptian culture in times of Ramses III (approximately 1200 bc). The lack of bread
was strongly associated with the decline of the Roman Empire, and sparked the
French and Bolshevik Revolutions. Bread is a staple for most cultures due to its high
nutritional value. In addition, it is produced using simple utensils and ingredients
(flour, water, salt, sugar).
Modern industrial baking processes are highly mechanized and require the best
quality flours because their properties affect process variables and the quality of end
products. The general sequential steps for the production of bread are blending of dry
ingredients, dough mixing, fermentation, punching/molding, and baking. Most yeast-
leavened breads are made from refined hard wheat flours. Flour quality affects dough
water absorption, optimum mixing time, and the final bread characteristics.
10.3.1 Ingredient Functionality
The basic ingredients needed for the production of yeast-leavened bread are flour,
water, and yeast. Most formulas also contain salt, sugar, and shortening or lard. In
order to fulfill shelf-life expectations and produce high-quality products, ingredi-
ents such as malt, preservatives, oxidizing agents, emulsifiers, yeast food, nonfat dry
milk, and vital gluten are used (Stauffer 1990, Sultan 1983). Generally, pan bread
contains all these listed ingredients. Whole egg and derived products are frequently
used for the production of sweet baking goods such as Danish pastries, sweet rolls
and croissants. These formulations usually contain relatively high levels of sugar,
shortening, and fresh or dehydrated egg products.
10.3.1.1 Flour
Flour is the most important ingredient of bread formulations, and affects the func-
tionality, manufacturing parameters, and properties of the finished products. It dic-
tates the requirement of other ingredients such as water, malt, and vital gluten. Flour
functionality is mainly dictated by protein content and/or gluten properties. Both
water and mechanical work or mixing are required in order to properly develop the
gluten. The resulting dough forms a continuous elastic network that is capable of
retaining the carbon dioxide produced by the fermenting yeast or by the gases gener-
ated by the chemical leavening agents. The most important flour characteristics are
water absorption, mixing or dough development time, and stability or mixing toler-
ance (Chapter 15). These properties greatly affect performance and bread quality.
Generally speaking, a higher flour protein increases water absorption requirements
and mixing time to attain optimum dough development and dough stability. The
flour protein content is affected by genetics and the environment. Within a certain
wheat variety, the protein varies according to nitrogen fertilization, temperature dur-
ing grain filling or maturation, soil fertility, and irrigation. Nitrogen fertilization
usually increases grain protein content and quality of flour for bread production.
Gliadin is the protein fraction most affected by nitrogen fertilization.
Generally, bakeries have stringent flour quality-control measurements. The most
important ones are related to dough rheological properties measured with a farino-
graph, mixograph, extensograph, and/or alveograph (Chapter 15). Other important
flour components are pentosans, starch, simple carbohydrates, and polar lipids (gly-
colipids and phospholipids). The amount of starch damage in the flour depends on
the activation of diastatic enzymes while the grain is maturing in the field, during
faulty storage (see Chapter 5), or due to mechanical damage during milling (Chapter
7). Flours with high starch damage or diastatic activity produce sticky doughs and
low-quality breads. Normally, a good-quality refined flour should contain less than
0.4% ash, 0.6% pentosans, traces of polar lipid compounds, and 10.5%–14% protein
that, upon dough mixing, yields a strong and elastic gluten. For instance, when the
flour is tested with a farinograph, it should optimally absorb 60%–64% water to
attain optimum consistency or dough development after 6–8 min, a dough stability
of 10–17 min, and a mixing tolerance index of only 20–35 farinograph units.
Whole wheat flour is produced by milling whole wheat or by adding bran to
refined flours (Chapter 7). These flours are gaining popularity because of the pro-
duction of many whole wheat or high dietary fiber foods. The presence of significant
amounts of bran negatively affects functionality due to the dilution of gluten proteins
and the interference of bran with gluten formation. In addition, phenolics and other
related compounds associated with bran greatly affect color, producing the charac-
teristic brownish colorations. Generally, whole wheat flours require less water and
mechanical work or mixing to properly develop the gluten. Whole wheat flours tend
to form more sticky and slack doughs compared to refined flours. This is attributed
to pentosans and gluten dilution, respectively.
10.3.1.2 Water
Water is fundamental in any bread operation because it is the medium for the solu-
bilization of other ingredients; it activates yeast and malt enzymes, hydrates and
swells starch granules, and is absolutely necessary for gluten formation. In order to
form the gluten network, flour, water, and the mechanical energy input of mixing
are required. Generally, hard wheat flours are hydrated with 60%–66% water. About
31% of the water in the formula is bound to the gluten proteins gliadin and glutelin,
46% to starch, and 23% to pentosans. When the dough is baked into a loaf of bread,
approximately 10% of the water is lost, and the rest of the water binds to gelatinized
starch (77%) and pentosans (23%) (Bushuk 1966). The gluten denatures and practi-
cally loses its water-binding capacity. The water hardness (amount of mineral salts
present) can affect the quality of end products. The optimum water type should be
classified as medium hard with 50–100 ppm of calcium carbonate or calcium sulfate
salts.
10.3.1.3 Yeast
Yeast (Saccharomyces cereviceae) is a biological fermenting agent. It is a chemosyn-
thetic, unicellular, nucleated, and immobile microorganism that reproduces asexu-
ally by budding. The size of the yeast cell varies from 4 to 8 µ in width and 5 to 16 µ
in length. Yeast ferments simple sugars (i.e., glucose, fructose, mannose, galactose,
sucrose, maltose, and maltotriose) into ethanol, carbon dioxide, and energy. The by-
products of its metabolism or alcoholic fermentation are key compounds that impart
the typical bread flavor and aroma. The chemical composition of fresh compressed
yeast is 70% water, 13.5% protein, 12% soluble carbohydrates, 2% ash, 1.1% crude
264 Cereal Grains
fat, and 1.5% cellulose. There are various types of commercial yeast: fresh, com-
pressed-fresh, and dehydrated. Industrially, yeast cells are cultivated in a medium
containing molasses, minerals, sulfur compounds, vitamins (including biotin), and a
small amount of nitrogenous salts (i.e., ammonium salts). Yeast is cultivated in large
fermentation tanks with strict control of temperature, aeration, and agitation, and
reproduces by budding in a period of several days (Figure 10.2). The yeast cells are
harvested, concentrated by centrifugation, washed, and then press filtered to obtain
compressed cells with approximately 70% water. For the production of dry yeast
(92% solids), the compressed yeast is mixed with phospholipids and other protecting
agents and cold extruded to form thin strips in preparation for dehydration. Drying
is performed in continuous dryers in which air flows countercurrently to the yeast,
or alternatively by bed drying at low temperature (30°C–60°C). The objective is to
minimize damage to cell membranes. In practical terms, 1 kg of fresh compressed
yeast is equivalent to approximately 0.45 kg dry yeast. The advantage of dry yeast is
Pure Yeast Culture

Saccharomyces Cereviceae
Flask Seeding
Growth Culture Media
Incubation for 2 Days at 30–36°C with
Malt Agar
Strict Aseptic Conditions
20 µm
Sterile Air Fermentation Reactor Growth Media

75–350 L for 20 hr
Propagation Fermentation Reactors

1. 1500 L, 16 hr, 1.5% Solids.
Spent Growth 2. 3500 L, 14 hr, 3–4.5% Solids.
Media
Continuous Centrifugation Cream of Yeast

Growth Media
2–5 Fermentation Reactors

Sterile Air Capacity 20,000 L each Antifoaming
30°C/12 hr/8–10% Solids Agents
Continuous Centrifugation and

Water
Washing
Compressed-fresh
Cream of Yeast Press Filtering
Yeast
18–20% Solids 20–25 min @ 210–230°C
27–32% Solids
Dehydration
Cold Extrusion/Forming Water, Oil and
Water Rotary Drier
Emulsifiers
3–6 hr @ 45°C
Vacuum Packaged
Vacuum Packaging Dry-yeast
Metalized Film Bags 92.5 to 93.5% Solids
Figure 10.2 Flowchart of the industrial production of compressed fresh and dry yeasts.
that it has a prolonged shelf life, especially when it is vacuum packaged. The disad-
vantage is that it takes longer to reactivate and start hydrolyzing the dough substrate.
In addition, yeast suffers damage in its cell walls during dehydration, releasing glu-
tathione, which has a known gluten-reducing or weakening effect.
Yeast breaks down mono-, di-, and trisaccharides, yielding organic acids (i.e.,
acetic, butyric, lactic, succinic) responsible for lowering the dough pH, in addi-
tion to other chemical compounds such as aldehydes and ketones that affect flavor
and aroma (i.e., acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, propionaldehyde, isobutylaldehyde,
methyl-ethyl ketone, isovaleraldehyde, 2-methyl butanol, etc.), and carbon dioxide.
CO2 is the main factor responsible for the leavening effect because it is trapped by
the elastic gluten network. Yeast fermentation or proofing is generally performed at
temperatures ranging from 26°C to 30°C in proof cabinets normally containing a
relative humidity of 85%. The amount of dry yeast generally used in bread formula-
tions varies from 1% to 2%, which is equivalent to 3% to 6% of fresh compressed
yeast (Reed and Peppler 1973).
10.3.1.4 Sweeteners
Various types of sweeteners are frequently used in bread formulations. The most popu-
lar is crystallized sugar, followed by invert and fructose-containing syrups (Chapter
13). Regardless of the type, these carbohydrates have three basic functionalities: impart
flavor and color, contribute to prolonged shelf life, and regulate yeast activity (Dubois
1984). The flavor profile is produced by means of sugar breakdown during fermentation
and by the amount of residual or unfermented sugar. Sugars also greatly affect bread
color, especially crust color, by Maillard reactions or nonenzymatic browning when
exposed to high baking-oven temperatures. These carbohydrates also improve bread
shelf life because they are transformed into organic acids that lower pH and water activ-
ity. Pan bread formulations usually contain 4% to 6.5% sugar, while sweet pastries and
baking goods contain up to 15% (Cauvain and Young 1998, Doerry 1995, Eliasson and
Larsson 1993, Kulp and Ponte 2000, Matz 1972, 1987, Pomeranz and Shellenberger
1971, Pyler 1988, Quaglia 1991, Sluimer 2005, Stauffer 1990, Sultan 1983).
10.3.1.5 Salt
Salt is one of the four essential ingredients in bread formulations because it
strengths the gluten via ionic protein modifications, stabilizes yeast fermentation
rate, enhances the flavor of the final product, and slightly increases dough-mixing
time (Doerry 1995, Kulp and Ponte 2000, Miller and Hoseney 2008, Strong 1969).
It does not impart a salty taste but rather brings out the other flavors in the system
at the level generally used (1% to 2%). It is known to increase the sweetness of sug-
ars and mask metallic and bitter off-flavors. In addition, salt counteracts the overly
sweet flavor of sugars in pastry products. Salt acts as a stabilizer and controller
of yeast fermentation, decreasing the rate of gas production. It also lowers water
activity and therefore acts synergistically with preservatives to enhance shelf life.
Salt contains approximately 39% sodium, which has been linked to hypertension
and cardiovascular disease. Reduced sodium breads can be produced by decreas-
ing about 50% of the salt generally used in regular formulations. Potassium chlo-
ride is widely used as a salt substitute to produce reduced or salt-free products.
266 Cereal Grains
10.3.1.6 Shortening/Lard
Hydrogenated vegetable shortening and lard have important functionalities because
they act as lubricants improving dough texture and machinability. These fats signifi-
cantly lower dough stickiness. Their main functionality is to improve the textural
shelf life of baking goods. This is because the plastic shortening or lard forms thin
films between the gluten network and other dough components, retarding starch ret-
rogradation. This phenomenon is most associated with the progressive loss of bread
texture throughout storage. The main concern about the use of shortening nowadays
is the level of trans fatty acids because of their proven negative effects on human
health. Zero trans plastic shortenings with good oxidative stability are now available
to produce healthier products. The most popular trans-free shortenings are produced
from fractionated oils derived from African palm (Eleais guinensis). Emulsified
margarines and butter containing about 20% water are frequently used, especially
for the manufacturing of sweet baked goods or pastries. They are employed to impart
their characteristic flavor and color. Shortening and lard are usually used in pan
bread formulations at levels varying from 3% to 3.5%, and in sweet baked goods at
levels of up to 15% (Cauvain and Young 1998, Doerry 1995, Kulp and Ponte 2000,
Matz 1972, 1987, Pyler 1988, Quaglia 1991, Sluimer 2005, Stauffer 1990).
10.3.1.7 Diastatic Malt
Most bread recipes include diastatic barley malt flour. Diastatic malt contains high
levels of α- and β-amylases and proteases that mainly hydrolyze damaged starch gran-
ules and proteins, respectively. These enzymes gradually and slowly provide substrate
for the fermenting of yeast. Diastatic malt is especially important in those formula-
tions where sugar is not used, such as in French breads. Many commercial hard-wheat
flours are supplemented with diastatic malt in order to adjust their diastatic activity,
usually measured by the falling number assay (Chapter 15). The quantities used vary
from 0.1% to 1.25% (Doerry 1995, Kulp and Ponte 2000, Stauffer 1990).
10.3.1.8 Dried Milk
Pan bread formulations usually contain small quantities of nonfat dried milk (1%
to 3.5% based on flour weight). The milk slightly increases water absorption, and
improves crust color (golden color) and flavor. It is noteworthy that yeast is not
capable of breaking down lactose and therefore this disaccharide remains unaltered
until the baking process, where it contributes to crumb color. Milk also improves
nutritional value because its protein complements the amino acid pattern of wheat
proteins and supplies important amounts of calcium, magnesium, and other essential
nutrients (Doerry 1995, Kulp and Ponte 2000, Stauffer 1990).
10.3.1.9 Vital Gluten
Vital gluten is mainly composed of wheat endosperm proteins, gliadins, and glute-
lins, and is frequently used in whole-wheat or composite bread formulations to coun-
teract the negative effects of bran and addition of non-gluten-forming flours such as
rye, oats, cracked grains, and soybeans (Doerry 1995, Kulp and Ponte 2000). It is
also widely used in specialty bread formulations to improve dough strength. Vital
gluten is obtained from the Martin wheat wet-milling process detailed in Chapter 8.
Glutenins contribute to dough extensibility and strength, while gliadins contribute
to elasticity and cohesiveness. Typically, vital gluten contains more than 70% pro-
tein. When used, 1%–3% vital gluten is added to bread formulations. Generally, the
addition of 1% vital gluten increases protein content by 0.6%, and flour absorption
by 1.5%.
10.3.1.10 Dough Conditioners/Emulsifiers
Dough conditioners are chemical compounds that have hydrophilic and lypophilic
groups or ends. They are widely used because the polar and nonpolar groups bind
with dough components. They act as dough conditioners and very effectively decrease
staling rate. The most popular emulsifiers are stearoyl-2 sodium lactylate, monoglyc-
erides, and lecithin (Dubois 1979).
Emulsifiers enhance the formation of bonds between polar and nonpolar com-
pounds and improve the properties of the dough (i.e., decrease stickiness) and its
machinability, especially in high-producing automated processing lines. Their most
important functions are retarding retrogradation and improving bread textural shelf
life. Chemically, emulsifiers bind to free or gelatinized amylose helices; the lipo-
philic side binds to the interior of the helix and the hydrophilic side to water. The
emulsifiers with straight configurations are the most effective in terms of lowering
staling because the lipophilic side penetrates inside the amylose helix. One example
is SSL. Other popular emulsifiers are commercial lecithin (a combination of dif-
ferent phosholipids such as phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl serine, phosphatidyl
ethanol amine, and phophatidyl inositol), succinylated monoglycerides, ethoxylated
monoglycerides, and diacetyl tartaric acid ester of monoglycerides (DATEM). The
last is an anionic emulsifier widely used as a dough strengthener and to improve
bread volume. Emulsifiers are commonly used in combination because of their syn-
ergistic positive effects and in levels that vary from 0.01% up to 0.3% based on flour
weight (Cauvain and Young 1998, Doerry 1995, Dubois 1980, Eliasson and Larsson
1993, Kulp and Ponte 2000, Matz 1972, 1987, Sluimer 2005, Stauffer 1990).
10.3.1.11 Oxidizing Agents
Oxidizing agents have little or no effect on yeast activity but affect rheological dough
properties and therefore gluten gas retention capacity. Oxidizing agents enhance
the formation of disulfide bonds and therefore gluten strength. These rheological
changes also improve crumb texture because breads usually have better-distributed
gas cells with lesser amounts of large air pockets or crumb defects. The most popular
oxidizing agent is potassium bromate, but it is banned in several countries around
the globe. The use of this non-GRAS additive has caused controversy because it is
toxic in high concentrations, causing abdominal pain, nausea, renal problems, and
depression of the central nervous system. Experiments conducted with laboratory
rats demonstrated that potassium bromate caused kidney cancer tumors. For this
reason, it is not allowed by regulatory agencies in Europe, Japan, and New Zealand.
However, a recent risk assessment by the FDA estimated as a one in a million cancer
risk level for consumers at the 90th percentile for its intake via bakery products.
Nakamura et al. (2006) concluded that Pullman breads supplemented with 15 mg
268 Cereal Grains
potassium bromate per kilogram flour did not contain any residual bromate after
baking. However, significant levels were found in other sorts of breads. The addition
of reducing agents such as ascorbic acid and ferrous sulfate enhances the reduc-
tion or elimination of residual bromate. When allowed, the maximum amount of
potassium bromate permitted in some countries is 100 ppm based on flour weight,
but the most popular dosage is only 20 ppm. Oxidizing agents are more effective in
low-quality baking flours (i.e., those containing low protein and weak gluten). Most
formulations that contain oxidizing agents also include ascorbic acid because of their
synergistic effect. As explained earlier, ascorbic acid also lowers the potential toxic
effects of potassium bromate. The levels of ascorbic acid commonly used vary from
30 to 100 ppm.
Other important oxidizing agents used are azodicarbonamide and cupric sulfate
(Stauffer 1990). Azodicarbonamide is used instead of potassium bromate and sup-
plemented in baking flours by millers (Chapter 7).
10.3.1.12 Gums or Hydrocolloids
Gums are seldom used in bakery products but are highly employed in the manufac-
ture of fillings, pies, and frozen doughs. They are used in these bakery products to
retain water. Their use mainly retards staling because they bind large amounts of
water in proportion to their weight and interact with starch. In addition, hydrocol-
loids act as stabilizers. The most popular gums are guar, xanthan, Arabic, and car-
boxy-methyl-cellulose. Pectins are the preferred gums for the production of fillings.
10.3.1.13 Preservatives or Antimold Agents

From the microbial viewpoint, bread is mainly attacked by molds belonging to
the genus Aspergillus, Penicillium, or Fusarium. These molds can be inhibited by
lowering the pH and Aw (use of salt, sugar, and poliols), as well as by the use of
atmosphere-controlled packaging and preservatives. The best control methods use
combined technologies and postbaking sanitation procedures to minimize cross-
contamination. In order to inhibit bread molds, the baking industry uses propionate
salts (mainly calcium propionate). Calcium propionate strongly inhibits molds with-
out greatly affecting yeast activity. The organic acids generated during fermentation
drop the pH and gradually transform the salt into active propionic acid. Generally,
breads with more acidic pHs have longer shelf-life expectations. Other popular pre-
servatives that are used in other nonyeast-leavened products are potassium sorbate
and, in some instances, sodium benzoate. Potassium sorbate is highly efficient at rel-
atively higher pHs compared to sodium benzoate. Sodium benzoate is the preferred
preservative for fillings. The most common maximum level allowed of preservatives
used alone or in combination is 0.2% based on flour weight (Doerry 1995, Kulp and
Ponte 2000).
10.3.1.14 Yeast Food

Yeast food consists of a blend of mineral salts and nitrogenous compounds included
in a base. These nutrients are essential to enhancing yeast activity. The minerals used
are acidic calcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate, sodium chloride, and ammonium
sulfate. Most of these salts are usually mixed with dough improvers and oxidizing
agents diluted in a starch or flour base. Most yeast-food mixes are added at 0.5%
based on flour weight (Doerry 1995, Kulp and Ponte 2000).
10.3.1.15 Enzymes
Different types of enzymes are used to improve the properties of bakery items.
Fungal amylases are used to convert part of the starch to fermentable sugars to help
in the formation of crust color, improve dough-handling properties, and retard stal-
ing. However, an overdosing of amylases almost always results in detrimental effects
such as dough stickiness. Endo- and exoproteases are normally used to weaken
the dough structure to facilitate sheeting and reduce dough-mixing requirements
(Dubois 1980, Kulp and Ponte 2000). They are generally used for the production
of crackers or saltines, and are also included in some cookie formulations. In hard-
wheat products, transglutaminases are used because these enzymes catalyze acyl
transfer reactions, producing cross-bonds between glutamine and lysine residues.
Among wheat proteins, transglutaminases act both in gliadin and glutelins. The
main effect of transglutaminase is in enhancing the polymerization of gluten pro-
teins that result in increased dough strength and breadmaking quality. This enzyme
might produce greater beneficial effects than oxidizing agents during breadmaking
because the interactions are not limited to thiol or SH groups. Xylanases are highly
functional in different bread systems because they hydrolyze the xylane backbone of
arabinoxylans present in cell walls. They are widely used to improve breadmaking
because of the modification of dough rheological properties and viscosity (Courtin
and Delcour 2002).
10.3.2 Dough Mixing
During breadmaking operations, the mechanical action of dough mixing has two
major objectives: homogenous distribution of ingredients and gluten formation.
Mixing is divided into several sequential stages. In the first stage, which generally
lasts less than 1 minute, the flour absorbs the water, yielding a noncohesive and sticky
dough. In most yeast-leavened bread formulations, the amount of water added varies
from 58% to 66% based on flour weight. As mixing proceeds, the dough gradually
develops elastic and cohesive properties because the hydrated gliadin–glutelin net-
work or gluten starts interacting via formation of hydrophobic and disulfide bonds.
The optimum mixing time, referred to as dough development, is when it acquires the
maximum force or strength. At this particular time, the dough attains a smooth and
shiny texture and tends to retain the maximum amount of gas produced during fer-
mentation. If the dough is hand stretched, it produces a thin film, indicating proper
gluten development. A good-quality bread flour has a farinograph dough develop-
ment time between 4 and 8 min, which translates into 12 min or more in commer-
cial low-speed mixers. Overmixing is not recommended because the gluten network
breaks, consequently yielding a sticky and harder-to-process dough. Generally, a
high-protein flour requires more water and longer mixing schedules, and is more
stable or less prone to overmixing compared to a low-protein flour.
There are three major control parameters during the critical step of dough mix-
ing: flour water absorption, dough mixing time, and dough temperature. The dough
270 Cereal Grains
temperature mainly depends on the water temperature and amount of mechanical

work during the mixing operation. Some mixers are water jacketed to yield doughs
with the optimum temperature. The dough temperature greatly affects rheological
properties, machinability, and the time it takes for the yeast to act. Most procedures
are controlled to yield doughs with temperatures less than 30°C, although there are
also methods to produce low- (sweet doughs) or high-temperature doughs (flour tor-
tillas). Dough properties and end-product quality will be optimal for the subsequent
steps if the three parameters are properly controlled (Cauvain and Young 1998, Kulp
and Ponte 2000, Matz 1972, Pomeranz and Shellenberger 1971, Pyler 1988, Quaglia
1991, Sluimer 2005).
10.3.3 Dough Dividing and Rounding

The first step in dough makeup is dividing it into uniform pieces. Dough dividing is
usually done in volumetric dividers. The dough is fed into the hopper of the divider.
It flows downward, and by gravity and suction enters an adjustable chamber. A piston
operates in the chamber on a cycle during which the dough is cut off and released
on a moving belt. These dividers are operated mechanically or hydraulically. Other
common dividers are the rotary type that is furnished with an extruder, which trans-
ports the dough, which is cut by a rotating knife. The speed of knife rotation deter-
mines the dough weight.
When doughs are discharged from the divider, the piece is rough and sticky and
requires rounding in order to seal the outer surface of the dough piece so as to mini-
mize gas diffusion and enhance the formation of new gas vesicles known as loci.
Rounding also enhances the formation of smooth and nonsticky dough that facili-
tates further handling in subsequent mechanical steps. There are various types of
commercial rounders. The most common are the bowl type, the umbrella type, and
the cone type (Cauvain and Young 1998, Kulp 1988, Kulp and Ponte 2000, Matz
1972, Pomeranz and Shellenberger 1971, Pyler 1988, Quaglia 1991).
10.3.4 Fermentation
Fermentation starts when yeast cells and flour are hydrated. Dry yeast requires longer
activation times compared to compressed yeast. This operation is performed under
strict controls of temperature and air humidity. Generally, fermentation is performed
in fermentation cabinets or continuous proofers at temperatures ranging from 26°C
to 32°C under high air humidity (i.e., 85% relative humidity). A high relative humid-
ity is required in order to prevent dough surface dehydration (crusty dough) that
affects quality and even possibly yield of end products. Some operations (bagels,
croissants, Danish bread) activate yeast at low temperatures for long periods of time
(12–24 h) before forming and final proofing at temperatures around 30°C. The acti-
vated yeast cells break down available substrate (sucrose, glucose, fructose, maltose,
etc.), yielding carbon dioxide, organic acids, aldehydes, ketones, ethanol, and other
alcohols. The gas is trapped by the gluten network, forming loci or gas cells.
Fermentation is generally divided into several stages: yeast activation, degas-
sing–punching–forming, and proofing or final fermentation. In terms of time, yeast
activation takes the longest. After this initial stage, the dough is generally degassed
or punched and returned to the fermentation cabinets for one or more intermediate
fermentations. The final and most important fermentation step is proofing of the
preformed piece of dough. During proofing, the piece of dough will rise to a certain
height, affecting bread volume, density, texture, and other important quality proper-
ties. Proof height and time are the most important control parameters, and are greatly
affected by flour quality, fermentation temperature, and desired bread volume. The
total fermentation time will depend on the formulation, baking system, fermentation
temperature, and substrate. Formulations that do not contain added sugar, such as
French breads, normally require short fermentation times and very long or prolonged
proofing. On the other hand, sweet bread or pastry formulations that contain high
quantities of fermenting sugars usually have prolonged initial and intermediate fer-
mentations in order to develop more flavorful and tasty products.
10.3.5 Degassing/Punching and Molding

The aim of dough punching is to remove the carbon dioxide gas trapped by the gluten
and create new cells or loci due to the subdivision of large gas pockets. The punching
operation reactivates yeast because of the elimination of the high carbon dioxide con-
centration trapped in the dough. The new air pockets or loci will become the crumb
bread cells affecting texture and appearance. The fermenting dough is generally
degassed by forcing it through rolls or by pressing to a rotating cone. During these
mechanical operations, the trapped gas is released, and new small gas bubbles form.
The properly degassed dough is formed and, in some instances, placed inside
baking pans in preparation for proofing. The forming operation is usually performed
in special equipment or, in some instances, by hand. In pan bread operations, the
piece of dough is first degassed and then rolled into a cylinder that is deposited on a
greased baking pan. There is special forming equipment for hamburger bread, hot
dogs buns, and French bread. Regardless of the type of bread. The preformed piece
of dough is finally proofed for a given amount of time before baking.
10.3.6 Baking
The preformed, fermented, and proofed piece of dough is transformed into bread
after baking at temperatures that vary from 200°C to 230°C for 12–25 min,
depending on the type and size of bread (Kulp 1988). During the initial bak-
ing stage, the dough increases its height and volume because the yeast is still
alive and overproducing carbon dioxide, and the trapped gas expands due to the
higher temperature and the formation of water vapor. This phenomenon is com-
monly known as oven spring. Generally, high-quality protein flours have more
oven spring compared to low-protein counterparts. The determination of oven
spring is critically important, especially in those operations where bread is pack-
aged in preformed plastic bags. Yeast cells die approximately 8 min after baking
at temperatures of about 220°C. In addition, the gluten denatures and sets, giving
the foundation for the piece of bread. When gluten proteins denature, they lose
their water-holding capacity.
272 Cereal Grains
During baking, hydrated starch granules gelatinize and eventually acquire a

strong water-holding capacity. In fact, it is known that approximately 80% of the
water in bread is bound to gelatinized starch molecules, mainly amylose. During
baking, the bread develops its characteristic crust color due to Maillard and cara-
melization reactions. Right after baking, the bread crust is hard and, upon cool-
ing, attains the typical soft consistency. This is because water gradually migrates or
equilibrates from the internal crumb to the more dehydrated surface or crust. During
most baking schedules, there is sufficient time to destroy all microorganisms and
spores. Thus, breads exit the oven practically sterile. Thus, it is critically important
to design good sanitation and cooling procedures so as to avoid cross-contamination
that could compromise shelf life.
10.3.7 Cooling and Slicing

Breads are allowed to cool down in cooling racks or through a series of open tiers
that discharge into the slicing and bagging areas. Microbial shelf life greatly depends
on the effectiveness of this operation. Some cooling conveyors are furnished with
fans to speed up heat transfer. However, increased air movement can cause more
microbial contamination. For this reason, cooling rooms are best fitted with ultra-
violet light and microbiological filters, and usually have restricted entrance in order
to prevent cross-contamination. The rate of cooling depends on the bread size, the
temperature in the cooling room, and whether or not fans are used. Most breads
are subjected to cooling schedules of at least 20 to 30 min. Optimally, the bread
temperature should be lowered to less than 28°C. Improper cooling causes water
condensation or sweating inside the package, loss of bread texture, and microbial
problems.
The final stage in the production of pan breads is the slicing of the loaf of
bread. There are basically two types of slicers: reciprocating and band. Slicers are
furnished with saws. The latter is more suitable for softer, higher-volume breads.
The thickness of the slices varies, but usually ranges from 1 to 1.3 cm. The slic-
ers should be kept clean in order to minimize cross-contamination and optimize
shelf life.
10.3.8 Packaging
The object of packaging bread is to maintain it in fresh condition by preventing
too-rapid drying and loss of texture. In addition, packaging prevents cross-con-
tamination with spores and helps to prolong microbial shelf life. The most com-
monly used packaging material is the glazed imitation parchment impregnated on
both sides with a paraffin wax containing low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and
other additives. The end of the LDPE bag is twisted and sealed with a strip of adhe-
sive tape. Some breads such as French and Italian may be packaged in perforated
bags that allow moisture to escape and thus retain the characteristic crisp crust
(Robertson 1993).
10.4 Types of Breads

There is a wide array of yeast-leavened breads. Assorted breads with diverse for-
mulations, colors, textures, flavors, and keeping properties are produced in different
regions around the globe. Most of these breads play an important role in the nutrition
and well-being of the population. Figure 10.3 depicts a general flowchart of pro-
cesses to produce the most popular yeast-raised fermented breads.
10.4.1 Chinese Steamed Bread

The Chinese bread is highly popular in China and neighboring countries and is widely
consumed by the population. Chinese breads are unique because the proofed dough
is steamed instead of baked. A simple formulation or recipe is used for the produc-
tion of steamed Chinese breads (Table 10.1). It consists of refined wheat flour with
intermediate protein content, water, yeast, and salt. After dough mixing, the dough
is sheeted, rolled, hand formed, and uniformly cut. In some instances, the pieces of
dough are formed into animal configurations. The bread has a white-colored crust
because steaming is a mild cooking process, and no sugar is used (Figure 10.3). The
bread is steamed for approximately 30 min, the dough increases in volume and the
cooked bread has a very fine and firm crumb texture and bland flavor. The Chinese
bread is widely used to accompany other foods and to prepare sandwiches.
10.4.2 French Bread and Baguettes

The baguette is a descendant of bread first developed in Vienna, Austria, in the
mid-nineteenth century when deck or steam ovens were first brought into common
use. Baguette, the hard crusty loaf we currently associate with France, dates only to
the Industrial Revolution. A baguette is a long thin loaf of the type more commonly
known as French bread. It was introduced in the 1920s after a new law banned
French bakers from working before 4 a.m. Bakers liked it because it was convenient
to make, and it stayed fresh for only a few hours. Hence, customers visited bakeries
two or three times a day. They liked the baguette because it was whiter and sweeter
compared to sourdough breads.
French bread and baguettes are usually manufactured by the straight baking pro-
cedure and using a very simple formulation consisting of flour, water, salt, yeast,
and malt. The amounts of these ingredients vary, but a typical formulation contains
60%–66% water, 2% salt, 1.5%–2% dry yeast, and 0.1%–0.5% malt (Figure 10.3,
Table 10.1). The amount of water depends on the type of flour and the type of bread.
Due to the lack of extrinsic fermentable carbohydrates or sugars, the yeast has little
substrate to ferment. Malt plays an important role because α- and β-amylases break-
down damaged starch, yielding fermentable carbohydrates. French breads are usually
subclassed into hard-crusted and soft-crusted. Regardless of the type, the process
consists of first mixing dry ingredients and then adding the predetermined amount
of water in preparation for dough mixing. The dough is mixed to fully develop the
gluten and then cut, fermented for a short period of time (i.e., 30 minutes), hand or
mechanically formed, and proofed for approximately 90–120 min. Before baking,
Wheat Flour
274
Water Ingredients
Table 10.1 or 10.5 Dough Mixing Table 10.1 or 10.5
Icing
Developed Fermentation/Proofing/Forming
20 kg
Dough 28–30°C/85% R.H/0.5–2 hrs)
Frying Oil
Final Proofing 27 kg
(28–36°C/60–85% RH/20–70 min)
Cooking in Lye Deep-fat Frying

Steaming Cooking in Hot Water Baking/Cooling
Solution (170–190°C/40–60 sec)
Chinese
Baking/Cooling Baking/Cooling Application of Icings
Steamed Bread
Baguettes Pita Bread
129 kg, 32%
125 kg, 28% 130 kg, 32%
Moisture
Moisture Moisture
Bagels Donuts
Soft Pretzels
150 kg, 36% 218 kg, 24%
106 kg 15%
Moisture Moisture, 19% Fat
Moisture
Figure 10.3 General flowchart of processes to produce yeast-raised fermented breads. (Photograph of Chinese steamed bread courtesy of Dr. F.C.
Wang, Henan University of Technology, China.)
Cereal Grains
Table 10.1
Typical Formulas for the Elaboration of Chinese Steamed, French, Bagels, Pita, or Arabic and Pretzel
Breadsa
Chinese Steamed French/Baguettes
Northern Southern Hard Soft Soft Crusted Pita Soft
Ingredient, % Style Style Crusted Crusted Commercial Bagels or Arabic Pretzel
Hard-wheat flour — — 100 100 100 100 100 100
All-purpose wheat flour 100 100 — — — — — —
Water 45–48 42–46 56–60 62–64 64–68 50 70 45–50
Yeast 1 1 3–6 3–6 3–6 2 2 1.5
Manufacturing of Bakery Products
Salt — 0–1 2.2 2.2 2.2 2 2 —

Shortening — — — — 1 3 — 1–2
Sugar — 10–20 — — 1 3 — —
Maize syrup — — — — — — — —
Diastatic malt — — 0.1–0.5 0.1–0.5 0.1–0.5 — — —
Nondiastatic malt — — — — — — — 2
Vital gluten — — — — 1.5 — — —
Yeast food — — — — 0.5 — — —
Nonfat dry milk — — — — — — — —
Emulsifier (SSL) — — — — 0.2 — — 0.2
Calcium propionate — — — — — — — —
Sodium ascorbate — — — — 50–100 ppm — 250 ppm —
Potassium bromate a — — — — 20 ppm — — —
Sodium bisulfite — — — — — — — < 20 ppm
a In some parts of the world, potassium bromate is no longer allowed in bread formulations.
275
276 Cereal Grains
the preformed pieces of dough are cut on the top part so that the bread breaks during
baking and acquires the typical configuration. French breads are usually baked at
230°C–250°C for 15–30 min, depending on the type and size of bread. Soft-crusted
French breads are usually baked in special ovens where steam is injected. The steam
will help to produce a thin, soft crust. The formulation of hard-crusted French breads
use less water, and breads are normally baked without steam. The textural shelf life
of baguettes is limited (1–3 days) due to the lack of shortening and dough improvers.
Nowadays, and due to longer shelf-life expectations, most French bread formula-
tions include oxidizing agents, vital gluten, emulsifiers and, in some instances, small
amounts of shortening.
10.4.3 Bagels
Historically, bagels originated in southern Germany in the 1600s to honor the suc-
cessful campaign of the Polish king Cobleskill and his Christian horsemen against
the Turkish invasion of Vienna, Austria. Then, bagels followed Jewish immigration
in the early 1900s from Europe to Canada and the United States. The world bagel
is derived from bugel, the Yiddish and German word for a round loaf of bread.
Bagels were first produced by Jewish bakers in Eastern Europe (Cross 2007). They
are produced using a simple recipe that includes baking flour, sugar (3%), salt (2%),
shortening (3%), and yeast (2.0% compressed or 0.8% dry yeast) (Figure 10.3,
Table 10.1, Bath and Hoseney 1994, Cross 2007, Kulp and Ponte 2000). Other for-
mulations contain eggs, malt extract, dry milk, and hazelnuts. The dough is usually
formed with only 50% water. Bagels are unique because they are the only baked
product that is first cooked for about 2 min in simmering water (90–95°C) or a hot
sugar solution before baking. The characteristic crust and crumb textures are due
to this hydrothermal process. Toppings such as caraway, poppy, and sesame seeds,
or minced garlic, onion, or grated cheese, are applied onto the bagel immediately
before baking. Traditionally, bagels are baked on redwood boards or metal plates at
200°C to 230°C for about 17 to 25 min. Jewish bagels do not contain added sugar or
shortening. Bagels are gaining popularity because they are viewed as a low-calorie
baked item.
10.4.4 Flat or Arabic Breads

Flat breads in general, whether leavened or not, are among the most ancient breads
because they did not need ovens or even utensils for their baking. The flat Arabic
bread, also known as pita or pocket, is still one of the most popular breads, espe-
cially in Arab countries, Israel, Greece, and the Balkans. Pita is now the western
name for the Saudi Arabian bread called Khubz (ordinary bread) and other breads of
Arab, Egyptian, or Syrian origin, or kumaj (a Turkish word meaning a bread cooked
in ashes), all baked in a brick oven. They are defined as a slightly leavened wheat
bread, flat, either round or oval, with considerable variations in size (Figure 10.3).
They have lower specific volumes but higher crust-to-crumb ratio than high-volume
bread. In addition, leavened flat breads have relatively shorter fermentation times
and are normally baked at high temperature (i.e., 300°C) and for a short time. Some
are manufactured with high-fiber ingredients, and other with cereal grains. In order
to produce high-quality pita breads, the flour is mixed with relatively high amounts
of water (up to 68%–70%; Table 10.1), and the resulting slack dough is folded and
formed into layers so as to form the characteristic internal air pocket during high-
temperature baking. For this reason, pitas are commonly named pocket breads. They
are increasing in popularity in other parts of the world because they are suitable to
accompany with fillings and salads, and are viewed by the consumer as dietetic. The
typical pita formulation based on high-protein bread flour is 70% water, 2% salt, 1%
dry yeast or its equivalent in fresh compressed yeast, and 0.25% ascorbic acid (Quail
1996).
Another popular flat bread with ancient roots is Lavash or Armenian cracker
bread, considered as a thin crisp bread usually made with wheat flour in a variety of
shapes all over the regions of the Caucasus, Iran (where it is often so thin as to be
like tissue and can be almost seen through), and Afghanistan. Lavash is classified
as a single-layered bread usually served with kebabs, used to scoop up food or wrap
sandwiches and roll-ups (for sish kebab). It can dry quickly and become hard and
brittle. The soft form is usually preferable due to a better taste and ease of making
wrap sandwiches. The mixed dough is bulk fermented for 30–60 minutes at approxi-
mately 30°C. The dough is divided (100–300 g), rounded, allowed to ferment for
approximately 15 min at 30°C, laminated (length 40–60 cm, width 20–40 cm, and
thickness 2–3 mm), and baked in the hot walls of a special tandoor oven for 15–40 s.
In the tandoor or Middle East clay oven, the flat breads are slapped onto the vertical
wall, where they bake quite quickly by a combination of radiant and convection heat
(Quail 1996).
Pide is a kind of flat bread with a round/oval shape. It is made of leavened dough
of low consistency. The dough is sheeted into its typical round form of 20–30 cm
diameter, and is 1.5–2 cm thick. Pide looks like Iranian Barbari and Indian Tandoori
breads. Flour, salt, water, shortening, sugar, and yeast are mixed and kneaded for
about 20 min, and the resulting dough is fermented for 40 min at 30°C. The dough is
divided, rounded, and left to proof for 30–40 min at 30°C. It is baked at a tempera-
ture of 300°C–320°C for 18 min (Quail 1996).
Yufka is a cream-colored and flexible Turkish flat bread. It is thin, round, and
unleavened, about 40–50 cm in diameter. It should be uniform in diameter and well
baked. The flour is kneaded with water, salt, a little vinegar or lemon juice, and small
amounts of olive oil. The dough is divided (150–200 g), rounded, and fermented. It is
flattened into a circular sheet in homes by a rolling pin, or rolled by a Yufka-sheeting
device in commercial operations. Then, the dough pieces are laminated and baked
for a short period of time (15–30 s) on a hot plate called a sac (sadj) in Turkish.
During baking, it is turned over once (Quail 1996).
10.4.5 Soft Pretzels

Soft pretzels are produced following conventional baking procedures. The main
difference is that shaped (e.g., bow ties) doughs are normally dipped in a sodium
bicarbonate solution. This gives the outer layer a shiny brown color. Like other yeast-
leavened breads, the best-quality soft pretzels are obtained from hard wheat flours.
278 Cereal Grains
A typical soft pretzel formulation is listed in Table 10.1. Most formulations are yeast
raised, although chemical-leavened pretzels also exist in the market. Cysteine or
sodium bisulfate is often added to break down gluten and produce a softer or more
relaxed dough, especially when pretzels are hand shaped. Emulsifiers are commonly
used to improve dough texture and functionality. Other ingredients, including molas-
ses and other sugars, are also added to improve color and flavor. Following shaping,
the dough is typically proofed for several hours and then retarded under refrigera-
tion until baked. Prior to baking, the shaped dough is dipped for about 10 s in a 1%
sodium bicarbonate solution tempered at 90°C. Then, pretzels are sprinkled with salt
and/or other toppings and baked at 240°C–260°C for 5 to 8 min (Figure 10.3). The
resulting pretzels have a shelf life of less than 3 days (Hui et al. 2006).
10.4.6 Pan Bread

Pan bread is produced following three main baking procedures: straight dough,
sponge, and liquid fermentation. The typical formulations for each system are in
Table 10.2. Optimum flour characteristics, labor requirements, and properties of
end products differ among processes. Undoubtedly, the most practiced by large
bakeries is the sponge dough process that has advantages from the industrial and
Table 10.2
Typical Pan Bread Formulas for Straight, Sponge, and
Continuous Baking Systems
Baking System
Sponge
Ingredients Straight Sponge Dough Continuous
Hard-wheat flour 100 70 30 100
Water 66 42 24 66
Fresh yeast 3.0 3.0 — 3.0
Salt 2.0 — 2.0 2.0
Sugar 7.0 — 8.0 9.5
Shortening 3.5 — 3.0 3.0
Yeast food 0.5 0.5 — 0.5
Nonfat dry milk 2.0 — 2.0 2.0
Emulsifiers 0.5 — 0.5 0.5
Calcium propionate 0.2 — 0.2 0.2
Potassium bromatea 20 ppm — 20 ppm 20 ppm
Ascorbic acid 100 ppm — 100 ppm 100 ppm
Source: Kulp, K. 1988. Chapter 6 in Wheat Chemistry and Technology. Y. Pomeranz,

(ed.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
a In some parts of the world, potassium bromate is no longer allowed in bread
formulations.
product-quality viewpoints. The straight-dough procedure is generally used by small

bakeries, and simply consists of mixing all ingredients for the production of the
dough, which is further processed into bread. Its main disadvantage is the high labor
requirement and the long “in plant” fermentation time. The liquid fermentation sys-
tem is highly mechanized, requiring liquid ingredients and less fermentation (the
formulation contains more sugar and yeast, and it is generally fermented at higher
temperatures). It requires less labor but needs strict quality control in terms of raw
materials and manufacturing steps.
10.4.6.1 Straight-Dough System

The straight-dough procedure consists of mixing the flour with the rest of the dry
ingredients and water to form properly developed dough (Figure 10.4). The resulting
Hard Wheat Flour Ingredients

100 kg 12.5% Protein, (19 kg, Table 10.1)
14% Moisture
Dough Mixing
Water
Horizontal Mixer, 5–12 min
66 kg
Full-developed Dough
Dough Dividing Initial Fermentation 60–90 min

Dough Divider in Fermentation Cabinets
@ 28°C and 85% RH
Intermediate Proofing 30–45 min Dough Punching and Rounding

in Fermentation Cabinets Cone Rounder
@ 28°C and 85% RH
Final Proofing 55–65 min

Dough Punching, Molding and
in Fermentation Cabinets
Panning
@ 28°C and 85% RH
Water Vapor
and Volatiles Baking
33 kg 20–25 min @ 210–230°C
Depanning and Cooling

Cooling Conveyors to 26–30°C
Slicing and Bagging Pan Bread

152 kg. 32% Moisture
Figure 10.4 Flowchart of the straight-dough baking process for the production of pan
bread and related products.
280 Cereal Grains
dough is hand or mechanically divided and placed in fermentation cabinets or proof

boxes with strict controls of temperature (25°C–30°C) and relative humidity (approx-
imately 85%). The dough is fermented for about 2 h, punched, formed, paned and
proofed for 50–70 min until achieving the predetermined and desired proof height.
It is baked into a loaf of bread for 20–25 min at temperatures of 210°C–230°C. The
loaf of bread is cooled for about 30 min, sliced, and bagged, preferably in moisture-
proof plastic bags.
10.4.6.2 Sponge-Dough System

This is the most popular industrial system. The manufacturing procedure is called
semicontinuous because the sponge and dough mixing steps are batch, whereas
the rest of the process is continuous. It is named sponge because part of the flour
(60%–70%) is mixed with all the yeast and almost all the water required by 100
units of flour (Table 10.2). The sponge is placed in troughs in large fermentation
rooms and allowed to ferment for 4 to 6 h at 28°C and 85% relative humidity.
During the sponge phase, the yeast will first activate and then ferment the dough,
gradually decreasing the pH. The dough volume will increase due to the trapped
CO2 generated during fermentation. The “in plant” processing starts when the
sponge dough is placed in the mixer and the rest of the ingredients are incorporated
(salt, sugar/sweeteners, shortening, malt, additives, and preservatives). The dough
is carefully kneaded until the gluten fully develops. The mixing time requirement
is reduced because the sponge dough is already hydrated and undergoing fermenta-
tion. The “in plant” fermentation time is greatly reduced to approximately 30–40
min because the yeast is already active. The pieces of dough are punched, formed
into cylinders, and proofed for 50–70 min before baking (Figure 10.5). The advan-
tages of this process are that the “in plant” processing time is reduced, lowering
labor requirements and the bread has a stronger flavor and better crumb texture
compared with other baking procedures.
10.4.6.3 Liquid Fermentation Process

The liquid fermentation system is highly mechanized, and it evolved from the
sponge system; therefore, it is more efficient in terms of labor requirements,
processing time, and plant space. The system is based on the elaboration of a
liquid sponge, commonly named brew (water, yeast, sugar, and other ingredients
such as yeast food), which might contain small quantities of flour. The rest of the
ingredients are delivered to the mixer in liquid form by pumping. The fermenta-
tion time is reduced because the formulations contain higher amounts of sugar
and yeast. The brew and the other ingredients are generally mixed in high-speed
mixers that require cool water to counteract the heat created by the high fric-
tion. The dough undergoing fermentation is cut in extruders into uniform pieces
and then placed in baking pans for proofing (up to 90 min). Continuous proof-
ers usually operate at higher temperatures (32°C–36°C) to reduce fermentation
times. Then the dough is baked in continuous ovens at a temperature of 220°C
for 20–25 min. The loaves of breads are cooled in cooling racks, sliced, and
packaged (Kulp 1988).
Water 42 kg Hard Wheat Flour

Hard Wheat Flour 30 kg 12.5% Protein,
Fresh Yeast 3 kg
70 kg 12.5% Protein, 14% Moisture
Yeast Food 0.5 kg
14% Moisture Water 24 kg
Sugar 8 kg
Sponge Dough Mixing and Salt 2 kg
Fermentation Shortening 3 kg
4–6 hr 28°C, 85% RH Dry Milk 2 kg
Additives 1 kg
Fermented Sponge Dough Mixing Stage

105.5 kg, 51% Moisture Horizontal Mixer, 5–10 min
Fully developed Dough

Dough Punching, Molding and Dough Dividing

Panning Dough Divider
Final Proofing
45–70 min in Fermentation Cabinets @
28°C and 85% RH
Water Vapor Baking

and Volatiles 20–25 min @ 210–230°C
36 kg
Depanning and Cooling

Slicing and Bagging
Cooling Conveyors to 26–30°C
Pan Bread
Figure 10.5 Flowchart of the sponge-dough baking process for the production of pan
bread and related products.
10.4.7 Hamburger and Hot Dog Buns

Hamburger and hot-dog buns are manufactured following similar technologies as pan
bread. However, since these breads are expected to have higher textural and microbial
shelf life, the formulations contain higher quantities of shortening, emulsifiers, sugar,
and other additives (Table 10.3). Most formulations also contain egg solids in order to
obtain products with longer textural shelf life and better organoleptic properties. For the
specific case of hot dogs, recipes normally contain egg yolks or yellow pigments (i.e.,
carotenoids) to yield a yellowish crumb. These buns are industrially produced using the
straight or sponge dough methodologies described earlier. There is highly mechanized
dough-cutting/forming equipment integrated into continuous proof boxes, ideally suited
for continuous operations. Compared to pan breads, hamburger and hot-dog buns are
baked for shorter periods of time. Decorticated sesame (Sesame indicum) seeds are fre-
quently used as topping and sprinkled on top of the fermenting dough before baking for
the production of hamburger buns.
282 Cereal Grains
Table 10.3
Typical Sponge Dough Formula for Hamburger
and Hot Dog Bunsa
Dough Stage
Ingredients Sponge Dough
Hard-wheat flour 70 30
Water 42 22
Fresh yeast 3.5 —
Salt — 2
Sugar — 12
Shortening — 5
Yeast food 0.5 —
Emulsifiers — 0.5
Calcium propionate — 0.2
Potassium bromateb — Up to 20 ppm
Ascorbic acid — Up to 100 ppm
a Recipes, especially for hot dog buns, may contain egg products
or yellow pigments.
b In some parts of the world, potassium bromate is no longer
allowed in bread formulations.
10.4.8 Whole, Variety, and Multigrain Breads

Although breads produced from refined flours are still the most popular all over
the world, variety breads are the segment that has shown the most rapid growth.
Variety whole and multigrain breads offer consumers choices of flavors, textures
and, more importantly, dietary fiber and nutraceutical compounds that are pres-
ent in insignificant quantities in white breads (Kulp and Ponte 2000). The leading
established variety breads are still wheat based (Table 10.4). The group includes
whole wheat, stone-ground wheat, honey wheat, and cracked wheat. Other less
popular variety breads include rye, pumpernickel (dark rye flour), oatmeal, fruit
(raisin), and multigrain. The multigrain or mixed-grain breads are gaining popu-
larity because different cracked grains with different nutritional and nutraceutical
properties are added to the wheat flour base. It is common to find in the market
multigrain breads manufactured with six or more grains (wheat, oats, flax, sesame,
rye, buckwheat, etc.). The production of these breads is generally more difficult
because the fiber associated with whole flours interferes with gluten develop-
ment, yielding denser loaves. Vital gluten is the key ingredient that counteracts
the deleterious effect of brans. Most commercial formulations of whole, variety,
and multigrain breads contain 1%–3% vital gluten. Large scale bakers usually
produce variety breads by the sponge-dough process because it generally yields
breads with consistently greater volume and quality. Doughs of these bread for-
mulations are usually hydrated with less water to restrict dough flow and maintain
Table 10.4
Typical Formulas for the Elaboration of Whole-Wheat, Variety, Pan, and Sourdough Breadsa
Wheat Variety Breads Sourdough b
Ingredient, % Wheat Whole Wheat Oats Raisin Oatmeal Rye Pumpernickel Sourdough
Hard-wheat flour 50 — 60 50 60 24 100
Whole-wheat flour 50 100 — 37 — — —
Rye flour — — — — 40 — —
Dark rye flour — — — — — 38 —
Medium rye flour — — — — — 38
Oat flour — — 40 13 — — —
Watera 60–64 65–68 63–66 62–64 62–66 71 60
Dry yeast 1.5 1.5 2 1 2 1 1.5
Salt 2 2 2 2 2 2.5 2
Shortening 4 4 3.5 3 2 1 3
Sugar, white or brown 6 6 7 6 5 — 6
Maize syrup or honey 2.2 2.2 — — — — —
Molasses 10 — — — — — —
Malt, diastatic 0.2 0.1 — — — — 0.5
Malt, nondiastatic — — — — 2 1 —
Vital gluten 2 2 2 2.5 1.5 — —
Yeast food 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 — —
Nonfat dry milk — 2 — 2 — — —
Sourdough — — — — — 10 10
Raisins — — — 50 — — —
Emulsifier (SSL) 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 — —
Lecithin — 0.2 0.2 0.2 — — —
Calcium propionate 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 — —
Source: Data from Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2003. Manufactura y Control de Calidad de Productos Basados en Cereales. AGT editor, S.A. México, D.F. Mexico; Serna-Saldivar, S.O.
1996. Química, Almacenamiento e Industrialización de los Cereales. AGT editor, S.A. México, D.F., Mexico; Kulp, K., and Lorenz, K.J. 2003. Handbook of Dough
Fermentation. Marcel Dekker, New York; and Kulp, K., and Ponte, J.G. 2000. Chapter 17 in Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, K. Kulp and J.G. Ponte (eds.).
Second edition. Marcel Dekker, New York.
a Water absorption varies according to flour strength, type of flour and fiber, and vital gluten additions.
b Sourdoughs contain significant amounts of Lactobacillus plantarum, L. san francisco, L. fermentum, L. brevis, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, and Streptococcus thermophilus, which
act synergistically with yeast to enhance bread volume and the typical bread flavor.
283
284 Cereal Grains
the desired product symmetry. In addition, lower water absorption avoids dough
stickiness. Variety bread dough usually requires less mixing or kneading com-
pared to white bread dough and is more prone to overmixing. In addition, these
doughs are often fermented for shorter times in order to promote better flavor. The
denser proofed doughs are generally baked for longer periods of time but at a lower
temperature to ensure good loaf characteristics and maximum flavor development.
After baking, the denser variety breads require longer cooling. Variety breads are
playing an important role in diet and disease prevention, especially due to their
high dietary fiber content. The dietary fiber reduces the caloric density and aids in
the prevention of obesity, colonic diseases, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and
the metabolic syndrome. Variety breads with low sodium content, high amounts
of polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids, and that are lactose-free, are available in
the market.
Gluten-free breads can be produced from sorghum, buckwheat, and other non-
gluten-forming flours. These breads are also gaining popularity due to the increased
numbers of celiac patients, especially in developed countries around the globe
(Chapter 17).
10.4.9 Sour Breads

The term “sourdough bread” refers to a product made with wheat and/or rye flours
or other composite flours, in addition to other baking ingredients that are primarily
fermented with bacteria that produce a more acidic pH compared to regular yeast
breads. Cereal proteases with acidic optimal pH play a central role in the rheological
changes taking place during sourdough fermentation (Clarke et al. 2004, Esteve et al.
1994). Sourdoughs are inoculated with active Lactobacillus plantarum, L. San fran-
cisco, L. fermentum, L. brevis, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, and/or Streptococcus
thermophilus bacteria and have been traditionally used for the production of variety
breads, especially rye products (Kulp and Ponte 2000). Sour breads started by natural
fermentation of doughs in which bacteria from the genus Lactobacillus mainly grew.
Compared to regular yeast doughs, sourdoughs are easier to handle and produce
breads with unique organoleptic properties and crumb texture. These breads have
higher nutritional value, longer shelf life, and properties not seen in other breads.
The organic acids generated by fermenting bacteria such as acetic, lactic, hydroxya-
cetic, formic, pyruvic, etc., are the main flavor precursors. Acetic acid is considered the
main acid. It improves dough characteristics, speeds up fermentation, and affects final
bread properties. It is generated mainly from maltose and other simpler carbohydrates.
Other fermenting compounds, such as free amino acids, also contribute to the
typical flavor profile. These amino acids and their derivatives are generated due to
proteolysis, sugar and peptide metabolism, and hydrogenation or enzymatic conver-
sion of ketoacids. These can also come from fermenting bacteria cells. Many other
yeast species can also form part of the sourdough inoculums contributing to volatile
and nonvolatile chemical species, which also contribute to the special characteristics
of sourdough breads.
The microorganisms that ferment sourdoughs act as leavening agents, improving
bread volume. An excessive inocula concentration results in high dough acidification
and has a deleterious effect on bread volume. Sourdoughs have different rheological
properties and plasticity compared to regular doughs due to the low pH (5.2–5.4). As
a result, they usually have better oven spring and yield breads with higher volumes
and lower apparent densities.
Historically, the pumpernickel rye bread was produced in Germany around 1540
during a time of famine. This type of bread has a very characteristic and distinct
flavor. The authentic pumpernickel bread is produced by soaking whole rye flour in
hot (70°C–100°C) water in a 1:3 ratio. This soaking produces thorough hydration
of the rye flour, partial starch gelatinization, and some enzyme hydrolysis that pro-
duces fermentable sugars that influence the flavor of the final product. Pumpernickel
bread formulations generally consist of less than 10% of the rye flour. The typical
pumpernickel bread formula is depicted in Table 10.4. Pumpernickel is baked in
fully closed pans in special ovens where steam is introduced. The baking time is up
to 24 h, depending on the baking temperature, which normally ranges from 100°C
to 170°C. The characteristic taste of this bread is due to enzymatic starch hydrolysis
during sour ripening, dough preparation, proofing, and the special baking process
(Kulp and Lorenz 2003).
10.4.10 Sweet Breads

Sweet fermented breads are usually glazed with sugar and syrups, flavored, and in
many instances, filled with jellies, marmalades, fruits, cheeses, and condensed and
sweetened dairy products. The fermented and sweet flavor combination is highly
enjoyed and demanded by consumers. Sweet-bread doughs are almost always pro-
duced from a rich formulation consisting of significant amounts of shortening, sug-
ars, milk, and egg products. Most sweet-bread formulations do not normally exceed
15% sugar in order to prevent yeast inhibition. After fermentation, some sugar is
left over, contributing to their characteristic flavor. The crumb color of sweet breads
and pastries that contain whole egg (fresh or dehydrated) normally acquires a light-
yellow coloration.
10.4.10.1 Croissants
Croissants originated in Vienna, Austria, in the year 1683 when the region suf-
fered from a war between the Turkish and the Austrian-Hungarians. A few invading
Turkish soldiers dug a tunnel to penetrate the city and surprise the enemy. The tunnel
ended in a bakery. The artisan bakers heard the construction activities and imme-
diately alerted the Austrian-Hungarians, so that the Turkish soldiers were surprised
and defeated. The Austrian Imperator conceded special privileges to the Viennese
bakers and, as a gift, they manufactured bread with the emblem of the Turkish flag,
a quarter crescent moon or croissant. Years later, the princess Marie Antoinette
demanded the manufacture of Viennese croissants for her wedding with King Louis
XVI. Soon, croissants gained popularity and were disseminated throughout Europe
(Calvel 1987).
Croissants are manufactured from sweet doughs that are laminated and folded,
cut into triangles, rolled, and formed into their characteristic form. The rich formula-
tion (Table 10.5), yeast fermentation and folding yield a light and delightful bread.
286
Table 10.5
Typical Formulas for the Elaboration of Sweet Breads or Pastries and Yeast-Leavened Donuts
Donutsd
Danish Sweet-Cinnamon Sweet
Ingredient, % Croissantsa Pastriesa Rollsa,b Breadc Dough Cut Extruded
Hard-wheat flour 100 100 100 100 — —
All-purpose flour — — — — 100 100
Water 62–64 42–46 60–62 50–54 56 62
Yeast 4–6 4.5 4–6 4–6 4 4
Salt 1.5–2.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5
Shortening 4 10 6 10 11 11
Sugar 6–8 10 8 10 10 10
Whole egg — — — 15 — —
Egg solids — — 10 — 5 3
Nonfat dry milk 2–6 4 2 1.5 4 4
Diastatic malt 0.3 0.1 — 0.2 0.2 0.2
Emulsifier — — — 0.2 0.2 0.2
a Roll in fat consisting of plastic shortening, margarine and/or butter whipped with emulsifiers (SSL and lecithin) are applied onto the
laminated dough prior to the folding and forming operations. The amount of these fats in most instances is 200–250 g/kg dough.
b For every kg dough spread, 125 g brown sugar mixed with 12.5 g ground cinnamon plus raisins and ground pecans is added. The
cinnamon rolls are normally glazed after baking with a mixture of pulverized sugar (80%), water (15%), salt (2.5%), and flavorings
such as vanilla (2.5%).
c Weigh 43%, 28.5%, and 28.5% flour, powdered sugar, and shortening, respectively, plus either cocoa or vanilla for production of the
typical chocolate or white-vanilla coverings. Cream the sugar and the shortening, and then gradually add the flour and flavorings.
Then, form 30 g balls, press it on top of the 75 g dough patties, and cut the surface covering before proofing.
d Donuts are normally glazed immediately after deep-fat frying with a mixture of 84% and 16% powdered sugar and water, respec-
tively, plus either cocoa or vanilla or other flavorings and colorings.
Cereal Grains
Croissants are usually made from hard flours, and the other ingredients are added
to improve organoleptic and dough-handling properties. In many bakeries, the first
dough fermentation is performed at refrigeration temperature for long periods of time
(8–12 h), although many bakers today use regular fermentation schedules. One of the
most critical operations is the sheeting and folding of the dough before forming and
final proofing. Croissants are formed first by sheeting into rectangular form, then a
thin layer of roll consisting of whipped butter, margarine, shortening, and emulsifi-
ers is placed onto the surface of the resulting dough, and the dough is folded several
times so as to form a multilayered bread. After a brief fermentation period (i.e., 20
min), the operation is repeated once or twice. After these operations, the dough is
sheeted to a final thickness of 2–3 mm, followed by triangular cuts (11–12 cm long
on the base, and 17–18 cm on each of the two sides) with an average weight of each
piece of 45–50 g. The triangular pieces of dough are rolled, starting from the base,
and formed into the characteristic quarter-moon shape before final proofing. Then, a
liquid mix of eggs and/or milk might be brushed on top of the fermented croissants
before baking at 200°C–220°C for approximately 15–20 min. Alternatively, syrups
might be applied on top of the croissants immediately after baking.
10.4.10.2 Danish Pastries
Danish bread is very similar to croissants in terms of formulation (Table 10.5) and
forming procedure. The main characteristic of Danish breads is that the crumb is
multilayered, imparting a special texture. Rolled butter, margarine, and/or short-
ening, is applied onto the surface of each layer. Traditional Danish breads were
first fermented for long periods of time under refrigeration or low temperatures
in order to relax the gluten and maintain the fat layers crystallized or solid. After
baking, Danish pastries are usually covered with syrup or glazings.
10.4.10.3 Sweet Rolls

Sweet rolls are popular worldwide, especially in industrialized countries where they
are generally consumed for breakfast or as a snack. Sweet rolls are manufactured
from fermented sweet doughs rich in eggs, milk, shortening, and sugar (Table 10.5).
The sheeted dough is covered with butter or margarine and sprinkled with brown
sugar, raisins, pecans, and cinnamon. Then it is hand or machine rolled into a cyl-
inder that is cut into many small cylindrical rolled pieces. The dough pieces are
panned, proofed in a fermentation box, and baked. Right after baking, rolls are nor-
mally glazed with a sugar-based coating.
10.4.10.4 Yeast-Leavened Donuts

Donuts are sweet baked goods that are generally fried instead of baked. There are
two broad categories: yeast-leavened and chemical-leavened. The first category is
the most popular because of the fermented flavor that is more appealing to the gen-
eral consumer (Figure 10.3). The second category, also known as cake donuts, is
industrially produced from chemically leavened doughs that are baked, and have
longer shelf-life expectations. Yeast-leavened donuts are usually produced from
all-purpose or family flours that are processed into dough following both straight
or sponge dough procedures. Straight dough is usually used to produce dough-cut
288 Cereal Grains
donuts, whereas sponge is used to yield extruded yeast-raised donuts (Table 10.5).

The common recipe is rich in sugar, shortening, eggs, and milk solids. The properly
developed dough is fermented at 28°C–30°C, sheeted, and cut or extruded into the
typical donut configuration and proofed at 28°C–30°C under a low relative humidity
to form a crust. The crust will decrease the amount of oil absorbed during the criti-
cal step of frying. The fermented dough pieces are generally fried at 175°C–180°C
on both sides or by immersion in the hot oil for times that vary from 1 to 2 min.
Donuts are immediately glazed with liquid-sugar-based flavorings or flavored with
a combination of crystallized sugar and cinnamon. Donuts generally absorb about
10% oil during frying and usually contain approximately 18%–20% fat after frying
and glazing.
10.4.11 Production of Pizza Dough Bases

Pizzas are classified as a composite food because they consist of a yeast-leavened
dough that serves as a base for the placement of tomato paste, mozzarella cheese,
and a set of additional ingredients (mushrooms, pepperoni, ground meat, anchovies,
onions, sweet peppers, jalapeño, etc.). It is believed that pizzas originated in Persia
(today Iraq), and then they were quickly adopted by the Roman culture. It is well
known that pizzas have been produced and consumed since the eighteenth century
in Napoli, Italy. Pizzas were introduced to the Americas at the end of the nineteenth
century by Italians who migrated to the United States and Argentina. Approximately
55% of the pizza weight is the baked crust. There are basically two types of dough
bases: crispy and the more popular doughy crust characterized by its high density,
moisture, and softness. Crispy bases are elaborated with high-protein wheat flours
and mixed with less water. High protein (i.e., 12%) imparts crispness and therefore
less texture loss. The bread type base is produced from all-purpose flours contain-
ing about 10.5% protein to facilitate its handling and forming (doughs can be hand
or mechanically stretched with less recovery) and to produce a softer and chewable
crumb. When high-protein flours are used, it is common practice to treat flours with
reducing agents (i.e., sulfites, cysteine) to reduce mixing requirements and produce
more relaxed doughs. Table 10.6 depicts typical formulations for the two types of
pizza crusts.
In the 1990s, a new type of frozen pizza named “bake to rise” was introduced
into the market. With these pizzas, a raw dough crust with toppings is generally
taken from the freezer and baked to produce a fresh, hot pizza. “Bake to rise” crusts
are made using one of two technologies: pressing or sheeting and die cutting. In
the press method, the ingredient blend is mixed until the gluten is developed. The
resulting dough is divided and rounded into dough balls, rested to relax the gluten,
and placed on pizza pans where the dough is mechanically pressed with a disc or
a compression press. The partially formed pizza base is allowed to rest to relax the
gluten and pressed for a second time to achieve the desired thickness. The same crust
can be produced by using the typical sheeting and die-cutting operation in which the
dough is gradually sheeted until achieving the desired thickness, and cut by a cutting
roll that has circular dies. The dough is proofed and then blast frozen. Some of the
most popular pizzas are made from dough formulas containing a blend of both yeast
Table 10.6
Typical Formulas for the Elaboration of Pizza Crusts
Ingredients Dough Type (%) Crispy Type (%)
Wheat floura 100 100
Water 60–65 55–60
Fresh yeast 5–6 4–5
Shortening 1.5–5 5–10
Salt 1–2 1–2
a Generally, all-purpose flours are ideally suited for pizza crusts. Flours
for frozen pizza doughs contain more protein and yeast (usually dried
yeast), emulsifiers (0.02%–0.3%), and gums to counteract the negative
effects of freeze–thaw cycles.
and chemical leavening agents, most notably a fat encapsulated mixture of sodium
aluminum phosphate and baking soda. The yeast provides early leavening actions
and the typical fermented flavor, whereas chemical leavening agents provide a late
release of carbon dioxide that leavens the crust during baking (Lehmann 2004).
Next, the dough is fermented under a preset temperature and relative humidity con-
ditions before a prebaking step. The prebaked pizza flat bread is cooled, and then the
tomato, cheese, and other toppings are applied in preparation for freezing. Formulas
for frozen pizzas have to be supplemented with more additives and adjusted to resist
frozen storage and handling.
The newest type of pizza named “take and bake” has been introduced at the retail
level. Like the “bake to rise” pizza, the “take and bake” counterpart is made on
an unbaked or raw dough that is designed to be baked at home by consumers. The
main difference between the two is that the “take and bake” pizza is sold as fresh-
refrigerated rather than frozen (Lehmann 2004).
10.5 Frozen Doughs

The frozen-dough market has increased during the last decades due to convenience
and new consumer trends (Kulp et al. 1995, Stauffer 1993). The main advantages
of frozen doughs are prolonged shelf life while frozen and production of uniform
products in terms of quality and organoleptic properties; in addition, products can
be kept frozen for distribution and commercialization for long periods of time.
They are ideally suited for franchises. Frozen-dough technologies were developed
to satisfy the new marketing strategies focused on consumer needs. The consumer
only needs to bake the dough, yielding a fresh product with similar characteristics
compared to its regular counterparts. The industrial segments that have adopted
this technology are the pizza, bread-baking, sweet rolls, and pastry industries. The
industrial process for the preparation of frozen doughs is stricter in terms of raw
materials and additives. Frozen doughs are generally manufactured by a straight-
dough method using high-protein flours (>12%). The high protein in the flour is to
290 Cereal Grains
produce a strong gluten network more resistant to freezing and thawing. The low
freezing temperature weakens and eventually breaks the gluten due to the formation
of ice crystals. Stronger doughs also have more resistance to dehydration. In order to
improve dough properties, the flour can be supplemented with vital gluten (2% based
on flour weight) and/or oxidizing agents such as potassium bromate and ascorbates.
Frozen-dough formulations are also supplemented with more yeast. Generally, these
formulations require doubling the yeast concentration. The adjustment is required
because yeast cells are damaged during freezing and frozen storage. Formulations
also contain emulsifiers to retard retrogradation, increase CO2 retention, and pro-
duce a better oven spring. Frozen doughs containing high quantities of shortening
require antioxidants in order to prevent oxidation or rancidity that may affect the
organoleptic properties of end products.
The frozen-dough manufacturing procedures are aimed towards keeping the
yeast dormant and minimizing cell membrane damage. The dough-mixing protocol
is changed in order to prevent yeast activation. All ingredients, except yeast and
salt, are added when the dough kneading starts. These two ingredients are added
in approximately at the middle and three-quarters of the way through the mixing
schedule, respectively. It is important to avoid the addition of salt and yeast simulta-
neously. The resulting doughs are immediately divided and formed in refrigeration
rooms before freezing. Doughs are frozen in air-forced blast freezers or by using
cryogenic technologies. The objective is to drop the dough temperature as soon as
possible. A slow-freezing procedure forms larger ice crystals in the dough and yeast,
damaging the gluten and cell viability, respectively. In order to achieve quick freez-
ing, the cryogenic systems that use liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide are frequently
used. However, for economic reasons, the industry more frequently uses blast freez-
ers operating at air velocities of up to 400 m/min. Frozen doughs should be properly
packaged in order to prevent dehydration, and optimally stored at −18°C. Higher or
lower temperatures lower the quality and properties of end products.
There are three possible ways to thaw and use frozen doughs. Thawing can be
performed at refrigeration, room, or controlled fermentation temperatures. Upon
thawing, the yeast activates and generates typical fermentation products: gas, alco-
hols, and other compounds that impart the desired flavor and aroma. The dough is
allowed to ferment until achieving a certain volume or height before baking. Today,
most products from frozen doughs are practically indistinguishable from their regu-
lar counterparts manufactured from conventional processes.
10.6 Staling
Staling is by far the major mode of deterioration of bakery products. The phenom-
enon has been a significant problem in the food industry since ancient times. Stale
bread can be easily recognized by its sensory attributes: soft crust, hard crumb,
and loss of aroma and sensory properties. There are several theories regarding this
important phenomenon. Schoch and French (1947) postulated that staling was the
result of starch retrogradation, and amylose and amylopectin crystallization. Later
on, other authors hypothesized the interactions of gliadin and glutenin with the
starch fraction (Erlander and Erlander 1968, Kulp and Ponte 1981, Martin et al.
1991, Willhoft 1971, Zobel 1973). Recently, Chinachoti and Vodovotz (2001) dis-
cussed the mechanisms of bread staling and the modeling of starch retrogradation
kinetics. Bread staling is referred to as a multifaceted process involving physical,
chemical, and sensory changes intertwined. This complex deterioration phenom-
enon occurs during the prolonged storage of baked products.
Staling occurs after the piece of dough is transformed into bread by the thermal
baking procedure. During baking, the starch gelatinizes, and amylose leaches out of
the starch granules. These amylose chains have high affinity for water. Fresh bread
contains swollen starch granules separated by ultrathin protein layers. The gran-
ules in the crust are less swollen, displaying some birefringence when viewed under
polarized light. During aging, crumb firmness significantly increases, the crispness
of the bread crust decreases, and the bread loaf loses its aroma. During bread stor-
age, the amylose chains crystallize or associate, freeing the water located in the
interphase. The results of these reactions are amylose retrogradation and syneresis.
This reaction mainly occurs during the first 24 hours postbaking. Although it occurs
at a slower rate, amylopectin retrogradation also takes place, contributing to the pro-
gressive loss of texture thereafter. According to Xie et al. (2004), amylopectin ret-
rogradation is mainly responsible for the loss of texture. Protein retards and hinders
the staling process mainly by diluting starch and by retarding reassociation among
starch chains. The process is heat reversible because retrograded amylopectin can
be reverted to its amorphous state. Staling is practically halted by the frozen storage
(−18°C) of properly packaged bakery items and occurs at faster rates at refrigeration
(5°C) and high temperatures (>30°C). Above subzero temperatures, staling occurs at
the slowest rate at a temperature range of 14°C–16°C.
10.7 Chemically Leavened Products

There is a wide array of chemically leavened wheat products. The main categories
are cookies, crackers, cake donuts, flour tortillas, cakes, and other assorted prod-
ucts such as hotcakes, muffins, and biscuits. Most of these manufactured goods are
elaborated from soft wheat or all-purpose flours supplemented with high amounts
of sugar and fats such as shortening, oil, butter, and margarine (Faridi 1994, Faridi
et al. 2000, Manley 1996, Matz 1992). Most soft-wheat products leavened with
chemical agents contain high amounts of sugar or sweeteners. In fact, some for-
mulations such as high-ratio cake mixes contain more sugar than flour. The high
quantities of sugar significantly lower Aw, impeding the growth of microorgan-
isms, including yeast. Soft-wheat products are easier and faster to produce because
they do not need fermentation, and proofing times are nonexistent or normally
short.
10.7.1 Ingredients
Most chemically leavened wheat products are made from soft-wheat flour, sugar,
shortening, chemical leavening agents, egg products, dough improvers, flavorings,
and coloring agents. The functionalities of some of these ingredients were discussed
in Section 10.3.1.
292 Cereal Grains
10.7.1.1 Soft and Chlorinated Flours

Soft-wheat flour is the most functional and key ingredient because it is the base of
most formulations for cookies, cakes, and related items. Soft-wheat flours have sig-
nificantly smaller granulation, protein, and ash content, and less mechanical starch
damage compared to hard-wheat flours (Chapter 7). Therefore, they absorb less water
and require lower dough mixing to achieve optimum gluten development. Processors
demand flours with different specifications because they greatly affect functional-
ity, processing parameters, and properties of finished products. The most important
quality characteristics are cookie spread factor, water absorption (regular and alka-
line), pH, dough strength, and extensibility (Chapter 15). Most soft-wheat flours have
lower gluten strength but more extensibility compared to hard-wheat flours. Cake
flours normally receive a chlorination treatment to drop the flour pH to 4.5–5.2.
Chlorination bleaches the flour and weakens the dough so that it is more suitable for
the production of cakes (Chapter 7).
10.7.1.2 Chemical Leavening Agents and Baking Powder

The first use of chemical leaving agents for the production of baking goods dates
back to the 1840s. Justus von Liebig tried to leaven breads chemically with sodium
bicarbonate and hydrochloric acid, and later proposed the use of monocalcium phos-
phate to release carbon dioxide from sodium bicarbonate. This phosphate and cream
of tartar proved to be much easier to handle compared to the stronger HCl. The rea-
son for the use of chemical leavening agents instead of yeast was that, at the begin-
ning of the 19th century, there was a short supply of cereals and the fermentation
process using yeast.
There is a wide array of baking goods produced from soft-wheat flour and bak-
ing powder or chemical leavening agents. These raw materials are common in
cookies, cake mixes, hotcakes, muffins, wafers, crackers, and wheat flour tortillas.
The leavening effect is due to the carbon dioxide generated by chemical leavening
agents, the incorporation of air bubbles during mixing, and the water vapor pro-
duced during baking (Faridi 1994, Faridi et al. 2000, Manley 1996, Matz 1992).
A chemical leavening system contains two functional components: a leavening
base and an acid. Sodium bicarbonate is the most widely used leavening base, and
is chemically neutralized by acid. During this reaction, these agents generate gas,
and the rate of gas produced greatly depends on the pH. Generally, the more acidic
the pH, the higher the rate of gas production. The generated gas consists mainly of
carbon dioxide produced by sodium bicarbonate and other acid salts. The most com-
mon leavening agents are monocalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate, sodium
acid pyrophosphate, and sodium aluminum sulfate. Chemical leavening agents are
classified into three categories: fast, slow, and double acting. Fast acting agents (e.g.,
monocalcium phosphate) generate most of the gas at room or ambient temperature,
and therefore act during mixing and dough proofing. Slow acting agents (dicalcium
phosphate, sodium aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminum phosphate) need elevated
temperatures to produce most of the gas, and therefore, are very effective during the
baking stage. Double-acting agents are the most popular because they release carbon
dioxide at both ambient and baking temperatures.
Most commercial baking powders are manufactured from a blend of selected

chemical leavening agents, acidulants, and an inert compound (generally starch).
Both the acid and acid salts are the key elements to controlling the release of car-
bon dioxide. An important property of chemical leavening agents is the neutral-
ization value, which is defined as the parts of sodium bicarbonate that neutralize
100 parts of the chemical leavening agent under controlled baking conditions.
For example, monocalcium phosphate has a neutralization value of 80, whereas
dicalcium phosphate has a value of only 33. Sodium aluminum salts (phosphate
and sulfate) have values of 100. The salts should not have any toxic effects on
humans, affect gluten formation, or negatively affect the organoleptic properties
of finished products. In addition, they should be cost effective and easy to handle.
The use of acids is important, especially in regular or nonchlorinated flours, or
in those products for which the pH is neutral. The most used acids are tartaric,
derived from the wine industry, and gluco-delta-lactone. The inert or carrier agent
is necessary to minimize loss of leavening power because it significantly lowers
the interaction between salts and the acidulant. Examples of fast-acting baking
powders are composed of tartaric acid (6%), tartar cream (44.9%), sodium bicar-
bonate (26.7%), and starch (22.4%); or monocalcium phosphate (33.4%), sodium
bicarbonate (26.7%), and starch (39.8%). A typical slow-acting formulation con-
tains 40.4% sodium acid pyrophosphate, 30.6% sodium bicarbonate, and 29%
starch (Faridi 1994, Faridi et al. 2000). There are many examples of double-act-
ing baking powders. One typical formulation consists of monocalcium phosphate
(6.7% to 13.2%), sodium aluminum sulfate (19% to 21%), sodium bicarbonate
(26.7%), and starch (40% to 45%).
10.7.1.3 Egg Products
Eggs affect the texture of bakery products due to their emulsifying, leavening,
tenderizing, and binding functions. They also contribute to color, nutritional value,
and flavor. Eggs are especially important for the production of cakes, some types
of cookies, and other chemically leavened products. Various types of eggs are
available, including fresh, refrigerated, and frozen whole eggs, egg whites, yolks,
and their dehydrated products. Most bakeries use liquid egg because it is conve-
nient and is perceived as having the best performance. There is now a move toward
the production of extended-shelf-life liquid egg products by pasteurizing at higher
temperature for a shorter time and then aseptically packing the product. A typical
time-temperature program would be 68°C for 90 s (Bennion and Bamford 1997).
The use of dehydrated egg products is gaining in popularity, especially for the for-
mulation of dry mixes. Whole egg, yolks, and albumin are spray dried in towers.
The product is atomized and instantly dehydrated. Egg whites should be desugared
before drying to prevent off-colors due to Maillard reactions. Whole egg is mainly
used for cake production where foaming and coagulation properties are required.
Egg whites are used in meringues and light sponges where their foaming property
is crucial. Albumin contributes to the toughness and structure, whereas high-fat
yolks contribute to tenderizing and color. Egg yolks have significant quantities
of naturally occurring phospholipids (lecithin), carotenoids, and xanthophylls.
All the cholesterol associated with eggs is in the yolks. Eggs are one of the most
294 Cereal Grains
important functional ingredients in cakes because they affect the volume, flavor,
texture, and color of cakes. The functionality is even more important in the manu-
facture of sponge cakes.
10.7.2 Cookie Manufacturing Processes

Most cookies contain high amounts of sugar and shortening, and low moisture con-
tent and Aw. Therefore, cookies are among the foods with the highest amount of
calories (Chapter 17). Sugar imparts the characteristic sweet flavor and greatly con-
tributes to lowering the Aw. Due to the low moisture and Aw, cookies are considered
as shelf-stable items. Also, manufacturing and packaging technologies should pre-
vent texture loss and rancidity in cookies. The shortening imparts to cookies their
typical texture, and helps during sheeting, cutting, and forming. Chemical leavening
agents or baking powders are added to impart the typical texture. Table 10.7 depicts
typical formulation for various types of cookies (Faridi 1994, Faridi et al. 2000,
Manley 1996, Matz 1992).
Compared to bread, cookies are rapidly produced because they do not need fer-
mentation. The general flowchart includes blending dry ingredients, water addition,
dough or batter formation, forming, baking, cooling, and packaging (Figure 10.6). In
contrast to bread making, most formulations are made from doughs that lack exten-
sibility and elasticity. Wheat flour is the major ingredient, but the quantities of fat
and sugar added create a plasticity and cohesiveness with minimal gluten formation.
These doughs are known as “short doughs.” The other important change is in terms
of the water absorption level. Cookie doughs are usually hydrated with relatively low
amounts of water, and mixing or kneading is minimized. In fact, many processes
have two mixing stages: the first to cream the sugar with fat, milk, and eggs, fol-
lowed by the second where the flour is added. This mixing schedule minimizes glu-
ten formation. During creaming, the ingredients emulsify, and air is trapped. Other
cookie manufacturing processes demand slightly higher protein flour and gluten
development. These doughs are generally hydrated with more water and mixed to
achieve gluten formation. Most mixers used by the cookie industry are batch mixers.
The most popular is the horizontal mixer that is usually positioned above the hoppers
so that the dough is dropped by gravity.
The different kinds of cookies are categorized according to the forming/molding
equipment. There are several types of forming equipment, but the most common
industrial configuration is four dough-forming lines and one batter processing line.
The dough-processing lines are rotary mold, sheeting/forming, deposit, and wire cut.
Wafers are produced from a batter that is processed and baked on a couple of baking
plates called a book (Figure 10.7) (Manley 1996, Matz 1992).
10.7.2.1 Rotary Mold
This is the simplest and most economical way to form cookies (Figure 10.7). The
dough is forced through a couple of rolls, one known as the forcing roll and the
other as the molder or former. The forming roll has molds to form the shape of the
dough pieces. The dough is forced into molds that have the negative shape of the
dough pieces, complete with patterns, name, type, and docker holes. Bearing on the
Table 10.7
Typical Formulas Used in the Manufacturing of Different Types of Cookies
Type of Forming Equipment Rotary Mold Sheeting and Forming Deposit
Vanilla Chocolate Ginger Chocolate Rolled
Ingredients Sandwich Sandwich Sugar Sugar Snap Chip Oat Oatmeal
Soft-wheat flour 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 —
Oatmeal — — — — — — — 100
Water 8 13 7 12 5 15 30 —
Shortening 27 24 35 13 22 50 35 —
Vegetable oil — — — — — — — 60
Sugar 32 33 48 30 19 45 70 60
Molasses — — — — 50 — — —
Invert syrup — 5 7.5 18 — 0.8 — —
Salt 1.5 1.5 1.5 0.75 2 1 1.5 1
Sodium bicarbonate 0.5 0.8 0.35 0.5 2 — 0.8 —
Calcium phosphate — — — 0.5 — 0.25 0.25 —
Ammonium bicarbonate — 0.25 0.5 0.75 — — 0.5 —
Lecithin 0.25 0.35 1.0 1.0 — — — —
Nonfat dry milk — — 1 1 — 2.5 — —
Egg solids — — — — — — 7.0 —
Condensed milk 6 3 6 — — — — —
Whole egg 3 1 2 5 — — 7 30
Butter 1.2 — — — — — — —
Chocolate chip — — — — — 50 — —
Chopped nuts — — — — — 12.5 — —
Raisins — — — — — — 25 —
Rolled oats — — — — — — 45 —
Cocoa — 5 — — — — — —
—continued
295
296
Table 10.7 (continued)
Typical Formulas Used in the Manufacturing of Different Types of Cookies
Type of Forming Equipment Rotary Mold Sheeting and Forming Deposit
Vanilla Chocolate Ginger Chocolate Rolled
Ingredients Sandwich Sandwich Sugar Sugar Snap Chip Oat Oatmeal
Starch 5 — — — — — — —
Cinnamon — — — — — — — 1.5
Vanillin 0.05 0.05 — — — — — —
Ginger — — — — 1 — — —
Type of Forming Equipment Deposit Wire Cut Wafer Batter
Ingredients Short Bread Peanut Butter Vanilla Wafer Chocolate Wafer Sugar Cookie Sugar Wafer
Soft-wheat flour 100 100 100 100 100 100
Water 15 35 45 45 22 135
Shortening 18 32 30 30 25 —
Coconut oil — — — — — 0.8
Sugar 60 80 70 70 60 —
Invert syrup — 5 10 8 6 —
Salt 1.2 1.5 2 1.5 1 0.32
Sodium bicarbonate 2 0.75 1 1.5 — 0.38
Calcium phosphate — — 0.5 — — —
Ammonium bicarbonate 0.5 0.75 0.5 — — 0.22
Lecithin — — — — — 0.13
Nonfat dry milk 1 — 5 6 3 2.2
Egg solids — — 0.5 2 — —
Dry egg yolk — — — — — 1
Whole egg 6 12 — — 4 —
Butter 12 — 5 — — —
Peanut butter — 85 — — — —
Cocoa — — — 10 — —
Starch — — — 7 — 1.7
Source: Data from Faridi, H., Gaines, C.S., and Strouts, B.L. 2000. Soft wheat products. Chapter 18 in Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology. K.J. Lorenz and
J.G. Ponte (eds.). Second edition, Marcel Dekker, New York; Matz, S.A. 1992. Cookie and Cracker Technology. Third edition. AVI Publishing, Westport, CT.
Cereal Grains
Soft Wheat Flour
Ingredients
Water Dough or Batter Mixing (Table 10.7)
Cookie Dough Batter for Wafers
Forming or Molding
Equipment
Sheeting and Extruding and Batter Injection into Baking

Rotary Mold Wire-Cut
Forming Depositing Plates or Books
Baking
Baking in Continuous Band-Tunnel Ovens
Wafer Oven
Application of Fillings (Cream)

Application of Fillings and/or Coverings and Flavorings and/or Flavorings
Packaging Packaging
Figure 10.6 General flowchart of industrial processes for the production of cookies.

297
298 Cereal Grains
H
Dough
Dough Pieces
F
A B
Catch Tray
E
D
C
(a)
Figure 10.7 Forming and molding equipment used for the production of various types of
cookies. (a) Schema (Manley 1998; with permission from Woodhead Publishing, Ltd., U.K.
www.woodheadpublishing.com) and photograph (courtesy of Reading Bakery Systems) of
rotary mold.
forming roll is a blade or steel known as the scrapper. The excess dough is scraped
off with a knife bearing upon the mold, and thereafter the dough piece is extracted
(Manley 1996, 1998). The main advantages of this system are that it is not necessary
to form a dough sheet, the difficulties of gauging are eliminated, and there is no cut-
ter scrap dough that has to be recycled. In rotary mold cookies, the dough is formed
with a limited amount of water (<20%) and high shortening so that the formed piece
of dough or short dough drops by gravity to the conveying belt.
10.7.2.2 Sheeting and Forming

This is one of the most popular systems. The sheeter compacts and gauges the mass
of dough into a sheet of even thickness and width before cutting. The principle is
to progressively laminate the dough to the desired thickness using several pairs of
gauging rolls (Figure 10.7). These systems are capable of producing multilayered
Scrap Return System
3 Roll Sheeter
Gauge Rolls
Relaxation Web
Rotary Cutter
Cutter Web Drive
and Scrap Lift Swivel
Panner
(b)
Figure 10.7 (Continued) Forming and molding equipment used for the production
of various types of cookies. (b) Schema (Manley 1998; with permission from Woodhead
Publishing Ltd., U.K. www.woodheadpublishing.com) and photograph (taken at the Reading
Bakery Systems Science and Innovation Center) of sheeting and forming equipment.
cookies because most are provided with a folding arm or lapper. The dough sheet is
usually cut with a rotating interchangeable roll or cutter. Rotary cutters are of two
types: those that employ two rolls, one positioned immediately after the other, and
those with only one roll. In the tandem system, the first roll dockers the dough, prints
a surface pattern, and pins the dough onto the cutting web. The second roll cuts out
the piece, leaving a network of scrap dough. A single-roll rotary cutter achieves
300 Cereal Grains
Dough
+ +
Wire for Cutting Reciprocating Frame

Dough Pieces
Dough Piece
(c)
Figure 10.7 (Continued) Forming and molding equipment used for the production
of various types of cookies. (c) Schema (Manley 1998; with permission from Woodhead
Publishing Ltd., U.K. www.woodheadpublishing.com) and photograph (courtesy of Reading
Bakery Systems) of wire-cut depositing machine.
dockering, pinning, and cutting in one single step. Flours used for the production
of cookies usually contain more protein and require more water to produce a fully
developed and slack dough. Doughs are mixed to develop the gluten network capable
of producing, upon gradual sheeting, sheets of 2 mm. In this system, there is some
scrap dough that is recycled into the hopper for reworking. Therefore, the dough
should withstand the extra mechanical work of resheeting and gauging (Faridi 1994,
Faridi et al. 2000, Manley 1996, 1998; Matz 1992). This sheeting and forming device
is also used for production of pizza dough, crackers, and die-cut flour tortillas.
10.7.2.3 Extruding and Depositing

Historically, extruding-depositing machines were developed before wirecut equip-
ment. These forming machines are capable of extruding doughs ranging in consis-
tency from extremely soft to stiff. Typical examples are chocolate chip, fig bars, and
oatmeal cookies. The plain dough piece can be decorated, sprinkled, or treated on
the conveyor by combining other equipment with the basic extruding–depositing
machine (Figure 10.7). Most equipment basically consists of a hopper over a sys-
tem of two or three smooth or grooved rolls that force the soft, smooth, and almost
pourable dough into a pressure-balancing chamber equipped underneath with a set
of piping nozzles. These nozzles are usually cone shaped and may have patterned
ends to give strong relief to the extruded dough. Individual deposits are achieved by
raising and lowering the oven conveyor to coincide with intermittent extrusion. The
intermittent action may be achieved by activating the feed rollers briefly to push the
desired amount of dough through the nozzles, and then stopping the rollers while
the deposit is completed and the depositing device returns to its original position
(Manley 1996, 1998; Matz 1992).
10.7.2.4 Wire-Cut
Wirecut cookies are normally produced with high-fat and sugar doughs that are
forced through dies in an extruder. They are called wire cut because an oscillating
wire positioned underneath the set of dies or nozzles guillotines or cuts the exiting
dough. The dough is continuously extruded through the dies by a pair of rolls, and
the formed pieces of dough enter the oven on a conveyor belt (Figure 10.7). Dies
are positioned approximately 7 cm above the oven conveyor. The wire may cut in a
forward motion or, more usually, in the opposite direction of the oven conveyor. The
speed of wirecut machines rarely exceeds 100 strokes per minute. The oscillation of
the wire is finely adjusted to obtain the desired dough thickness. Wirecut cookies are
frequently used as lids to produce filled cookies (Manley 1996, 1998; Matz 1992).
Bar cookies are extruded in the same way as round cookies, except that it is done
through a rectangular slit with a serrated leading edge. The resulting strip of dough
is cut into individual pieces by a guillotine. Compound cookies such as fig bars are
formed simultaneously, extruding a casing of dough and the filling. The hopper is
double, and the fig paste is led through the dough hopper to its proper orifice by
means of tubes. Fig bars are extruded in a continuous strip and cut after baking in
order to minimize the distortion of the ends of the bars and prevent flowing out of
the filling (Matz 1992).
10.7.2.5 Wafers
Sugar wafers have unique and characteristic properties mainly because of their man-
ufacturing procedure, which yields low-density lids that are generally filled with a
cream consisting of a mixture of sugar and shortening. Wafers are produced from
flour, sweeteners, chemical leavening agents, and colorants mixed with high amounts
of water so that a batter is obtained. From the mixing tanks, the batter with a certain
viscosity is first pumped to a supply tank and later dispensed by an accurate meter-
ing device onto a couple of metallic wafer plates in the oven. The feeding device
302 Cereal Grains
deposits the batter in the open plates and then withdraws as the plates automatically
lock. After a certain oven-dwell time, the baked wafer sheets are removed from the
plates by takeoff units and then positioned on a conveyor that feeds the wafer-build-
ing unit. During the thermal process, most of the water is lost, and a light, spongy,
and crispy wafer is obtained. Wafer ovens are made in 12-, 18-, 24-, 30-, and 36-plate
models. The rectangular plates, known as books, are usually 27.9 × 45.7 cm. Plates
can be adjusted to control the wafer thickness by means of shims located between the
top and bottom plates. Each plate has vent holes designed to release the steam and
also to carry the excess batter out of the plates. Wafer ovens are produced for heating
by gas or electricity. The entire oven chamber is heated when gas is used. Electrical
heating is by means of elements built in each book. The filling or cream is spread on
alternating wafer sheets to build the desired number of layers. Cream spreaders con-
sist of a hopper with drum extrusion feeders. The cream is continuously deposited as
the wafers are being carried under the spreader by a moving belt. The built-up large
wafer sandwiches are passed through a pressing unit and then through a cooling
tunnel to a collator in preparation for cutting. The large wafer sandwich is cut with
either wire cutters or rotary saws into the desired finished-product size. Wire-cutting
is the most popular method because saw cutters produce more waste. The filled sets
of wafers are immediately packaged to avoid loss of texture (Manley 1996, Matz
1992).
10.7.2.6 Baking and Cooling

Nearly all cookies are baked in band or traveling ovens. This means that oven con-
ditions such as temperature, movement, and humidity change during the course
of baking. Oven dwell times range from only a couple of minutes to 15 minutes,
depending on the kind of cookie baked and oven conditions. The energy necessary
to operate ovens, mainly fuel, is becoming more relevant, and therefore, new ovens
are designed to enhance heat transfer and reduce energy losses.
The heat of the continuous-tunnel ovens is provided by burning a fuel such as
gas, oil, or electricity, and is transferred by radiation, conduction, and convection.
The dough pieces are supported on a baking surface that is usually a sheet of steel
or, more commonly, a metal wire mesh. It is important throughout the baking pro-
cess that oven conditions are kept even across the width of the oven to prevent dis-
similarities in thickness, shape, and color. Oven bands are available in 80, 100, and
120 cm widths, and are generally 60 m in length. The average oven bakes around
1.2 tons of product/hour (Manley 1996). During baking, the dough piece develops
a less dense and open porous structure, the moisture level decreases generally to 1
to 4%, and there are significant changes in surface coloration and flavor develop-
ment. Chemically the starch gelatinizes, the gluten denatures, and setting occurs.
The chemical leavening agents liberate gas that is trapped by the dough. The gas
bubbles expand due to the high temperature and the pressure exerted by water vapor.
In addition, the sugar and fat reduce consistency due to the baking temperatures.
After baking, cookies have to cool in preparation for packaging. During cooling
and equilibration, cookies keep losing significant amounts of moisture and some
types become more rigid. Low-moisture cookies are especially prone to checking (a
phenomenon of hairline crack formation) and breaking during handling and storage.
These cracks are the result of stress that develops as the product cools down and the
dimensional changes associated with the equilibration of moisture within the cookie
structure. Checking can be reduced or eliminated if baking is slow and the cooling
process is gradual. The most common cooling devices are the two-tier cooling con-
veyors designed to be 1.5 to 3 times longer than the oven (Manley 1996). Cooling
time can be controlled by the conveyor velocity, and varies among cookies, but nor-
mally averages from 20 to 25 min.
10.7.2.7 Packaging
Four modes of deterioration are usually associated with cookies: loss of crispness,
development of rancidity, development of fat bloom, and breakage (Robertson
1993). Traditional packaging materials for cookies are cellulose films (RCF)
coated with either low-density polyethylene or polyvinyldiene chloride (PVC)
with polyvinyl dichloroethylene (PVdC) copolymer, and often with a layer of
glassine in direct contact with the product, especially if it is a high-fat one.
However, in recent years, this combination of materials has been replaced by
plain oriented polypropylene (OPP) coated on both sides with acrylic, coextruded
OPP films, and OPP coated with a thin layer of aluminum on the outside. The
aluminum composite films are one of the best barriers against light, moisture,
and oxygen but preclude visibility of the packed product. Mechanical protection
is generally provided by placing the product in rigid containers such as cartons
(Robertson 1993).
10.7.3 Production of Cakes and Related Products

The art of baking cakes dates back more than 10,000 years to the earliest settled
communities (Conforti 2007). There are two basic categories of cakes: shortened
and foam. The most popular shortened cakes, also known as pound cakes, are made
with a batter rich in fat. Foam cakes are made without fat and include Angel food
and sponge cakes. A cake batter is a complex dispersion of foam–oil–water emulsion
with air bubbles entrapped in the fat phase. The basic functional ingredients include
refined and preferably chlorinated soft-wheat flour, water, eggs, shortening or oil,
sugar, emulsifiers, and baking powder. Cakemaking usually includes batter mixing,
molding, baking, and cooling. The purpose of the whipping stage is to disperse all
ingredients, develop the desired viscosity, and incorporate air into the batter. The
type of fat (hydrogenation level, dilatometric properties) affects aeration and cake
specific gravity. Emulsifiers aid in the emulsion and improve fat dispersion in the bat-
ter. Baking is critically important because it greatly affects volume, appearance, and
organoleptic properties. It is generally accepted that the aeration of a cake depends
on the expansion of the gases, air, and carbon dioxide if baking powder is used,
together with water-vapor pressure. The volume of the cake batter generally increases
3.5 times during baking. During the critical baking step, the batter thins, and some
coalescence of the entrapped bubbles occurs, resulting in some loss of gas. The rate
of coalescence depends on batter viscosity and bubble size. The process of coales-
cence is finally arrested by the thickening of the batter due to starch swelling and to
the coagulation of the egg and gluten (Bennion and Bamford 1997, Conforti 2007).
304 Cereal Grains
Shortened cakes are divided into two broad categories: high ratio and low ratio.
The most popular is the high ratio, in which the amount of sugar is similar to or
higher than the amount of flour. In low-ratio mixes, the amount of flour is higher
than the amount of sugar.
10.7.3.1 Low- and High-Ratio Cakes

From the processing viewpoint, high- and low-ratio cakes are manufactured with
refined soft-wheat flours mixed with high amounts of water so that batters are
produced. Due to the high amount of water, the flour starch granules completely
gelatinize during baking, imparting the typical internal structure. Most cake mixes
contain chemical leavening agents and milk solids, flavorings, and emulsifiers that
affect texture, color, and flavor. Shortening helps to trap air during batter mixing and
affects volume and crumb texture. Most cake mixes are manufactured from chlori-
nated soft flour. A better functionality is obtained because the bleached flours are
slightly acidic (pH 5) and have a chemically modified gluten because chlorination
breaks disulfide bonds and weakens the gluten structure. These changes in rheologi-
cal behavior yield a better crumb texture, whereas the slightly acidic pH favors the
action of the chemical leavening agents. During dough batter mixing, tiny air bub-
bles are trapped and then enlarged due to the carbon dioxide generated by the baking
powder. In almost all cake mixes, double-acting baking powders are used because
they release gas during batter mixing and during the critical step of baking.
When properly mixed, egg albumin proteins trap air and improve cake volume
and texture. Emulsifiers and tensoactive additives such as propylene-glycol lower
the aqueous phase surface tension, also aiding air incorporation. A good cake batter
should have enough viscosity to avoid the settling of denser starch granules that yield
defective cakes (the crumb is not evenly distributed; it is too dense at the bottom and
aerated at the top). An appropriate batter viscosity is needed to reduce defects such
as large air pockets produced due to the coalescence of small air bubbles. Most for-
mulations contain milk solids with the aim of improving flavor and yielding a better
crust color. The popular commercial mixes labeled as “high-moist” cakes contain a
blend of gums, modified starches, and emulsifiers that have high affinity for water
during and after baking. Cakes are usually baked at temperatures of 180°C–190°C
for times that vary from 25 to 35 min, depending of the size and/or volume.
10.7.3.2 Sponge–Angel Cakes

Sponge or Angel cake mixes (Table 10.8) differ from high- or low-ratio cakes because
they are very light, almost fluffy, and do not necessarily contain chemical leavening
agents and shortening. These cakes are leavened by trapped air and steam derived
from egg whites (Conforti 2007). For this reason, egg whites constitute the most
important ingredient. Sugar is the tenderizing agent in the substitution of the short-
ening. The soft-wheat flour (regular or chlorinated) is mixed with starch and serves
as a vehicle for the incorporation of the other ingredients. The most functional and
key ingredient is the egg albumin because this protein traps the air incorporated
during batter whipping and retains the air during baking. The addition of emulsifiers
such as polyglycerol esters or distilled monoglycerides contributes to cake quality.
Benefits include better batter aeration and stability, resulting in a cake with higher
Table 10.8
Typical Formulas for Elaboration of Different Types of Cakes
Low Ratio High Ratio Angel Sponge
White Yellow Devil’s Food Type Type
Ingredients White Sugar White Butter Layer Chocolate Chocolate Type I II Type I II
Soft-wheat flour 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Sugar 72 72 125 140 140 150 155 165 130 100 100
Shortening 57 9 50 81 50 60 55 — 76 — —
Oil — — — — — — — — — — 23
Maple syrup — — — — — — — 100 — — —
Butter — 48 — 50 — — — — — — —
Water 97 — 50 — — 100 130 — — — 29

Whole egg — 72 75 — 60 70 60 — — 128 96
Egg whites — — — 75 — 15 15 270 100 — —
Yolk — — — — — — — — — 22 —
Whole milk — 25 — — 110 — — — 40 — 20
Evaporated milk — — 10 — — — — — — — —
Dry milk — — — 12 — 15 22 — — — 12
Baking powder 1.4 1.4 3.75 9 6 6 4 — 2.75 — —
Na bicarbonate — — — — — — — — — — 1.5
Salt — — 1.2 3 4 4 5 3.7 2.5 — 1
Chocolate liquor — — — — — 20 — — — — —
Glycerine — — — — — — — — — — 4
Cocoa powder — — — — — — 20 — — — —
Cream of tartar — — — — — — — 3.7 — — —
Source: Data from Bennion, E.B., and Bamford, G.S.T. 1997. The Technology of Cake Making. A.J. Bent (ed.). Sixth edition, Blackie Academic & Professional,
London; and Faridi, H., Gaines, C.S., and Strouts, B.L. 2000. Soft wheat products. Chapter 18 in Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology. K.J. Lorenz
and J.G. Ponte (eds.). Second edition, Marcel Dekker, New York.
305
306 Cereal Grains
volume and better crumb texture. Needless to say, the quality and concentration
of the egg albumin is critically important. In addition, Angel cakes should be pro-
duced by sequentially adding the ingredients in an optimized whipping schedule.
Generally, egg whites or albumin is blended with sugar and tartar cream. This last
ingredient reduces the pH and helps to trap air, and forms stronger and larger foam.
Then, the flour/starch mix is slowly added with the aim of not breaking the foam.
The starch will gelatinize during baking, binding water. Angel cakes are usually
baked at a high temperature (190°C–200°C) in ungreased tube style cake pans that
provide a more efficient heat distribution within the batter, which translates into
higher expansion or volume (Conforti 2007).
10.7.3.3 Hotcakes and Crepes

Hotcakes and crepes are similar to low-ratio cakes in terms of formulation but dif-
fer from cakes because they are baked on a hot surface. Batters do not contain high
quantities of sugar because these products are usually flavored with sweeteners,
maple syrup, honey, and jellies. The basic difference between hotcakes and crepes
is that hotcake recipes contain double-acting baking powder that imparts the typical
hotcake crumb texture (Table 10.9). Crepes are normally manufactured without bak-
ing powder, and are therefore thinner and denser. Crepes are usually flavored with
butter, margarine, sweeteners, and other fillings not used with hotcakes such as eggs,
ham, mushrooms, cheeses, spinach, and even cooked rice.
10.7.3.4 Muffins and Biscuits

Muffins are produced similar to low-ratio cakes, but the batter is placed in small cup-
shaped molds before baking (Cross 2007). Most are produced from refined soft-wheat
flour, although whole-wheat muffins and batters supplemented with berries, raisins,
and other similar products are gaining popularity. As in cakes, the type of flour, double-
acting baking powder, and batter consistency greatly affect product characteristics.
Regular biscuits are produced from soft-wheat flour, baking powder, sugar, fats,
and other ingredients (Table 10.9). The dough is usually sheeted and then cut with a
circular die, placed on baking pans, egg washed, and baked.
Corn bread biscuits are very popular in the United States and other parts of the
world. There are many formulations and types that differ in volume, apparent den-
sity, texture, and flavor. Most formulations are based on a mixture of wheat flour
and yellow or white maize meal or flour, baking powder, shortening/lard, and other
ingredients that improve texture and flavor (Table 10.9). The functional gluten of
the wheat flour allows the production of more aerated breads, whereas maize flour
imparts the characteristic flavor. These ingredients are mixed with water to obtain a
dough that is processed similar to regular biscuits.
10.7.3.5 Chemically Leavened Donuts

Baked or cake donuts are classified as chemically leavened products. Compared
to yeast-leavened donuts, these are quick to prepare and generally baked, although
some are fried. Baked donuts have lower oil content and therefore less calories and
longer shelf-life expectations. Baked donuts are produced from soft or all-purpose
wheat flours that are mixed with water, a combination of chemical leavening agents
Table 10.9
Typical Formulas for the Elaboration of Hotcakes, Crepes, Muffins, Corn Bread, Biscuits,
and Chemically Leavened Donuts
Regular Whole Wheat Corn Cake
Ingredients Hotcakes Crepes Muffins Muffins Bread Biscuits Donuts
Soft-wheat flour 100 100 100 100 — — —
All-purpose flour — — 100 64.8 50 100 100
Whole-wheat flour — — — 35.2 — — —
Maize flour — — — — 50 — —
Water 135 — 100 94 50 60 56–58
Sugar 28 20 38 35 20 14.5 35
Dextrose — — — — — — 3.5
Molasses — — 12.5 12 — — —
Shortening 8.3 — 38 35 15 14.5 6
Butter — 12 — — — — —
Whole egg — 60 38 35 15 7.2 —
Yolk solids — — — — — — 4
Whole milk — 145 — — — — —
Nonfat dry — — 12.5 12 10 7.2 6
Baking powder 8.3 — 0.7 0.6 1.5 5.4 —
Sodium bicarbonate — — 0.3 0.2 — — 1.5
Na pyrophosphate — — — — — — 2
Salt 2.8 0.8 0.3 0.2 1 1 1.5
Emulsifier 0.7 — — — — — —
Maple flavoring 0.5 — — — — — —
Cinnamon — — 0.1 0.1 — — —
307
308 Cereal Grains
(i.e., sodium bicarbonate and sodium acid pyrophosphate), and other ingredients
(Table 10.9) to yield slack doughs. Doughs are either sheeted, cut, or extruded into the
typical donut form and baked. Cake donuts are generally covered with fine sugar.
10.7.4 Wheat-Flour Tortillas

Flour tortillas are one of the fastest-growing baking goods worldwide because they
are fundamental in the elaboration of many Mexican-type dishes widely sold by fast-
food and conventional restaurants. For instance, wheat-flour tortillas are considered
the fastest-growing market in the United States. In 2000, U.S. sales at wholesale
prices totaled more than 4 billion dollars, representing a growth rate of 57% over
the previous 4 years. Wheat-flour tortillas are the second highest selling product in
the packaged bread category, surpassing bagels, croissants, muffins, and pita breads
(Dally and Navarro 1999). Tortillas are mainly used as wraps to produce tacos filled
with shredded meats, beans, vegetables, cheeses, and other fillings.
A flour tortilla can be defined as a circular chemically leavened flat bread. Flour
tortillas are mainly produced from refined flours, although whole-wheat flour tor-
tillas are gaining in popularity. Generally, tortillas are 2 mm thick and have diam-
eters that vary from 15 to 33 cm. Most wheat tortillas are industrially manufactured
by hot-press, die-cut, or hand-stretch procedures (Figure 10.8; Serna-Saldivar et
al. 1988, Serna-Saldivar and Rooney 2003). Each operation requires different flour
specifications, dough preparation, and baking conditions, which result in various
tortilla characteristics.
Hot-press tortillas are slightly off-round, elastic, resistant to tearing, have a smooth
surface texture, and resist moisture absorption from fillings. They are consumed as
gourmet table tortillas, fajitas, and soft tacos. Die-cut tortillas are perfect circles
and have lower moisture content, and are less resistant to cracking. Most have dust-
ing flour on the surface and are mainly used in burritos, frozen Mexican foods, and
fried products (i.e., taco salad bowls, taco shells, chimichangas, and sweet buñue-
los). Hand-stretched tortillas are irregular in shape, elastic, moderately resistant to
tearing, and usually have leftovers of dusting flour on the surface. Hand-stretched
tortillas are consumed as table tortillas, burritos, and some fried products (Serna
Saldivar et al. 1988, Serna-Saldivar and Rooney 2003).
All wheat tortillas contain flour, water, fat, and salt. However, in the United States,
tortillas may contain several others ingredients to improve flavor, softness, rollabil-
ity, and shelf life (1–4 weeks). These ingredients include chemical leavening agents,
emulsifiers, antimicrobial agents, acidulants, gums or hydrocolloids, and reducing
agents (Table 10.10; Serna Saldivar et al. 1988, Serna-Saldivar and Rooney 2003).
Wheat flour, the most important ingredient, is preferably enriched, bleached, and
should have intermediate protein content. Equipment limitations and processing
conditions determine the functionality of the flour. Flours for hot-press and hand-
stretched tortillas generally require less protein and gluten strength compared to flours
for die-cut tortillas. Dough mixing time and dough properties are modified by reduc-
ing agents (sodium sulfites or cysteine), emulsifiers (lecithin, mono- and diglycerides,
sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate), salt, gums, fat, water content, and dough temperature
(Serna-Saldivar et al. 1988, Serna-Saldivar and Rooney 2003, Waniska et al. 2004).
Water All-purpose Wheat Flour, Ingredients

50 kg, 30–50°C 100 kg 14% Moisture 18 kg (Table 10.10)
100 kg
Dough Mixing
5–12 min, 28–30°C
Dough
Dough
Dough Cutting and Dough Balls 168 kg, 38% Moisture
Rounding 168 kg, 38% Moisture
Dough Resting
Room Temperature
Dough Ball Resting or Proofing
15–20 min, 28–30°C, 85% RH
Die Cut Equipment
Hot-press Hand-stretch Sheeting/Forming
Hot Plates @ 200–215°C for Couple of Pressing Rolls Followed
1.5 sec. by Hand-stretching on a Hot Plate
Raw Tortilla Discs
Raw Tortilla Discs 168 kg, 38%
Water Vapor Baking

15 kg Three Tier Gas-fired Oven, 190–240°C, 20–60 sec.
Cooling/Packaging
Cooling Conveyors for 30 min (28°C)/ Sealed Plastic Bags.
Flour Tortillas
Figure 10.8 General flowchart of the hot-press, hand-stretch, or die-cut industrial pro-
cesses for the production of wheat-flour tortillas.
Water (45%–55% of flour weight) is needed to form the gluten complex. In

some bakeries, water is warmed (40°C–50°C) before mixing. Solid or liquid fats
(5%–15% of flour weight) are added to improve dough properties, retard staling,
and produce a softer and more flexible tortilla. Salt (1%–2%) is added for taste and
to strengthen the gluten complex. Baking powder (1.0%–2.5%) gives whiter, less
dense, and spongy products (Adams and Waniska 2002). Various natural and modi-
fied cellulose gums are added at 0.1%–0.5% levels to improve dough machinability
and decrease stickiness of baked tortillas. Antimicrobial agents (propionates, sor-
bates) and acidulants (citric, fumaric, and phosphoric acids) limit fungal growth and
extend shelf life. Optimum pH for propionate and sorbate activities is 5.5 and 6.0,
respectively. However, dough mixing is more difficult below pH 5.8 (Serna-Saldivar
et al. 1988).
310 Cereal Grains
Table 10.10
Typical Formulas for the Elaboration of Regular and
Whole-Wheat Flour Tortillas
Whole Wheat
Regular Tortillas Tortillas
Ingredients (%) (%)
Wheat floura 100 50
Whole-wheat flour — 50
Water b 50 50
Shortening 8–14 8–14
Salt 1.5 1.5
Baking powder 1.5–2 1.5–2
Nonfat dry milk 1.5 1.5
High-fructose syrup or honey — 2.0
Gumsc 0.2–0.5 0.2
Emulsifiersd 0.1–0.5 0.1–0.5
Preservativese 0.2 0.2
Fumaric acidf 0.2 0.2
Reducing Agent g 10 ppm —
Source: Data from Bello, A. et al. 1991. Cereal Foods World. 36:315–322;
Friend, C. et al. 1992. Cereal Foods World 37:325–328; and Serna-
Saldivar, S.O. et al. 1988. Cereal Foods World 33:857–863.
a Generally all-purpose flours are ideally suited for most applications.
b In some instances, the water is warmed to 40°C–50°C before dough
mixing.
c Most common hydrocolloids are carboxy-methyl-cellulose, xanthan, and
guar gums, sometimes used in combination.

d Most common emulsifiers are sodium-stearoyl-2-lactylate, monoglycer-
ides, and lecithin, sometimes used in combination.

e Most common antimycotic agents are calcium propionate and potassium
bromate, normally used in combination.

f Quantities vary according to the desired dough pH. Generally, the pH is
lowered to 5.2–5.9.
g Most common reducing agents are sodium bisulfate and cysteine. Both
break gluten disulfide bonds and reduce proof times in preparation for
pressing.
Wheat tortilla dough is mixed to incorporate the dry ingredients, fat, and water,
and to form a pliable, viscous dough (Figure 10.8). Tortilla dough is optimally mixed
to slightly overmixed, and varies in temperature from 26°C to 38° C, depending
upon subsequent operations. The dough is divided and rounded into dough balls in
the hot-press and hand-stretch procedures. The dough balls are rested in a warm,
moist environment for 5–20 min to relax the gluten complex. Rested dough balls
machine easier and form better tortillas (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1988).
Hand-stretch operations require more labor, sanitation, and maintenance. The

preformed and proofed dough balls are forced to pass through a pair of rolls; the
first pair of rolls presses the dough ball into an ellipsoidal tortilla, while the second,
positioned perpendicularly, further compresses it into a semi-round configuration.
The preformed tortillas fall onto a hot surface where operators manually stretch into
round forms. That is the reason this method is named hand-stretched (Serna-Saldivar
et al. 1988, Serna-Saldivar and Rooney 2003).
In die-cut operations, the dough is pumped and shaped into a sheet that is further
thinned by a series of cross-rollers on a moving belt. The thin sheet of dough (about
0.5 mm) is cut by a circular die, which forms the shape. The scrap dough is returned
to the dough pump and processed. Regardless of the process, the formed tortilla are
baked (190°C–260°C for 30–50 s) in gas-fired ovens that generally have three tiers.
Oven conditions vary, depending upon tortilla thickness, type of conveyor (slat or
wire), and forming operation. Puffing of tortillas occurs near the end of baking and
is more common in the hot-press and hand-stretched types. Tortillas are cooled to
less than 32°C on cooling conveyors before placing into plastic bags for distribu-
tion. Improper cooling causes the tortillas to stick together and increase microbial
problems. Mot processors manufacture both white and different versions of whole-
wheat flour tortillas (Friend et al. 1992, Serna-Saldivar et al. 1988). Wheat-flour
tortilla producers have recently developed low-fat, fat-free, and zero-trans-fat prod-
ucts (Bejosano et al. 2006). Triticale flour has good potential to partially or totally
substitute wheat in flour tortilla production (Serna-Saldivar et al. 2004).
10.8 Crackers/Saltines
Crackers are considered a hybrid product because they use bread and cookie proce-
dures and are one of the few products that are leavened both with yeast and chemical
leavening agents. Saltines are the major cracker category, and they are prepared from
yeasted doughs that contain little or no sugar. Table 10.11 depicts the typical formu-
lation to prepare different types of crackers. The sponge procedure is followed and,
when the dough is prepared, chemical leavening agents are added. Some industrial
processes last more than 24 h because the sponge phase lasts from 12–24 h. Crackers
are formulated with stronger mixing and higher protein flours compared to sweet
cookies, and are formed and baked with the classic sheeting–forming cookie line.
The ideal flour usually contains 10%–10.5% protein and is classified as intermediate
or all-purpose flour (Faridi et al. 2000, Matz 1992, Serna-Saldivar 2008).
The industrial manufacturing process starts when batches of blends of hard- and
soft-wheat flours containing about 10.5% protein are mixed with yeast and water to
yield sponges that are fermented at 28°C and 85% relative humidity in proof rooms
(Figure 10.8). The sponge usually contains 60% of the total flour used in the manu-
facturing process. The spindle mixer is widely used because it is well suited to mix-
ing, and the dough trough also stores the dough during the fermentation steps. The
spindle mixer consists of a removable wheeled dough bowl that can hold from 680 to
1000 kg dough, and mixes the dough with two or three shafts or spindles that rotate
from 15 to 45 rpm (Moreth 1994). Sponges are left to ferment for approximately 20
h and produced at certain programmed time intervals or schedules with the aim of
312 Cereal Grains
Table 10.11
Typical Formulas for the Production of Various Types of Crackersa
Saltines Cheese Graham Cheese
Ingredient Sponge Dough Sponge Dough Straight dough
All-purpose wheat flour 60 40 75 25 80 100
Graham flour — — — — 20 —
Water 30 6 25 5 20 30
Sugar — — — — 25 —
Fructose syrup — 1.4 — — — —
Molasses — — — — 5 —
Invert syrup — — — — 5 —
Shortening — 8.2 12 — 12 12
Yeast b 0.25 — 0.25 — — —
Yeast food 0.5 — — — — —
Cheese — — — 25 — 25
Salt — 1.4 — 1 1 1
Fermented dough 2.0 — — — — 10
Sodium bicarbonatec — 1.5 — 0.5 0.5 0.5
Calcium phosphate — — — 0.25 — —
Ammonium bicarbonate — — — 0.25 — —
Diammonium phosphated — 0.1 — — — —
Diastatic malt 0.15 — — — — —
Lecithin — 0.2 — — — —
Amylases 0.02 — — — — —
Proteases — 0.0025 — — — —
Paprika — — 1 — — —
a From Faridi et al. (2000) and Serna-Saldivar (1996, 2003). The amount of yeast varies according to the
type of formulation and process. Many formulations are inoculated with the sponge (1.5%–2%) of
previous lots to provide an inoculum rich in lactic-acid bacteria.
b Dry yeast can be used instead of compressed fresh yeast at a concentration of 0.8%.
c The amount of sodium bicarbonate also varies so as to neutralize the sponge pH and to produce dough
(pH 7–7.2) for sheeting–forming.
d Some formulations do not contain calcium phosphate, and could contain diammonium phosphate.
generating enough dough to feed the continuous and automated manufacturing line.
Interestingly, natural lactic acid bacteria that adhere to the surfaces of the trough and
are naturally present in previous dough batches develop during the long fermentation
and also contribute to the typical cracker flavor and acid development. The initial
sponge pH is around 7, and drops to about 4.2–4.5 during fermentation. Once the
sponge is ripe, it is mixed with the rest of the flour (generally 40%), other ingredients,
and sodium bicarbonate to produce a dough adjusted to a pH of 7–7.4. The dough is
placed again in the fermentation room for 2 to 5 h of fermentation. From this step,
the process becomes continuous. Crackers are primarily formed with the sheeting–
cutting–forming equipment previously described for cookies. The fermented dough
is first passed through a three-roll sheeter and then gradually reduced with two other
gauging rollers. After the first coarse lamination, the dough is lapped/layered and
then gradually sheeted to about 2–3 mm. Layering is essential for the final cracker
texture and work required to masticate the product. The sheet of dough is rotary
cut into the typical cracker form, and the trim or scrap dough is carried back to the
dough hopper and recycled. The formed pieces of dough could be salted or treated
with toppings such as sesame or poppy seeds on a mash conveyor with a dispenser,
or egg-washed prior to baking. Baking is performed on continuous direct gas-fired
ovens equipped with moving bands and different baking zones. Most of the heat is
transferred by conduction in these types of ovens. The bake time varies from 2 to
3 min at temperatures ranging from 220°C–240°C. The baking conditions affect
the sensory properties and color of the resulting crackers. Crackers generally exit
the baking oven at moistures of about 2%, and are cooled before packaging with
materials resistant to the atmospheric moisture. Approximately 103 kg of saltines are
obtained from 100 kg flour (Figure 10.9; Serna-Saldivar 2008). From the microbial
viewpoint, crackers are shelf stable because of their low Aw. The preservation of
the characteristic crisp and brittle texture, and the prevention of lipid oxidation, are
fundamental to cracker producers.
Many snack crackers and saltines are oil sprayed immediately after baking and
before cooling. Round-shaped crackers are usually coated with an oil base. The oil is
generally applied at a temperature of 65°C–70°C and can be applied from 1% up to
22% or more, based on the weight of the unsprayed crackers. The oil could be applied
with a manifold that applies a continuous curtain of oil onto the product, or more
commonly with spray nozzles or spinning disks. The last oil-delivering machine
consists of disks that spin at high speeds (1800 to 3600 rpm) so that, when the oil
drops on the disks, it is sprayed into a fine mist (Moreth 1994, Serna-Saldivar 2008).
Due to its melting properties, the preferred oil for spraying is coconut, although
mixes of peanut and plastic shortenings are also employed. Sprayed crackers have
higher energy density than regular crackers due to the oil coating.
Cheese crackers are also classified as a ready-to-eat food. The combination of
the fermented flavor complements the cheese flavor, and so they are ideally suited
for social events and snacking at schools. These crackers are generally colored with
paprika to intensify the color (Table 10.11). Additional flavorings such as cayenne
and sage are added to improve sensory properties. The crackers have a distinctive
orange-red coloring that is easily recognized by the customer. Fresh or dehydrated
aged or regular cheddar cheese is normally used. The preferred method is to incor-
porate the dry powdered form to achieve a better distribution during the sponge-
producing stage (Faridi et al. 2000, Matz 1992).
10.9 Batters and Breading

The acceptance and sales of breaded food items such as fish fillets, chicken, and
shrimp continue to increase. These foods are generally treated first with batters and
then breadings. Both coats are based on wheat flour. There are two major types
of batters/breadings: batters with strong adhesive properties ideally suited to the
application of a second breading coat, and batters that produce a spongy coat. These
314 Cereal Grains
All-purpose Wheat Flour All-purpose Wheat Flour

60 kg, 10.5% Protein, 40 kg, 10.5% Protein,
14% Moisture 14% Moisture
Water 30 kg Water 3 kg
Yeast 0.25 kg Sponge Mixing Shortening 9.5 kg
Yeast Food 1.5 kg Spindle Mixer Invert Syrup 1.4 kg
Malt 0.15 Lecithin 0.2 kg
Na Bicarbonate 0.75 kg
Sponge Fermentation Ca Phosphate 0.5 kg
28°C/85% RH, 16–20 hr
Fermented Sponge Dough Mixing

90.9 kg, 42% Moisture, pH 4.2 Spindle Mixer
Dough Dough Fermentation

146 kg, 33.5% Moisture, pH 7.4 28°C/85% RH, 3 hr
Sheeting/Forming
Scrap Dough Roll Sheeter
Sheeted/Formed Dough Sheeted/Formed Dough

1.5 to 2 mm thick 1.5 to 2 mm thick
Coarse Salt
2.5 kg
Water
Vapor Baking
45.5 kg Tunnel Oven 2.5 min, 260°C
Oil-slurry Cooling/Packaging
Spaying
17 kg Cooling Conveyor
Crackers/Saltines
Cooling/Packaging
103 kg, 1.5% Moisture,
Cooling Conveyor
10.4% Fat
Oil-covered Crackers
22.8% Fat
Figure 10.9 Flowchart of industrial processes for the production of different kinds
of crackers.
mixes are selected based on granulation, color, flavor, and desired crispness in the
finished product. The second type contains high quantities of chemical leavening
agents that produce the spongy coat that does not include a breading. Breadings are
manufactured from processed cereal products that are ground and seasoned, such
as crackers, toasted bread, corn flakes, or extruded products. Generally, batters and
breadings are sold and distributed in dry mixes. Breaded products are generally deep
fat fried or baked. Most products are frozen and packed for fast-food restaurants,
convenience stores, and institutional foods. These products are generally reheated
using conventional or microwave ovens (Kulp and Loewe 1990).
Batter and breading mixes are typically based on wheat flour, corn flour, or
meal, modified starches, chemical leavening agents, and other ingredients such as
shortening, salt, sugar, egg solids, milk solids, regular or modified starch, gums,
emulsifiers, seasonings, and spices. Wheat flour is the most important ingredient
because, upon hydration and mixing, it produces a viscous batter that imparts
adhesiveness and is the vehicle for the incorporation of other ingredients (Olewink
and Kulp 1993). Depending on the amount of water used and gluten strength, the
batter could be firm as dough or a viscous fluid. Hard-wheat flours require more
water than soft flours in order to yield the same viscosity. For spongy or aerated
coats, the gluten network is important because it is responsible for retaining the
gas released by chemical leavening agents. High-protein wheat flours produce
batters and breadings that absorb more oil during frying, yield a coarser tex-
ture, and a darker color. Flours with small amounts of damaged starch are pre-
ferred. Clear flours, usually high in damaged starch and high α-amylase activity,
yield undesirable colorations and less viscous batters. Most formulations contain
yellow cornmeal or flour rich in carotenoids with the aim of producing better
colorations. In addition, corn flour, with relatively less water-retaining capacity
than wheat flour, generates crispier coatings (Kulp and Loewe 1990, Olewink and
Kulp 1993). According to Thomas and Atwell (1999), modified starches enhance
the coating performance of breadings. The use of modified starches (Chapter 13)
in batters and breading for fried applications is quite common and can help to
improve texture and appearance while reducing oil pickup. The types of starches
used in batters and breadings range from those with high amylose to pregelati-
nized ones. High-amylose starch reduces oil pickup and improves crispness and
film formation, whereas oxidized starches improve adhesion, film formation, and
crispness. Pregelatinzed starches are mainly used to control the viscosity of the
batter.
Other nonwheat ingredients play an important and fundamental role in the func-
tional and sensory properties of batters and breadings. The chemical leavening
compounds used to produce aerated coats are selected based on the quantity of gas
generated during the high temperatures of baking or frying. The aeration or final
density will depend on the viscoelastic properties and the type and amount of chemi-
cal leavening agents used. Plastic shortenings are used in some formulations with
the aim of producing a softer coat, especially in microwavable products. Egg solids
are important because egg whites or albumin have adhesive properties, whereas the
egg yolk is high in the natural emulsifier lecithin, which contributes to batter stabil-
ity. Many mixes contain gums and modified starches (Chapter 13). These ingredi-
ents help to control and impart viscosity, improve adhesiveness, and increase the
water-holding capacity. Hydrocolloids affect textural properties, improve resistance
to handling, and influence the oil absorbed during frying. Gums are effective in con-
centrations of 0.5%–2%. Some mixes also contain milk solids in order to improve
flavor and color by nonenzymatic browning (Kulp and Loewe 1990).
10.10 Pastas and Oriental Noodles

Asian noodles and Western pasta products have been consumed for many centuries.
Italian pastas still dominate the worldwide market, although oriental noodles have
gained in popularity. Pastas made from semolina are widely consumed in Europe
and America, whereas wheat and rice oriental noodles are a mealtime staple year
316 Cereal Grains
round in Asia. Asian noodles are usually made from common wheat flour using a
process of sheeting and cutting, as opposed to pasta products that are generally cold
extruded using semolina from durum wheat. Asian noodles are usually softer but
more elastic, and range from white to creamy white to moderately yellow in appear-
ance. Both types are nonleavened products. Asian noodles are alternatively produced
from other cereals such as rice.
10.10.1 Pastas from Semolina

There is still controversy about the origin of pasta. Some believe that Marco Polo
brought pasta from China to Italy. However, recent studies indicate that ancient
Etruscans consumed a product similar to spaghetti. The early Romans developed the
first machines to create pasta and lasagna. Marco Polo was the first to import, from
the kingdom of Kublai Khan, a new technology to manufacture pasta that comple-
mented the existing Italian technologies developed around the year 1200.
Pasta is one of the simplest products in terms of raw materials because it is pro-
duced from semolina that, in some instances, is supplemented with salt and eggs.
The annual consumption of pasta in Italy is about 28.5 kg per capita, whereas in the
United States and France it is 9 and 7.3 kg, respectively (Kill and Turnbull 2001).
Pasta products are divided, according to shape and size, into two broad categories:
short and long, and, according to processing method, into extruded, sheeted–formed,
and precooked microwaveable. Today the market is dominated by dehydrated pasta,
although fresh pasta is gaining in popularity.
For pasta production, amber durum wheats are preferred. Durum is milled into
refined semolina, which has a larger granulation compared to conventional wheat
flour (Chapter 7). Semolinas generally have a particle-size distribution that vary
from −60 to +100 U.S. mesh, and a yellow color due to the presence of carotenoids
and xanthophylls (lutein and zeaxanthin) in the endosperm. Some pastas are supple-
mented with egg products to impart a stronger yellow color and improve flavor, nutri-
tional value, and texture or mouth feel of the cooked pasta. Eggs may be added in
either liquid or dehydrated forms. Liquid pasteurized egg is the preferred choice but
requires proper control of microorganisms. Liquid egg with approximately 20%–25%
solids is usually added at the rate of 160 g/kg (Kill and Turnbull 2001). Spray-dried
egg products are also used. The advantage is that these have a longer shelf life, less
microbial risk, and are easier to incorporate into semolina before pasta production.
The production of most pasta products consists of three major steps: hydration of
the semolina, mixing–forming, and drying (Ambrogina Pagani et al. 2007). Most
pastas are dried to lower the moisture to 10% and produce a prolonged-shelf-life
product with an Aw of 0.5. There are two basic manufacturing procedures: sheeting–
cutting and extruding (Figure 10.10). The first process was the one that was origi-
nally used to make pasta, and the second is the most widely used nowadays.
10.10.1.1 Laminated Pasta
Sheeted pasta are usually shredded to produce shortcut pasta noodles, folded
or even presented to a noodle-nesting machine. The semolina is first dampened
with limited amounts of water to increase the moisture from 29%–32%, and then
Durum Semolina Water

100 kg, 14% Moisture 25 kg
Dough Mixing
Mix Time = 10–20 min
Cold Extrusion or Sheeting-forming

Extruder: < 45°C, Low Shear, Vacuum.
Water Loss Fresh Pasta

27 kg 125 kg, 31% Moisture
Dehydration
Low Temperature Drying: 35–70°C for 8–16 hr Cooking
High Temperature Drying: 55–75°C for 4–10 hr Excess Water
Very High Temperature Drying: 75–110°C for 3–6 hr
Dehydration
Cooling Very High Temperature
Less Than 28°C Drying: 75–110°C for 3–6 hr
Packaging
Low Density Polyethylene Bags Cooling
Less Than 28°C
Dry Pasta
98 kg 12% Moisture
Packaging
Low Density Polyethylene Bags
Precooked Dry Pasta

98 kg 12% Moisture
Figure 10.10 Flowchart of industrial processes for the production of fresh, dried, and
precooked dried pastas.
subjected to mixing. The mixing water is normally tempered to 35°C–40°C. The

coarser semolina takes longer to hydrate, so some equilibration time is required.
During kneading, the gluten network reduces dough adhesion in preparation for
optimum sheeting. During mixing, the moistened semolina tends to form small
dough balls due to the limited amount of water. The resulting dough is gradually
sheeted to the desired thickness using mechanical sheeters or extruders, and cut
or stamped with cutting rolls. Simple shapes such as plain discs, squares, and tri-
angles are created from a single cutting pass. The introduction of a profile and/or
embossing of the surface require first forming and then cutting. There are some
pasta products such as bow ties or farfalle that require three actions. The third step
is the pinching of the characteristic shape (Kill and Turnbull 2001, Ambrogina
Pagani et al. 2007).
318 Cereal Grains
10.10.1.2 Extruded Pasta
Most pasta products are produced by cold extrusion, in which the semolina is
hydrated and kneaded into a dough that, in its plastic stage, is forced through an
appropriate die at relatively high pressure. Optimally, the extruder mixer should be
equipped with a vacuum system with the aim of reducing the formation of minute
air bubbles that significantly lower color, texture (resistance to breakage during han-
dling and distribution), and overall acceptability. The removal of air, specifically
oxygen, avoids the enzymatic oxidation of carotenoids by lipooxygenase that lowers
color scores. Pastas are cold (<45°C) extruded because the heat generated by fric-
tion is dissipated with water jackets located on the barrel. If the dough temperature
exceeds 55°C, adverse changes can occur, such as denaturing of the gluten proteins
and starch gelatinization. Pastas produced under these conditions have poor cook-
ing qualities. For this reason, the barrel of most extruders is water jacketed, where
cooling water at about 38°C–40°C keeps the dough temperature within permissible
levels. The extruder screw is designed to cause low shear rate or friction (screw
flights are deep and separated), and the inside barrel surface is grooved to aid in the
movement of the dough, minimizing starch damage. The screw basically has two
zones: the first one is known as dough intake-pressure buildup, and the second is
called the kneading zone. The key extruder operation is pasta forming and cutting.
The dough is extruded through bronze or teflon dies and continuously cut by rotat-
ing knives positioned after the die. In some operations, the external moisture of the
exiting pasta pieces is partially removed with air flow. This minimizes the sticking
of dough pieces before drying. The extruded dough does not expand due to the low
shear force, low temperature, and relative high dough moisture (Ambrogina Pagani
et al. 2007, Donnelly and Ponte 2000, Kill and Turnbull 2001, Kruger et al. 1996,
Mercier and Cantarelli 1986). The pasta is now ready for the most critical operation
of drying (Figure 10.10).
10.10.1.3 Pasta Drying

Undoubtedly, the most critical process operation is drying. It consists of the careful
water evaporation (from 31% to 10%–12% moisture) of the preformed pieces of pasta
dough. The dehydration rate is related to the dough vapor pressure and the available
water on the surface of the piece of the pasta dough. The rate of water diffusion
within the product is closely related to temperature and air humidity. Generally,
30%–40% of the water is removed in a short period of time (30 min). This moisture
loss is possible because the fresh pasta is still plastic and elastic, and possesses cap-
illary porosity. Then, the pasta enters a second drying phase called equilibration,
where the dough pieces are subjected to a low temperature and a high relative humid-
ity (90%) program. The objective is to achieve water equilibration within the pasta
and avoid the formation of a surface crust that will impede water migration during
subsequent drying (2–3 h). The pasta is then slowly dehydrated (45°C for 8–12 h)
until achieving the target moisture of 12%. The total drying time varies according
to the type of pasta but ranges from 18 to 28 h. It is important to avoid overdrying
because the pasta will crack and lose texture. The finished pasta product should
have a long shelf life due to the low Aw and maintain its integrity during handling,
distribution, and commercialization. If the drying is too slow, the pasta is more prone
to molds, and if it is too fast, it will be more susceptible to stress cracks and breakage
during handling.
The drying time will depend on the type of dehydration program (slow, medium,
or fast) and the size of the pasta products (short or long pasta). There are new inno-
vations in pasta drying, where the dehydration time is greatly reduced by the use
of high temperatures The high-temperature drying regime applies temperatures
between 60°C and 84°C, with controlled relative humidity between 74% and 82%.
The drying time ranges from 8 to 11 h. The very high temperature regime, known
as THT, applies temperatures higher than 84°C, and drying time is significantly
reduced to only 2 to 5 h. Better control systems and more sophisticated dryers
are used for fast high-temperature pasta drying. THT drying is preferable for bet-
ter pasta color because of the inactivation of lipooxygenase and peroxidases and
the reduction of microorganisms due to the higher temperature and lower resi-
dence time. However, THT causes more loss of thiamine and niacin (Kruger et al.
1996).
10.10.1.4 Fresh and Precooked Pastas

Fresh pasta with Aw of 0.92–0.95 and moisture content of about 30% can be pack-
aged in a modified atmosphere (20%–50% CO2 and 50%–80% N2), preserved under
refrigeration, and sold in niche markets where it is viewed as natural. The advantage
is that the hydrated pasta is more convenient to use because it requires less cook-
ing than regular pasta products. Fresh pasta is usually mixed with spinach, tomato,
chlorophyll, and/or other coloring agents, or used for the production of Italian filled
pastas. Dehydrated spinach and tomato are primarily used to impart green and red
colorations, respectively. Normally, 2% and 4% dry powder forms are mixed with
the semolina before processing. Shelf-life expectations of fresh pasta are 30–45 days
at refrigeration temperatures. The leading multilayered packaging materials include
ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) and polyvinyldiene chloride (PVDC) which have low
water vapor, O2, and CO2 transmission rates (Ambrogina Pagani et al. 2007, Kruger
et al. 1996).
Precooked pastas are aimed toward cooking in a microwave or sold as conve-
nience foods. In this case, the semolina is cooked and formed in a thermoplastic
extruder and then dried, or the fresh pasta is cooked in water and then dehydrated
(Figure 10.10).
10.10.2 Oriental Noodles
10.10.2.1 Wheat Noodles
Wheat-flour noodles exist in two distinct types based on the use or not of alkaline
salt: white-salted and yellow-alkaline. Noodles are a staple of the Southeast Asian
diet, with alkaline Chinese or Cantonese noodles having the dominant market share.
According to Hatcher (2001), wheat-based noodles account for 30%–40% of the
cereal diet in most Asian countries, second only to rice dishes. The other major
type is the white-salted noodles widely consumed in Japan. Alkaline noodles are
320 Cereal Grains
made from flour, other ingredients, and alkaline salts such as sodium or potassium
carbonates and, less commonly, sodium hydroxide. The alkali affects color, flavor,
and texture. The higher the alkali level, the stronger the coloration because flavones
(apigeninglycosides) undergo a chromophoric shift in this environment (Hatcher and
Anderson 2007). There are many types of alkaline noodles. The most popular are
the fresh (Cantonese), partially boiled (Hokkien style), and fresh or steamed with
whole egg or egg whites (Wonton) noodles. White-salted noodles are divided into
fresh (Ramen) and high-moisture steamed (Yakisoba) (Fu et al. 2006). Oriental noo-
dles are commercialized in dried and moist forms.
Wheat noodles can be produced from hard, intermediate, or soft-wheat flours.
Flours for yellow alkaline and savory noodles (containing shrimp, eggs, dried meats,
tomato sauce, chili powder, and other foods) should contain higher protein (10%–
12%) compared to white-salted noodles (Nip 2007). The preferred flour is milled
from medium protein wheats that produce intermediate gluten properties. High-
quality Chinese noodles are also produced from partial waxy wheats that, upon
cooking, yield noodles with distinctive textural properties. Oriental wheat noodles
are produced by mixing with 33%–37% water, 2%–3% salt, and 0.05%–0.2% alkali
(sodium or potassium carbonate or sodium hydroxide).The alkali reagents influence
starch gelatinization, cooking properties, and stiffness of raw noodles. The blend
is mixed for 5–10 min and the resulting dough allowed to rest for gluten relaxing.
The relaxed dough is then formed into noodles with a sheeting–cutting or extruder
device. The most popular method used in Asia is sheeting and cutting. The noodles
can be sold fresh with a shelf life of only 1 to 3 days, steam cooked, and dried for the
production of instant noodles or regular noodles (Figure 10.11). Typically, noodles
uptake 0.83 to 0.9 g water per gram of raw product. The percent cooking loss var-
ies from 8% to 13%, the sodium hydroxide noodles being the ones with the highest
losses. Cooked sodium or potassium carbonate noodles are firmer and more resilient
compared to counterparts produced with sodium hydroxide (Hatcher 2001, Hatcher
and Anderson 2007, Hatcher et al. 2008).
The use of egg solids (whole, white, and yolk) for Asian noodles has been prac-
ticed for many decades in Hong Kong and parts of China. These are manufactured
following the same principles as for dry noodles (Figure 10.11). The addition of egg
solids contributes to color, textural properties, and flavor. Upon cooking, egg noodles
become firm and chewy (Nip 2007).
Instant noodles are produced by applying steam to gelatinize the starch, followed
by frying or hot-air drying to produce fried and nonfried noodles, respectively.
Instant cup noodles are increasing in sales and popularity due to their convenience.
Both Chinese and Japanese instant noodles are packed in cups or bowls made of
Styrofoam, with dried soup base, vegetables, shrimp, and/or meats, and prepared
simply by including hot water (Kruger et al. 1996).
10.10.2.2 Rice Noodles
There are other kinds of noodles manufactured from starch and nongluten flours.
The most popular are starch- and gluten-free rice noodles. The rice component may
be wet-milled rice starch or plain rice flour. Generally, wet-milled rice yields better-
quality noodles and, upon cooking, a smoother texture (Nip 2007). Due to the lack of
Wheat Flour
Salt
Potassium Carbonate Dough Mixing
133.5 kg, Horizontal or Vertical Mixers, Water
Sodium Carbonate Mix Time = 10–20 min 32 kg
1.5 kg
Dough Resting
15–20 min
Compound (3.5 mm, Folding/Overlapping) and

Reduction Sheeting (4–7 Passes, 1.2 mm Thick)
Cutting Rotary
Cutters, 2.5–3 mm Wide by 1.2 mm Thick
Water Loss Fresh Noodles

36.5 kg Frying Oil
133.5 kg, 34–35% Moisture
(Palm Oil, 18 kg)
24 hr Shelf-life
Drying Cooking
1st Stage: 20°C to Moisture of 25–27% Steaming
2nd Stage: 40°C/70–75% RH to Moisture of 10%
Boiling Water, 4–7 min
Dried Noodles Cooked Noodles Deep Fat Frying

97 kg, 10% Moisture 271 kg, 68% Moisture 130–160°C, 1–3 min
Water Loss
43 kg
Packaging Drying
Fried Noodles
Moisture Proof Packaging Materials
Instant Noodles
94 kg, 8% Moisture
Drying
Palm Oil, 130–160°C, 1–3 min
Instant Fried Noodles
17.5% Fat
Figure 10.11 Flowchart of industrial processes for the production of fresh, dried, and
precooked wheat noodles.
gluten, these noodles need thermal treatment in order to pregelatinize the rice starch
and form the product. Rice noodles are preferably prepared from white polished
grain high in amylose. Kernels are steeped in excess water, wet milled, and filtrated
through a cloth. The resulting dough is further milled to reduce its particle size and
mixed with other ingredients such as maize starch. The dough is divided and formed
into small balls in preparation for cooking in boiling water for approximately 20 min.
The resulting pregelatinized dough balls are stone ground, mixed, and extruded to
form the characteristic noodles. The preformed and cut noodles exiting the extruder
usually drop on a hot-water bath or are alternatively steamed. Then, the noodles are
quenched in cold water, drained, and solar or artificially dried for about 6 h (Juliano
and Sakurai 1985).
322 Cereal Grains
Self-Evaluation
1. Discuss at least three reasons why bread has been historically the most pop-
ular food for mankind. In a table, compare properties, processing, and rela-
tive caloric content of the following breads: French, Pita, Chinese, Danish,
Pan bread, Bagel, and yeast-leavened Donut.
2. Compare protein content, rheological properties (relative gluten strength
and extensibility), and food uses of the following wheat flours: hard, soft,
chlorinated-soft, and all-purpose.
3. What basic ingredients are necessary to make a loaf of bread? What is the
function of each?
4. Discuss the functionality of the following ingredients used to produce
bread: salt, sugar, shortening, sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate, potassium bro-
mate, vital gluten, calcium propionate, yeast, diastatic malt, whole egg, egg
albumin, and nonfat dried milk.
5. What is starch retrogradation? Investigate the effect of temperature on the
rate of starch retrogradation. What kind of ingredients or food additives can
be used to lower the rate of starch retrogradation? What is the relationship
between starch retrogradation and bread texture?
6. What is gluten? What kind of proteins conform the functional wheat gluten?
Investigate at least three different types of equipment used to determine
gluten strength and extensibility.
7. What are the different stages of dough mixing? Why is it critically impor-
tant to determine optimum dough development or optimum mixing time?
8. What are the main functionalities of salt, emulsifiers, or dough conditioners
and vital gluten in bread-making processes?
9. What are the main functionalities of yeast in bread-making processes? Why
is compressed fresh yeast still widely used by the industry despite its lower
shelf life? What is the factor used to convert fresh to dry yeast?
10. At what temperature and relative humidity are doughs generally fermented?
What kind of chemical compounds are generated during yeast and sour-
dough fermentations? Give at least three reasons why doughs need to be
periodically punched or degassed.
11. List at least five changes that occur during bread baking? Explain the oven-
spring phenomena.
12. What are the differences, advantages, and disadvantages among the three
major baking systems? Which is the most popular? Why?
13. Explain the reason why French breads or baguettes have a short textural
shelf life?
14. Why are frozen doughs gaining in popularity worldwide? What kind of
formulation or processing changes have to be made in order to obtain the
best frozen doughs? What kind of commercial bakery items are mainly
produced by frozen-dough technology?
15. What is staling? What kind of ingredients and storage procedures are effec-
tive to retard staling?
16. What is the difference between a chemical leavening agent and a baking
powder? What is a fast-acting and slow-acting chemical leavening agent?
Give at least two examples of each.
17. In a table, list the five industrial technologies used to produce cookies, indi-
cating differences in formulation and kind of commercial products obtained
from each processing method.
18. Why are crackers considered a hybrid product from the formulation and
processing viewpoint? What are the optimum flour specifications for crack-
ers and saltines?
19. In a flowchart, detail all the necessary steps to produce saltines. Why is the
saltine/cracker dough folded before final sheeting?
20. Why are chlorinated soft-wheat flours preferred for manufacturing cakes?
21. What are the differences between an Angel and a high-ratio cake? What
is the functionality of the following cake ingredients: shortening, egg
white solids, egg yolk, propylene-glycol, gums, modified starch, and bak-
ing powder?
22. What kind of flour is used to produce yeast-leavened donuts? In a flowchart,
detail the steps used for the production of yeast-leavened fried donuts. How
much oil do donuts absorb during frying? Why are donuts proofed at lower
relative humidity than other doughs?
23. What are the three industrial processes used to produce flour tortillas?
Which one is the most adequate to obtain flour tortillas for the elaboration
of frozen products?
24. What ingredients are necessary to produce a long-shelf-life wheat-flour tor-
tilla with adequate reheatability properties?
25. Why do batter and breading mixes contain wheat flour, maize flour, gums,
emulsifiers, and egg solids?
26. What is the most critical operation in pasta production? Why? Why is vac-
uum usually applied during pasta extrusion?
27. Explain the differences between conventional and fast pasta drying procedures?
Regardless of the drying operation, what are the different drying phases?
28. What are the differences in terms of raw materials and processing between
oriental noodles and pasta? Why is waxy wheat preferred in the production
of some types of oriental noodles?
29. What are the major differences between alkali and regular wheat noodles?
Describe the process to produce instant cup noodles seasoned with dried
seasoning and ingredients such as vegetables and shrimp.
30. What are the processing differences between wheat and rice noodles?
324 Cereal Grains
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11 Manufacturing of
Breakfast Cereals
11.1 Introduction
The breakfast cereal industry is one of the most versatile in terms of products and
technology. Products are convenient and practical because most do not need cook-
ing and preparation, and they possess a prolonged shelf-life. Breakfast cereals are
divided into two broad categories: hot or ready to eat (RTE). Most are categorized as
RTE because they do not need any further cooking at home. The industry has grown
because of the increasing number of working housewives and to keep pace with new
consumer trends. Breakfast cereals are very important because they constitute the
first meal of the day and are considered highly nutritious because they do not contain
significant amounts of fat and do contain important amounts of essential vitamins
and minerals; also, they are almost always served with milk, which complements
their nutritional value. Milk is high in protein, calcium, magnesium, and other essen-
tial nutrients that balance the cereal-based breakfast food designed to provide high
energy and micronutrients (Chapter 17). Breakfast cereals are normally flavored with
sugar or sweeteners and non-diastatic malt. In some instances, dehydrated fruits and
nuts are blended with finished products.
The manufacture of breakfast cereals involves appropriate selection and combi-
nation of raw materials, highly sophisticated production steps, and stringent quality
control programs. Breakfast cereals do not contain significant amounts of moisture,
in order to preserve the texture and guarantee their microbial stability. Packaging
materials and technologies play an important role in preserving the typical charac-
teristics of finished products. In most instances, the packaging costs more than the
edible product.
The industry was born at the end of the nineteenth century and developed strongly
thereafter, especially in developed countries. The first breakfast industry was estab-
lished in Battle Creek, Michigan, by the Kellogg brothers. Dr. John H. Kellogg filed
a patent for production of flaked cereals in 1894, and soon C.W. Post invented the
first prototype of the Grape Nuts that are still manufactured and sold today (Fast
2001). As technology improved, the range of breakfast cereals evolved from tradi-
tional corn and oat flakes to more sophisticated products that were mainly produced
in thermoplastic extruders.
Breakfast cereal consumption in developed countries has increased steadily, espe-
cially since the 1960s. The Irish, English, Australians, and North Americans are the
main per capita consumers, with annual intakes of 4 to 6 kg. In the United States, the
RTE market exceeds yearly sales of $6.8 billion (Le Corre 2006). The multibillion
329
330 Cereal Grains
industry has been dominated by a relatively few key and large producers such as
Kellogg’s, General Mills, Post, Quaker Oats, and Weetabix. Today, breakfast cereals
are grouped into at least 12 general categories depending on their manufacturing pro-
cesses. Most secret formulas use decorticated grains and/or a combination of refined
grits and/or flours from cereals such as maize, wheat, rice, and oats. The chemical
properties of these milled products, discussed in Chapter 7, affect the processing and
properties of end products. The new industry trend is the use of whole grains or brans
to increase dietary fiber. Oat flour is the preferred raw material. Salt, sugar, other
sweeteners, colorants, and flavorings are included to improve appearance, palatabil-
ity, and overall acceptability. The industry has traditionally enriched products with
selected minerals and vitamins since the enrichment program was enacted after the
Second World War. During the past years, the industry has launched new products
due to the increasing demand for high-fiber and nutraceutical products.
The general manufacturing process starts with the combination of ingredients
that are cooked, formed, baked, flavored-enriched, and packaged. Cooking is neces-
sary in order to gelatinize the starch and produce doughs that can be mechanically
sheeted, shaped, or formed. It is generally performed in pressure cookers, open-
steam jacketed cookers, or with continuous screw extruders. Pressure and steam
cookers are usually used to process grains or large grits, whereas extruders are used
to process smaller grits, semolinas, meals, and even flours. Cooking is aimed at
the gelatinization and pasting of the starch granules accompanying water diffusion
into the raw material. The moisture and starch modification are required for ade-
quate sheeting, shaping, and forming (Caldwell et al. 2000, Daniels 1974, Fast 2001,
Valentes et al. 1991). Extrusion is used to manufacture two major categories of prod-
ucts: direct expanded or pellets. Pellets are also called half, or intermediate, products
because they are shelf-stable and must undergo additional processes before they are
ready for the consumer. They are generally flaked or expanded in puffing guns or
special ovens. The preformed configurations are usually baked in continuous ovens
to enhance flavor, texture, and color. Two types of ovens are generally used: rotary
toasting and flat-band ovens. Rotary ovens are the standard of the industry because
they are used to produce flakes and oven-puffed products. Most of the heat transfer
in these ovens is by convection. Flat-band or conveyor ovens are used more for large
products such as shredded and compressed flake products that are baked in a fixed
position. In this type of oven, the heat is mainly transferred by conduction. Baking
greatly affects the sensory properties of breakfast cereals. Texture and bowl-life are
achieved during this critical step. The high baking temperatures destroy some of the
vitamins, and therefore these are normally added after this thermal step (Chapter
17). Baked or toasted cereals are commonly flavored and/or sweetened with topical
coatings of liquid sprays or dry powders on-line or applied inside coating drums. The
coating usually contains part of the enrichment premix that is heat labile. The encap-
sulation of some of the coating ingredients allows for extension of the bowl-life and
crispiness, especially as the product is consumed with milk. Furthermore, additives
such as antioxidants can be added in products that contain nuts to prevent rancidity
(Fast and Caldwell 2000). Packaging is essential for the preservation of breakfast
cereals, especially in terms of texture. The materials used typically include printed
paperboard cartons, protective liners, and premade bags (form-filled and sealed).
Manufacturing of Breakfast Cereals 331
Most products are packaged in modular bag-in-box lines equipped with bag form fill
machines and high-speed cartoners (Pringle et al. 2000).
11.2 Classification of Breakfast Cereals

Breakfast cereals are classified according to their manufacturing process into tra-
ditional processed flakes, extruded flakes, oven-puffed cereals, gun-puffed whole
grains, extruded expanded, cofilled extruded expanded, shredded whole grains,
extruded shredded products, filled bite-size shredded wheat, baked cereals, grano-
las, compressed flake biscuit, and muesli type products (Fast and Caldwell 2000,
Fast 2001, Serna-Saldivar 1996, Valentes et al. 1991). The market distribution is
dominated by flaked (traditional and extruded) and puffed (oven, extruded, and gun-
puffed) products. Most breakfast cereals were first made by a traditional process that
later on evolved into extrusion. Extrusion offers the advantage of more versatility,
faster production rate, lower investment, and energy and personnel savings. Flakes,
shredded, and oven-puffed are typical examples of products that can be manufac-
tured following the traditional process or from extrusion.
11.3 Traditional Flaked Products

There are two major categories of flakes: oat flakes that require cooking and RTE
flakes generally produced from maize, rice, or wheat.
11.3.1 Rolled or Flaked Oats

Among cereals, oats are unique because they contain significant amounts of lipids
in the endosperm and exhibit a strong lipolytic activity that favors oxidation and
rancidity. Oat flakes are considered the most popular breakfast cereal produced from
this cereal grain. The oat process is different from others because flakes are not
extensively cooked, nor are they toasted. As a result, oat flakes have quite a different
texture compared to corn, wheat, or rice flakes. The basic process starts when whole
oat kernels are heat-treated to inactivate lipases and lipoxygenase (Chapter 7). These
enzymes catalyze undesirable oxidation and rancidity reactions. Needless to say, this
is considered the most critical operation because it greatly influences flavor, aroma,
and shelf-life. The husked caryopses are then dehulled by abrasion to yield groats.
Groats are then cut into large pieces or flaked as whole grain. The final product,
classified as hot cereal, needs to be cooked before consumption because the grain
received the heat treatment only to inactivate lipolytic enzymes. Generally, regular
oat flakes require 5–15 min of cooking.
Whole groats yield large flakes that are difficult to handle, store, and package.
Therefore, groats are usually cut into uniform pieces before flaking. The groat is cut
into two or four pieces. Cutting is performed with rotary granulators consisting of
perforated rotating drums and knives (Figure 11.1). The cut groats are then steamed
in the traditional way immediately ahead of flaking. Groat pieces are separated from
whole groats by length sizing on a disk separator.
332 Cereal Grains
Oats
Cleaning
Magnets, Aspirators, Screening, Foreign Material
Disc Separators and Gravity Tables 3.0 kg
Cleaned Oats Thermal Treatment - Drying Moisture

97 kg, 14% Moisture (88–93°C) (5–6 kg)
Heat-treated Oats
91–92 kg, 7–9% Moisture Cooling
Dehulling
(Impact Dehuller, Rotor Speed
1400–2000 rpm)
Air Aspiration/Disc Separator Hulls/Fines

(23–24 kg)
Groats
Cutting (Rotary Granulator) Flaking or Rolling

(2 to 4 Uniform Pieces) (250–450 rpm)
Fines Fines
Screening Screening
(6 kg) (6 kg)
Steaming Flaking or Rolling Large Flakes

(12–15 min at 99–105°C) (250–450 rpm) (61–63 kg)
Fines Screening
(6 kg)
Quick-cooking Flakes
(55–57 kg)
Figure 11.1 Flowchart of processes to manufacture regular and quick-cooking rolled or

flaked oats.
In order to produce instant flakes, the groats are conditioned and steamed before
flaking. The steaming at atmospheric pressure softens the groat, gelatinizes the
starch, and allows flakes to be rolled with a minimum of breakage. Steaming also
completes the inactivation of lipolytic enzymes that would otherwise cause rancidity
and undesirable flavors. The most common steamer consists of a column in which
nozzles inject steam. The dwell time in the steamer is approximately 12–15 min,
during which time the oat pieces increase the temperature to about 100°C and the
moisture to 10–12%. Then the steamed pieces pass directly into the flaking unit con-
sisting of two rolls that rotate at 250 to 450 rpm. The gaps between the rolls and nip
pressure are hydraulically controlled by oil or compressed air pressure. Following
the flaking unit, the rolled oats are passed to a sifter, where fines are removed. Lastly,
the flakes are cooled to remove moisture and temperature in columns or band-type
coolers. Normally, a 50% to 60% flake yield is obtained from a good lot of oats
(Deane and Commers 1986). The flakes are generally packaged in carton boxes so
that the internal headspace gases rich in oxidative, volatile compounds can easily
dissipate through the cardboard barrier.
11.3.2 Traditional Processes for Corn, Wheat, and Rice Flakes

Traditional flaked cereals are produced from whole grains, decorticated/degermed
kernels, and refined milled fractions from maize, rice, and other cereals. The selec-
tion of the raw materials is therefore critically important to the finished properties
of the flakes.
11.3.2.1 Corn Flakes
Corn flakes is still the most popular breakfast cereal in the world. Dr. Kellogg devel-
oped the traditional process at the beginning of the twentieth century. One hundred
years later, this breakfast cereal is still manufactured following the same basic steps
detailed in Figure 11.2. The process starts with careful raw material selection. Grits
from yellow maize are preferred because of their stronger flavor and rich golden
White or Second Head Rice Maize Grits No. 3.5–6 Soft Wheat
100 kg, 14% Moisture 100 kg, 14% Moisture 100 kg, 14% Moisture
Water 28 kg,
Sugar 6–12 kg, Pressure Cooking (Rotary Cookers) Steam Conditioning and
Salt 2 kg, (1 hr for Rice and 1.5 hrs for Maize, 44 to 67 kg/cm2) Roller Bumping
Malt Syrup 2 kg
Pressure Cooking (Rotary Cookers) Tempered and

Cooked Grits or Grains Bumped Wheat
138 kg , 31% Moisture (30–35 min, 44 to 67 kg/cm2)
Water 10 kg, Sugar

Lump Breaking Machine
10-12 kg, Salt 2 kg,
Malt Syrup 2 kg
Partially Dried
Drying Grits/Grains Tempering or Equilibration
Countercurrent at 65°C or Infrared Dryer (119 kg, 17–20% Moisture) Tempering Bins for 6–24 hr
Moisture Loss
19 kg Flaking
Flaking Rolls that Apply
Moisture Loss a pressure of 234 t/cm2
21 kg
Baking/Toasting
Cylindrical Rotary Ovens Moisture Loss
50 sec to 3 min at 288–302°C 16 kg
Toasted Flakes Enrichment Mix and

98 kg, 2% Moisture Liquid Sugar
56 kg
Enrichment/Sugar Coating
Enrichment Mix Enrichment/Flavoring
Spraying on Tumbler
and Flavorings Spraying on Tumbler or Band
Moisture Loss
Cooling/Packaging Cooling/Packaging
0.5 kg
Rice Flakes Corn Flakes Wheat Flakes Sugar Frosted Flakes

100 kg 1.5% Moisture 100 kg, 1.5% Moisture 104 kg, 2% Moisture 140 kg, 1.5% Moisture,
35% Sugar
Figure 11.2 Flowchart of traditional processes to manufacture corn, rice, and wheat flakes.
334 Cereal Grains
color after toasting. The characteristics of the final flakes are closely related to the
properties of the flaking grits. The most suitable grits are obtained from dent yellow
maize with intermediate-to-hard endosperm texture or high bushel weight and bright
color (Chapter 7). These characteristics favor the yield of large grits (U.S. No. 3.5‑6)
and the bright color of the flakes. The large flaking grits are pressure-cooked in
rotating pressure cookers positioned horizontally at 44 to 67 kg/cm2 for 1 to 2 h with
flavorings and limited amounts of water. This is the only part of the process that is a
batch process, so in order to feed the rest of the continuous processing line, several
cookers are needed. The typical formulation consists of syrup, sugar, non-diastatic
malt or maltose syrup, salt, and water. A typical formula based on 100 kg of grits
is 6 kg sugar, 2 kg malt syrup, and 2 kg salt. Water is added to increase moisture
content to approximately 28% to 33%. The sugar and the salt are sometimes added in
water, whereas the malt syrup is sometimes substituted by non-diastatic malt flour.
The aim of cooking is to achieve the proper starch gelatinization and the develop-
ment of flavor and color. The optimum cook time varies according to the size and
grit hardness. The cooked grits have a translucent appearance and tend to aggregate
in lumps. Then, the cooked grits are conveyed to a lump-breaking machine that
separates agglomerated grits into single units. Next, the cooked grits are transported
to a countercurrent dryer operating at approximately 65°C to reduce the moisture
to 20%, followed by equilibration in tempering bins for 6 to 24 h. During this time,
the internal grit moisture evenly distributes throughout the grit structure. This step
is considered the bottleneck of the traditional process. The tempered hard and dark
cooked grits are flaked with a pair of counter-rotating rolls that apply a pressure of
approximately 234 tons/cm2. The hollow rolls are continuously cooled with water
in order to dissipate the heat generated by friction. The plastic, light-colored, and
soft flakes are toasted with hot air in cylindrical rotary ovens, where the thermal
input or heat is provided by gas burners. Flakes are evenly toasted because they are
suspended in hot air. Most of the heat is transferred by convection. The toasting time
varies from 50 s to 3 min, depending on the temperature profile. Flakes are gener-
ally toasted at temperatures of 288°C–302°C. Toasting dehydrates the flakes, and
is responsible for the crisp texture and characteristic flavor and color. The golden
color is mainly due to Maillard or nonenzymatic browning. After toasting, flakes
are immediately covered with flavorings, sweeteners, and the enrichment mix. A
heavy sugar coat is applied during this step for the production of sugar-coated or
frosted flakes. The water used for applying or spraying the flavoring coat evaporates
when it is deposited onto the hot flakes. Next, the flakes are allowed to cool down in
preparation for packaging. Optimally, the moisture to preserve crispiness is less than
2% (Fast and Caldwell 2000, Fast 2001, Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2003, Serna-
Saldivar et al. 2000, Tribelhorn 1991, Whalen et al. 2000).
11.3.2.2 Rice Flakes
Rice flakes are usually made from decorticated and degermed polished rice or from
second head or broken rice (Chapter 7). The cheaper broken rice (second head) is
preferred for flaking. One hundred kilograms of rice is cooked with 8–12 kg sugar,
2% malt syrup, 2% salt, and limited amounts of water so as to increase moisture
to 28%. The mix is generally pressure-cooked for 60 min at 103–124 kPa (15–18
psi). The subsequent operations of lump breaking, drying, cooling, tempering, flak-
ing, and toasting are similar to those performed with maize flakes (Figure 11.2).
Optimum moistures for flaking and toasted flakes are 17% and 2%, respectively (Fast
and Caldwell 2000).
11.3.2.3 Wheat Flakes

Wheat flakes are usually produced from whole soft red or white kernels following
the same principles described earlier. The formulation for 100 kg of wheat is 8 to 12
kg of fine-granulated sugar, 2 kg of malt syrup, 2 kg of salt, and sufficient water to
yield a cooked product with a moisture content of 28%–30%. First, the cleaned ker-
nels are conditioned with vapor to increase the moisture content to about 21%, and
then the kernels are passed through a pair of rolls operating with a gap of approxi-
mately the same grain thickness (Figure 11.2). This operation is commonly known as
bumping. The aim is to partially break the pericarp and enhance the hydration of the
endosperm during pressure cooking. Wheat is pressure-cooked for 30–35 min rather
than the 2 h necessary for corn flakes. Overcooked wheat contains more moisture,
increasing stickiness and making it difficult to process downstream. Cooked kernels
tend to agglomerate to a higher extent, so lump breakers are critically important.
Cooked kernels are dried with infrared lamps or other means to decrease moisture
to 16% to 18% in order to improve the plastic properties and minimize adhesion to
the flaking rolls. The wheat is cooled and tempered for shorter times compared to
maize. Shorter conditioning times are applied because tempering does not much
affect the texture and appearance of the toasted flakes. Then, the wheat is flaked and
toasted similarly as cornflakes. The baked flakes usually contain 2% moisture (Fast
and Caldwell 2000).
11.4 Compressed Flake Biscuits

Compressed flake biscuits are formed by compression of flakes or cooked grain mix-
tures with other ingredients. These products are especially important in the United
Kingdom and Commonwealth countries. The most used flakes are from wheat that
has been precooked with sugar and other flavorings and formed into the biscuit
shape. The biscuits can be individually formed, or flakes and other ingredients can
be sheeted into a mat and then cut into rectangular forms. The biscuit pieces are then
toasted to the desired color, flavor, and moisture (Fast and Caldwell 2000).
11.5 Oven-Puffed Cereals
Oven-puffed breakfast cereals constitute one of the most important categories.
Undoubtedly, the most popular is expanded rice. These products have less expan-
sion compared to products expanded with gun-puffing. The preferred rice is medium
or short with intermediate amylose content (15%–20%). Waxy rice is not recom-
mended, nor is milled rice with a high incidence of microfissures or stress cracks
and fat content (>0.25%), because it expands less and yields low-quality products.
Generally, the kernel expands 2 to 5 times its original volume. The traditional process
for oven-puffed rice is depicted in Figure 11.3. The unit operations are practically
336 Cereal Grains
Short or Medium White Rice

Water 24 kg, Sugar

Pressure Cooking (Rotary Horizontal Cookers)
6–10 kg, Salt 2 kg,
Malt Syrup 2 kg (60–90 min, 44 to 67 kg/cm2)
Cooked Rice
Lump Breaking Machine
First Drying Moisture Loss

Countercurrent Dryer 65°C 18 kg
Partially Dried Rice Tempering or Equilibration

(118 kg, 17% Moisture) (Tempering Bins, 4–8 hr)
Moisture Loss Second Drying Bumping

9 kg Countercurrent Dryer 65°C Bumping Rolls
Dried Rice Baking/Oven Puffing

Moisture Loss
109 kg, 10% Moisture Cylindrical Rotary Ovens
50 sec to 3 min at 288–302°C 9 kg
Oven-puffed Rice
100 kg, 2% Moisture
Enrichment/Flavoring
Enrichment Mix
Spraying on Tumbler or Band
Cooling/Packaging
Oven-puffed Rice
100 kg, 1.5–2% Moisture,
9.5% Sugar
Figure 11.3 Flowchart of the traditional process to manufacture oven-puffed rice.
identical to traditional corn flakes. White-polished rice is pressure-cooked (44–67

kg/cm2) for 60–90 min. A typical formula based on 100 kg of rice is 6–10 kg sugar, 2
kg salt, 2 kg of malt extract or its equivalent of non-diastatic malt, and enough water
to increase the grain moisture to 28%. The agglomerated cooked rice is lump broken
before two-stage drying. The first drying is aimed at the reduction of rain moisture
from 28% to 17% in preparation for bumping, whereas the second drying is aimed
toward the optimization of oven-puffing. The cooked and partially dehydrated rice
is equilibrated in bins for 4 to 30 h in order to allow internal moisture equilibration.
After tempering, the rice is bumped through rolls operating with a gap of approxi-
mately the thickness of the grain. During bumping, kernels are slightly flattened to
improve their expansion during subsequent baking. Next, the bumped rice is dehy-
drated for a second time to drop its moisture to 10%. This moisture level is ideally
suited for maximizing puffing. The rice expands during baking at temperatures of
up to 340°C. The continuous rotary oven transfers most of the heat by convection.
Some companies use impingement ovens with forced air to create a more rapid heat
transfer and better expansion. The temperature gradient is higher at the end of the
baking program in order to generate water vapor and optimize puffing. Finally, the
oven-puffed rice is sprayed in a tumbler with selected vitamins (i.e., thiamin, ribo-
flavin, niacin, folic acid, etc.) and minerals (i.e., iron, zinc), and then cooled and
packaged.
11.6 Gun-Puffing of Whole Grains

and Milled Fractions
The necessary conditions to achieve puffing or expansion of grains are prior cooking
and the application of a strong thermal treatment to increase pressure in a hermeti-
cally sealed container or puffing gun programmed to suddenly release the pressure.
The moisture content of the grain affects the expansion rate because it is instantly
converted into water vapor when the pressure is released. The grain expands due to
the quick exit of water vapor when the internal and atmospheric pressures equilibrate
(Fast and Caldwell 2000, Tribelhorn 1991, Whalen et al. 2000).
The most commonly used cereals for production of puffed grains are wheat and
rice (Figure 11.4). Wheat, preferably durum or hard, is generally expanded as whole
grain because the pericarp detaches from the grain after the rigorous or harsh expan-
sion. The grain is usually tempered with a saline solution in order to toughen the
pericarp and induce the separation of the bran as flakes. The bran is removed by air
aspiration and/or screening to yield a puffed decorticated kernel.
Regular white or parboiled rice with less than 0.5% fat is also commonly
gun-puffed. Rice has excellent expansion characteristics because of its starch
properties. In fact, refined rice can be puffed without tempering. The key unit
operation is the puffing gun. Most existing guns are batch, although there are
also continuous. Tempered kernels are placed inside the puffing gun, which is
then hermetically sealed. The gun usually rotates on its axis to avoid sticking of
grains to the internal walls. This equipment generally operates at programmed
pressures of up to 1379 kPa or 200 psi. The pressure gradually increases due to
heating (200°C–260°C). The heat evaporates the grain water and causes a notable
pressure increase. When the puffing gun reaches the programmed pressure, it
suddenly opens, releasing the expanded grain. The puffed grains are projected
and caught in a continuously vented bin. During the microinstant of pressure
release and equilibration, the superheated water exits the grain, causing expan-
sion and moisture loss. This technology is thought to cause the largest expansion
rates. Some products expand 17 times their original volume. Puffed grains with
6% to 9% moisture are classified in order to remove broken kernels, fines, non-
puffed kernels, and pericarp. The classified puffed grains are then dried to drop
their moisture to approximately 2% to 3% and flavored with sweeteners generally
applied in a coating drum. The crispy and flavored puffed cereal is then packaged
in order to prevent moisture gain and loss of texture. Flaking and other types
of refined grits from maize have also been gun-puffed for production of highly
expanded cereals.
338 Cereal Grains
Whole Durum or Hard White Rice or Milled

100 kg, 14% Moisture Fractions from Rice or Maize
Conditioning/Tempering
(Blender) Moisture Loss
8.5 kg
Salt
Solution Tempered Grains or Grits
Moisture Loss Gun Puffing Gun Puffing

9 kg 200–260°C, 150–200 psi 200–260°C, 150–200 psi
Gun-puffed Wheat Gun-puffed Cereal

91 kg, 6% Moisture 91.5 kg, 6% Moisture
Unpuffed Wheat,
Air Aspiration/Sifting/Sizing Air Aspiration/Sifting/Sizing
Bran and Fines
12 kg
Unpuffed Grains,
Sized Puffed Wheat Sized Puffed Cereals
Moisture Loss Brokens and Fines
70 kg 87.5 kg
3 kg 4 kg
Toasting/Drying Moisture Loss

Toasting/Drying
3.5 kg
Crispy Gun-puffed Cereal Crispy Gun-puffed Cereal

Sweeteners
Enrichment/Flavorings
Flavorings and
Coating Drum or Tumbler
Enrichment Mix
Sugar Frosted Gun-puffed Sugar Frosted Gun-puffed Cereal

Wheat 143 kg, 140 kg, 2% Moisture, 43% Sugar
2% Moisture, 54% Sugar
Packaging
Figure 11.4 Flowchart of processes commonly used to manufacture gun-puffed wheat

and other cereals.
11.7 Shredded Wheat

The first patent for shredding wheat was awarded to Henry Perky in 1895. Shredded
cereals have been a popular breakfast cereal, especially in today’s market. There are
two types of manufacturing processes: traditional and extruded. The first shredded
products launched into the market were produced from wheat. The basic process
consists of grain cleaning, cooking, shredding, pillow formation, baking, flavoring,
cooling, and packaging (Figure 11.5). The traditional process consists of cooking
white-soft or club wheat in excess water for 30–35 min at near boiling temperature.
Soft red wheats can also be used, but the shreds are grayer and bran specks are
more noticeable. The grain should finish cooking with 40%–50% moisture. At this
point, the center of the kernel turns from starchy white to translucent gray (Fast and
Caldwell 2000, Whalen et al. 2000). The cooking water is discarded, and the cooked
kernels are placed on equilibration bins for up to 24 h for moisture equilibration and
White or Club Wheat

Cooking in Excess Water

(90–100°C, 30–35 min)
Drained
Water
Cooked Wheat
Tempering or Equilibration Tempered Wheat

Cooling (24 hr) 157 kg, 45% Moisture
Shredding Rolls
Pair of Hollow Rolls (One Smooth and the Other Grooved) Equipped
with a Comb that Fits in the Grooves. Temperature: 35–46°C
Shredded Wheat Formation and Cutting

Moving Bed in an Overlapping Zigzag Configuration that Produces
a Continuous, Multilayered Sheet that is Cut by a Dull Cutter
Shredded Pillows Powder Sugar, and

Baking (Belt Oven) Flavorings
(204–315°C/1–4 min) 24 kg
Moisture Loss Shredded Wheat Enrichment/Sugar Coating

66 kg 91 kg, 5% Moisture Tumbler or Gravimetric Dispenser
Moisture Loss Cooling/Packaging Cooling/Packaging

1 kg
Shredded Wheat Sugar Frosted Shredded

90 kg, 4% Moisture Wheat
115 kg
Figure 11.5 Flowchart of the traditional process to manufacture shredded wheat products.
to allow for starch retrogradation, which produces a firmer texture. Equilibration

could be shortened to a few hours by using continuous equipment in which the air
humidity is controlled at around 40%. The shredding operation is performed by
passing cooked and tempered kernels through a pair of rolls, to 15 to 20 cm diameter
× 7.6 cm wide, one smooth and the other with grooves (i.e., 8 grooves per cm). Rolls
could be larger depending on throughput. The shredding rolls rotate with a small
speed differential that favors the grooved roll. The roll surface temperature at opti-
mum shredding is in the range of 35°C–46°C. For this reason sometimes is necessary
to water-cool the shredding rolls. The shreds are separated from the forming roll by
a comb that fits within the grooves. There are systems available that use two grooved
rolls. Shreds from 10–20 shredding roll units with approximately 45% moisture are
superimposed and cut with knives to produce individual small square biscuits. A
shredded item in the form of a biscuit is produced by depositing a web of longitu-
dinally shredded food transversely across a moving bed in a uniform overlapping
340 Cereal Grains
zigzag configuration to produce a wider, continuous, multiple layer sheet. The sheet
is first cut longitudinally and is then cut transversely to produce a plurality of files
and rows of lapped shredded biscuits on the moving bed. The process may include
two separate lapping operations in which a flavorful filling is deposited between
laps to produce a composite biscuit having an interior filling (Hirzel et al 1977).
The cutting edges of the cutter are dull so as to squeeze and compress the perimeter
of the biscuits. Bite-sized biscuits require fewer layers. The individual biscuits are
then baked in band or continuous conveyor ovens. In this case most of the heat is
transferred by conduction. The baking operation is performed at 204°C–315°C for 1
to 4 min. During baking, the shredded biscuits develop flavor, color, and crispiness.
Before packaging, the product with approximately 3%–4% moisture is flavored (e.g.,
with fine sugar) and treated with antioxidants because most are manufactured from
whole wheat that contains significant amounts of fat.
Filled shredded wheat biscuits are usually filled with fruit jams that are placed
in between the biscuits. The jam is placed by a manifold of small tubes on four or
five layers of shreds which then receives an additional four or five layers of shredded
wheat. The filled biscuits are slit and cross-cut into the desired size and baked in the
same type of continuous belt ovens.
11.8 Baked Cereals
Baked cereal was one of the first breakfast items produced, and it was the main prod-
uct of the Post Company. The first baked cereal (Grape Nuts) was developed by C.
W. Post at the end of the 1800s (Whalen et al. 2000). The baked cereal is one of the
few that has a strong fermented flavor because it is obtained from fermented wheat
dough. Whole wheat mixed with diastatic malt, sugar, and other ingredients is mixed
with limited amounts of water so as to produce firm pieces of dough. The dough is
allowed to ferment for 4.5–5 h in proof boxes or fermentation cabinets at 80% relative
humidity and 25°C–30°C, panned, proofed, and baked (Figure 11.6). Baking is aimed
at dehydrating the resulting dense bread and produces the desired flavor, texture, and
color (Whalen et al. 2000, Serna-Saldivar 1996). The bread is cooled and ground into
granular pieces and retoasted to remove moisture and enhance flavor. The ground
bread is classified, and fines are incorporated into the original formulation. The final
granular pieces are commonly mixed with raisins, other dehydrated fruits, and nuts
before packaging.
11.9 Granolas
Granolas are gaining popularity because they are viewed as nutritious and con-
venient. The major raw material used to make granola is rolled oats mixed with
other breakfast cereals such as puffed rice, wheat, nut pieces, coconut, brown
sugar, honey, malt extract, dried milk, dehydrated fruits such as raisins and dates,
soybean products, and sometimes spices such as cinnamon and nutmeg. The water,
oil, and syrups are made into a suspension where the dry materials are blended.
The resulting wet mass is then spread in a uniform layer on a conveyor of a contin-
uous oven dryer. Baking takes place in the temperature range 150°C–220°C until
Whole Wheat Flour

Water 32 kg, Fresh

Yeast 5 kg, Sugar 6 kg, Dough Mixing
Salt 1.5 kg, Diastasic (1–2 hr, 15 psi)
Malt 0.5 kg.
Dough
Dough Dividing
Fermentation
Degassing, Molding and Panning
(25–28°C, 80–85% Relative Humidity, 4–5 hrs)
Final Proofing Baking Moisture Loss

25–28°C for 30 min 220°C for 30 min 32 kg
Depanning and Dense Bread Loaves

113 kg, 24% Moisture Moisture Loss
Cooling
21 kg
Fines Classification or Sizing

10 kg Sifting Coarse Milling
Coarse Milling Baking/Toasting
Addition of Raisins,
Dates, Nuts and Other Sized and Baked Granola
Flavorings, 32 kg 82 kg, 4% Moisture
Baked Granola with

Packaging Fruits and Nuts
114 kg
Figure 11.6 Flowchart of the traditional process to manufacture a whole-wheat fer-

mented-baked granola.
the mat is uniformly toasted and moisture reduced to about 3%. Some granolas
are produced by breaking the toasted mat into chunky pieces (Fast and Caldwell
2000). Fat-free, reduced fat, high fiber, and nutraceutical bar granolas are gaining
sales and popularity, especially among adolescents and young adults.
11.10 Muesli Products

As with granolas, muesli products are produced from mixtures of several ingredients.
The most popular ingredient is rolled oats of the quick-cooking type (Figure 11.1)
that are mixed with other ingredients and flavorings. The difference between grano-
las and muesli products is that granolas are almost always consumed without milk,
and muesli is intended to be served with milk and sugar. Besides rolled oats, muesli
products are manufactured by mixing one or various types of flakes obtained from
maize, rice, wheat (Figure 11.2), and even barley. Brown sugar and syrups are com-
monly used as sweeteners, whereas raisins, dates, almonds, and other nuts impart
flavor and improve nutritional value (Fast and Caldwell 2000).
342 Cereal Grains
11.11 Extruded Products
The breakfast cereal industry evolved with the technology of extrusion cooking.
Extruders were first commercially used in the decade of the 1960s. Today, the indus-
try greatly depends on this technology because it is efficient from the energy and
processing viewpoints and is highly versatile in terms of raw materials and end prod-
ucts. Extrusion is a continuous and highly productive process; it is very efficient in
terms of energy expenditure; and extrusion lines require less floor space and labor,
and usually preclude the need to purchase other equipment required in traditional
processes. Furthermore, thermoplastic extrusion generally yields pasteurized or ster-
ile products (Brent 1999, Mercier et al. 1989, Moore 1994, Riaz 2000).
Nowadays, most breakfast cereals are made either by original traditional pro-
cesses or by using alternative extrusion methods. Commercial flakes, shreds, and
oven-puffed cereals could be alternatively manufactured via extrusion. There are
two major types of extrusion processes: cold and thermoplastic. Cold extrusion is
almost exclusively applied for production of pasta products (Chapter 10), whereas
thermoplastic extrusion is used for manufacturing breakfast cereals and snack foods
(Chapter 12). Undoubtedly, the most popular and versatile extrusion process is ther-
moplastic, defined as the combination of heat and mechanical shear to enhance
starch gelatinization and dextrinization, protein denaturation, and inactivation of
microorganisms, enzymes, and antinutritional factors. The changes in the properties
of the starch and proteins result in the formation of a plastic material that could be
formed and/or restructured into desired configurations.
Extruders are mechanically classified into two large groups: single screw and
twin screw. Single screw extruders are more commonly utilized by the industry,
though twin extruders are more flexible and have wider applications. Twin extruders
are gaining popularity due to the larger demand for innovative products. The screws
of twin extruders can operate in counter-rotating or co-rotating modes. Most are
intermeshed and operate in the counter-rotating mode.
From the functional viewpoint, thermoplastic extrusion can be categorized into
two main processes: direct expanded, and half-products or pellets. In the first appli-
cation, one extruder is used to directly expand the feed material, yielding a low-
density product that requires fewer subsequent steps to yield finished product. In
contrast, for the production of pellets or half-products, the industry usually uses two
sequential extrusion processes: cooking and forming. These operations are usually
carried out by a cooking extruder and a forming extruder. However, there are extrud-
ers with a very long barrel that perform the two operations in the same unit. The
resulting products are industrially named half-products or pellets and require further
processing operations to reach the consumer. In the breakfast cereal industries, pel-
lets are normally flaked, oven-puffed, or expanded in puffing guns.
Most extrusion processes start with the mix of dry ingredients that are fed by a hori-
zontal or vertical system generally integrated with a preconditioner (Figure 11.7). This
step is especially important in pellet extrusion systems, where raw materials are precon-
ditioned or cooked with steam before entering the extruder. It is of utmost importance
that the feeding system dispense correctly and constantly a fixed amount of feedstock,
otherwise the quality and size of end products can differ. The feeding system generally
c d e f
Preconditioner
Estruder Barrel Motor
Screw
(Inside Barrel)
Cut Assembly
Figure 11.7 Schema and photograph (courtesy of Buhler AG, Switzerland) of typical
extruder components. (a) Feeding system, (b) motor, (c) extruder barrel, (d) screw, (e) die, (f)
cut assembly.
consists of a hopper that holds the raw material located above the feeding device. The
dry feedstock is delivered to the first part of the barrel or extruder mouth through a
specialized metering device capable of providing a uniform flow rate. The most com-
mon way to perform this operation is by a screw feeder equipped with a variable-speed
drive. The most important criterion for a feeder is the delivery of a consistent flow of
material to the extruder. Without consistent flow, the extruder will run unstable and pro-
duce poor-quality products. Screw feeders come in single and twin screw types, closed
or open helix screws, and with or without agitators (Moore 1994). Some extruders are
also equipped with liquid-feeding devices that are fed by slurry-jacketed tanks. Positive
displacement metering pumps deliver liquids at constant flow rates into the precondi-
tioning devices or directly into the first part of the extruder barrel. The feed material,
when it reaches the anterior part or inlet of the barrel, flows at a certain rate due to the
screws’ movement. The barrel is generally divided into sections that could be heated or
344 Cereal Grains
cooled by steam, electric bands, water, or even liquid coolants that directly apply heat or
cooling through a jacket. The internal wall of the barrel could be smooth, or spirally or
channel-grooved. In thermoplastic extruders, the barrel can be differentiated into three
zones: feeding, transition, and rheological or cooking zone (Jaluria and Wang 1999).
The heart of the extruder is the screws, which have several functions: to create the
flow of the material through the barrel, and to apply the desired mechanical shear
and friction so as to impart the chemical and physical changes to the feedstock.
Most extruders can work with different screw configurations for different applica-
tions. The screw design can be machined from a solid metal shaft or contain modu-
lar screw elements that can be configured on a splinted metal shaft. The modular
design allows flexibility both for reconfiguration and for the manufacturing of dif-
ferent products. The final part of the screw is usually conical, especially when the
extruder operates at high die pressure. Screw rotation can be clockwise or counter-
clockwise. For twin-screw extruders, rotation of the screws can be opposite to each
other (that is, counter-rotating) or co-rotating. The most common configuration is the
co-rotating because it can be operated at low speeds. The most common twin-screw
designs employ self-wiping features by having a high degree of intermeshing. The
screw configuration dictates the type of application. The flight is defined as the heli-
cal conveying surface of the screw that moves the feedstock forward, and the pitch
is the angle of the flight relative to the axis. Some screws have interrupted or cut
flights in which studs or bolts are inserted through the extruder barrel wall into the
empty flight section to induce additional shear. The main screw characteristics are
the length-to-diameter ratio, commonly abbreviated L/D, and the compression ratio.
L/D is calculated by measuring the distance from the internal rear edge to the dis-
charge end of the barrel divided by the diameter of the bore (screw L/D ratios range
from 1:1 to 25:1) The compression ratio is defined as the volume of the full flight of
the screw at the feed opening divided by the volume of the last full flight before the
die plate. Typical compression ratios range from 1:1 to 5:1. The root is the solid part
of the screw in which the flight is wound. The screws usually contain shear locks or
steam locks consisting of a ring that locks together individual sections so that blow-
back of steam is reduced to cooler sections of the barrel (Riaz 2000, Serna-Saldivar
2008). Both single and twin screws can have a number of parallel flights along their
lengths, the most common being single, double, triple, and quadruple. One rotation
of the screw should deliver material a distance in the axial direction equivalent to the
pitch (Brent 1999). The main factors related to the screw design that affect mechani-
cal shear are (a) the larger the distance between screw flights, the less the mechanical
shear; (b) the deeper the flight depth, the less the mechanical shear; (c) the lower the
distance or clearance between screw flight and the internal wall of the barrel, the
less the pressure flow and therefore the higher the pressure inside the barrel; and (d)
positioning pins or channels perpendicular to the flights increases residence time and
friction (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
The extruded material exits the extruder through a die plate. The die plate is
the final assembly located at the end of the barrel that contains drilled orifices or
holes. The die plate has two major functions: producing backpressure and shaping
the product exiting the extruder. The extrudate is cut by an independent assembly
consisting of one knife or several knives that rotate at a controlled speed at a very
short distance from the die plate.
A twin-screw extruder will make any product that a single extruder manufactures,
but the converse is not necessarily true. Twin-screw extruders have a much broader
operational range and are gaining popularity in the production of breakfast cereals.
11.11.1 Extrusion Forming of Breakfast Cereals

Breakfast cereals are typically manufactured using direct expansion or by forming dense
pellets. Direct-expanded products are usually flavored and packaged, whereas pellets
are usually transformed into their final shape by flaking, oven puffing, or gun puffing.
11.11.1.1 Direct Expansion
Popular cereals such as Corn Pops, Cap’n Crunch, and Chex are processed via direct
expansion. Extruders for direct expanded products cook, expand, and form the extru-
date, which is subsequently sized, dried, or toasted, flavored with liquid or solid
mixes, and packaged (Figure 11.8). The raw material quality parameters that most
Refined Grits
Water
5L Conditioning
Conditioned Grits
High Shear Extrusion Cooking Moisture Loss

L/D <4, 150–180°C 12 kg
Broken Pieces
Sifting/Sizing and Fines
5 kg
Sized Collets Enrichment Mix,

Moisture Loss Sweeteners and
Flavorings 65 kg
Drying/Toasting Dried Collets Enrichment/Flavoring

190°C 83 kg, 1–2% Moisture Tumbler
Sugar Frosted Cereal

44% Sugar
Packaging
Figure 11.8 Flowchart of the typical extrusion process to manufacture direct

expanded collets.
346 Cereal Grains
influence radial expansion (extrudate diameter/die orifice diameter) and product

texture are moisture content, particle size distribution, and chemical composition.
Higher expansion rates are obtained from refined cereal fractions low in fat, fiber,
and starch damage. The most suitable and used grits are from maize or rice. Wheat,
barley, rye, and oat flour have lower expansion rates. Operationally, the extruder
should be equipped with a screw that increases mechanical shear and a die that
restricts flow rate.
A flowchart with a mass balance of a direct extruded breakfast cereal is shown
in Figure 11.8. The quality of the refined grits or feed material, conditioning, and
extruder conditions are the key elements to obtaining the optimum collets. Refined
grits with an average particle size of 40 to 60 US mesh (Chapter 7) are used with
a moisture content of 12%–13%, or conditioned to approximately 16%–17% before
extrusion. Refined grits are introduced into the inlet of the barrel or screw feeding
zone. In this particular place, the distances between flights are longer and deeper
compared to the subsequent zones. The pitch or flight angle favors the movement of
the feedstock. The flow channel of the screw is typically filled with grits. In this area,
the incoming material is slightly compressed, and trapped air is expelled. In some
extruders, water is injected into the first part of the feeding zone. The temperature of
the barrel in the feeding zone is the lowest, generally 60°C–80°C. The conditioned
grits enter the kneading or transition zone, which is characterized by a higher barrel
temperature (90°C–120°C) and a screw design that favors compression by lowering
the distance between flights and the flight height so that the flow channels achieve
a higher degree of fill. The starch-rich extrudate starts to lose its granular structure,
and gelatinizes due to the temperature and pressure. The combination of heat and
pressure converts the grits into plastic dough. When the dough reaches the last zone,
it melts and becomes a viscous fluid due to the high temperature (140°C–180°C) and
shear. In this particular area, the screw flights are closer, shallower, and in some
instances interrupted. In short, the starch subjected to direct extrusion cooking
undergoes melting and gelatinization. At the very instant that the viscous fluid exits
the die orifice, it will equilibrate with the external atmospheric pressure, causing the
expansion and setting the collet structure. At this moment, most moisture vaporizes,
so the extrudate drops its moisture to about 5%–8%. The puffed collet is cut and
sized to the proper length with a rotating knife. Most of these extrudates have expan-
sion rates of 5 to 8. The puffs are conveyed into a rotary dryer or oven to drop their
moisture to around 1%–2%. The driers, set to approximately 150°C, dehydrate the
low-density collets in only 4–6 min. The dehydration rate is fast due to the collet’s
low density and porosity. The high temperature does not affect color, because the
feedstock does not contain significant quantities of reducing sugars that upon heating
would enhance Maillard reactions and caramelization. The dried/toasted collets are
flavored in a rotary tumbler or bands generally with sweet flavorings, vitamins, and
minerals that are dispensed in liquid or dried forms. The product is finally cooled
and immediately packaged to avoid loss of texture or crispiness.
11.11.1.2 Half-Products or Pellets

This category is one of the most popular among breakfast cereals. Many wheat and
oat-based breakfast cereals such as Cheerios, Kix, and Alpha Bits are manufactured
from extruded pellets. Oat products are generally flavored with honey/sweeteners
with the aim of masking off-flavors due to oxidation and rancidity.
Most pellets are first cooked in an extruder and then formed using a second unit.
The aim is to produce a cooked pellet with high density that is further dehydrated to
yield an intermediate shelf-stable product. After drying, pellets can be stored for long
periods of time, or after a small tempering or equilibration time, they can be pro-
cessed into final products. Generally, pellets are gun-puffed to yield final products.
Half-products, in contrast to direct expanded collets, offer the advantage of being
distributed with high weight and low volume. Pellets are cooked and formed in two
extruders and forced through a die at temperatures below 100°C. The lower tempera-
ture prevents expansion and favors the production of a dense pellet. The basis for the
wide variety of these products is their shape, which is imparted by the die design
and configuration.
A typical flow diagram for the production of an oat-based pellet is presented in
Figure 11.9. Most pellets are manufactured from mixtures of starch-rich raw materi-
als that include refined fractions from all cereals and starches (Chapters 7 and 8).
The starch content of the blends approximates 90% of the dry matter. The starch is
the most important chemical component because it imparts most of the functionality
during extrusion and greatly affects the product expansion rate during oven or gun
puffing. Key operations for the production of these products are extrusion (cooking
and forming), pellet drying, and puffing. The first step of the manufacturing process
is the mixing of raw materials. The amount of water and mixing rate are important
quality control parameters because the aim is to homogenously distribute the water
into the blend. In contrast to direct extruded products, pellets are usually tempered
to moistures varying from 25% to 35%. The relatively higher tempering enhances
starch gelatinization and prevents expansion of extrudates.
Half-products are usually extruded in two sequential steps or with only one
special extruder that performs cooking and forming in the same equipment.
Extruders for these applications usually have a long length/diameter or L/D ratio
and a vent to depressurize the extrudate before forming. The first unit is com-
monly called the cooking extruder because it heats and gelatinizes the starchy
materials mixed with texture improvers such as emulsifiers, salt, flavorings, and
coloring agents. The inlet barrel section is cooled with water to facilitate feed-
ing, and the subsequent barrel zones are heated to achieve starch gelatinization.
In the cooking step, it is essential that the raw materials are fully cooked or
gelatinized. The typical extrusion conditions include temperatures ranging from
100°C to 150°C, 25% to 35% moisture, and 15 to 20 s residence time. The screw
design does not produce high mechanical energy as in high-shear extruders for
puffs. Most of the energy required to gelatinize the starch is supplied by the bar-
rel, which is usually heated with steam or water vapor. The cooked dough exiting
the cooking extruder is fed into the second or forming extruder, which works at
different conditions. This extruder cools and compresses the cooked plasticized
dough before shaping the pellets. In order to achieve this, the screw is designed
to provide low shear and pressure. Most pressure in forming extruders is cre-
ated by the die restriction. The extrudate moves forward and cools down in the
forming zone to a temperature of 90°C to 110°C. Some forming extruders are
348 Cereal Grains
Oat Meal
Corn Cones
Corn Starch
Lecithin 1 kg
Water
20.5 kg
Conditioning
(Blender)
Tempered Raw Materials Moisture

Cooking Extruder
120.5 kg, 27% Moisture Loss
100–150°C, 40 sec
6.5 kg
Long Barrel Cooking and Forming Extruder

Forming Extruder 70–90°C, Depressurization
Valve
Extruded Pellets
Moisture Loss Drying Half Product

14 kg 60–80°C, 1–4 hr 100 kg, 12% Moisture
Moisture Loss Gun Puffing Tempering/Storage

6 kg
Gun-puffed Cereal Moisture Loss

94 kg, 6% Moisture kg
Unpuffed Pellets, Sifting/Sizing

Brokens and Fines Toasting
Powder Dispenser, Coating Drum
4 kg
Sweeteners Crispy Gun-puffed Cereal

and Flavorings Enrichment/Flavorings
86 kg, 2% Moisture,
57 kg 4% Sugar
Sugar Frosted Gun-puffed Cereal

143 kg, 2% Moisture, 42% Sugar
Figure 11.9 Flowchart of the extrusion process to manufacture pellets further processed

into gun-puffed cereals.
equipped with a pressure release device or vent located immediately before the
die or forming zone. This prevents the expansion of the extrudate and enhances
the formation of dense pellets. The cooked and formed pellets exit the extruder
with moisture contents varying from 20% to 25%. Extrudates retain the shape
of die orifices because there is no expansion taking place. In most instances, the
material exiting the die is cut into thin pieces by a cutter blade that rides around
the external die face (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
Pellets are immediately dehydrated to lower their moisture content to about
10%–12%. The drying process is a critical step because water should be carefully
removed from the pellet by evaporation. Optimally, drying should be performed in
two sequential steps (predrying and drying). Control of moisture removal is achieved
by adjusting the temperature–relative humidity residence time profile. Most plants
use continuous belt or drum driers set at temperatures around 45°C to 90°C. The
temperature and relative humidity of the dryer should be carefully controlled to pre-
vent pellet blistering and cracking. The residence time required to lower moisture to
12% or less is between 1 and 8 h depending on the pellet size, density, and original
moisture content. It is recommended to equilibrate the dried pellets for at least one
day before further processing.
Puffing of dried but nontempered pellets yields products with less expansion rate
because moisture is more and less concentrated in the geometric center and surface
of the pellet configuration, respectively. However, most industrially produced pellets
are stored for extended periods of time before further processing. Most pellets are
expanded using gun-puffing units, as described earlier. During puffing, the water
moves from the inside to the evaporation zone, leaving the product surface as vapor.
Some of this vapor remains trapped within the intracellular pores due to restrictive
diffusion. The vapor will expand, distorting the pore walls and contributing to the
internal porosity. The result is the production of an expanded product having suit-
able cell structure and desirable texture or mouth-feel. The tempered pellets are
placed inside a rotating puffing gun, which is then hermetically sealed and heated
(200°C–260°C) to increase the pressure to 1034–1379 kPa (150–200 psi). When
the puffing gun reaches the programmed pressure, it suddenly opens, releasing the
expanded pellets. Some pellets expand their original volume up to 17 times. The
expanded puffs with 6% to 9% moisture are sized to remove defective units, broken
pieces, and fines; dehydrated to reduce the moisture to 2%–3%, and then flavored
with sweeteners commonly applied in a coating drum. The crispy and flavored puffs
are subsequently packaged in order to prevent moisture gain and texture loss.
11.11.1.3 Extruded Flakes
Thermoplastic extrusion is an alternative manufacturing process for flakes. The main
advantage of extrusion is the versatility of use of different raw materials in terms of
particle size distribution and type. In addition, extrusion allows the combination of
different cereals and fiber sources to satisfy the increasing demand for nutritious
products. The technology is ideally suited for high-fiber flakes and composite flakes
such as wheat-oat flakes. From the processing viewpoint, the processing plant requires
less space and labor requirements. The end result is that extruded flakes are produced
faster and at a lower cost. The different grits or flours are mixed with other ingredi-
ents and fed to a cooking extruder in order to gelatinize the starch (Figure 11.10). The
cooking time is significantly reduced because the materials are cooked in a matter of
seconds instead of the 60–90 min required in the traditional process. Generally, the
mix is conditioned to 30% moisture, and the extruder operates at high temperature
and shear. The precooked dough exiting the cooking extruder is fed into the second
equipment, called the forming extruder. This extruder operates at low temperature
and shear with the aim of forming spherical pellets. Some extruders have depressur-
ization valves to enhance the formation of dense pellets. The precooked pellets with
28% moisture are dehydrated to drop the moisture content to 15% in preparation for
flaking. After drying, the pellets are allowed to cool down and equilibrate before
the flaking, toasting, enrichment, and flavoring operations previously described in
the traditional process. Extruded flakes are continuously manufactured in less time
350 Cereal Grains
Refined Grits and

Brans
Water 33 kg,
Sugar 6–12 kg, Cooking Extruder Moisture Loss
Salt 2 kg, 100–150°C, 40 sec 3 kg
Malt Syrup 2 kg
Extruded Dough
Pellet Forming Extruder

70–90°C, Depressurization Valve
Drying Partially Dried Pellets Tempering or Equilibration

Countercurrent at 65°C 123 kg, 20% Moisture Tempering Bins
Moisture Loss
20 kg Flaking
Flaking Rolls that Apply
a Pressure of 234 t/cm2
Baking/Toasting Moisture Loss

Moisture Loss 16 kg
Cylindrical Rotary Ovens
23 kg
50 sec to 3 min at 288–302°C
Enrichment Mix
Toasted Flakes and Liquid Sugar
Enrichment Mix
and Flavorings
Enrichment/Flavoring Enrichment/Sugar Coating
Cooling/Packaging Cooling/Packaging
Extruded Flake Sugar Frosted Flakes

100 kg, 2% Moisture 140 kg, 2% Moisture, 35% Sugar
Figure 11.10 Flowchart of the extrusion process to manufacture flakes.
compared to traditionally processed counterparts. Besides saving energy and pro-

cessing time, the flakes are more uniformly shaped (Rokey 1995; Midden 1989). The
main disadvantage of extruded flakes is that they do not have the classic flavor of
counterparts produced by traditional processes.
11.11.1.4 Extruded Shredded Cereals

There are at least two different extrusion processes for producing shredded cere-
als (Figure 11.11). Extrusion allows the use of different types of raw materials
Refined Milled
Fractions
Water 56 kg, Extrusion Cooking
Extruded Dough Extruded Shreds

156 kg, 40–50% Moisture 156 kg, 40–50% Moisture
Shredding Rolls
Shredded Wheat Formation

and Cutting
Moisture Loss Baking

67 kg (204–315°C/1–4 min)
Regular Shredded Cereal

89 kg, 3% Moisture
Sweeteners
and Flavorings Enrichment/Sugar Coating
26 kg
Cooling/Packaging
Extruded Sugar Frosted Shredded

Cereal
22% Sugar
Figure 11.11 Flowchart of extrusion processes to manufacture shredded cereals.
(i.e., rice, maize, etc.) and the capability of producing products with different and
contrasting tops and bottoms. The process is also ideally suited to produce filled
products. The main advantage is that extruded shredded products are produced
faster compared to counterparts produced by the traditional process. There are
two ways to obtain extruded shredded items. In the first method, the raw mate-
rials (grits/flour) and other ingredients are fed to a cooking extruder and then
proceed to the shredding rolls. The other process uses an extruder that cooks
and forms the shreds. The extruder die has small orifices that form the shreds
that are directly conveyed into the forming/cutting equipment described earlier.
Regardless of the type of extrusion process, the formed shreds are baked and
subsequently processed similarly to traditional products (Fast and Caldwell 2000,
Whalen et al. 2000).
352 Cereal Grains
11.12 Enrichment and Fortification

Most cereals lose important nutrients during milling and processing (Chapters 7 and
17). In many countries around the world, the most common cereal-based foods are
enriched by law. The spirit of enrichment programs is to return the original amounts
of key nutrients to staple foods. Breakfast cereals have traditionally been targeted as
one of the key items for enrichment. The original enrichment program started after
the Second World War and was aimed at supplementation of thiamin (B1), riboflavin
(B2), niacin (B3), and iron to prevent endemic beriberi, pellagra, and anemia, espe-
cially among low socioeconomic groups. At the end of the twentieth century, most
countries expanded their enrichment programs with the addition of folic acid and
zinc to prevent birth defects and promote growth or prevent infantilism, respectively.
Most breakfast cereal industries used the enrichment program as a marketing tool
and then adopted fortification programs. Some enriched and fortified breakfast cere-
als contain more than 10 supplemental vitamins and minerals. The main differences
between enrichment and fortification are that enrichment is enforced and supple-
ments selected vitamins and minerals, whereas fortification is optional and generally
adds the enrichment package and other nutrients.
The most common way to enrich or fortify breakfast cereals is by adding minerals
and heat-stable vitamins to the basic formula before cooking and then, after bak-
ing, add the rest of the nutrients during the application of flavorings and sweeteners.
Fat-soluble vitamins are also added post-baking. Niacin, riboflavin, and pyridox-
ine can be added to the original formulation or during the application of coatings.
Thiamin and ascorbic acid (vitamin C) are the most susceptible to heat and therefore
are applied after baking. The susceptibility of vitamins to different processes and the
nutritional attributes of various types of breakfast cereals are covered in Chapter 17.
11.13 Packaging
Breakfast cereals, containing low moisture content and a crunchy texture, are gen-
erally packaged with materials that are good barriers against moisture and air.
Most products are double packaged. The product is placed in bags or pouches pro-
tected by lined (waxed glassine, high-density polyethylene, and/or ethylene vinyl
acetate) printed carton or fiberboard boxes. The pouches are usually produced from
wax paper or different plastic polyethylene films that are a good barrier against
environmental moisture (Robertson 1993). The packaging material should mini-
mize moisture gain and retard lipid oxidation that causes off-odors and flavors. The
carton box physically protects the product from breakage and is printed with the
product name, nutritional label, and advertising. Since the 1970s, the printed pillow
pouch has also been used because it is comparatively inexpensive in terms of mate-
rial and packaging machinery. The main disadvantage is that products, especially
flakes and shreds, are easily crushed or broken during handling and distribution.
This packaging system is more suitable for puffed rice or puffed wheat (Pringle et
al. 2000).
There are some breakfast cereals that are not hygroscopic and crispy, such as rolled
or flaked oats. In this case, the packaging requirements are different. These products
are usually packaged only in carton boxes to allow air exchange and the removal of
volatile compounds that result from lipid oxidation. The carton box also impedes the
penetration of light that catalyzes formation of free radicals and oxidation.
Self-Evaluation
1. List the basic operations required to produce breakfast cereals.
2. List and classify breakfast cereals, indicating the main characteristics of
each type of product.
3. What is a puffing gun? How does it work? Describe at least two commercial
breakfast cereals produced using this technology.
5. Compare flowcharts for the production of maize flakes via traditional and
extrusion processes. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each
process? How can you recognize flakes made via extrusion?
6. How are instant oat flakes produced? Why are oats heat treated with steam
before dehulling and milling? Why are rolled oats usually packaged in car-
ton boxes?
7. Compare traditional and extrusion processes to manufacture shredded wheat.
8. What is thermoplastic extrusion? Give at least two examples of breakfast
cereals produced by direct and pellet-forming technologies?
9. In a flowchart, describe the process to produce Cheerios TM via thermoplas-
tic extrusion.
10. What is necessary to produce high-fiber, high-omega-3, and 40-30-30 gra-
nola bars? What kinds of additives are necessary to produce these bars?
11. Describe technologies used to minimize moisture migration from dehydrated
fruits (raisins, dates, etc.) and other products to processed crisp cereals.
12. What are the differences between enrichment and fortification? What are
the six common nutrients used in most enrichment programs? What is the
main nutritional rationale of adding each of these nutrients?
13. Describe how heat, light, and pH affect the stability of nutrients commonly
used in enrichment programs. Which nutrients are added after baking or
thermal treatments?
References
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Pages 73–84 in Advances in Extrusion Technology Aquaculture/Animal Feeds and Food.
Y.K. Chang and S.S. Wang (eds.). Technomic Publishing, Lancaster, PA.
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B.S., and Whalen, P.J. 2000. Cooking of ready to eat breakfast cereals. Cereals Foods
World 45(6):244–252.
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and Technology. F.H. Webster (ed.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc. St.
Paul, MN.
Fast, R.B. 2001. Breakfast cereals. Chapter 8 (pp. 158–172) in Cereals Processing Technologies.
G. Owens (ed.). CRC Press, Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, England.
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tion. American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
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lapped shredded food articles. USPO. Patent No. 4,004,035.
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technology to produce multiple products. Cereal Foods World 51(6):302–305.
Mercier, C., Linko, P., and Harper, J.M. 1989. Extrusion Cooking. American Association of
Moore, G. 1994. Snack food extrusion. Chapter 4 (pp 110–143) in The Technology of Extrusion
Cooking. N.D. Frame (ed.). Blackie Academic & Professional, Glasgow, U.K.
Midden, T.M. 1989. Twin screw extrusion of corn flakes. Cereal Foods World
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cereals. Cereal Foods World 45(6):255–260.
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Rokey, G.L. 1995. RTE breakfast cereal flake extrusion. Cereal Foods World 40:422–426.
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Johnson (eds.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
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12 Manufacturing of
Cereal-Based Snacks
12.1 Introduction
Snacks are a small amount of food eaten between meals and are classified as light,
casual, or rushed meals (Lusas and Rooney 2002). Most are ready-to-eat items that
are high in oil and flavored with salt or salty flavorings. From the processing view-
point, snacks can be manufactured by a wide array of processes ranging from simple
to sophisticated–complex. The simpler snacks are those produced from popcorn, and
the most complex are those obtained by thermoplastic extrusion. Regardless of the
process employed for their manufacture and their bad reputation among dietitians,
snacks are increasing in popularity due to their flavor and convenience, and a change
in food habits. The new trend of the industry is the development of nutritious and
health-promoting snacks.
Snack foods have always been an important part of life, and these products repre-
sent an important segment of the food industry worldwide, especially in developed
countries. Snacking is increasing because of factors such as increases in one-person
households, higher proportion of working mothers and more school age children
obtaining their own meals, a highly mobile population, and the availability of ready-
to-eat snack foods in vending machines and convenience stores (Riaz 2004). On a
worldwide basis, the United States is by far the leading snack-food-consuming coun-
try followed by England, Germany, and France (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
The current world market for snack foods represents a volume of more than 4.2
billion kg, which is equivalent to approximately $34.8 billion of annual sales. The
United States alone manufactures and sells approximately 67% of this. In 2002, the
American and British people had the highest annual per capita consumption of snack
chips that included potato chips, tortilla chips, and extruded snacks, with an average
annual intake of 7.3 and 6 kg, respectively. Netherlanders, Australians, Spaniards,
and Mexicans are next on the list (Pepsico 2004, Serna-Saldivar 2008).
12.2 Classification of Snacks
Snacks are classified according to the manufacturing process (Table 12.1). The
simplest category, also called first-generation snacks, is the easiest to produce and
consists of natural products used for snacking such as popcorn. Most of the snacks
consumed today fall into the category of second-generation. These include simple
formed products mainly obtained after direct extrusion processes (i.e., corn chips,
puffed or expanded corn products, balls, and curls) or by sheeting/forming such as
355
356 Cereal Grains
Table 12.1
Classification of Snack Foods according to Manufacturing Process
Category Process Products
First generation Minimum processed snacks obtained from Popcorn.
grains and fruits from natural products.
Second generation Most popular category of snack foods, Includes extruded corn chips,
generally obtained after simple shaping tortilla chips and related
of doughs or dry-milled fractions forced snacks, direct extruded items
through an extruder (direct expanded such as corn puffs and curls,
products). Raw materials include various pretzels, and fabricated chips or
types of flours and grits. sticks.
Third generation Most elaborate products, also called Imitation pork rinds, wheel
half-products or pellets; generally shaped puffs or sticks obtained
produced by a two-step extrusion after frying of half-products or
process (cooking and forming extruders). pellets.
The formulation of these snacks uses a
wide array of ingredients. These
products require additional processes
before they are ready for the consumer,
such as baking and deep-fat frying. Most
pellets are further processed by frying.
Coextruded snacks In this relatively new process, two Cereal-based tubes filled with
different types of raw materials are cheese, cereal-based tubes with
extruded from one die. These raw cereal-based fillings.
materials can come from two extruders
or one extruder equipped with one pump.
Coextruded snacks have two
recognizable parts: an external cover and
an internal filling.
Source: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2008. Industrial Manufacture of Snack Foods. Kennedys Publications,
London.
tortilla chips and pretzels. The most elaborate category in terms of ingredients and
processing is the third-generation snacks produced by extrusion processes aimed
at the production of pellets or half-products. Extrusion commonly consists of two
sequential steps: cooking and forming. The forming extruder yields dense pellets
that require further processing to reach the consumer. Frying the pellets produces
most third-generation snacks, although conventional baking or microwaving fabri-
cates a number of low-calorie items. The most recent and modern category is the
production of snacks by coextrusion. In this process, the extruder is equipped with
a special type of die that allows the coextrusion of two types of materials: an outer
covering generally produced from cereals and an inner filling that contains salty
flavorings or sweets.
Manufacturing of Cereal-Based Snacks 357
12.3 Popcorn
Popcorn has been a favorite traditional snack in the United States for more than 100
years (Ziegler 2000). Its popularity is increasing gradually in other areas of the world.
Genetics, production, and technology of this important specialty grain are described
by Ziegler (2000, 2003), Snack Food Association (1992), and Serna-Saldivar (2008).
In 2003, the U.S. popcorn volume and sales were 257 million kg and $1.8 billion,
respectively. This represented 8.7% and 7.6% of the total 2.96 billion kg and $23.5
billion, respectively, of the salted snack food industry. Americans consume 17 billion
quarts of popcorn yearly, and 70% of this volume is eaten at home. Sales and volume
of microwave popcorn continue to increase. In 2003, more than 75% of the popcorn
sold in the U.S. market was for microwaving (Anonymous 2004).
12.3.1 Breeding and Quality

Popcorn is a special kind of maize that is similar to flint types in that almost all of
the endosperm consists of tightly packed starch granules, giving a typical glassy
or vitreous appearance. The major traits that distinguish popcorn from other kinds
of maizes are the size and shape of the kernels and the ability of the sound grains
to explode and produce large puffed flakes when heated (Ziegler 2003). Table 12.2
summarizes the optimum physical properties of popcorn. The regular dent maize
kernels weigh at least twice as much as the flint popcorns used by the industry. In
contrast, the hectoliter weight of popcorn kernels is at least 10–12 kg higher than the
bulk weight of regular dent maizes (Chapter 2). Popcorn production greatly increased
when farmers shifted from open-pollinated varieties to hybrids. The major advan-
tages of growing hybrids are improved yields, better plant-standing ability, better
popping expansion, and more uniform kernel type and maturity (Ziegler 2000). The
germ, endosperm, and pericarp commonly comprise 12%, 81%, and 7% of the dry
Table 12.2
Physical Properties of Popcorn
Physical Properties Popcorn Reference
Test weight, kg/HL 82–86 Serna-Saldivar (1996, 2008)
Kernel density, cm3/g 1.37–1.39 Mohamed et al. (1993)
Kernel volume, cm3 0.093–0.129 Mohamed et al. (1993)
1000-Kernel weight, g 130–142 Mohamed et al. (1993)
Pericarp thickness, µm 98–138 Mohamed et al. (1993)
Kernel length, mm 8.06-8.59 Pordesimo et al. (1990)
Kernel width, mm 5.25–5.96 Pordesimo et al. (1990)
Kernel thickness, mm 3.99–4.42 Pordesimo et al. (1990)
Kernel sphericity 0.66-0.75 Pordesimo et al. (1990)
Endosperm texture Hard or vitreous Serna-Saldivar (1996, 2008)
Note: Kernel sphericity = geometric mean diameter/major diameter (Mohamed et al. 1993).
358 Cereal Grains
weight, respectively. The pericarp protects the kernel, and when it is damaged, nega-
tively affects the expansion performance of popcorn. Popcorn hybrids possess prac-
tically 100% vitreous or corneous endosperm, although some bisected kernels show
a small area of floury endosperm neighboring the scutellum. The hard endosperm
cells contain tightly packed small starch granules with polyhedral or angular forms.
The endosperm cell also contains a thin fibrous and rectangular-shaped cell wall
that encases starch granules, protein bodies, and protein matrix. The tightly packed
starch granules have indentations that look like small craters from the protein bodies,
and the protein matrix holds the internal structure (Serna-Saldivar 2008). Popcorn is
merchandized in three kernel types: white, small yellow, and large yellow. Color dif-
ferences in popcorn kernels result from genetic differences in the pericarp, aleurone,
and endosperm. Kernels of white popcorn are usually rice shaped, whereas small
and large yellow popcorns are pearl shaped. The range of 1000-kernel weight for
the large, medium, and small popcorn kernels are 149–152, 133–147, and 95–131 g,
respectively. The integrity and soundness of the pericarp are critically important
to optimize popping volume because it acts as the lid of a pressure cooker (Serna-
Saldivar 2008).
12.3.2 Post-Harvest Management

In order to produce the best-quality popcorn, farmers should harvest kernels when
they reach full maturity and contain approximately 17% moisture (Figure 12.1). The
harvesting operation is critical and should be aimed at minimizing kernel damage.
Most hybrids produced today are harvested by combines despite the fact that there is
likely to be more mechanical damage and therefore a reduction in popping volume.
Popcorn quality can be preserved if harvested at the correct moisture level by a prop-
erly adjusted combine. Above 18% moisture, shelling losses are high and there is
more probability of physical damage. Kernels are also susceptible to impact damage
when harvested at moistures below 14%. The combine should be adjusted in order to
minimize kernel damage. After harvesting, kernels are cleaned and dried to lower
the moisture to around 13%–13.5%. Kernels must be dried slowly to prevent the for-
mation of stress cracks but fast enough to prevent mold development (Metzger et al.
1989, White et al. 1982). Kernels should not be dried below 11% moisture, otherwise
the popping expansion will not be realized.
Popcorn must be free of microbial contamination, insects, and rodent damage and
should have the best popping expansion. The ideal moisture content to store popcorn
is 13.5%–14.5%. Aeration or ventilation systems similar to those used for other types
of cereals should be provided to prevent moisture migration and help maintain grain
quality throughout storage (Chapter 5). Structural damage to the popcorn kernel due
to mechanical harvesting, shelling, and handling drastically reduces expansion vol-
ume and increases the percentage of unpopped kernels (Hoseney et al. 1983, White
et al. 1982). The effect of mechanical damage on popcorn seems to be twofold. First,
the damaged site acts as a major pathway for the escape of water vapor from the
endosperm during the heating of the kernels. Second, the damage weakens the peri-
carp (Singh et al. 1997).
Mature Popcorn Crop
Harvesting/Shelling Popcorn
(Properly Calibrated Combine) 100 kg, 17% Moisture
Precleaning Foreign Material

(Magnets, Air Aspirator, Screening) Metals, Sticks, Stones, Other
Grains, Broken Kernels
3 kg
Moisture Loss Drying
3 kg Solar or Artificial Drying (35°C)
Storage
Grain Elevator with Aeration System
Foreign Material
Cleaning Metal, Stones, Damaged and Off-
Magnets, Air Aspirator, Gravity
colored Kernels, Brokens
Tables, Destoner, Color Sorter)
2 kg
Cleaned Popcorn
Metal Detector
92 kg, 13.5% Moisture Microwave Pillow
Bags with Susceptor
Conventional Microwave
Packaging/Bagging Packaging
Partially Hydrogenated
Oil, Salt and
Flavorings
Regular Popcorn Microwave Popcorn
92 kg, 13.5% Moisture 116 kg, 10.7% Moisture
Figure 12.1 Postharvest practices for the production of cleaned and packaged popcorn
kernels.
Expansion volume is the most critical quality factor for popcorn (Hosney et al.
1983, Pordesimo et al. 1990, 1991, Song et al. 1991). The popped volume is important
because the commercial buyer purchases the popcorn by weight and sells it by vol-
ume. In addition, popcorn texture (tenderness and crispness) is positively correlated
with popping volume. Most commercial popcorn has a 30- to 40-fold expansion.
12.3.3 Popping Methods

Popping occurs at about 177°C, which is equivalent to a steam pressure of 2.5 t/cm 2
(135 psi) inside the kernel. The water in the grain is superheated, and at the moment
of popping is converted to steam, which provides the driving force for expanding the
thermoplastic endosperm after the kernel ruptures (Hoseney et al. 1983). Popping
occurs when the internal vapor pressure exceeds the sum of the burst pressure of
the pericarp and atmospheric pressure. This occurs at an internal temperature in
the range of 180°C to 190°C. At these temperatures, the starch melts. When the
pericarp ruptures, the superheated water rapidly expands in less than 1/15 s, causing
the molten starch to expand, resulting in the typical flake (Byrd and Perona 2005).
360 Cereal Grains
The pericarp and outer layers of the kernel participate directly in the popping action
by serving as a pressure vessel. Hybrids or varieties with high proportions of trans-
lucent, flinty, or vitreous endosperm attain higher expansion rates (Pordesimo et al.
1990). According to Borras et al. (2006), α-zeins and glutelin proteins significantly
correlated with popping expansion volume of seven different Argentinean popcorns,
which varied from 36 to 47 cm3/g.
There are essentially two types of popcorn configurations: mushroom or butterfly.
Popped kernels with a spherical shape are called mushroom or ball type. Due to its
configuration, it is preferred in the confection industry because it is less susceptible to
breakage, more resistant to handling, and more efficiently coated with flavorings and
confectionery syrups. The butterfly type has a higher expansion or lower apparent
bulk density, and better mouth-feel; it is preferred for on-premises popping, where it
is sold by volume. The popping expansion of mushroom type is lower than butterfly
because the individual flakes fit closer together. For production of mushroom or ball
popcorn, more heat should be applied during popping. Temperatures of 215°C and
235°C are recommended to favor the production of butterfly- and mushroom-shaped
flakes, respectively. The highly expanded or butterfly-shaped popcorn is more ten-
der and contains fewer partially popped kernels that are hard to chew (Snack Food
Association 1992, Serna-Saldivar 2008).
There are basically two types of popping methods: wet and dry. Most proces-
sors employ the wet-popping method because it produces popcorn with better flavor.
However, dry-popping is ideally suited for production of low-fat products.
12.3.3.1 Wet Popping

Normally, popcorn, oil, and salt are placed into a heated pan for production of wet-
popped product. An agitator on the bottom constantly stirs the mixture, allowing
better and even heat distribution among the kernels. When the temperature of the
popcorn is high enough, the kernels gradually burst. At the moment of expansion
the oil is absorbed, and the salt sticks to the flakes. Poppers are either heated by gas
or electricity, the first being the most preferred in the industry (Figure 12.2). The
rule of thumb for wet popping is to add the raw popcorn to the kettle before the oil
and to close the lid immediately. The most common popcorn-to-oil ratio is 3:1. The
popping cycle varies from 2.5 to 3 min. The batch is assumed to be finished when
five seconds elapse between pops. In commercial operations, the wet poppers are
usually arranged in groups of 4 to 8 machines dumping onto a conveyor. A circulat-
ing system pumps oil to individual metering stations at each popper. The conveyor
belt transports the burst popcorn to a sifter, which removes unpopped kernels and
other fines from the finished product. The sifter is a rotary ½″ × ½″ stainless steel
wire mesh drum with openings of 2.8 cm2. After sifting, the popcorn should be
immediately packaged to avoid moisture absorption and loss of texture (Snack Food
Association 1992, Serna-Saldivar 2008).
12.3.3.2 Dry Popping
Dry poppers come in two basic types: the older rotary wire drum and the modern
steel auger. The rotary type heats popcorn kernels over an open flame, whereas in
the steel auger kernels are thermally treated while traveling along the screw. The
Popcorn
100 kg, 13.5% Moisture
Frying Oil
25 kg
Moisture Loss Dry Popping Wet Popping
12.2 kg Rotary Wire Drum or Steel Auger Wet Poppers with Agitation
Salt
Apparatus (210–230°C/65–105 sec) (170–185°C, 120–150 sec)
1.5 kg
Unpopped Moisture Loss

Dry Popped Kernels Wet Popped Kernels
Kernels/Broken 12.2 kg
87.8 kg, 1.5% Moisture 114.3 kg, 1.5% Moisture
Flakes
Unpopped
Sifting Sifting Kernels/Broken
Rotary Cylindrical Sieves Rotary Cylindrical Sieves Flakes 10 kg,
1.5% Moisture
Popped/Sized Flakes Popped/Sized Flakes

77.8 kg, 1.5% Moisture 104.3 kg, 1.5% Moisture
Oil, Salt,
Flavorings Coating
Powder or Slurry Batch or Continuous Coaters-drums Metal Detector
(50°C), 33.5 kg
Flavored Popcorn Packaging

111.3 kg, 1.5% Moisture Plastic or Aluminum Air-tight
Films
Metal Detector RTE Salted Popcorn

104.3 kg, 1.5% Moisture
Packaging
Plastic or Aluminum Air-tight
Films
RTE Flavored Popcorn

111.3 kg, 1.5% Moisture
Figure 12.2 Flowchart of manufacturing processes for flavored popcorn obtained by dry

or wet popping.
heated air is injected with enough pressure to force its way through the kernels,
enhancing the transfer of heat. This action also stirs the grains in a fluidized-bed
fashion (Snack Food Association 1992). The fluidized bed has four basic variables:
feed rate, temperature (210°C to 230°C), popping time (affected by the rpm of the
screw), and heated air pressure. The normal residence times varies from 65 to 105 s.
Dry poppers are designed for large-scale operations and are capable of popping up to
70–450 kg/h. When popcorn is processed, it loses 12%–13% moisture and 8%–10%
in scrap. Dry popping is usually performed in individual production lines consist-
ing of a popper, a sifter, and a coater. The popper should have exhaust ventilation to
remove the water vapor generated during processing. The sifting operation removes
unpopped kernels and broken flakes. The clean popped flakes are then flavored in
a coater. Oil, salt, and flavorings (or sugar-based flavorings) are directly applied or
sprayed onto the product.
The industry uses batch or continuous coaters (Figure 12.2). Batch coating for
salty products is typically performed with inclined enrobing pans that turn on an
axis inclined at 30°. The base product is placed in the pan, and the oil coating and
seasonings introduced as the pan rotates. The coating is either poured or pumped.
362 Cereal Grains
The pan is allowed to work until the coatings are fully spread and evenly distrib-
uted on the product. The most common way to apply coatings is with a continuous
machine consisting basically of a horizontal stainless steel cylinder that rotates on
its axis. The speed of rotation and the angle of the cylinder are adjusted to control
the product flow rate or residence time. The coater is equipped with either a dry
applicator or a pump system that sprays the coating in the first part of the inclined
machine. Dry popping requires about 25% less oil than wet popping. Oil is added to
dry-popped corn and is often the vehicle for addition of other flavors and colors. For
production of cheese-flavored popcorn, dry, powdered cheese can be applied to the
wet-popped maize or sprayed onto dry-popped product. The disadvantage of the dry
powder is that it frequently comes off on the consumer’s hands. The most common
method is to spray cheese slurry onto the popcorn. The cheese flavoring is produced
by mixing oil with powdered cheese and other ingredients. In order to apply the
coating, the mixture should be heated to around 50°C to melt the cheese and prevent
plugging the spray system. Cheese-flavored popcorn generally contains 15% cheese,
28% oil, and 57% popcorn (Snack Food Association 1992, Serna-Saldivar 2008).
A special type of coater is used to produce sugar-coated popcorn. The batch sys-
tem consists of a copper or stainless steel kettle in which sugar, glucose, and water
solution is boiled to make caramel. The boiling solution is then gradually poured into
a blender that is made of a rotating drum with a rotating auger inside at one edge. The
resulting action lifts and mixes the popcorn with the sugar coating. A small amount
of sodium bicarbonate can be added to the syrup to make it foam and double its
volume. After the foamed sugar and popcorn are well coated, a small amount of oil/
lecithin is sprayed to enhance the separation of the popcorn (Snack Food Association
1992, Serna-Saldivar 2008).
For caramel corn, coatings are generally composed of sugar syrup, vegetable oil,
and other additives (coloring/flavoring compounds) that are heated at 144°C–149°C
to produce a free-flowing solution. The product is popularly known as caramel corn.
It is one of the oldest snacks produced in the United States and still enjoys great
demand (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
12.3.3.3 Microwave Popping

Microwavable popcorn has increased in popularity for its convenience in home pop-
ping and snacking. There are three key elements for its production: the quality of
raw kernels, blend of oil flavorings, and packaging. Most microwave bags contain
about 100 g of the mixture of popcorn and oil cake, which yields about 90 g of
burst-flavored flakes. Typically, 75 g of popcorn is mixed with 25.5 g of melted par-
tially hydrogenated vegetable oil and 1.5 g of salt. Other flavorings (butter, marga-
rine, cheese, etc.)—and even colorants—can be included in the cake. The mixture
is placed in pillow-style microwave bags with a 15 cm susceptor plate and a heat
seal band on the inside of the lip. The microwave bag is placed in sealed cellophane
bags in order to protect the product from atmospheric air, which can cause moisture
changes in the kernels and promote rancidity. For microwave popping, the recom-
mended power output in conventional microwaves is 660 W for 2 min on high power.
Usually, popcorn starts bursting 50 s after starting the microwave cycle and finishes
after 100 s. The expansion volume of microwave popcorn should be in the range of
34.2–43.9 mL/g, the percentage of unpopped kernels from 2.1 to 6.8, and flake size
from 4.6 to 7.1 mL (Lin and Anantheswaran 1988, Serna-Saldivar 2008).
12.4 Alkaline-Cooked Maize Products

The rapid and exponential growth of the production and sales of lime-cooked snacks
took place mainly during the last decade of the twentieth century. These snacks
rapidly became popular in other areas of the world as well. Today, corn and tortilla
chips are manufactured worldwide. Flat tostadas and tortilla chips are tortillas that
are deep-fat fried; they are widely used as snacks or vehicles for the preparation of
fast foods. For their preparation, nixtamal and red-paprika peppers or annatto are
stone-ground into a coarse masa. The red- or orange-colored masa is baked into a
tortilla and then fried into a tostada. Tostadas are the base for the preparation of
a wide array of meals. Sometimes, they are eaten as a snack with lemon juice and
sauces. It is very common to consume tostadas with refried beans, cheese, shredded
meats, and vegetables such as lettuce, tomato, onions, peppers, and radish. Taco
shells are the American version of tostadas, the only difference being that they are
usually fried bent (U form) and rarely colored.
Lime-cooked maize snacks are the fastest-growing market within the salted cat-
egory. In the United States, volume and sales of tortilla chips in 2003 were estimated
at 692 million kilograms and more than $4.5 billion in sales (Anonymous 2004).
There are basically three types of snacks produced from alkaline-cooked maize:
Corn Nuts™, corn chips, and tortilla chips. Corn Nuts are manufactured from
Cuzco maize (Chapter 2) nixtamal that is deep-fat fried and seasoned (Rooney
and Serna-Saldivar 2003; Serna-Saldivar 2008). Extruded corn chips are produced
from coarsely ground masa that is formed and deep-fat fried, whereas tortilla
chips, taco shells, and tostadas are produced from pieces or whole baked torti-
llas that are deep-fat fried. Baking of tortillas prior to frying greatly affects the
organoleptic properties and nutritional value of these snacks. Tortilla chips have
a stronger alkaline-cooked flavor and a crispier texture than corn chips. In addi-
tion, tortilla chips are less energy-dense because they absorb about 12% units less
oil during frying. One of the most popular snacks in amusement parks, baseball
and football stadiums, are nachos prepared by a combination of tortilla chips with
melted cheddar cheese and slices of jalapeños (Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2003,
Serna-Saldivar and Rooney 2003).
12.4.1 Raw Materials

Maize kernels, lime, and water are the basic ingredients used in alkaline cooking for
making masa and table tortillas. The functionality of these ingredients is discussed
in Chapter 9. For production of snacks, oil, salt, and flavorings are additional ingre-
dients. Product quality and processing parameters depend on the maize kernel char-
acteristics. However, the oil, salt, and seasonings used for the preparation of maize
snacks have a profound effect on flavor, mouthfeel, and overall acceptability.
364 Cereal Grains
12.4.1.1 Oil
Frying oil is the second major ingredient in lime-cooked snacks. The selection
of frying oil depends on cost, stability or shelf life, flavor, and the amount of
trans and saturated fatty acids. Soybean, palm, cottonseed, canola, and sunflower
oils are the most popular. Premium peanut oil, although more expensive, is often
blended with other oils to impart a nutty flavor. Frying oils are usually partially
hydrogenated to improve stability and prevent flavor reversion in the case of soy-
bean oil. For soybean oil, the hydrogenation process is aimed at the reduction to
about one half of the original linolenic acid content (from 4% to less than 2%).
The shelf life of frying oils depends on the oil composition, use of antioxidants,
and manufacturing practices. Regular filtering (manual or automatic), skimming,
and maintenance of the proper oil frying temperature improve oil performance
and increase the shelf life of the products. Oil uptake mainly depends on product
moisture content and degree of starch gelatinization, frying temperature-residence
time, and type of frying oil. Generally speaking, lower oil temperature and longer
frying residence time increase the amount of oil retained by the snack food product
(Serna-Saldivar 2008).
12.4.1.2 Salt and Flavorings

Salt and flavorings are added as powders or liquids to extruded corn and tortilla chips
to enhance the organoleptic properties and appearance of the finished products. Salt
is a nonaromatic ingredient, while flavoring agents include cheese, barbecue, lemon-
salt, powdered chili, chipotle, jalapeño, and others (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
12.4.1.3 Antioxidants and Chelating Agents

Synthetic antioxidants are used in frying oils and finished products to prevent oxida-
tive rancidity. They act by adsorbing free radicals and disrupt the first step of the
chain reaction of autooxidation commonly known as initiation. This first reaction is
catalyzed by ultraviolet light, heat, and the presence of metals and occurs at faster
rates in polyunsaturated fatty acids. The use of antioxidants is generally accompa-
nied with a metal sequestrant or chelating agent. The most common antioxidants are
BHA and BHT, and chelating agents include EDTA, phosphoric, ascorbic, and citric
acids. The maximum permitted level of synthetic antioxidants in foods is generally
0.02%, based on the oil/fat weight present in the food item. Synthetic antioxidants
are lost due to distillation and thermal degradation during prolonged heating of fry-
ing oils. Natural tocopherols, widely used as dietary supplements, are gaining pop-
ularity and replacing synthetic antioxidants, although they are considerably more
expensive. These have a great antioxidant effect both in the food and in the human
body and are considered GRAS or without any potential toxic effect. α-Tocopherol
or vitamin E is the second line of defense against free radical formation and has
proven health benefits. Citric, phosphoric, and/or ascorbic acids also act synergis-
tically with tocopherols. The tocopherol level commonly used is 0.02% to 0.05%
12.4.2 Production of Corn Nuts

Corn Nuts are a popular salty snack item produced from alkali-cooked Cuzco kernels
that are deep-fat fried. The maize for Corn Nuts was developed from the Giant Cuzco
species from Peru. The 8-rowed ears produce the largest known maize kernel. Cuzco
maize cultivars grow at high altitudes and produce white kernels with soft endosperm
texture and bland flavor. The first Cuzco-derived hybrid adapted to the Unites States
was introduced in 1964 after 9 years of painstaking breeding work. Several new hybrids
have been developed since then. Kernels are harvested when the moisture content of the
grain is less than 30%. The kernels are cleaned, sized, and dried to reduce moisture to
less than 15% (Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2003, Serna-Saldivar 2008) (Figures 12.3).
Water Cleaned Cuzco Maize

100 kg, 15% Moisture Alkali
300 L
1.2 kg
Cooking
15–30 min, 90–100°C
Steeping
8h
Draining and Washing Cooking Liquor

Water
6 kg Solids
Alkali Cooked Maize Kernels

Room Temperature
Drying/Tempering
Water
23 kg
Equilibrated Maize Kernels
Frying Oil Deep Fat Frying Water

11 kg 170°C/3 min 49 kg
Salt/Seasonings Tumbler
6 kg
Cooling
Corn NutsTM
93 kg, 1.5 Moisture, 15% Oil
Figure 12.3 Flowchart of the manufacturing process of Corn Nuts.

366 Cereal Grains
Preparation of Corn Nuts starts when kernels are alkali-cooked in excess water
and washed to remove the pericarp. Once peeled, kernels are transferred into steep
tanks, where they are blanched for a few hours in warm water. After draining the
alkaline solution, the cooked kernels are deep-fat fried to develop the characteristic
texture, flavor, and color, after which they are immediately flavored, cooled, and
packaged (Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2003, Serna-Saldivar 2008). The final product
contains about 14%–15% oil and approximately 440–450 kcal/100 g (Chapter 17).
12.4.3 Production of Corn and Tortilla Chips

Tortilla chips and extruded corn chips are usually manufactured from coarsely
ground masa. In contrast to table tortillas, the maize kernels are cooked for less
time and/or quenched immediately after cooking. They are ground into a coarse
masa with slightly lower moisture content. For corn chips, the masa is extruded and
cut into different forms and fried directly. For tortilla chips, masa pieces are baked
before frying to reduce the moisture content so that they absorb less oil and have a
firmer texture and a stronger alkaline flavor compared to corn chips. The most com-
mon tortilla chip configuration is triangular, followed by round and strip forms. New
configurations exist in the market such as rolled and three-dimensional triangles.
Tostadas, chalupas/taco shells, and baskets are tortillas produced from coarse masa
fried flat, folded, or in a basket, respectively. These products are filled with meat or
vegetables and served in restaurants and fast-food establishments. Restaurant-style
tortilla chips are produced similarly, but fine masa is formed and baked into thin
tortillas. Tortillas are equilibrated for a long time at ambient or refrigeration tem-
perature and cut into four pie-shaped pieces before frying.
The nixtamalized snack food process involves several unit operations such as
grain cleaning, lime-cooking and steeping, stone-grinding, kneading, sheeting/mold-
ing, cutting, baking, frying, and seasoning. Maize for production of fried snacks is
usually cooked less extensively than for table tortillas and the lime-cooking solution,
called nejayote, is usually quenched after the cooking step to lower the temperature
for a less rigorous steeping. The major difference in processing of table tortillas and
chips is the degree of grinding. Nixtamal for corn and tortilla chips is ground into a
coarser masa compared to nixtamal for table tortillas. The baking of table tortillas
and tortilla chips also greatly differs. Table tortillas are usually baked to retain more
moisture and enhance puffing at the last stages of baking, whereas tortilla chips are
baked to remove moisture and the oven temperature regulated to avoid puffing or
blistering (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990, Serna-Saldivar 2008).
12.4.3.1 Lime Cooking and Steeping

Maize is usually batch cooked in fresh masa operations and continuously cooked
in dry masa operations. In fresh masa operations, three basic types of cookers are
commercially used: open vats, Hamilton steam-jacketed kettles, and vertical closed
cookers (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990). The open vat is the oldest and most intensive
in terms of energy expenditure, labor, and control. The Hamilton steam cooker
is widely used, and the maize is indirectly cooked with steam and the heat trans-
fer enhanced by mechanical agitation. The vertical cooker employs direct steam
injection to heat and agitate the maize and lime solution in a large tank. Regardless
of the cooking procedure and type of cooker, the grain is usually mixed with 2.5
to 3 parts water and 1% lime based on grain weight. Maize is considered to cook
at temperatures above 68°C–70°C (the average gelatinization temperature of maize
starch). The cooking program is usually divided into three steps: rise time, hold at
the programmed maximum temperature, and temperature decrease or steeping. In
some operations, the last step is performed after quenching the nixtamal-cooking
liquor to drop the temperature to 65°C–70°C. Graphs of time–temperature profiles
must be carefully controlled to achieve uniform cooking and quality of end products.
Integration of the area under the 68°C temperature–time curve is the best way to pre-
dict optimum cooking schedules and extent of cooking, and produce optimal cooked
nixtamal for processing (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
During the first cooking step, the maize kernels, lime, and water are mixed together
and heated. Most processors gradually increase the temperature near or to boiling. The
temperature is then held for a predetermined time and the heat source turned off. In fresh
masa operations, the grain is steeped in the hot alkaline solution or quenched to about
65°C–70°C. Steeping usually lasts from 8–16 h and increases moisture in the nixtamal.
Commonly, nixtamal for tortilla chips is cooked and steeped to increase its moisture con-
tent to about 50%, or 48% for tortilla chips. Nixtamal for snack chips is cooked to a lesser
extent either by decreasing cooking time or by quenching as explained earlier. During
quenching, water quickly drops the temperature and avoids overcooking, especially in
large cooking vessels (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990).
12.4.3.2 Draining/Washing
After steeping, the nixtamal and steeping liquor are pumped or dropped by gravity
into mechanical washers. The steep liquor or nejayote is first drained and separated
from the nixtamal. The nixtamal is then washed with pressurized water to remove
the loose pericarp and excess lime. Washing in commercial processes is done using
either of two types of equipment, the drum washer or the “lowboy” system (Serna
Saldivar et al. 1990). Washing removes excess lime, lowers the pH, and removes
most of the pericarp, which enhances chip color.
12.4.3.3 Grinding
Grinding is a key operation because it promotes plastic and cohesive properties in
the masa. The degree of starch gelatinization and the milling action interact to form
a masa with optimum properties for further processing. In fresh masa operations, the
clean nixtamal is commonly ground using a system of two matched carved stones,
one stationary and the other rotating at 500–700 rpm (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990), or
in a grinder equipped with steel plates (Mehta 2001). Volcanic and synthetic (alumi-
num oxide) stones are the most frequently used by the industry. Synthetic stones last
longer and require less maintenance; however, they cannot be dressed in the manu-
facturing plant (Serna Saldivar et al. 1990). The typical stone is circular and has an
inner central orifice. Stones are generally 10 cm thick and have different diameters
for diverse milling capacities. Commercial grinders use stones ranging from 25 to 46
cm in diameter. The internal face is carved radially or spirally. The grooves become
progressively shallower as they approach the perimeter of the stone. The number,
368 Cereal Grains
design, and depth of the grooves vary with the intended product. Stones carved for
the manufacturing of snacks have deeper grooves to produce coarser masas. The
grinding starts when a screw conveyor at the base of the hopper forces the nixtamal
through a center opening and into the gap between the stones, where attrition and
shearing occur. The material travels outward from the center to the perimeter of the
stones, where it is gradually cut, kneaded, and mashed. Particle size reduction is the
result of several interacting factors: (1) maize type, (2) the degree of nixtamal cook-
ing, (3) the design of stone carving (groove size and depth), (4) the gap or pressure
between the grinding stones, and (5) the amount of water used during milling. Water
added during milling cools the stones, prevents excessive wear, and reduces masa
temperature. This amount of water also raises masa moisture to the optimum levels
for sheeting or forming.
12.4.3.4 Production of Dry Masa Flour for Snacks

Production of snack foods from dry masa flour has increased significantly during
the past 15 years (Chapter 9; Serna-Saldivar 2008). The industry produces a wide
array of flours that vary in color, particle size distribution, pH, content of preserva-
tives, and the level of additives such as dough conditioners, texture improvers (gums,
emulsifiers, etc.), and coloring agents. The major difference among flours is the end
use. Flours are generally classified into two broad categories: flours for table tortillas
and counterparts for snacks. Flours for table tortillas usually contain more additives
than their counterparts tailored for snacks.
Manufacturing snacks from dry masa flour facilitates the process because proces-
sors do not have to worry about selection and storage of the maize, lime cooking,
and grinding. In addition, the use of dry masa flour greatly reduces processing time,
labor, and capital investment for processing equipment and wastewater treatment.
Disadvantages include the high price of dry masa and the subtle differences in flavor
and texture in favor of fresh masa products (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
The industrial process to produce dry masa flour is detailed in Chapter 9.
Production of nixtamalized snacks from dry masa flour starts when the flour is
simply rehydrated in a mixer. The most important parameter to control is the cor-
rect addition of a predetermined amount of water (varies from 1 to 1.2 L/kg flour).
Mixing is performed in a blender equipped with a sigma blade that rotates at slow
speed (15–25 rpm). The gentle mixing is necessary to enhance hydration and avoid
the production of sticky doughs due to excessive mechanical work. Mixing usually
lasts from 3 to 10 min. The rehydrated masa should preferably be rested for 5–10 min
after mixing to allow water equilibration. After mixing, masas from fresh operations
are practically identical to rehydrated masa from flours (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
12.4.4 Production of Extruded Corn Chips

Extruded corn chips are made from coarsely ground masa either from fresh nix-
tamal or dry masa flour, which is extruded and cut into masa chips with different
configurations, deep-fat fried, and salted/seasoned (Figure 12.4). Key operations are
the extrusion of the masa into different configurations and the deep-fat frying. The
masa extruder consists of a horizontal hydraulic piston that forces the masa with at
Water Lime
Cleaned Maize
300 L 1 kg
Lime Cooking
85–98°C, 5–40 min
Bran, Solubles,
Quenching Steeping Excess Lime,
Water Draining/Washing Water
68–72°C 8–16 h
5–10 kg Solids
Nixtamal
153 kg, 48%
Dry Masa Flour
Moisture
100 kg
10% Moisture
Water Water
Stone Grinding
90–115 L 13–36 L
Dough Mixing Coarse Masa

4–5 min 52–58% Moisture Cold Extrusion
177 kg
Deep-fat Frying
Frying Oil Batch or Continuous Extruded Masa Pieces
43 kg 170–190°C; 90 sec 177 kg, 52–58% Moisture
Moisture Loss
90 kg Water
Corn Chips Centrifugation
129 kg, <2% Moisture, (Basket Centrifuge) Expelled Oil
36% Oil. (0.5–1 Minute) 17 kg
Lower Fat Corn Chips

112 kg, <2% Moisture, 26% Oil.
Salt and
Salting/Seasoning
Flavorings
(Tumbler)
10 kg
Regular Flavored Corn Chips Lower Fat Corn Chips

139 kg, <2% Moisture, 36% Oil 122 kg, <2% Moisture, 26% Oil
Figure 12.4 Flowchart of the manufacturing process of regular and partially defatted
corn chips.
least 52% moisture to pass through a 90° forming die or head. Extrusion starts auto-
matically after the masa is manually loaded and the cylinder is locked into position.
Easily interchangeable dies for forming custom shapes are available. A rotary cutoff
assembly cuts masa into uniform pieces. When the cylinder is empty, the piston
retracts for refilling. The extruded masa pieces vary in form and size, the most com-
mon strips being approximately 1.2 cm wide and 4.0 cm long. Scoops and ribbons
are also popular. The high-moisture extruded pieces lose most of the water during
the first 10 s of frying at temperatures ranging from 175°C–195°C. The frying time
also varies but is generally 1.5 min. During frying, the masa exchanges water for oil,
and the product exits the fryer at moisture and oil content of about 1.5% and 36%,
respectively. Resulting chips are usually seasoned with 2% salt and various types
of cheese, citric acid, or chili flavorings. In Mexico, red-colored extruded chips are
370 Cereal Grains
common. The masa is mixed with FD&C-approved red colorants prior to extrusion.
Approximately 134 kg of salted/seasoned corn chips with 36% oil is obtained from
100 kg of maize with initial moisture of 13% (Figure 12.4; Serna-Saldivar 2008).
Partially defatted corn chips are also produced in Mexico. The hot fried chips with
approximately 36% oil are immediately placed in perforated wire type baskets for 30
to 60 s centrifugation. The centripetal force removes part of the free oil without dam-
aging the chip structure and decreases the oil content to approximately 26%–28%.
The removed oil is collected and returned to the fryer (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
12.4.5 Production of Tortilla Chips

Tortilla chips are generally manufactured from coarsely ground masa either fresh or
from dry flour that is sheeted, formed, and cut in preparation for the subsequent steps
of baking, equilibration, frying, and salting/seasoning (Figure 12.5). Restaurant-
Water Clean Maize Lime
300 L 100 kg, 12–14% Moisture. 1 kg
Lime Cooking Bran, Solubles,

85–98°C, 5–40 min Excess Lime
5–10 kg Solids
Quenching Steeping
Water Draining/Washing
68–72°C 8–16 h
Nixtamal
Dry Masa Flour
100 kg
10% Moisture Water
Water Stone Grinding
13–36 L
90–115 L
Coarse Masa Sheeting/Forming
Dough Mixing
177 kg, 52–58% Moisture Teflon Coated Sheeting Rolls
4–5 min
Tortilla Disks Tortilla Small Tortilla

14 cm Diameter Triangles Disks
Baked Tortilla Chips Baking/Cooling/Equilibration Moisture Loss
134 kg, 38–42% Moisture (Three Tier Gas Fired Oven 260–290°C, 35–60 s 43 kg
Frying Oil Deep Fat Frying Moisture Loss

23.5 kg Batch or Continuous, 170–190°C; 50–80 s 49 kg
Salt and
Taco Shells, Baskets, Tostadas Tortilla Chips
Flavorings
110 kg, 24% Oil, <2% Moisture 110 kg, 24% Oil , <2% Moisture
4.2 kg
Salting/Seasoning
(Tumbler)
Seasoned Tortilla Chips

115 kg, 24% Oil , <2% Moisture
Figure 12.5 Flowchart of the manufacturing process of regular tortilla chips and related
products.
style tortilla chips are normally produced from fine masa that is sheeted into thinner
chips. The raw tortilla pieces are usually cooled for longer periods of time before
frying (McDonough et al. 2001, Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2003, Serna-Saldivar
and Rooney 2003).
12.4.5.1 Kneading–Mixing and Sheeting–Forming

The coarsely milled masa is kneaded and mixed into a plastic and cohesive dough
by mixers or extruders. This operation is generally performed with a masa feeder. In
smaller operations, the masa is mixed and hand-formed into large loaves, which are
manually placed into the hoppers of forming equipment.
Tortilla chips are usually formed by two rotating smooth Teflon-coated rolls that
automatically press the masa into a thin sheet. The gap between the rolls determines
product thickness, weight, and ultimate use. The resulting sheet of masa is cut into
large or small disks, triangles, pie-shaped pieces, etc., by an attachment located
underneath the front roll. Different interchangeable cutters are used for production of
various configurations. Sheeting heads that cut up to eight rows of product exist in the
market (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990, Serna-Saldivar 2008). A set of cutting wires also
helps discharge the masa disks onto the conveying belt that feeds the oven. The most
common current method takes advantage of the speed differential between the two
rolls. As the masa passes through the gap between the rolls, it leaves the slow roll and
sticks to the faster one. These sheeters are equipped with a hinged rear roll support
that ensures precise gap control and pneumatically controlled containment saddles to
prevent masa leaks. The sheet of masa is cut and scrap dough recycled, similar to the
process for traditional sheeters (Mehta 2001, Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990).
12.4.5.2 Baking
The newly formed masa disks are usually baked into tortilla pieces destined for fry-
ing in a three-tier gas-fired oven at temperatures ranging from 350°C to 480°C for
20 to 60 s. These ovens are built with atmospheric gas combustion or proportional
mix burners. The baking belts are either of the slat type or woven wire. For snacks,
woven wire is preferred. One side of the preformed tortilla is baked twice as long as
the other side (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990, Serna-Saldivar 2008). For production of
tortilla chips, the burners of the third or final tier are regulated at a lower tempera-
ture to avoid pillowing or blistering. The best ovens are equipped with fuel-efficient
burners and high insulation to lower the heat loss. Food processing manufacturers
are also building single-pass ovens tailored for tortilla chips and taco shells. These
ovens are longer than conventional triple-pass ovens. During baking, approximately
10%–14% moisture is lost from the masa to yield baked tortilla pieces containing
42%–46% moisture. During this critical operation, the starch further gelatinizes,
protein denatures, flavor and color develop, and the microbial counts are eliminated.
Texture-wise, tortillas develop their basic structure because the gelatinized starch
acts as cohesive glue.
12.4.5.3 Cooling–Equilibration
The baked tortilla pieces are cooled for 3 to 20 min through a series of open tiers
that discharge into the fryer. Cooling is necessary to decrease the temperature of the
372 Cereal Grains
tortilla pieces to about 25°C–30°C. Some cooling conveyors or racks are supplied
with fans to speed up the process. Equilibration time permits some of the moisture
inside the chip to migrate to the outside and evaporate, effectively lowering the oil
uptake during frying as well as the formation of blisters and oil pockets. The rate of
moisture loss will depend on the temperature, relative humidity, and surrounding air
velocity. Commonly, 2% to 4% moisture is further lost during cooling and equilibra-
tion. In some commercial operations, the cooled tortilla chips are left equilibrating
for several hours or even overnight. For instance, for many restaurant-style tortilla
chips, the baked tortillas are equilibrated for 12 h or more at refrigeration tempera-
tures to promote staling before frying. The equilibrium of baked chips prior to frying
critically affects the oil content, color, texture, and appearance of the tortilla chips.
During frying, cell structure and pore size of the chip are affected because the water
escapes in a different fashion when the baked tortilla pieces are adequately equili-
brated. The surface pores of the chip affect light refraction, which relates to appear-
ance and color (McDonough et al. 2001, Serna-Saldivar 2008).
12.4.5.4 Frying
Frying of tortilla chips is characterized by starch gelatinization, formation of a yel-
low crust, and development of the characteristic flavor due to Maillard reactions.
Most starch gelatinization occurs during baking and throughout the first 10–15 s of
frying (Moreira et al. 1995).
Most commercial fryers are continuous types with direct or indirect heating ele-
ments, gas-fired tubes, or high-pressure steam tubular heaters. The most adequate
fryers have continuous oil circulation between the fryer tank and the heat exchanger
for precise control and distribution of the temperature, as well as metering paddles
and a submerger for the control of the residence time. In addition, they are designed
to continuously filter out fines and facilitate cleaning.
During the frying of tortilla chips, heat is transferred from the hot oil onto the
product surface by convection and from the surface into the center of the chip by
conduction. The liquid water moves from the inside to the evaporation zone, leav-
ing the product surface as vapor. Some of this vapor may remain trapped within the
intracellular pores due to restrictive diffusion. The vapor will expand, distorting the
pore walls and contributing to the internal porosity (Moreira et al. 1995, McDonough
et al. 2001). When unfried tortilla chips are placed into the hot oil, the moisture is
gradually removed and the evaporated water partially replaced by the frying oil. In
other words, there is a mass exchange. Throughout the first 10 s of frying, most of
the water is released and oil absorbed.
For the production of lap-folded or conically shaped tortilla shells, tostadas, bas-
kets, and related products, tortillas from coarse masa are either bent or formed into
the desired configuration using special forming devices and then fried. Fryers are
designed to maintain uniform temperature and make products with acceptable color
and low moisture content (less than 2.0%). Frying temperature and product residence
time depend on the type of product. Masa or tortilla pieces from yellow maize require
lower frying temperatures than pieces from white or blends. Most corn chips are made
from blends of white and yellow maizes to improve their frying characteristics.
12.4.5.5 Seasoning
Salt and flavorings are applied immediately after frying in rotating tumblers or
drums equipped with liquid sprayers and/or auger or electrostatic powder dispens-
ers. The hot chips are usually conveyed into a cylindrical rotating cylinder equipped
with internal paddles to prevent bridging and improve product spread; a seasoning
applicator evenly distributes flavorings onto the product (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990,
Serna-Saldivar 2008). Another alternative is the application of powdered season-
ings with a belt-type flavor depositor. The equipment has an adjustable dispenser to
promote uniform application of dry seasonings and a wire mesh belt that moves and
sifts the flavorings to eliminate lumps. Levels of salt and seasoning usually added are
1%–1.5% and up to 8%, respectively. After seasoning, fried products are cooled and
immediately packaged in moisture-proof or aluminized bags to avoid rancidity and
loss of crispiness due to moisture uptake (Robertson 1993).
Blue maize tortillas chips have recently become popular even though blue maize
is more expensive compared to regular maize. Blue maize is also being used to pro-
duce organic tortilla chips in the United States. These snacks are marketed in expen-
sive restaurants, specialty food stores, and supermarkets. Tortilla chips made from
blue maize are produced following procedures described earlier. However, because
almost all varieties are soft, they require less lime cooking and washing. In fact,
some blue corns are only steeped in the hot lime solution (85°C–95°C). The amount
of lime or pH greatly affects color because the anthocyanins change coloration at
different pHs. The blue maize contains higher levels of anthocyanins and antioxidant
activity than regular counterparts and can be marketed and sold as nutraceutical
or functional snacks (De la Parra et al. 2007; Del Pozo-Insfran et al. 2006, 2007;
12.4.5.6 Low-Fat Tortilla Chips

Low-fat snacks are the driving force of the snack food industry nowadays. Tortilla
chips are not the exception; in fact, sales of light- and reduced-fat tortilla chips con-
tinue to increase. There are basically two types of low-fat tortilla chips: fried and
baked or toasted. The first category usually contains one-third less oil than the nor-
mal amount, and the second type does not contain any added frying oil, although
some products are sprayed with cooking oil to increase fat content to 7%–8% to
enhance flavor and texture. Tortilla chips with no added oil have a different taste
and texture, and therefore are more challenging for food product developers. For
production of reduced oil snacks, moisture is removed from the baked tortilla chip
by further baking or toasting (180°C for about 3 min) or baking/flash frying (207°C
for 7–10 s) to yield a product with less than 2% moisture. For production of low-fat
snacks, hot-air impingement ovens are finding more applications and use because
the heat transfer in these ovens are higher and air temperatures lower than in com-
mercial ovens. The temperature, humidity, and air velocity are adjustable above and
below the product, and the product residence time is adjusted by controlling the
belt speed. Typically, the temperature and jet velocity of these ovens range from
100°C to 350°C and from 10 to 100 m/s, respectively. The enhanced heat transfer is
374 Cereal Grains
mainly due to the arrangements of the nozzles and the air velocity. Most of the heat
is transferred by convection (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
12.5 Extruded Snacks
The history of extruded snacks can be traced back to the period 1930–1940 after
the Second World War. Corn chips were introduced in the early 1930s, while
puffed fried and baked products were introduced just after the Second World
War. The extruder used consisted of a rotor, stator, and a screw that produced
irregular shaped collets ready for frying. Fried collets were almost always fla-
vored with a salty-cheese oil slurry (SFA 1987, Burtea 2001). C. Heigl, an engi-
neer from Adams Corporation, developed an extruder designed to produce less
dense extrudates or puffs suitable for drying or baking. The lighter and smoother
collets were produced by a short-barrel, high-shear extruder equipped with a die
to form the gelatinized corn extrudate into various regular shapes. The resulting
puffs were cut to a predetermined length by a rotating knife. After drying or bak-
ing, collets were flavored with cheese slurry similarly to deep-fat fried curls (SFA
1987, Burtea 2001).
Today, extruded snacks are the category with the greatest potential for growth
because this technology still offers the greatest flexibility and innovation. Most of the
second- and third-generation snacks are produced by extrusion cooking. Extrusion
can also be implemented to produce analogs of traditionally manufactured snacks.
Coextrusion offers the advantage of creating new and innovative products with fillings.
Production of snacks with cooking and forming extruders saves space in the process-
ing plant, offers more versatility, adapts to highly productive continuous plants, and
saves labor and energy when compared with expenditures of traditional processes.
There are basically two families of snack items obtained with thermoplastic
extruders: the direct expanded snacks and the third-generation snacks produced from
pellets or half-products obtained after the sequential cooking and forming extrusion
steps. The direct extruded types are subdivided into baked puffs and fried puffs
(Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2003, Serna- Saldivar et al. 2008).
12.5.1 High-Shear Extruded Products

Baked and fried puffed snacks are typically manufactured with high-shear or friction
extruders. These extruders are called dry extruders because raw materials are not
conditioned, or if conditioned, are tempered to low moisture content. Most extrud-
ers used to produce puffs are single screw and short barreled (L/D of 4 or less). The
major difference between baked and fried collets is that the baked expanded prod-
ucts are expanded in a high-shear extruder and then baked or dehydrated to impart
the desired texture. The oil content of these snacks is provided through the liquid or
powdered seasonings that are applied onto the product prior to packaging. On the
other hand, fried expanded collets are obtained with a special type of extruder that
produces denser and irregular-shaped extrudates that are further fried and seasoned
or simply seasoned with an oil base (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
12.5.1.1 Production of Direct-Expanded Baked Products

In order to produce good-quality extrudates or collets, the raw material should be
highly refined and properly conditioned. In most instances, refined grits conditioned to
moisture contents from 14% to 19% produce the best-quality products (Figure 12.6).
High-shear extruders can be adiabatic or thermoplastic (Harper 1982, 1989, Riaz
2000, Rokey 2000). Adiabatic extruders are less expensive, and heat is generated by
the conversion of mechanical energy to thermal energy. The helical screw design and
die restriction play important roles in the expansion rate. In order to enhance shear
and slippage, the internal wall of the barrel is grooved helicoidally. The screw is the
main part of the extruder because it transports the material, and its design greatly
affects shear rate. The main screw characteristics are distance between flights, depth
of the flight, angle of the flight, and type of flight (full radius or square cut). More
shear is produced when the distance between flights is shorter and the depth of the
flights is shallow. High-shear extruders produce the greatest shear and compression
at the exit end of the screw so as to increase pressure and enhance expansion rate.
Higher expansion rates are obtained when the pressure differential between the end
Maize Grits
100 kg, 12–13% Moisture, 0.7% Fat
Water
5 kg
Conditioning
(Blender)
Tempered Maize Grits

High Shear Extruder Moisture Loss

L/D <4, 150–180°C 12 kg
Fines
1 kg
Extrudate Moisture Loss
Frying Oil
23 kg Frying Baking
170–190°C/15–40 sec 170–190°C/15–40 sec
Moisture Loss
6 kg
Fried Extrudate Baked Extrudate
110 kg, 1.5% Moisture, 87 kg, 1.5% Moisture,
Oil 25 kg/ Dry Cheese 22% Oil 1% Oil
7 kg/Salt 2 kg
34 kg Oil 25 kg
Tumbler Dry Cheese 7 kg
Fines Tumbler
Salt 2 kg
1.3 kg 34 kg
Flavored Fried Curls Flavored Baked Curls

143 kg, 1.5% Moisture, 143 kg, 1.5% Moisture,
36% Oil 24–25% Oil
Figure 12.6 Flowchart of the manufacturing processes for the production of direct
expanded baked or fried snacks.
376 Cereal Grains
of the screw and the atmosphere is elevated. Adiabatic extruders usually contain flow
plates before the extruder die. These pressure plates have numerous holes in various
sizes. They increase backpressure, minimize product surging, and therefore guar-
antee uniformity of the pressure before the die. The die is located after the pressure
plates and consists of a plate with the orifices that will create the particular extrudate
form. The expansion rate is calculated by measuring the average collet diameter
divided by the diameter of the die orifice. For instance, a puff with an average diam-
eter of 14 mm that was extruded through a 2 mm orifice had an expansion rate of 7.
Multi-orifice dies are commonly used because they yield higher outputs. These plate
dies are interchangeable, and manufacturers offer more than 50 designs. The most
common designs are balls, rings, and curls. Dies that produce three-dimensional
shapes have become popular in recent years.
A flowchart with a mass balance of a baked maize extruded snack manufacturing
process is shown in Figure 12.6. The quality of the refined grits or feed material,
conditioning, and extruder conditions are the main and key elements for obtaining
the optimum collets. Refined maize grits with an average particle size of 40 to 60
U.S. mesh are used with a moisture content of 12% to 13% or conditioned to approxi-
mately 16% to 17% before extrusion. Refined grits are introduced into the inlet of the
barrel or screw feeding zone. In this particular place, the distance between flights
is longer and deeper than in the other zones. The pitch or flight angle favors the
movement of the feedstock. The flow channel of the screw is typically filled with
grits. In some extruders, water is injected into the first part of the feeding zone. The
temperature of the barrel in the feeding zone is the lowest, generally 60°C to 80°C.
The conditioned grits enter the kneading or transition zone, which is characterized
by a higher barrel temperature (90°C to 120°C) and a screw design that favors com-
pression by lowering the distance between flights and the flight height so that the
flow channels achieve a higher degree of fill. The starch-rich extrudate starts to lose
its granular structure, and gelatinizes due to the elevated temperature and pressure.
The combination of heat and pressure converts the grits into plastic dough. When
the extrudate or doughlike material reaches the last zone, called cooking, the dough
melts and becomes a viscous fluid because the barrel is adjusted to the maximum
temperature (140°C to 180°C), and the screw produces the maximum shear, com-
pression, and pressure. In this particular area, the screw flights are closer, shallower,
and, in some instances, interrupted. In short, the starchy materials subjected to direct
extrusion cooking undergo melting and gelatinization. Melting is a physical pro-
cess, whereas gelatinization is a chemical process. When subjected to heating, starch
granules with high water content gelatinize, whereas those with low moisture melt.
At the very instant that the viscous fluid exits the die orifice, it will instantaneously
equilibrate with the external atmospheric pressure, causing the expansion and setting
of the collet structure. At this point in time, most of the moisture instantaneously
vaporizes so that the extrudate drops its moisture to about 5%–8%. The puffed col-
let is cut and sized to the proper length with a rotating knife. The collet expansion
rate is generally between 6 and 8, and the bulk density between 50 and 65 g/L. The
resulting puffs are conveyed into a rotary dryer or oven to drop their moisture to
around 1% to 2%. The driers, set to approximately 150°C, dehydrate the low-density
collets in only 4 to 6 min. The dehydration rate is fast due to the low collet density
and porosity. The high temperature does not affect color because the feedstock does
not contain significant quantities of reducing sugars that promote Maillard reactions
and caramelization. The baked expanded collets are finally flavored in a rotary tum-
bler, generally with salt-oil-cheese slurry, which is sprayed onto the extrudates. The
amount of coating applied ranges from 34% to 42%, based on the final puff weight.
The product is finally cooled and immediately packaged to avoid loss of texture
or crispiness. One hundred kilograms of refined corn grits can produce 136 kg of
cheese-flavored puffs (Figure 12.6). The puffs generally contain from 27% to 36%
oil and about 2% salt (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
The most important processing controls are the proper conditioning of the grits,
the feedstock flow rate, the barrel temperature at the different zones, and the cutter
speed. Tempering of grits or feedstock plays an important role in the final character-
istics of the direct expanded collets. If the collet density is too low, higher tempering
may be required. The quality of the grits plays an important role in setting the extru-
sion parameters and greatly affects the end-product quality. The most important fac-
tor is the particle size distribution because it affects the movement of the feedstock
through the extruder and decreases one of the most common problems in direct
extrusion: surging. Surging is the buildup of grits into the inlet or barrel mouth. The
feedstock should be highly refined with low fiber, ash, and oil content. The increase
of these values beyond the specifications results in lower expansion rates. The par-
ticle size of raw ingredients is important when extruding puffed snacks (Williams
et al. 1977). Huber and Rokey (1990) reported that a soft texture resulted from a fine
granulation, and a coarser meal led to a harder and denser collet. In addition, the
starch should be undamaged or native. Cereals that have faulty storage or are heat
damaged or mold contaminated normally produce grits with excessive starch dam-
age. These grits usually produce less radial expansion and yield low-quality extru-
dates (Fletcher et al. 1985, Garber et al. 1997, Mohamed 1990).
Chang et al. (1999) studied the effects of calcium hydroxide feed moisture and
barrel temperature on properties of maize expanded puffs. Lime decreased expan-
sion rate, but extrudates had a tortilla flavor.
12.5.1.2 Production of Fried Expanded Products

Fried expanded curls are still widely accepted among snack consumers because they
possess a different flavor and configuration. These snacks have been produced for
more than 60 years and are manufactured using a special type of extruder that gen-
erates most of the heat by friction. Technically, this extruder falls into the medium-
shear category and works similarly as the direct expanded high-shear extruders. The
major difference is that the fry-type snack extruder does not extrude the product
through a typical die. Instead, it uses a set of plates: one rotating and the other sta-
tionary. These plates shape and expel the extrudate that is internally cut by rotor
fingers (Moore 1994, Burtea 2001).
Tempered or nonconditioned maize grits, rice grits, and starches are introduced
and transported into the barrel section of the stator, and the shear applied by the
screw movement increases both the pressure and internal temperature (more than
120°C) so that the starch gelatinizes, melts, and plasticizes. The rotor fingers cut the
extruding material, which is then immediately extruded radially between the two
378 Cereal Grains
plates. The chief means of controlling this extruder is by adjusting the gap between
the rotors. According to Moore (1994), three things occur in this special die: the
maize meal or grits are subjected to high shear and pressure, which generates most
of the heat to cook the raw material; a rapid pressure loss causes the superheated
water to turn into steam, which expands the extrudates; and the flow of the raw
material between the plates twists and forms the extrudates. Without this special die
assembly, the curls would not have the characteristic shape and texture. As the mate-
rial exits from between the plates, the pressure drops from 48 atm to atmospheric
pressure and the water superheats and vaporizes, expanding the extrudate (Burtea
2001). However, lower expansion rates are obtained in contrast with direct extruded
baked products. The higher-density curls make these extrudates suitable for a short
frying schedule (Figure 12.6). The extrudates are generally fried to reduce the mois-
ture level from around 8% to 1.5% for texture and stability, and the fried curls pick
up from 20% to 25% oil (Moore 1994). After frying, the collets are seasoned with
a two-stage seasoning system where an oil-based slurry is applied first, followed
by dry seasoning, which generally consists of cheddar cheese (Figure 12.6). The
extremely porous surface of the extruded snacks enhances oil absorption and adher-
ence. Ten to fifteen percent of fat-based seasonings containing 10%–15% salt are
usually applied onto the extrudates. This brings the total fat content to a level of
around 30%–35% (Chapter 17). Fry-type extrudates are easily recognized because of
their higher density and especially due to their irregular rough-shaped forms varying
in lengths. One disadvantage is that the extruder produces more fines than products
extruded through die orifices (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
12.5.1.3 Extruded Whole Grains

Extrusion of whole grains is gaining importance because of the concerns about diet
and weight loss. The new dietary guidelines recommend the daily consumption of
three or more 1-ounce equivalents of whole grain products. Production of extruded
whole grain products is difficult because the fiber, particularly the insoluble rich
sources and the fat associated with the germ, reduce expansion. The type of whole
grain and its composition affect the degree of radial expansion. Additional issues
associated with extrusion of whole grain products include rancidity caused by unsta-
ble lipids and the development of bitter flavors (Eastman and Lee 2005). According
to Slavin et al. (2001), extrusion does not change the total dietary fiber content, but
it significantly affects the ratio of soluble to insoluble fractions. The ratio of these
fractions was higher in extruded products than in control samples. The whole grain
ingredients most commonly used in extrusion include wheat, brown rice, maize, and
oats. Barley, sorghum, and millets are also used but to a lesser extent. Whole wheat
produces denser extrudates and a nutty flavor, whereas brown rice has an acceptable
expansion but its extrudates are very prone to rancidity. Extruded products contain-
ing whole maize meal are acceptable but have reduced expansion when compared
with degermed products. Whole sorghum has been successfully direct-expanded to
produce flavored snacks. The advantage is that the sorghum does not need any milling
procedure, and the resulting snacks have more dietary fiber and retain nutraceuticals
associated with the pericarp, germ, testa, and aleurone cells. White whole sorghum
has potential because it yields gluten-free extrudates (Serna-Saldivar 2008). Thus, it
is currently used in some snacks marketed to consumers who have celiac disease or
gluten intolerance (Chapter 17).
12.5.2 Extrusion of Pellets or Half-Products

Third-generation snacks are also referred to as half-products. Following extrusion
cooking and forming, the pellets are carefully dehydrated to yield a shelf-stable
product that could be stored for long periods of time. Pellets are called half-products
because they need additional processing before they are ready for the consumer.
For snacks, the key additional process is frying and, less frequently, conventional
or microwave baking. During these heat treatment operations, pellets usually puff
or expand and lose moisture, so a crisp snack is produced. Pellets are cooked in an
extruder and forced through a die at temperatures below 100°C. The lower tem-
perature prevents expansion and favors the production of a high dense pellet that is
further dried to yield a shelf-stable intermediate product. Pellets, in contrast to the
directly expanded puffs, offer the advantage of being distributed with high weight
and low volume. Thus, they can be made available at any time and place for further
processing into the finished products. The basis for the wide variety of these snacks
is the shape imparted by the die design and configuration. The most common shapes
are flat (for production of pork skin analogs), tube, shell, ring, screw, and wheels
weighing from 250 to 750 mg per piece (Meuser and Wiedmann 1989).
12.5.2.1 Production of Third-Generation Snacks

A typical flow diagram for the production of third-generation snacks is presented in
Figure 12.7. Most pellets are manufactured from mixtures of starch-rich raw materi-
als that include dehydrated potato products and/or potato starch, modified starches,
wheat flour, and refined cereal grits. The starch content of the blends approximates
90% of the dry matter (Meuser and Wiedmann 1989, Serna-Saldivar 2008). Starch is
the most important chemical component because it imparts most of the functionality
during extrusion and greatly affects the product expansion rate during frying. The
plasticization attained during the thermoplastic extrusion is stopped by the dehydra-
tion process, and the gelatinized starch plays an important role during deep-fat frying
or baking expansion. Key operations for the production of third-generation snacks
are extrusion, pellet drying, and frying. The fist step of the manufacturing process is
the mixing of raw materials. The amount of water and the mixing rate are important
quality control parameters because the aim is to homogenously distribute the water
into the blend of raw materials. In contrast to direct extruded products, pellets are
usually tempered to moistures from 25% to 35%. The higher tempering enhances
starch gelatinization and decreases the extrudate expansion. Third-generation snacks
are usually extruded in two sequential steps or with only one special extruder that
performs cooking and forming in the same equipment. Extruders for these applica-
tions usually have a long length-to-diameter, or L/D, ratio and a vent to depressurize
the extrudate before die forming (Harper 1982, Riaz 2000, 2004). The first extruder
is commonly referred to as the cooking extruder because it heats and gelatinizes
the starchy materials mixed with texture improvers such as emulsifiers, salt, and
flavorings. The inlet barrel section is cooled with water to facilitate feeding and
380 Cereal Grains
Raw Materials
Wheat Flour, Grits
Potato Flour, Corn Starch 10 kg,
Modified Starch, Lecithin 1 kg
100 kg 12% Moisture
Water
20.5 kg
Moisture
Conditioning
Loss
(Blender)
6.5 kg
Tempered Raw Materials Cooking Extruder

120.5 kg, 27% Moisture 100–150°C, 40 sec
Moisture Loss Long Barrel Cooking and Forming Forming Extruder

6.5 kg Extruder 70–90°C,
Depressurization Valve
Extruded Pellets
Moisture Loss Drying

14 kg 60–80°C, 1–4 hr
Half Product
Moisture Loss Frying Frying Oil

10 kg Deep Fat Fryer, 175°C for 15–40 sec 43 kg
Salt, Citric Acid Coating Cooling

and Flavorings Powder Dispenser, Coating Drum Cooling Rack
4 kg
Flavored Third-generation
Snacks
137 kg, 2% Moisture, 32% Oil
Figure 12.7 Flowchart of the manufacturing process for the production of pellets and
third-generation snacks.
the subsequent barrel zones are heated to achieve starch gelatinization (Meuser and
Wiedmann 1989). In the cooking step, it is essential that the raw materials be fully
cooked or gelatinized unless the formulation contains pregelatinized or modified
starches. The typical extrusion cooking processing conditions includes temperatures
ranging from 100°C to 150°C, 25%–35% moisture, and 15–20 s residence time. The
screw design does not produce high mechanical energy as in high-shear extruders.
Most of the energy required to gelatinize the starch is supplied by the barrel, which
is usually heated with steam or water vapor. The most common setups are configured
to provide a moderate-to-low shear input. The cooked dough exiting the cooking
extruder is fed into the forming extruder, which works at totally different conditions.
This extruder cools and densifies the cooked plasticized dough before forming the
pellets. In order to achieve this, the screw is designed to provide low shear and pres-
sure. Most of the pressure in the forming extruder is produced by the die restriction.
The forming zone moves forward and cools down the extrudate to a temperature
of 90°C–110°C. The viscoelastic plastic material is continuously shaped by the die
into the desired pellet configuration. Some forming extruders are furnished with a
pressure release device or vent located immediately before the die. This prevents the
expansion of the extrudate and enhances the formation of high dense pellets. The
cooked, formed pellets exit the extruder with moisture content varying from 20% to
25%. The extrudate retains the shape of the die orifice because there is no expansion
taking place. In most instances, the material exiting the die is cut into thin pieces by
a cutter blade riding around the external die face. In some cases, the die is a thin slot,
which makes a continuous ribbon that is cut into uniform pieces with a rotary cutter
(Moore 1994). According to Meuser and Wiedmann (1989), approximately 3%–4%
moisture is lost in extruders equipped with vents at the discharge end.
Pellets are immediately dehydrated to lower their moisture content to about 10%–
12% (Figure 12.7). The drying process is a critical step because water should be
carefully removed from the pellet by evaporation in such a manner that the qual-
ity characteristics of the fried pellets will be controlled. Optimally, drying should
be performed in two sequential steps known as predrying and drying (Meuser and
Wiedmann 1989). Control of moisture removal is achieved by adjusting the temper-
ature–relative humidity residence time profile. Most plants use continuous belt or
drum driers set at temperatures around 45°C–90°C. The temperature and relative
humidity of the dryer should be carefully controlled to prevent blistering and crack-
ing of the pellet. The residence time required to lower the moisture to 12% or less
is between 1 and 8 hr depending on the pellet size, density, and initial moisture
content. It is recommended to equilibrate or temper the dried pellets for at least one
day before further processing. Frying or baking of recently dried pellets yield prod-
ucts with less expansion rate because moisture is more and less concentrated in the
geometric center and surface of the pellet configuration, respectively. However, most
industrially produced pellets are stored for long periods of time before further pro-
cessing, or are merchandized as half-products. Snack pellets are usually expanded in
deep-fat fryers or microwave ovens. Frying is usually performed at an oil tempera-
ture of 170°C–175°C for 10–40 s, depending on the pellet size. The expanded snacks
exit the fryer onto a mesh belt for oil draining. During the deep-fat frying operation,
heat is transferred from the hot oil onto the product surface by convection, and from
the surface into the center of the pellet by conduction. The water moves from the
inside to the evaporation zone, leaving the product surface as vapor. Some of this
vapor remains trapped within the intracellular pores due to restrictive diffusion. The
vapor will expand, distorting the pore walls and contributing to the internal porosity.
Most of the water is released and oil absorbed during the first 10 s of frying. The
result is production of an expanded product having suitable cell structure and desir-
able texture or mouthfeel. The bulk density of these expanded products fluctuates
from 40 to 100 g/L (Moore 1994). During this critical operation, the extrudate drops
its moisture to less than 2%, and also develops the characteristic texture, flavor, and
color due to Maillard reactions (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
Baking is the other common alternative for expanding half-products. Air impinge-
ment ovens are recommended because of their high rate of heat transfer. The development
of products for microwaving and production of low-fat items is gaining popularity.
382 Cereal Grains
These snacks are usually flavored with powdered seasonings generally applied
with a belt-type flavor depositor or in a revolving tumbler. The first equipment has
an adjustable dispenser to promote uniform application of dry seasonings and a wire
mesh belt that moves and sifts the flavorings to eliminate lumps. Salt and flavorings
can also be applied in rotating tumblers or drums equipped with liquid sprayers,
augers, or electrostatic powder dispensers. After seasoning, fried products are cooled
and immediately packaged in moisture-proof bags to avoid rancidity and loss of
crispiness due to moisture uptake (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
12.5.3 Coextrusion
Coextruded snacks have been manufactured since the 1980s by injecting or pumping
a filling into a void in an expanded item. The coxtrusion technology consists of the
combination of two materials in an extrusion die. This process allows manufacturers
to make products with two textures, two colors, and/or two flavors (Moore 1994).
Most dual-textured snacks fall into the cereal tube/fat-based filling, cheese filled
being the most common savory snack. The use of fat-based fillings will minimize the
problem of water migration from the inner fill to the outer crust and prevent loss of
crispness, because both layers will have similar water activities (Aw of approximately
0.65). Twin-screw extruders are the preferred for this application (Harper 1989).
Many variations of coextrusion may be made with dies and postextrusion equipment
such as rollers, stampers, and belt-type cutters (Huber 2001). Few truly coextruded
snacks have found success in the market due to their lower shelf life and the loss of
texture due to migration of moisture from the filling to the outer extruded shell. The
engineering and design of the die for coextrusion is of paramount importance. The
extruded portion of the snack flows directly through the die parallel to the direction
of flow through the barrel. The filling is pumped into the die perpendicular to the
flow of the outer shell extrudate and into the center of the extrudate flow region. The
amount of filling pumped controls the coextruded product dimensions and affects
the filling to shell ratio (Huber 2001).
12.6 Wheat-Based Snacks

Wheat flour is extensively utilized to produce snacks such as crackers, crispbreads,
and pretzels. The preparation of crackers is described in Chapter 10. The industrial
manufacturing process to obtain toasted bread is practically identical to production
of fresh bread with the additional operation of bread toasting or drying. There are
many bread formulations generally produced from refined wheat flour, whole wheat
flour, or composite flours produced from mixtures of wheat flour with oat, rye, or
various crushed grains. Sesame is frequently used as a topping. Typical formulations
to obtain French, white pan, whole wheat oat, pumpernickel, and rye breads are
described in Chapter 10.
Toasted or crispbreads have prolonged microbial shelf life because they generally
contain approximately 6% water equivalent or an Aw of less than 0.5 and a pH below
5. The dehydration toasting process enhances staling and the crispy and brittle tex-
ture that characterize crispbreads. Fresh bread normally contains from 32% to 35%
moisture, and this moisture should be carefully removed to produce top-quality crisp-
breads. The rate of product dehydration depends on the oven settings and product
volume or dimensions. Toasting is different from baking because the baked product
is dehydrated at a lower temperature. The presence of residual reducing sugars can
greatly affect color if the oven temperature is not properly controlled. For instance,
sliced French-type breads or baguettes can be dehydrated at a higher temperature
than table bread that contains around 6% sugar in the formulation. Toasted breads
are usually dehydrated at temperatures ranging from 70°C to 150°C. It is common
in the industry to produce smaller loaves of sliced bread in order to enhance drying.
Crispbreads are allowed to cool and equilibrate at room temperature before being
packaging with materials that constitute an excellent barrier against environmental
moisture and oxygen. These products should be protected from lipid oxidation or ran-
cidity because they are expected to last longer on the shelf (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
12.6.1 Production of Crispbreads

Crispbreads produced with extrusion technology have created a whole new array of
snack foods that are low in calories and widely accepted, especially in Europe. The
possibility for wide variation in the design of the extrudate has been exploited. The
European market has the traditional rectangular-shaped crisps, but new filled forms
such as U-shaped and hollow tubes are becoming more important. In this instance,
the extrusion line replaces the large and expensive baking line used in commercial
crispbread manufacturing. Meuser and Wiedmann (1989) described the application
of extrusion cooking for the production of crispbread analogs. The typical crumb
texture is obtained by direct expansion caused by vapor water when the extrudate
leaves the slit die. Exiting pieces of crispbreads cool as the water evaporates and
shrink a little and solidify into their final configuration. The extrudate is transver-
sally cut into slices before packaging. The term crispbread is a misnomer because the
product is not fermented with yeast, and the product texture is greatly influenced by
the starch-containing raw materials rather than the wheat gluten.
Figure 12.8 depicts a flowchart of the crispbread extrusion production line. The
more important unit operations are the twin-screw extrusion, baking, and toast-
ing. There are many recipes to produce different types of crispbreads. The most
common formulation consists of wheat flour, salt, sugar, milk, egg solids, fat/oils,
and water. The process starts when a pneumatic mixer thoroughly blends dry raw
materials that are pneumatically fed by a rotary discharge valve into a hopper. The
blend is then fed volumetrically by a twin-screw conveyor into the inlet of the twin
extruder (Figure 12.8). The rate is adjusted to achieve a constant mass flow. The
twin-screw extruder is designed as corotating and intermeshing. The barrel has five
different zones: feed, liquid metering, venting, plasticizing, pressurizing, and die.
In the feed zone, the moisture content of the incoming blend is increased from 14%
to 19%. The liquid metering should be adjusted to deliver the water to achieve the
target moisture content, otherwise the extrudate will not have the desired texture
and quality. The barrel has a deaeration port placed before the plasticizing area. The
deaeration reduces the degree of filling of the screws by increasing the product den-
sity. In the plasticizing zone, the screws are equipped with reverse-pitch elements to
384 Cereal Grains
Wheat Flour, Maize Grits, Sugar,

Salt, Dry Milk, Egg Solids, Oil
Mixing
Pneumatic Mixer
Volumetric Feeder
Water Twin Screw Extrusion

6.2 kg Counterotation/Intermeshed Screws
150 rpm, 100–180°C in Sooking and Pressure-die
Barrel Zones, Slit Die Orifices
Water Vapor
11.7 kg
Expanded Extrudate Strips
94.5 kg, 9% Moisture, 100°C
Threading, Gripping and Cutting

Take off Rolls
Baking Water Vapor

Infrared Oven Set at 400°C, Residence Time = 10 sec. 3 kg
Cooling
Cooling Conveyor
Slices of Crispbread
Stacking/Packaging
Figure 12.8 Flowchart of the manufacturing process for the production of crispbreads by

extrusion cooking.
increase residence time and ensure air-free plasticization. In this particular area, the
feedstock increases its temperature to approximately 100°C. The plasticized dough
is subsequently transported to the pressure buildup barrel area, where the dough
raises its temperature to 180°C for a matter of only a few seconds. The melted dough
immediately expands and releases vapor water and heat when it exits the slit-con-
figured die orifices. The extrudate temperature drops to 100°C, and approximately
9% water flashes out as steam. The expansion rate is carefully controlled to meet
packaging requirements and package weight. The expanded strips of crispbreads
are threaded and gripped by a pair of takeoff rolls and cross-cut into slices. The
cut slices, with approximately 9% moisture, are then toasted in an electric infra-
red oven set at 400°C for 10 s, where they will further decrease their moisture to
about 6%. Toasting enhances the textural, browning, and organoleptic properties
of crispbreads. The resulting crispbreads are then cooled and immediately pack-
aged (Meuser and Wiedmann 1989). From 100 kg flour are obtained about 91.5 kg
of crispbread with 6% moisture (Figure 12.8). As with direct expanded products,

the quality of crispbreads is related to the ingredients of the formulation and their
composition. Addition of wheat bran to produce lower-calorie and high-fiber crisp-
breads reduces expansion rate and product thickness. There are products containing
65%–85% wheat bran in the European market; however, these high-fiber extrudates
are hard and brittle (Meuser and Wiedmann 1989).
12.6.2 Production of Hard Pretzels

Pretzels are a wheat-based snack food with 800 years of history. According to
Terry Groff (2001), pretzels were first produced by a monk in the 12th century as
a reward to religious children. The typical pretzel configuration clearly shows a
cross in the middle representing the crossed arms of a Christian prayer. Pretzels
are clearly represented on the coat of arms of the bakers of Vienna. In 1529, these
bakers heard the Turks digging a tunnel they planned to use to conquer Vienna.
The bakers raised the alarm and saved the city. Since then, pretzels have been
the symbol of bakers throughout Europe, especially in Germany, Austria, and
Switzerland.
Pretzels are very popular in the European Community and the United States. In
the United States, they are the third-largest-selling salted snack food, with total sales
that exceed $1.3 billion. Pretzels are popular among Anglo populations because of
their unique flavor and energy density. Among snacks, it is the one that contains the
least calories and fat (Chapter 17). Pretzels are divided into two categories: hard and
soft. The first category is considered a snack, whereas the second category is treated
as a baking good (Chapter 10). Both types are manufactured from fermented wheat
flour dough that is treated with a covering of a sodium hydroxide or other alkali
salt solution prior to baking (Figure 12.9). Pretzels are unique because the flavor
and color are due to this sodium hydroxide wash. The typical flavor profile is also
affected by the products yielded during fermentation, non-diastatic malt, and salt
(Table 12.3). Soft wheat flour is recommended for hard-textured pretzels, and hard
wheat for soft pretzels. Wheat flour is mixed with water (42% water absorption),
0.25% oil, 0.25% sugar, and 0.027% yeast to form a coarse dough that is rested for
20 min before mechanical rolling and forming into cylinders that are molded into
traditional hard pretzel forms such as bow tie or other forms. Pretzels are fermented
with yeast for a short time (30 min), formed, and washed for 25 to 30 s with a 1%
sodium hydroxide solution heated to approximately 93°C. Next, they are immedi-
ately salted, flavored, and baked. For hard pretzels, baking is performed in three
sequential steps: the first step lasts approximately 10 min at high temperature and
is aimed at the formation of the typical dark brownish crust. The other two baking
stages are to dehydrate the product and produce the typical crisp texture. A good
pretzel should have a dark brownish outer crust and a white inner crumb with small
and homogenously distributed gas cells or loci.
Dough mixing is accomplished using the same equipment utilized for bread mak-
ing. However, the pretzel dough is formed with less water (40% to 50%) when com-
pared with table bread (62%–65%). Therefore, the dough is more difficult to mix
and handle, and the mixer requires more energy or potency to blend the dough. Most
386 Cereal Grains
Shortening 2.5 kg Soft Wheat Flour Water

Nondiastatic Malt 2.5 kg 100 kg, 8.5% Protein, 14% Moisture 42 kg
Ammonium Bicarbonate 0.15
Dry Yeast 0.3 kg
Mixing
Extrusion/Forming
Batch Mixers
Sheeting/Forming
Twin Roll Cutting Machine
Scrap
Dough
Dough Pieces
Dough Fermentation Sodium Hydroxide Bath

Continuous Fermentation Conveyors, 1–1.5% NaOH, 93°C, 10–30 sec
28°C/85% RH, 20 min
Salting/Flavoring Coarse Salt

Flavoring Dispenser 2 kg
Baking
Gas Fired Oven, 2.5–3 min, 260–290°C
Toasting/Drying Water Loss

Gas Fired Oven, 6–45 min, 115–130°C 16.5 kg
Cooling
Cooling Conveyor
Hard Pretzels
Packaging
Moisture and Gas Proof Packaging Materials
Figure 12.9 Flowchart of the manufacturing process for the production of hard pretzels.
processing lines use batch mixers, although some high-capacity industries use con-
tinuous mixers that consist of a gravimetric feeder for the flour and a liquid metering
device to deliver water and the other ingredients. The dough is mixed by the action
of a single shaft with impellers and mixing blades. The dough exiting from the dis-
charge die is cut to predetermined dough pieces and transferred to the forming/
molding machines. However, most forming machines used nowadays are extruders
because they adapt to fully automated and high-volume manufacturing lines. The
extruder is fed with the pretzel dough, and the screw forces the dough through the
die to produce the predetermined pretzel form. The dough is shaped at relatively low
pressure. The thickness of the pretzel is controlled by the speed of the reciprocating
blade or knife working immediately after the die. The extruder has a short barrel and
a special screw design (low shear) in order to avoid the modification of the dough
rheological properties. Some extruders have the capacity of processing 800 kg/h.
A twin-roll cutting machine can also form pretzels. A roll that rotates on top of the
dough positioned on a moving belt cuts the laminated pretzel dough. Scrap dough is
Table 12.3
Formulation Commonly Used to
Manufacture Hard Pretzelsa
Ingredient Bakers Formulation (%)
Soft wheat flour 100.00
Water 46.70
Vegetable shortening 2.50
Non-diastatic malt 2.50
Dry yeast b 0.30
Ammonium bicarbonate 0.15
Source: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2008. Industrial Manufacture of

Snack Foods. Kennedys Publications, London.
a Coarse or flaked salt is applied on the pretzels before baking.
b Compressed yeast can be used instead of dry yeast at a con-
centration of 0.9%–1%.
recirculated to the hopper, reworked, and reused (Matz 1992, Serna-Saldivar 2008).
From the forming machine, the cut pretzel is transferred into proof cabinets con-
sisting of automated systems of a continuous conveyor. Regardless of the type of
proofing device, the pretzels are rested for 5 to 20 min at temperatures ranging from
28°C to 37°C. For this specific product, it is desirable that the pretzel form a partially
dehydrated crust; thus, proofers do not work with a high-relative-humidity setting as
with other types of fermented bakery products. The aim of the short time proofing
is to activate the yeast so as to produce carbon dioxide and flavor compounds. The
carbon dioxide is necessary to slightly increase the pretzel volume and form the
typical crumb structure; and the generation of fermented flavor compounds contrib-
utes to the pretzel flavor profile and pH. Proofing times should be increased if dry
yeast is used in the formulation because it takes longer for the dehydrated yeast cells
to activate. The most important and critical operation, which distinguishes pretzel
production and characteristics, is lye cooking. The preformed dough pieces are sim-
ply cooked by dipping in a hot sodium hydroxide bath. Variables to control in this
important operation are dwell time, solution temperature, and pH or strength of the
lye solution. Most pretzels are cooked for 10 to 15 s at 90°C using a 1% to 1.5%
sodium hydroxide solution. The aim is to change the pH and to gelatinize the surface
starch located on the crust. Cookers have tube heat exchangers and a belt system that
moves the pretzels forward along the cooker. Because most fermented pretzels tend
to float, the conveying system forces the pretzels to submerge. The alternative is to
apply a waterfall curtain of hot lye solution onto the pretzel dough forms. After the
sodium hydroxide treatment, excess lye is allowed to drain and the precooked pret-
zels are conveyed under a salt dispenser and then immediately baked. The salt dis-
penser equipment works with a special system to recirculate salt that does not adhere
to the product. The salt generally used is coarse or flaked (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
388 Cereal Grains
Baking is performed in several stages with different time–temperature profiles

(Seetharaman et al. 2004). Pretzels are first baked and then kilned to drop the mois-
ture content and produce the typical texture. Baking is continuously performed in
wire mesh, gas-fired, and automated ovens that have at least three recognized tem-
perature areas. The dwell time varies from 2.5 to 10 min, depending on the type of
pretzel being produced. The temperature profile also varies according to the product,
but in most cases the first zone is set at a temperature 10°C–15°C higher than the next
baking zones. The common oven conditions to manufacture regular hard pretzels are
288°C, 260°C, and 260°C for 2.5–3 min. The temperature is adjusted to avoid excess
dehydration of the crust and blistering. During this important operation, the typical
color develops due to caramelization and browning reactions, which are exacerbated
by the alkaline pH. For production of hard pretzels, the baked pretzels containing
approximately 10% moisture are dehydrated or kilned in bands at temperatures rang-
ing from 115°C–130°C for 6–45 min. The final moisture content of hard pretzels
should be about 2%–3.5%. Overdrying yields hard pretzels that are more prone to
break during packaging, distribution, and handling, while under drying yields pret-
zels without the characteristic texture. Pretzels are usually only flavored with coarse
or flaked salt because they are formulated to be low-fat or no fat. Addition of season-
ings after baking is difficult because the flavorings will not adhere to the smooth
crusty surface of the product. To overcome this difficulty, pretzels are first treated
with a liquid adhesive blend followed by the application of a powdered seasoning
mix. The most common way to deliver the seasonings is on a moving belt. Pretzels
are cooled and generally packaged in a form-fill-seal machine. The packaging mate-
rial is laminated or coextruded and should be an excellent barrier against air humid-
ity and gases. Hard pretzels are usually packaged with an inert gas to protect the
flavor and decrease the rate of product breakage during handling.
12.7 Packaging
Snack packaging materials should provide protection from flavor degradation,
texture loss, and product breakage. The presence of large amounts of fats or oils
indicates that a major requirement of snack packaging is grease-proofness. Most
packaging materials are multilaminated and have excellent protection against the
entry of environmental moisture, oxygen, and light, and are able to hold inert gases
that decrease rancidity and produce a pillow pouch that minimizes product breakage
Popcorn is one of the most hygroscopic of the crispy snack foods. In addition,
prepopped popcorn for retail distribution often contains salt, flavorings, and oil
or glazed sugar-based coatings, which also tend to absorb moisture from the air.
Therefore, popcorn-packaging materials should provide an excellent barrier against
moisture or water vapor. Freshly popped popcorn has a moisture content of 1.7%
and an Aw of only 0.06. Thus, popcorn is extremely prone to absorb water vapor
from the atmosphere, with a consequent loss of crispness. According to Robertson
(1993), the crispness intensity of popcorn starts deteriorating at the critical moisture
and Aw of 6.1% and 0.49%, respectively. The low density of the popcorn results in
a product that can actually cushion a compressing force. As a result, puncture and
tear requirements are low, allowing the utilization of low-gauge films. PVdC-coated
or coextruded heat-sealable OPP are typical plies for the inside of packaging films.
Metallized OPP and polyester better protect the popcorn from air moisture, and
therefore are used when long shelf life is required.
In recent years, the market and utilization of microwavable popcorn for in-
home preparation has rapidly increased. The microwave energy is generated by
a magnetron and is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a characteristic
wavelength, amplitude, and frequency. According to Decareau (1985), most com-
mercial microwaves operate at a frequency of 2450 MHz, wavelength of 3 × 108
m/s, and a frequency of 122.4 mm. In the microwave oven, the oven cavity is
three-dimensional, and waves are scattered in all directions. For this reason,
the electric field varies along the different sections of the oven, and most micro-
waves are provided with turntables. The most-used microwave bags are built
from PE-coated paperboard. The container itself must not absorb or reflect sig-
nificant amounts of the microwave radiation, and should not soften and give off
toxic and undesirable odors after ending the popping cycle. The microwavable
bags contain a layer called a susceptor, which absorbs microwave energy and
turns it into localized heat (Brandberg and Andreas 1976, Robertson 1993). The
maximum expansion volume of popcorn occurs when the unpopped kernels have
an Aw of 0.5 to 0.65. At higher levels of Aw, kernels are more prone to microbial
growth, and when the Aw is lower than 0.4, a significantly lower popping volume
is obtained (Labuza and Contreras Medellin 1981).
The high bulk density of corn chips and tortilla chips compared with other snacks
creates unique packaging requirements. The high density allows for packaging at
faster speeds. Corn chips are not likely to cause punctures or tears to packaging
films because of their fairly uniform shape and size. On the contrary, the sharp edges
of triangular tortilla chips can cause severe punctures to the body of the package,
especially on the bottom seal. PVdC-coated PP or glassine, metalized PP or PE, and
coextruded OPP are the most commonly used materials to pack corn chips. A good
hot-tack and initial seal strength, especially of the bottom seal, are critical factors for
packaging these snacks. Overinflation of bags, a practice used to cushion the chips
and prevent breaking, also puts a demand on seal strength in bag forming, storage,
and distribution. Corn and tortilla chips require the moisture barrier typical of most
salted snacks. Oxygen and light barriers are not as critical as with other types of
snacks. Therefore, glossy, low haze transparent packaging materials are regularly
utilized (Robertson 1993).
The major deterioration in extruded and puffed snacks is loss of crispness. Most
extruded and puffed snacks are packaged in identical materials to that discussed ear-
lier. Puffed snacks are usually dried or baked to lower their moisture content to 1.5%,
which corresponds to an Aw of 0.08. The critical Aw for puffed corn curls has been
reported as 0.36, which corresponds to a moisture content of 4.2% (Robertson 1993).
Self-Evaluation
1. What are the differences between first-, second-, and third-generation
snacks?
390 Cereal Grains
2. What are the ideal popcorn kernel properties? What are the differences
between and uses of mushroom and butterfly popcorn? Which is the most
critical and important equipment used to test popcorn? Briefly describe its
principle of operation.
3. What are the differences between corn chips and tortilla chips in terms of
processing and product characteristics?
4. Describe the flowchart of the CornNutsTM manufacturing process? What is
the ideal kernel for this application?
5. Describe at least one process alternative to produce low-fat corn chips?
6. Describe at least two process alternatives to produce low-fat tortilla chips
and one to produce fat-free (no added fat) tortilla chips?
7. What is thermoplastic extrusion? What are the five basic parts of the
extruder? What are the main advantages of using extrusion cooking instead
of traditional processes?
8. Compare direct and pellet-forming extrusion processes in terms of equip-
ment, raw materials, and product characteristics.
9. Compare the direct-baked expanded and fried extrusion processes used to
produce puffs.
10. Describe the water–oil exchange phenomena that occur during frying
operations.
11. What are the key and most critical operations for the manufacture of
extruded crispbreads?
12. What are the key and most critical operations for the manufacture of pret-
zels? What is the main functionality of the NaOH treatment in terms of
organoleptic properties of pretzels?
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13 Industrial Production
of Modified Starches
and Syrups
13.1 Introduction
Native starches, obtained by the various wet-milling processes described in Chapter
8, are industrially transformed by physicochemical and enzymatic processes into
modified or functional starches or an array of syrups with different degrees of
sweetness. Approximately 285 million bushels of native and modified starches were
produced in the United States in the year 2006 (U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Economic Research Service 2009). Modified starches acquire specific functional
properties for special applications in the food industry. They are widely used as
thickeners in the canning industry, as base for batters and breadings (Chapter 10), as
emulsifiers, and as adhesives or glues in non-food-related industries.
The main industrial use of starch is as a basic raw material for the production
of syrups, glucose and fructose being the most widely produced sweeteners. In the
United States, approximately 764 million bushels of sweeteners were produced in the
year 2006. About 70% of these sweeteners were high-fructose maize syrups (U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service 2009). The biotransforma-
tion of starch into syrups consists of the hydrolysis of amylose and amylopectin
chains by specific amylolytic enzymes (BeMiller and Whistler 2009, Whistler et al.
1984). The glucose isomerase enzyme is used to convert glucose into the sweeter
fructose, present in fructose syrups, which are in high production and demand.
13.2 Native Starches
Starch is the most important food ingredient for mankind. The industrial use of
refined starch has increased during the last decades due to the increasing demand
for sweeteners, alcohol, and pseudoplastic packaging films. In the United States, 26
million metric tons of maize are converted into starch by the wet-milling industry
(Chapter 8). Of these, approximately 20 million metric tons of maize are further
converted into sweeteners (Johnson and May 2003, Hobbs 2003).
All cereals store amylose and amylopectin molecules in simple or compound
granules (Chapter 4). Starch granules from a single cereal differ from one another
in size, shape, and other characteristics. The different granules possess different
melting and swelling properties and respond differently to enzymatic hydrolysis. A
395
396 Cereal Grains
regular endosperm cereal generally contains 25% linear amylose and 75% branched
amylopectin. However, there are mutants that express different ratios of amylose to
amylopectin. These mutants have been selected by plant breeders in order to pro-
vide starches with special properties or functionalities for the industry, and have
recently been viewed as nutritionally advantageous. Undoubtedly, the most impor-
tant mutants are the waxy genotypes that, upon wet milling, yield waxy starches.
These starches contain more than 95% amylopectin. The low amount of amylose
makes these starches stain red when treated with iodine instead of the typical blue
coloration observed in regular counterparts. The internal structure of these gran-
ules differs from that of regular endosperm genotypes. There are waxy genotypes
in maize, rice, wheat, barley, and sorghum. These starches have different viscoamy-
lograph properties, especially upon cooling. Waxy starch granules have a lower rate
of retrogradation, produce weaker gels, and minimize syneresis. This is due to the
low interaction of branched and gelatinized amylopectin chains while cooling. The
final result is that waxy starches form weak and translucent gels, are less prone to
syneresis (liberation of water due to retrogradation), and are generally used to pro-
duce translucent maltodextrins for refrigerated applications (i.e., production of pies).
Maize is the most popular waxy cereal used by the industry. More than 2.5 million
metric tons are wet milled in the U.S. annually. The refining of maize waxy starch
was started after World War II due to the low availability of tapioca (Manihot escu-
lenta) starch. The other waxy cereals are usually used as whole grains or in refined
flours for the production of unique products with special texture characteristics. For
example, waxy rice is widely used for the production of Sushi rice, waxy wheat for
manufacturing Asian noodles (Chapter 10), and hull-less waxy barley flour for the
production of tortillas. Nutritionally, waxy starches are being viewed as low-releas-
ing glucose materials favoring the glycemic index. The waxy sorghum grain has
nutritional advantages over regular endosperm types in feedlots because the starch
granules are associated with a weaker protein matrix. The end result is that waxy
sorghums have increased protein and energy digestibilities and produce better feed–
gain conversions (Chapter 18).
Among maize mutants, there is one named high amylose, which contains from
50% to 80% of this type of starch molecule. Agronomically, they are low yielding,
and their commercial use is practically nil. High-amylose starches require higher
gelatinization temperature and produce stronger, opaque gels upon cooling. These
characteristics make them ideally suited to the production of adhesives or glues and
as paper covering.
13.3 Modified Starches

13.3.1 Physically Modified Starches
The most physically modified starch produced nowadays is the thermal-treated or
pregelatinized starch. These instant starches are hydrosoluble even in cold water
and are frequently used as thickeners in foods that receive minimal heat process-
ing. Pregelatinization methods include drum drying, spray cooking, solvent-based
processing, and extrusion (Thomas and Atwell 1999). Most instant starch processes
Industrial Production of Modified Starches and Syrups 397
used today are aimed toward affecting the starch granule integrity to form fragments
or physically dissociated forms. Drum drying is the most common manufacturing
method of pregelatinized starches. Two general types of drum dryers are used: single
or double drum. The typical process consists of heating a 30%–40% starch slurry in
the drum dryer. The slurry is fed directly between the applicator roll and the heated
drum. Although the manufacturing is conceptually straightforward, the operation
of the drum dryer requires experience to yield high-quality and consistent products.
During heating, most water evaporates, and the resulting pregelatinized and dried
starch film is removed from the drum with a blade. Next, the dried starch film is
ground to the desired granulation. The degree of gelatinization produces different
viscosity profiles. Typically, the still intact starch granules act like water sponges,
imparting viscosity. The particle size of the ground, pregelatinized starch also affects
the texture and dispersibility. A fine grind tends to generate instant starches that pro-
duce a smoother texture and less dispersibility (Table 13.1).
Spray cooking consists of first heating a starch slurry in a jet cooker, followed by
spray drying. This manufacturing process is not frequently used in the industry due
to the comparatively high costs (Mauro et al. 2003).
13.3.2 Chemically Modified Starches

Modified starches are industrially manufactured to fulfill special functionalities
or uses. Modifications are aimed toward altering the starch granule characteristics
and, therefore, susceptibility to gelatinization, cooking, retrogradation, and gelling.
Chemical modifications can be hydrolytic, oxidative, ester forming, or ether form-
ing. The most widely used types of modified starches are acid thinning, oxidized/
bleached, molecular crossbonded, and chemically substituted or derivatized. Some
starches are manufactured by combining the methods described earlier. The aim is
to modify the viscoamylograph properties in terms of water affinity, pasting, vis-
cosity, retrogradation, and gelling (Johnson 2000, Mauro et al. 2003, Thomas and
Atwell 1999).
Most manufacturing technologies consist of treating native starches in a reactor
with temperature and agitation controls. Generally, a starch slurry with approxi-
mately 35% solids and adjusted to a certain pH is treated with chemicals to promote
the desired reactions. In most instances, gelatinization and starch solubilization is
avoided so as to prevent the disruption of the starch granule.
13.3.2.1 Acid-Treated Starches
Acid-treated starches, also called dextrinized starches, are obtained after treating a
starch slurry with acid at temperatures below gelatinization (Johnson 2000, Mauro
et al. 2003). Their main use is as a filling for confectionary items. The manufactur-
ing process consists of treating the starch slurry with hydrochloric or sulfuric acid
(1%–3% based on the starch weight). Most reactions are carried on in slurries con-
taining 35% solids at temperatures of around 50°C. The acid causes the chemical
dextrinization of the starch or random hydrolysis of α-1,4- and α-1,6-glycosidic
bonds. These starches maintain their granular structure and birefringence (Rohwer
and Klem 1984). The depolymerization mainly occurs in the amorphous zones of
398
Table 13.1
Composition and Properties of Physically and Chemically Modified Starches
Type of Starch Reactant and Mechanism Result Use and Application
Pregelatinized Heat treatment in the presence of water to Gelatinizes starch Instant starches or cold water dispersible;
enhance starch gelatinization used in beverages and puddings
Acid Treatment with acids in order to randomly Reduces viscosity (acid Confectionary industry (fillings for
hydrolyze starch molecules thinning) and produces firmer candies) and paper coatings
gels
Dextrinized Dry heat with acid or alkaline catalyst Disrupts starch granule integrity Improved water solubility and reduced
viscosity
Oxidative Treatment with sodium hypochlorite in order to Reduces viscosity, gelling, and Food applications for high solids and
oxidize hydroxyl groups to carboxyl or retrogradation, and yields clear lower viscosity; used as additive for
carbonyl groups pastes batters and breadings; also used as
sizings for paper, textiles, and adhesives
Bleached Treatment with hydrogen peroxide, peracetic Produces fully white color Used as fluidizing agent for dry powders
acid, ammonium persulfate, potassium such as confectioner’s sugar
permanganate, and sodium chlorite or
hypochlorite to oxidize pigments such as
carotenoids and xanthophylls
Phosphated Treatment with monosodium orthophosphate or Introduction of phosphate Used as flocculants, emulsifiers, and
sodium tripolyphosphate groups to starch; increases adhesives in the food and paper
viscosity and produces stable industries
clear gels
Hydroxyethyl and Treatment with ethylene oxide and propylene Introduction of hydroxyethyl or Hydroxyethyl starches are mainly used as
hydroxypropylated oxide, respectively hydroxypropyl groups reduces surface sizings, paper coating, and
gelatinization temperature and adhesives, whereas hydroxypropylated
produces clearer and more starches are used in food gravies, pie
stable pastes fillings, and salad dressings
Cereal Grains
Acetate derivative Treatment with acetic anhydride Introduction of acetyl groups to Food thickeners and stabilizers in
reduce gelatinization gravies, fruit pies, salad dressings, and
temperature, increase hot-peak filled cakes
viscosity, reduce cold-paste
viscosity, and prevent
retrogradation
Succinate derivatives Succinic anhydride Introduction of succinate groups Used as food thickeners and for
to impart surface activity encapsulation; also used as textile
sizings and adhesives
Cross-Bonded
Distarch phosphate Phosphorus oxychloride, trimetaphosphate Crosslinking of glycosidic Retortable thickeners (canning industry),
chains; reduces swelling and salad dressings, and baby foods;
loss of viscosity due to functional ingredient in the production
temperature, shear, and acid of thermoplastic extruded foods
Distarch adipate Adipic and acetic acids As above As above
Source: Data from Johnson, L.A. 2000. Chapter 2 in Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, K. Kulp and J. Ponte (eds.). Second edition. Marcel
Dekker, New York; Mauro, D.J. et al. 2003. Chapter 16 in Corn Chemistry and Technology, P.J. White and L.A. Johnson (eds.). American Association
of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN; and Thomas, D.J., and Atwell, W.A. 1999. Starches. Eagan Press, St. Paul, MN.
Industrial Production of Modified Starches and Syrups
399
400 Cereal Grains
Potato Regular Wheat

Waxy Maize Acetyalated Maize
Regular Maize Cross-bonded
Regular Rice
100
90
80
Relative Viscosity
Temperature ºC
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Time
Figure 13.1 Comparative pasting behavior of different types of starches.
the starch granule. When the desired viscosity is achieved, the solution is generally
neutralized and the starch is filtered out. Acid-treated starches, need higher tem-
perature for gelatinization, have reduced granule-swelling capacity, and primarily
reduced paste viscosity (Figure 13.1). The molecular weight of the starch decreases
because the long chains are hydrolyzed into dextrins. Acid starches are hydrosoluble,
and yield weaker pastes and strong and clear gels upon gelatinization and cooling
(Table 13.1). This is because the lower-molecular-weight dextrins are more prone to
retrogradation. Acid-treated starches are also used as adhesives and paper coatings
(Sharp and Sharp 1994).
13.3.2.2 Oxidized/Bleached Starches
The oxidation of native starches is aimed toward bleaching and modifying functional
properties. The main purpose of bleaching is to improve the whiteness of the starch
powder by oxidizing impurities such as carotenes and xanthophylls. Bleaching is
generally accomplished by using oxidizing agents at relatively low concentrations.
The alkaline hypochlorite is the reagent most utilized for this purpose. Hypochlorite
oxidation primarily involves carbons 2, 3, and 6. Other compounds used are hydro-
gen peroxide, peracetic acid, ammonium persulfate, and potassium permangan-
ate. The oxidizing treatment also significantly reduces bacterial and mold counts.
Generally, the native starch is treated with the oxidizing agent, and then the slurry
is neutralized with sodium bisulfite. The treated starch is filtered out, washed, and
then carefully dehydrated. Countercurrent drying at temperatures of about 60°C is
usually applied. The oxidation mainly occurs in the amorphous regions of the starch
granule where starch chains depolymerize due to breakage of glycosidic bonds. In

addition, the hydroxyl group is oxidized into carboxyl and carbonyl groups. Similar
to acid-treated starches, oxidized counterparts have a comparatively lower viscosity
at the peak of gelatinization and after retrogradation (Table 13.1). This starch is used
to improve the adhesiveness of batters and breadings, in the textile industry, and
as a surface paper coating. Approximately 80%–85% of the oxidized starches with
hypochlorite are channeled to the paper industry (Johnson 2000, Mauro et al. 2003,
Rutenberg and Solarek 1984, Sharp and Sharp 1994, Thomas and Atwell 1999).
13.3.2.3 Cross-Bonded Starches
Cross-linking is one of the most common types of chemical modification because
the reaction has a dramatic effect on the viscosity profile of starch. Cross-bonded
starches are used by the food industry because they have a relatively constant viscos-
ity during heating and cooling cycles, and less granular swelling during cooking.
This kind of modification is performed in order to prevent starch granule rupture
during thermal treatments. Highly modified cross-bonded starches do not gelati-
nize with regular cooking or even with pressure cooking in autoclaves or retorts
(Rutenberg and Solarek 1984). The process consists of treating the starch with phos-
phorus oxychloride, trimetaphosphate or epichlorohydrin, and adipic/acetic acid.
Starches crossbond intra- and intermolecularly due to the reaction of hydroxide
groups, increasing the molecular weight. The product of the phosphorus oxychloride
or sodium trimetaphosphate reactions is a distarch phosphate bound by an ester link-
age. These reactions are carried out with native starch at slight alkaline pH. After
achieving the desired degree of cross-linking, the slurry is neutralized, filtrated,
washed, and dried. The mixed adipic and acetic anhydride reagent also creates ester
linkages substituted with acetyl groups. These modified starches are mainly used as
thickeners in the canning industry (i.e., soups, gravies, infant foods), in batter and
breading recipes, for the preparation of dressings, and as a functional ingredient in
the production of thermoplastic-extruded foods (Figure 13.1; Table 13.1) (BeMiller
and Whistler 2009, Johnson 2000, Mauro et al. 2003, Sharp and Sharp 1994, Thomas
and Atwell 1999).
13.3.2.4 Derivatized and Substituted Starches

The chemical substitution of hydroxyl groups with functional groups yields modi-
fied starches with unique functionalities and uses. Acetylated and hydroxypropylated
starches are produced after treatment with anhydrous acetic and propylene oxide
under an alkaline pH, respectively. After the reaction, the slurry is neutralized, fil-
tered, and dried. These derivatized starches are less prone to retrogradation, produce
weaker and clearer gels, and have improved water-holding capacity (Mauro et al.
2003, Thomas and Atwell 1999).
Esterified starches are produced from acetate, phosphate, or succinates. Acetylated
starches are manufactured from anhydrous acetic oxide in a slightly alkaline (pH
8–8.4 due to NaOH addition) starch slurry. The anhydrous acetic oxide reacts with
hydroxyl groups, forming methyl esters. The main functional modification of acety-
lated starches is the lower gelatinization and peak-viscosity temperatures that usu-
ally occur at approximately 10°C, compared to native raw counterparts. In addition,
402 Cereal Grains
these starches are less prone to retrogradation upon cooling. The main uses are
as thickeners in the canning industry and in refrigerated or frozen-food products
because acetylation prevents syneresis and the cloudy appearance of gels (Rutenberg
and Solarek 1984).
Hydroxypropylation increases freeze–thaw stability, decreases gelatinization and
pasting temperatures, and improves paste clarity. The hydroxyalkylated starches are
obtained after treatment with alkylene oxide under alkaline conditions. The hydroxyl
groups located in the second position of glucose units are the preferred sites of sub-
stitution. These starches have similar properties, functionalities, and uses as their
acetylated counterparts (Table 13.1).
Starches substituted with phosphate esters are prepared by treating native starch
with orthophosphate at a slightly acidic pH (5–6.5) at temperatures of 120°C–160°C.
These starches form a phosphate ester that imparts distinctive functionalities such
as production of clear and stable gels that resist retrogradation. In addition, they
have high viscosity and good cohesiveness (Table 13.1). In the food industry, they
are mainly used as emulsifiers due to the high polar capacity of the phosphate ester.
These starches are alternatively used in the paper industry (Sharp and Sharp 1994).
Succinated starches are produced from octenyl succinate and are used as emulsi-
fiers to encapsulate flavors, as stabilizing agents in dressings, and as clouding agents
for beverages.
13.4 Resistant Starches
The term resistant starch was first used by Hans Englyst in the early 1980s.
Recently, the term is becoming popular because these starches endure digestion
in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and, once reaching the large bowel, they
readily ferment into metabolites with proven health benefits (Saura-Calixto et al.
1993, Erickson 2005). One of the main acids produced by these microorganisms
is butyric acid, which plays a positive role in promoting colon health (Champ et
al. 2003). According to Erickson (2005), resistant starches are classified into four
categories.
13.4.1 Type I
Type I resistant starches are protected by cell walls, indigestible proteins, or other
barriers to the action of stomach hydrochloric acid or pancreatic amylolytic enzymes.
These starches can become more available if the barriers are mechanically removed,
or the food is thermally treated.
13.4.2 Type II
Although these are not common in cereals, type II resistant starches are highly crys-
talline native granules, such as those present in raw bananas (Musa acuminata) or
potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), and resist digestion in the small intestine.
13.4.3 Type III
Type III resistant starches are the most important in heat-processed foods. These
starches are formed after heat treatment or gelatinization and, upon cooling, form
retrograded starch and starch complexed with other food components (Garcia Alonso
et al. 1998). Retrogradation causes gradual increase in the firmness of bakery foods
(Biliaderis 1992, Englyst and MacFarlene 1986). The thermal treatments applied
during cereal processing (i.e., breakfast cereals, tortilla chips) promote the interac-
tion of the starch with other components (proteins, lipids, or itself) throughout stor-
age, making it less accessible to enzyme hydrolysis (Englyst and MacFarlane 1986,
Fisher and Thompson 1997). Biliaderis (1992) reported that, during the thermal pro-
cessing of starch-rich foods, resistant starch is formed due to amylose retrograda-
tion. This event involves the formation of a double-helix structure that is thermally
reversible at temperatures higher than 120°C. Since most cereal-based products are
thermally processed, this sort of resistant starch is purposely produced in new food
product developments.
13.4.4 Type IV
Type IV resistant starches are produced by promoting the modification of the
granular structure that results in glycosidic linkages other than α-1, 4, or 1–6.
This category also includes cross-bonded starches that are resistant to amylases.
The health implications of the different types of resistant starches are discussed
in Chapter 17.
13.5 Production of Syrups

The production of cereal-based sweeteners started more than 150 years ago and
greatly increased when the prices of crystallized sugar or sucrose produced from
cane sugar (Saccharum officinarum) or sugar beet (Brassica sp.) rose in the middle
of the twentieth century. Cereal-based sweeteners kept increasing in numbers as
new chemical and biotechnological discoveries were made. The industry started
producing syrups in the 1880s by chemically converting starch into a mixture of
dextrins and glucose. The industry was forced to evolve and produce higher amounts
of starch-based syrups due to the shortage of sucrose after World Wars I and II.
Two major breakthroughs occurred during the 1940s: A patent for an acid–enzyme
hydrolysis process that allowed the production of high-glucose syrup and the devel-
opment of carbon and ion-exchange technologies that improve the sensory and
color attributes of finished syrups (Hobbs 2003). The industry had to wait at least
20 more years for a new technological breakthrough that allowed for the production
of the enzyme glucose isomerase. This enzyme opened the commercial conversion
of glucose into fructose and, therefore, the production of high-fructose corn syr-
ups (HFCS). The development of glucose isomerase allowed processors to expand
the array of commercial, starch-based sweeteners and displaced higher amounts
of crystallized sugar used for the production of soft drinks. The industry almost
immediately advanced in terms of glucose–fructose separation with the invention
404 Cereal Grains
of moving-bed chromatography technologies, and so two new commercial fructose

syrups were produced (the 55 and 90 HFCS). Since the 1970s, the industry has
not technologically progressed much except for the use of new-generation enzymes
that hydrolyze starch more efficiently in a wider range of processing conditions.
Today, the industry produces most syrups for different applications using improved
enzymes such as thermostable α-amylase, amyloglucosidase, pullulanase, and glu-
cose isomerase. The last is almost always attached to supports in packaged reactors.
Most of the new enzymes are derived from genetically modified strains of bacteria
or molds.
The use of cereal-based syrups has increased because they can substitute for
sucrose and supply the industry with a wide array of products with different prop-
erties in terms of viscosity and sweetness. For example, the U.S. Corn Refiners
Association estimated that sales of maize-based syrups increased sixfold from 1970
to 2000 (from 1.8 million to 11 million tons, db). The soft drink industries are the
major users, followed by the confectionary, ice cream, baking, preserves, and break-
fast cereals industries.
Syrups are broadly divided into two categories: maltodextrins and sweeteners.
The last category is subdivided into maltose, glucose, and the most popular, fructose
or HFCS. Regardless of the kind of syrup, they are produced by acid conversion or
via biocatalysis with selected enzymes or a combination of both processes. The first
syrups were produced by acid hydrolysis. Acid hydrolysis yields maltodextrins with
low sweetness due to the low reducing power or dextrose (d-glucose) equivalents.
The dextrose equivalents (DE) measure the amount of reducing sugars, expressed on
a dry weight basis, present in a given syrup, and is highly related to sweetness. Other
important characteristics are viscosity, degree of polymerization, refractive index,
and density (°Bé). Typically, syrups with low DE are less sweet and more viscous
compared with counterparts with higher DE. With today’s enzyme technologies, it
is quite possible to have two syrups with the same DE and yet completely different
carbohydrate profiles and sweetness. This is most commonly seen when maltose
syrups are compared with acid-converted syrups, or 90 HFCS are compared with a
90 DE glucose syrup.
13.5.1 Acid Hydrolysis or Conversion

Commercial syrups manufactured by acid conversion range from 25 to 55 DE. A
higher DE is possible, but syrups tend to develop a bitter taste due to the formation of
isomaltose and gentiobiose (BeMiller and Whistler 2009, Hobbs 2003). Acid hydro-
lysis is performed in 35%–40% starch slurries using a 0.02–0.04 N hydrochloric acid
solution in a pressurized reactor. A higher acid concentration or longer process time
can yield undesirable compounds such as methylfurfural, formic acid, and others
that produce off-flavors and colors. The slurry is heated at 5 bar to approximately
130°C–160°C for 15–20 min until achieving the desired conversion. Following filtra-
tion, the hydrolyzate is treated with sodium carbonate to increase the pH to approxi-
mately 4.5–5.0. Acid hydrolysis produces syrups with low DE, or it is used as the
initial step in the production of other sweeteners.
13.5.2 Enzyme Conversion
Enzyme conversions are more specific and controlled compared to acid hydroly-
sis. This is due to the specificity of the enzymes for certain substrates or chemi-
cal bonds. The final result is that enzyme-based processes yield better-quality
syrups. The most common and widely used enzymes with their specific activity
are α-amylase, β-amylase, pullulanase, amyloglucosidase, cyclodextrin glycosyl-
transferase, and glucose isomerase (Guzmán Maldonado and Paredes Lopez 1995,
Hobbs 2003, Kruger et al. 1987, Teague and Brumm 1992, Woods and Swinton
1995).
13.5.2.1 α-Amylase
α-Amylase is classified as an endoenzyme because it hydrolyzes α-1,4-glycosidic
bonds at random. For this reason, the enzyme is commonly known as scissor. The
process of converting starch into dextrins with α-amylase is industrially known as liq-
uefaction. This is due to the high reduction in viscosity of the gelatinized starch upon
α-amylase treatment. The hydrolysis of a gelatinized starch slurry with α-amylase
yields linear and branched dextrins and syrups with approximately 15%–25% DE.
Most α-amylases optimally work at pHs in the range of 5.5–7. Most α-amylases
used nowadays by both the sweetener and bioethanol industries are thermostable and
act optimally at temperatures ranging from 85°C to 95°C, although some can resist
temperatures close to 130°C. The advantages of these enzymes are the higher con-
version rates, which reduce catalysis times, and the thermal treatment aimed toward
starch gelatinization being able to be integrated into liquefaction. Both fungal and
bacterial α-amylases are commonly used in the industry. Fungal α-amylases are
usually obtained from Aspergillus oryzae, whereas heat-stable bacterial α-amylases
are generally produced by a genetically modified strain of Bacillus licheniformis.
These usually have an optimum activity at pH 6.5–7 and temperature 90°C (Guzmán
Maldonado and Paredes Lopez 1995, Hobbs 2003, Kruger et al. 1987, Teague and
Brumm 1992, Woods and Swinton 1995).
13.5.2.2 β-Amylase
This is an exoenzyme that converts linear and branched dextrins into maltose and
lower-molecular-weight dextrins. It is usually known as complementary amy-
lase because it hydrolyzes dextrins previously yielded by α-amylase. β-Amylase
sequentially hydrolyzes maltose units from the nonreducing end of starch or dex-
trins. The β-amylase activity ceases when it reaches an α-1,6-glycosidic bond
or a branch. The β-amylase is capable of converting linear dextrins or amylose
almost entirely into maltose and branched dextrins, or amylopectin into a mix-
ture of maltose and lower-molecular-weight dextrins. Therefore, it is the key to
the production of maltose syrups. The optimum pH and temperature ranges for
β-amylases are 5.0–5.5 and 55°C–60°C, respectively. Commercial β-amylases
are usually obtained from barley malt (Guzmán Maldonado and Paredes Lopez
1995, Hobbs 2003, Kruger et al. 1987, Teague and Brumm 1992, Woods and
Swinton 1995).
406 Cereal Grains
13.5.2.3 Pullulanase or Debranching Enzyme

This enzyme is known as pullulanase because it is derived from the derived Latin
word meaning jumping or leaping. It is also commonly known as debranching
enzyme because it has the specificity for α-1,6-glycosidic bonds. Pullulanases are
considered as complementary enzymes to achieve higher conversions, especially into
more reducing sugars. When used with α- and β-amylases, they increase the malt-
ose concentration key for the production of high-maltose syrup. In the bioethanol
industries, amyloglucosidases are usually supplemented with pullulanases in order
to achieve higher conversion rates and increase the production of fermenting sugars.
Regular and heat-stable pullulanases are produced today. Regular bacterial pullula-
nases are usually obtained from Klebsiella aerogens or Bacillus acidopullylyticus,
or from a fungi, Trichoderma (Hobbs 2003, Kruger et al. 1987). These enzymes have
optimum activity at pHs and temperatures between 4 and 7.5 and 50°C and 65°C,
respectively. Heat-stable pullulanases derived from strains of Clostridium thermohy-
drosulfuricum or Bacillus sp. are capable of working at temperatures of up to 90°C
(Kunamneni and Singh 2006, Saha et al. 1988).
13.5.2.4 Amyloglucosidase
This enzyme used to be called glucoamylase. It is an exoamylolytic enzyme that frees
glucose from dextrins, and is commonly known as the “Pac-Man” enzyme because it
releases glucose from dextrins in a stepwise fashion. Amyloglucosidase hydrolyzes
both α-1,4- and α-1,6-glycosidic bonds, and therefore, converts the starch or dextrins
into 100% glucose or dextrose. It acts optimally at pH 4.0–4.5 and a temperature of
60°C. Typically, amyloglucosidases are produced by genetically modified strain of
Aspergillus (Guzmán Maldonado and Paredes Lopez 1995, Hobbs 2003, Kruger et
al. 1987).
13.5.2.5 Cyclodextrin Glycosil Transferase (CGTase)

CGTase produces cyclic malto-oligosaccharides from α-1,4-dextrins with 6, 7, or 8
glucose units. These cyclodextrins are known as α, β, and γ, respectively. The inte-
rior and exterior of the cyclodextrins are hydrophobic and hydrophilic, respectively.
These unique properties make cyclodextrins ideally suited to enhance crystalliza-
tion of solids, liquids, and even gases. The crystals are used as stabilizing additives
(colorants, flavorings, aromas, vitamins, spices, and emulsions), and they help to pro-
tect active compounds against oxidation, light, and volatility (Friedman1991, Hobbs
2003, Starnes 1990).
13.5.2.6 Glucose Isomerase
This is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of glucose into fructose and, there-
fore, the key for the production of fructose-containing syrups. Glucose isomerase
is produced intracellularly by certain species of microorganisms. Most commercial
types are obtained from Actinoplanes and Streptomyces (Hobbs 2003). Glucose
isomerase is used almost entirely in immobilized form. The enzyme is usually
attached to an insoluble support, such as diethylaminoethyl (DEAE), cellulose, or
alumina, via adsorption. In most commercial applications, the immobilized enzyme
works at 60°C and a pH range of 7.5–8.5. Magnesium is usually added to the sub-
strate (i.e., glucose syrup) in order to trap residual calcium that significantly lowers
catalytic activity. Air or oxygen is removed or minimized before entering the reactor
because it also lowers enzyme activity and efficiency.
13.5.3 Syrups
In the United States, more than 90% of the starch is transformed into syrups. The
production and utilization of maize syrups has increased during the past decades
because the soft drink industries prefer to use sweeteners instead of crystallized
sugars. Maize sweeteners are preferred over sucrose because they readily dissolve in
water and are easier to incorporate into soft drinks, are easily flavored, and impart
a fruit flavor to beverages and foods. The high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), con-
taining 90% fructose, imparts 1.4 times more sweetness than sucrose at equivalent
concentrations (Table 13.2).
13.5.3.1 Low-DE Syrups (Maltodextrins)

The low-DE or maltodextrin-rich syrups are industrially produced by acid hydrolysis
or by α-amylase conversion (Figure 13.2). These syrups are the easiest to manufacture
and are the first step in the production of maltose, glucose, and HFCS. Acid hydro-
lysis is performed in 35%–40% starch suspensions using a 0.02–0.2 N hydrochloric
solution in a pressurized reactor. A higher acid concentration or longer process time
can yield undesirable compounds such as methylfurfural, formic acid, and/or off-
flavors and colors. That is the reason why the use of this technology is now limited.
The most popular way to convert starch into maltodextrins is by the utilization of
α-amylases. Today, heat-stable α-amylases are used because they require shorter
incubation and save processing time and energy. Their optimum activity is achieved
at a pH of 6.5 and temperatures of 90°C–100°C. Regular corn starch produces haze
formation, whereas utilization of waxy starch produces more stable syrups.
These syrups with 10–20 DE are very viscous, rich in maltodextrins, and low in
sweetness; therefore, they are mainly used as thickening agents. After refining, most
maltodextrin-rich syrups are commonly dehydrated using spray-drying technology
(Johnson 2000, Hoobs 2003).
A high-dextrin syrup adjusted to contain 15% solids and at pH 5–6 is used as
substrate for CGTase for cyclodextrin production. These cyclic oligosaccharides are
composed of six, seven, or eight glucose units linked by α-1,4 linkages to form, α, β,
or γ cyclodextrins, respectively. Cyclodextrins have several useful properties. They
impart superior chemical stability to bases and weak acids and excellent thermal
stability because they melt at temperatures of 270°C. Their hygroscopicity is low,
and they are resistant to amylolytic enzymes. In addition, they are used to enhance
chemical stability and reduce volatility of complexed molecules. They also mask
unpleasant odors and flavors.
13.5.3.2 Maltose Syrups

Regular and high-maltose corn syrups are manufactured starting with a low-DE
syrup that is further treated with β-amylase or a combination of pullulanase and
408
Table 13.2
Composition and Properties of Maize Syrups
High-Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS)
Maltodextrins 20 DE Maltose 49 DE Glucose Syrup 90 DE 42 55 90
Solids 97 81 70 71 77 80
Carbohydrates
Glucose 2–3 9 90–95 52 41 7
Maltose 7 52 4 — — ---
Fructose — — — 42 55 90
Others (dextrins) 90 39 1–6 6 4 3
Nitrogen, ppm — — — 10 10 10
Ash (%) 0.5 0.05 — 0.05 0.05 0.05
pH — — — 3.3–4.3 3.3–4.3 4
SO2 (ppm) — — — 3 3 3
Relative sweetness to 20–30 40 70–80 100 100-110 120-160
sucrose
Functional uses Impart viscosity (bodying Flavoring for Syrups with medium High sweetness for production of soft drinks, flavor
agent, prevention of breakfast sweetness, high browning, enhancement, and high fermentability; used as
sugar crystallization, and cereals, high fermentability, and high sweetener in many baking applications
humectant) beverages, and hygroscopicity; used as
other foods sweetener and in baking
applications
Source: Johnson, L.A. 2000. Chapter 2 in Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, K. Kulp and J. Ponte (eds.). Second edition. Marcel Dekker, New York; Lloyd,
N.E. and Nelson, W.J. 1984. Chapter 21 in Starch: Chemistry and Technology, R.L. Whistler, J.N. et al. (eds.). Second edition. Academic Press, Orlando, FL; and
Hoobs, L. 2003. Chapter 17 in Corn Chemistry and Technology, P.J. White and L.A. Johnson (eds.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
Cereal Grains
Starch
100 kg, 8% Moisture
Water
163 L
Starch Slurry
Hydrochloric 263 L, 35% Solids w/v
Acid
Acid Hydrolysis Liquefaction

Heat-stable
Pressure Cooking (120–150°C/15 min) Heat-stable α-Amylase Addition
α-Amylase
with 0.02–0.2 N HCl Sol. pH 6.5–6–8 and Temp. 85–95°C
Sodium
Carbonate
Maltodextrin Hydrolysate
263 L, 15–25 Dextrose eq.
263 L, 15–20 Dextrose eq., pH
4.5 to 5
Water Heating and Clarification

133 L 70–80°C, Anionic Resins and Protein, Pigments, Salt
Active Carbon and Contaminants
Evaporation Drying Water

Multiple Effect - Falling Film Vacuum Spray-dryer 169 L
Maltodextrin Syrup Dry Maltodextrins

130 L, 15–20 DE, 70% Solids 94 kg, 15–20 DE, 97% Solids
Figure 13.2 Flowchart of industrial processes to produce maltodextrins.
β-amylase (Figure 13.3). β-Amylase works best at pH 5 and a temperature of 55°C.

The utilization of only β-amylase yields syrups with 50%–55% maltose, while the
additional use of debranching pullulanase yields syrups with approximately 70%–
80% maltose. Regular and high-maltose syrups are widely used as flavorings for
breakfast cereals, beverages, and other food products (Table 13.2; Hoobs 2003,
13.5.3.3 Glucose Syrups
For the production of 90-DE glucose syrups, low-DE syrups are treated with amylo-
glucosidase or saccharifying enzyme at pH 4.6–5.2 and a temperature of 55°C–60°C
(Figure 13.4). The syrup is refined and clarified through columns of activated carbon
and ionic resins with the aim of removing minerals, pigments, soluble protein, fat,
and enzyme-resistant starches. Glucose syrups are utilized as sweeteners for soft
drinks, baking formulations, and as a source of fermentable carbohydrates for light
beer, alcohol production, and yeast-leavened baking goods (Table 13.2). Crystallized
dextrose can be produced by concentrating the syrup to 75% solids, adding glucose,
and gradually cooling to drop the temperature to 20°C–30°C for several days (Hoobs
2003, Lloyd and Nelson 1984).
410 Cereal Grains
Starch
100 kg, 8% Moisture
Water
163 L
Hydrochloric Starch Slurry Heat-stable

Acid 263 L, 35% Solids w/v α-Amylase

Pressure Cooking (120–150°C/15 min) Heat-stable Alpha Amylase Addition
with 0.02–0.2 N HCl Sol. pH 6.5–6–8 and Temp. 85–95°C
Maltodextrin Hydrolyzate β-Amylase and

β-Amylase 263 L, 15–20 Dextrose eq. Pullulanase
Proteins, Pigments, Enzyme Conversion

Enzyme Conversion
Salts and 50–55°C/pH 5–5.5
50–55°C/pH 5–5.5
Contaminants
High Maltose
Heating and Filtration Hydrolyzate
Maltose Hydrolyzate 70–80°C, Resins and Active
263 L, 50–55% Maltose 263 L, 75–78% Maltose
Carbon Columns
Evaporation Water
Multiple Effect - Falling Film Vacuum 133 L
Maltose Syrup High Maltose Syrup

130 L, 50–55% Maltose 130 L, 75–78% Maltose
Figure 13.3 Flowchart of industrial processes to produce maltose syrups.
13.5.3.4 High-Fructose Corn Syrups (HFCS)

HFCS are manufactured starting from a 90-DE glucose hydrolysate that is fur-
ther treated with immobilized glucose isomerase (Figure 13.5). The refined glu-
cose syrup is deaerated and treated with magnesium sulfate so as to ensure oxygen
removal and the sequestration of calcium that lowers enzyme activity and half-
life. There are three major types of HFCS syrups: 42, 55, and 90. Both the 55
and 90 HFCS are produced from the 42 HFCS. The 42 HFCS is industrially pro-
duced by passing glucose syrup through a reactor packaged with glucose isomerase
(BeMiller and Whistler 2009, Carasik and Carroll 1983). The optimum operating
Starch
100 kg, 8% Moisture
Water
163 L
Starch Slurry
Hydrochloric 263 L, 35% Solids w/v
Acid

Heat-stable α Amylase Addition Heat Stable
Pressure Cooking (120–150°C/15 min)
pH 6.5–6–8 and Temp. 85–95°C α Amylase
with 0.02–0.2 N HCl Sol.
263 L, 15–20 Dextrose eq.
Saccharification
Amyloglucosidase 58–62°C/pH 4–4.6/Anionic Hydrochloric
Resins and Active Carbon Acid
Proteins, Pigments, Glucose Rich Hydrolysate

Salts and Contaminants 263 L, >90 Dextrose eq.
Heating and Filtration Evaporation Water

70–80°C, Resins and Active Multiple Effect - falling 133 L
Carbon Columns Film Vacuum
Glucose Syrup
130 L, >90 Dextrose eq., 70% Solids
Figure 13.4 Flowchart of industrial processes to produce glucose syrups.
conditions are pH 7.5–8.2 and temperature 55°C–60°C. The substrate flow rate is
controlled so as to convert 42%–45% of the glucose into fructose. The 90 HFCS
is obtained after separating fructose and glucose in a moving-bed chromatography
system that produces two syrups with approximately 90% of each type of carbohy-
drate (Figure 13.5). If desired, the glucose-rich syrup can be converted into 42 and
90 HFCS as explained earlier. The 55 HFCS is manufactured by mixing 73 parts
of 42 HFCS, and 27 parts of 90 HFCS. The 90 HFCS imparts approximately 1.2 to
1.6 times more sweetness than the other HFCSs and crystallized sugar (Table 13.2).
HFCSs are used as substitutes for table sugar, especially in the soft drinks and con-
fectionary industries. The main advantage of using HFCSs is that they are readily
dissolved in water, are easily flavored, and impart a sweet fruit flavor to beverages
and foods (BeMiller and Whistler 2009, Bernetti 1990, Hoobs 2003, Lloyd and
Nelson 1984, Serna-Saldivar 2004).
412 Cereal Grains
Glucose Hydrolysate
Protein, Pigments, Salt and 263 L, >90 Dextrose eq. 35%
Contaminants Solids (From Fig. 13.4)
Heating and Clarification

Evaporation
70–80°C, Anionic Resins and Active
Multiple Effect–falling Film Vacuum
Carbon
Glucose Hydrolysate
Water
219 L, >90 Dextrose eq.
44 L
40–45% Solids
Magnesium
Air
>12 ppm
Isomerization Column Clarification

Immobilized Glucose Isomerase 70–80°C, Anionic Resins and Active
pH 7.5–7.8 and Temp. 55–60°C Carbon
Protein, Pigments, Salt

42 HFCS Hydrolyzate
and Contaminants
219 L, 40–45% Solids
Evaporation/Decoloration/Deodorization Water
Moving Bed Chromatography Multiple Effect Evaporator, Refining 44 L
Columns
Glucose
90 HFCS Hydrolysate 42 HFCS Syrup
127 L, > 90 Dextrose
92 L, 40–45% Solids 130 L, 70% Solids
40–45% Solids
Evaporation/Decoloration/ Mixer
Deodorization Multiple Effect–falling 90 HFCS Syrup
73 Parts 42 HFCS + 27 Parts
Film Evaporator 130 L, 70% Solids
90 HFCS
55 HFCS Syrup
70% Solids
Figure 13.5 Flowchart of industrial processes to produce high-fructose maize syrups.
13.5.4 Refining and Evaporation

All syrups are refined in order to remove protein, pigments, and other contami-
nants that affect color, flavor, and overall acceptability. After acid, acid–enzyme,
or enzyme–enzyme conversions, the hydrolysates contain residual protein from
the starch. This protein may interfere with enzyme reactions, foul the other refin-
ing operations, and produce off-colors. In most processes, the protein is removed
after the hydrolysis step. Protein removal consists of passing the hydrolysate
through continuous centrifuges. In order to remove the protein more efficiently,
the pH of the slurry is adjusted to 4.7 because, at this acidity, proteins are insolu-
ble and can be more efficiently removed by centrifugation. After centrifugation,
the syrups are usually vacuum filtered in rotary filters coated with a 10–15 cm
layer of diatomaceous bleaching earth. The outer layer of the coat, rich in insolu-
ble materials, is continuously removed by a knife as the drum rotates. Following
filtration, hydrolysates are treated with granular active carbon to remove impor-
tant contaminants such as amino acids, peptides, and hydroxyethylfurfural.
These compounds are known to form undesirable flavors and colors. The typical
carbon unit consists of a pulsed bed column through which the syrup is pumped
at a temperature of 70°C–80°C. The carbon columns have to be refurnished
with fresh regenerated carbon. Spent carbon is regenerated through heating in a
series of hearths. This refining step is important in preparation for isomerization
and in other refining steps of demineralization and absorption. Ion-exchange
systems are used to further remove colored compounds and other impurities.
Typically, sweeteners are first passed through a demineralization step consisting
of anion and cation columns packed with resins. In addition to removing salts,
these columns are very effective in removing protein and colored compounds.
The resins most commonly used are a strong acid cation and weak base anion,
either in combination or in separated reactors designed for upward or downward
flow operations. As in carbon columns, the resins become exhausted, so they
are commonly used in tandem so that the exhausted unit can be regenerated
without interrupting the refining process. The ion-exchange reactors have longer
life when syrups are refined with active carbon. Refined syrups are converted to
solids in multiple-effect and falling-film vacuum evaporators. These evaporators
are ideally suited to minimize undesirable color development. Most syrups are
concentrated to 65%–72% solids. These commercial syrups have good stability
due to their low Aw or water activity.
Self-Evaluation
1. Define the following terms widely used in starch chemistry and technology:
(a) Native starch (b) Instant starch (c) Gelatinized starch

(d) Gelatinization temperature (e) Birefringence (f) Retrogradation
(g) Syneresis (h) Dextrin (i) Cyclodextrin
(j) Dextrose (k) Dextrose equivalent (l) Degree of polymerization
(m) Resistant starch III (n) Degrees Baumé
2. What are the major differences between a waxy and a high-amylose starch?
List the kinds of cereals that contain waxy and high-amylose prototypes.
3. What are characteristic behaviors of waxy and regular starches in terms of
viscoamylographic properties? What are the main uses of waxy starch in
the food industry?
4. What kind of food industry demands most of the starch produced world-
wide? What kind of starch is mainly used? Why?
5. Why are some of the starches chemically modified?
6. Complete the following table related to processing and industrial uses of
modified starches:
414 Cereal Grains
Starch Industrial Process Industrial and Food Uses

Pregelatinized
Acid Treaded
Oxidized/Bleached
Cross-Bonded
Derivatized
Substituted
7. What is a resistant starch? Why are resistant starches considered as nutra-
ceuticals? List the four types of resistant starches, indicating the types pro-
duced via thermal modifications.
8. Complete the following table, which lists the main amylolytic and sweet-
ener-producing enzymes.
Enzyme Sourcea Substrate Mode of action Products

obtained(s)
α-Amylase
β-Amylase
Pullulanase
Amyloglucosidase
Glucose isomerase
CGTase
a Investigate if the enzyme is obtained from cereals, regular or genetically modified micro-
organisms, or several sources.
9. How are cyclodextrins industrially produced? What are differences among

alpha, beta, and gamma cyclodextrins? What are the main food uses of
cyclodextrins?
10. What are the two major industrial processes to produce 20 DE (low) syrups?
11. Explain the industrial process to convert low DE syrups into glucose syrups
with more than 90 DE.
12. When producing maltose syrups, why does the addition of pullulanase or
debranching enzyme significantly increase maltose content? What are the
major food uses of regular and high-maltose syrups?
13. Why has the production of fructose syrups strongly increased during the
past decades? What are differences in terms of properties and industrial
production among HFCS 42, 54, and 90?
14. What is an immobilized enzyme? What kinds of materials are used to immo-
bilize glucose isomerase? What kind of elements can poison or inactivate
commercially used glucose-isomerase systems? What are the processing
steps used to prevent inactivation and enhance the half-life of the enzyme?
15. How many liters of 90 HFCS and 42 HFCS are needed in order to obtain a 55
HFCS? Why does the food industry demand high quantities of 55 HFCS?
16. Compare enzyme hydrolyses for production of glucose syrups and sweet
worts for grain bioethanol production.
References
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Bernetti, R. 1990. From corn syrup to fructose. Cereal Foods World. 35(4):390–393.
Biliaderis, C.G. 1992. Structures and phase transitions of starch in food systems. Food Technol.
46:98–109.
Carasik, W., and Carroll, J.O. 1983. Development of immobilized enzymes for production of
high fructose corn syrup. Food Technol. 37(10):85–91.
Champ, M., Langkilde, A.M., Brouns, F., Kettlitz, B., and Le-Bail-Collet, Y. 2003. Advances in
dietary fiber characterization. 2. Consumption, chemistry, physiology and measurement
of resistant starch: Implications for health and food labeling. Nutr. Res. Rev. 16:143.
Englyst, H. N., and MacFarlan, G.T. 1986. Breakdown of resistant starch and readily digest-
ible starch by human gut bacteria. J. Sci. Food Agric. 37:699.
Erickson, W. 2005. The baker’s toolbox for developing health-promoting products. Cereal
Foods World 50(1):6–8.
Fisher, D.K., and Thompson, D.B. 1997. Retrogradation of maize starch after thermal treat-
ment within and above the gelatinization temperature range. Cereal Chem. 74:344–351.
Friedman, R.B. 1991. Linear and cyclic dextrins. Chapter 13 in Biotechnology and Food
Ingredients—I. Goldberg and R. Williams (eds.). Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Garcia Alonso, A., Saura Calixto, F., and Delcour, J.A. 1998. Influence of botanical source and
processing on formation of resistant starch type III. Cereal Chem. 75: 802–804.
Guzmán Maldonado, H., and Paredes Lopez, O. 1995. Amylolytic enzymes and products
derived from starch: A review. CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 35:373–403.
Hoobs, L. 2003. Corn sweeteners. Chapter 17 in Corn Chemistry and Technology, P.J. White
and L.A. Johnson (eds.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
Johnson, L.A. 2000. Corn: The major cereal of the Americas. Chapter 2 in Handbook of Cereal
Science and Technology, K. Kulp and J. Ponte (eds.). Second edition. Marcel Dekker,
New York.
Johnson, L.A., and May, J.B. 2003. Wet milling: The basis for corn biorefineries. Chapter 12 in
Corn: Chemistry and Technology. P.J. White and L. A. Johnson (eds.). Second edition.
Kruger, J.E., Lineback, D., and Stauffer, C.E. 1987. Enzymes and Their Role in Cereal
Technology. American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
Kunamneni, A., and Singh, S. 2006. Improved high thermal stability of pullulanase from a newly
isolated thermophilic Bacillus sp. AN-7. Enzyme Microbial Technol. 39:1399–1404.
Lloyd, N.E. and Nelson, W.J. 1984. Glucose and fructose containing sweeteners from starch.
Chapter 21 in Starch: Chemistry and Technology, R.L. Whistler, J.N. Bemiller, and E.F.
Paschall (eds.). Second edition. Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
Mauro, D.J., Abbas, I.R., and Orthoefer, F.T. 2003. Corn starch modification and uses. Chapter
16 in Corn Chemistry and Technology, P.J. White and L.A. Johnson (eds.). American
Rohwer, R.G., and Klem, R.E. 1984. Acid modified starch: Production and uses. Chapter 17
in Starch: Chemistry and Technology, R.L. Whistler, J.N. Bemiller, and E.F. Paschall
Rutenberg, M.W., and Solarek, D. 1984. Starch derivatives: Production and uses. Chapter 10
in Starch: Chemistry and Technology, R.L. Whistler, J.N. Bemiller, and E.F. Paschall
Saha, B.C., Mathupala, S.P., and Zeikus, G. 1988. Purification and characterization of highly
thermostable novel pullulanase from Clostridium thermohydrosulfuricum. Biochem. J.
252:343–348.
416 Cereal Grains
Saura-Calixto, F., Goni, I., Bravo, L., and Manas, E. 1993. Resistant starch in foods: Modified
method for dietary fiber residues. J. Food Sci. 58:642–643.
Serna‑Saldivar, S.O. 2004. Foods from maize. Pages 242–253 in Encyclopedia of Grain Science.
First edition. C. Wrigley, C. Walker, and H. Corke (eds.). Elsevier, Oxford, U.K.
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Rice Science and Technology. W.J. Marshall and J.I. Wadsworth (eds.). Marcel Dekker,
New York.
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World 35:1094–1099.
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Pages 45–78 in Starch Hydrolysis Products. F.W. Schenck and R.E. Hebeda (eds.). VCH
Publishers, New York.
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Second edition, Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
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Chapman & Hall/Blackie Academic & Professional, Glasgow, U.K.
14 Production of Malts,
Beers, Alcohol Spirits,
and Fuel Ethanol
14.1 Introduction
Cereals are extensively used to produce alcoholic beverages and fuel ethanol. Beer
is the main alcoholic beverage consumed in the world, and has been enjoyed for
more than 8,000 years. In 2007, approximately 1.62 billion hectoliters of barley beer
were brewed worldwide (FAO 2009). More than 21% of the beer is manufactured in
China, although the Chinese themselves have a relatively low per capita consumption
(19 L/year). Other important producers are the United States (16%), Russia (7.3%),
Germany (6%), Brazil (4.4%), and Mexico (3.8%). The Irish, Czechs, Austrians,
Germans, Britons, and Belgians had the highest per capita consumption in 2003,
with an estimated intake of 189, 157, 117, 109, 103, and 102 L beer, respectively (FAO
2009). In some places such as parts of Germany, of beer is still the traditional drink
of preference for accompanying food.
Approximately 183.6 million hectoliters of alcoholic beverages are annually
produced worldwide (FAO 2009). Of the world production, the Chinese consumed
32.6% followed by Indians (8.5%), Russians (7.9%), Americans (7.3%), Japanese
(6.5%), and Brazilians (3.8%). The Russians, with their traditional drink vodka, are
by far the largest consumers with an estimated per capita annual intake of 6 L of pure
alcohol (equivalent to about 15 L of vodka containing 40% alcohol). Other important
consumers of distilled spirits are the Moldovans, Bosnians, Bulgarians, Estonians,
Irish, Slovakians, Czechs, Thailanders, Chinese, and Japanese (the latter with their
traditional rice-based alcoholic beverage known as sake).
The use of cereals as raw materials by the brewing industry can be divided
into two main categories: malt and adjuncts. Malt is usually produced from bar-
ley because this husked cereal produces high diastatic or amylase activity and
aids during the critical step of lautering or mash filtration. Brewing adjuncts are
produced from most cereals and generally consist of refined milled fractions or
starches obtained from the various milling procedures described in Chapters 7
and 8. Some special grist and beer formulations contain different types of sweet-
eners or syrups, which are described in Chapter 13. Adjuncts provide the nec-
essary carbohydrates (mainly starch) that, upon mashing, are hydrolyzed into
dextrins and fermentable carbohydrates. The first impart the typical beer body,
and the second, fermentable sugars that are transformed into ethanol and other
417
418 Cereal Grains
organic and flavorful compounds. Sorghum and millet malts are also produced in
some regions of the world where it is practically impossible to grow the preferred
barley.
Barley malt has been produced since Neolithic times. Perhaps beer was dis-
covered when gruels accidentally underwent fermentation. Historically, the
use of malt by the old Egyptian and Babylonian cultures for making opaque
beers, and dating back to 2400 BC, is well documented. The Egyptian god of
agriculture, Osiris, is credited with being the father of beer. Ancient Babylon
is considered the birthplace of beer, although the alcoholic beverage produced
then (beer was first produced at least 8,000 years ago) does not resemble cur-
rent European beers. Historically, the ancient Egyptians, independent of social
status, had two major staples: bread and beer. The Egyptian beer was opaque,
high in solids, and produced without hops. Beer was so essential that it was con-
sidered as a unit of exchange and played an important role in religious beliefs
and ritual practice. It has been suggested that the pharaoh Ramses had a brewery
that furnished annually 10,000 hL of beer free of charge to those employed in
his temple. The Egyptians passed on their brewing techniques to the Greeks
and Romans. However, in these ancient cultures, wine was the preferred alco-
holic beverage, especially among the privileged classes, so beer became popular
among the lower socioeconomic groups. The Celts were responsible for passing
the know-how to the central and European countries, and from these countries
the ancient beers reached the British Isles. The Scandinavian word bjor became
beer for the Anglo-Saxons (Bamforth 2003).
Malting can be defined as the germination of the grain under controlled condi-
tions followed by controlled kilning. The aim is to generate the maximum amount
of starch-degrading enzymes or amylases. The main use of malt is for brewing lager
and ale beers and production of distilled spirits. The malt converts starch into fer-
mentable sugars that can be metabolized by the fermenting yeast into ethanol and
other organic compounds. The main use of barley malt in developed countries is for
the production of beer.
During the past decade there has been great interest in the production of fuel
ethanol from starchy grains, especially in the United States. In this country, approxi-
mately 85 million tons of maize was transformed into 34 billion liters of bioethanol
in 2008. The amount is at least double the ethanol produced in 2005 (Renewable
Fuels Association; www.ethanolrfa.org). This great increase in production is mainly
due to the high price of petroleum, the environmental concerns related to the use
of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), and the fact that renewable ethanol is friendlier
to the environment in terms of CO2, suspended air particles, and sulfur and nitro-
gen emissions. The technologies to produce alcoholic beverages and fuel ethanol
are similar, and consist of first converting starch into fermentable carbohydrates in
preparation for yeast fermentation and distillation. The main differences between
potable and fuel alcohol are that distilled spirits contain significant amounts of water
and other organic compounds that are aged under controlled conditions, whereas
fuel ethanol consists of denatured anhydrous alcohol.
Production of Malts, Beers, Alcohol Spirits, and Fuel Ethanol 419
14.2 Malting Grains

14.2.1 Barley
Among cereal grains, barley possesses the highest diastatic activity when it is prop-
erly germinated. The final diastatic activity depends on grain quality and malting
conditions. The grain activates during soaking due to the synthesis of gibberellic acid
in the germ. This hormone controls germination and the different enzymes produced
mainly in the germ and aleurone layer. The enzymes break down lipids, proteins,
and carbohydrates, yielding the necessary energy for germination. The enzymes are
sequentially produced first in the germ and afterward in the multilayered aleurone.
Generally, the first enzymes produced are lipolytic (lipases and lipoxygenases), fol-
lowed by cell-wall-degrading enzymes (celullases, β-glucanases, xylanases, hemi-
cellulases, etc.), proteases, and amylases. Both α- and β-amylases are produced by
the aleurone cells and start degrading from the outer to the inner endosperm. The
physiology of grain germination is also covered in Chapter 4.
Barley is generally classified as malting or feed, and winter or summer. The
classes are subdivided into two: two-rowed or six-rowed (Chapter 2). For brewing,
the two-rowed malting summer barley is preferred. Six-rowed barleys are more resis-
tant to temperature and are widely grown in the United States and India, whereas the
two-rowed counterparts are found in the rest of America. Two-rowed barleys yield
larger kernels, thinner glumes or husks, and more starch in the endosperm. The ideal
malting barley is relatively low in protein and yields sound and uniform kernels that,
upon germination at temperatures higher than 5°C, develop high amounts of both α-
and β-amylases. In addition, the resulting malt should not have off-flavors produced
by polyphenols associated with the husks and bran. The chemical composition of
barley and malt is greatly affected by the physiological and biochemical events that
occur during germination. Table 14.1 compares the chemical composition of barley
before and after malting.
A high-quality malting barley should have good and uniform germination (higher
than 90%), and retain the grain structure after malting. Maltsters select barley based
on moisture, amount of foreign material, test weight, protein content, and germ via-
bility. The last test is performed in cut kernels with exposed germ that are treated
with tetrazolium (Chapter 15). Viable embryos have dehydrogenases that reduce the
tetrazolium dyeing the germ. This quick test is generally supplemented with germi-
nation capacity, diastatic activity, and dry matter losses incurred during malting. The
tests usually take several days to yield results.
14.2.2 Sorghum and Other Related Cereals

Sorghum has long been malted for the production of opaque Kaffir beers and wean-
ing foods. Today it is considered the second most popular source of malt. It is both
traditionally and industrially produced in Africa and India instead of barley malt. In
these regions, barley cannot be successfully planted because it adapts to cold tem-
peratures. Sorghum malt is mainly used for the production of opaque beers, although
it is utilized alone or supplemented with enzymes in Nigeria to produce European
420
Table 14.1
Comparison of the Average Chemical Composition of Barley, Wheat, and Sorghum Grains with Their Respective Malts
Barley Wheat Sorghum
Grain Malt Grain Malt Grain Malt
Grain weight (mg) 34–39 30.5–35.5 27–32 25–30 25–35 21–30
Moisture content (%) 12.0 5.0 12 6 13 8
Starch (%) 63–65 58–60 71 59.6 68.7 58.9
Reducing sugars (%) 1.2–1.7 5–7.3 2.3 8.7 1.7 6.3
Fructose (% of soluble sugars) 4.1 7.1
Glucose (% of soluble sugars) 2.4 16.9
Sucrose (% of soluble sugars) 45.5 48.2
Maltose (% of soluble sugars) 0 9.4
Maltotriose (% of soluble sugars) 0 5.4
Fructosans (% of soluble sugars) 34.2 12.9
Others 13.8 0.1
Total nitrogen (%) 1.5–2.0 1.5–2.0 1.9 1.8 1.5 1.4
Soluble nitrogen (% from total) 11 35 12 51 5 19–33
Soluble gums (%) 1.25 3.0
Hemicellulose (%) 9 7
Cellulose (%) 4.5 5.0
Lipids (%) 2.5 2.5 2.8 2.7 3.5 3.3
Minerals (%) 2.0 2.2 1.8 1.9 1.7 1.8
Diastatic power (°La) 55.0 150.0 41
Alpha-amylase activityb traces 25.0
Source: Data from Briggs, D.E. 1998. Malts and Malting. Blackie Academic & Professional, London; and Hall, R.D. et al. 1956. J. Inst. Brewing 62:232.
Note: All values are expressed on dry matter basis.
a Lintner degree. Amount of reduced compounds calculated as maltose that is produced by 25 g of malt from soluble starch in 30 min at 20°C.
b Amount of soluble starch dextrinized by 1 g of malt in 1 h at 20ºC.

Cereal Grains
beers (Taylor et al. 2006). In addition, it is also used for the production of weaning
foods and other traditional foods (Chapter 16). The value of sorghum for malting
varies according to sorghum type and variety. Compared to barley, sorghum is ger-
minated at higher temperatures and yields lower extracts due to its lower diastatic
activity. One important difference is that sorghum produces low β-amylase activ-
ity and, therefore, mashes are usually lower in fermentable sugars and higher in
viscosity (higher amount of dextrins). Another problem is that upon germination,
the sorghum seedling accumulates substantial amounts of cyanogenic glycosides.
Therefore, seedlings are usually removed before mashing of clear beers.
As with barley, the sorghum malt should exhibit high diastatic activity with the proper
endosperm modification. The diastatic power is greatly affected by a variety or geno-
type and malting conditions. A large difference between barley and sorghum malts is in
the total diastatic activity. Most sorghums have low β-amylase activity and, therefore,
the amount of reducing sugars generated during mashing is considerably reduced. In
addition, sorghum loses more solids during malting (8% to 30%), and mashes are more
difficult to filter because they contain higher amounts of dextrins. Sorghum malts also
lack husks that act as a filtering aid. As with barley, sorghum malting causes important
chemical changes that improve the nutritional value of the food products.
The industrial production of sorghum malt follows the traditional steps practiced
for centuries in Africa. The sequential steps are grain steeping, germination, drying,
and milling. Barley malting takes longer than sorghum malting because the steep-
ing and germination steps of sorghum are carried out at higher temperatures (i.e.,
25oC–30oC). The maximum diastatic power is achieved when the acrospires of the
germinated sorghum grow to a length of 2.5 to 5 cm. The sorghum malt is tradition-
ally sun-dried and could also be artificially kilned. The chemical composition of
sorghum before and after malting is shown in Table 14.1.
Similarly to sorghum, maize and millets, such as pearl and proso, are also germi-
nated for production of foods or fermented beverages. The malt quality and malting
conditions are similar to the ones commonly observed and practiced with sorghum.
14.2.3 Wheat and Other Related Cereals

Wheat malts (Table 14.1) are also industrially produced for production of specialty beers
such as Weizenbier. Most wheat malts are pale and lightly kilned. The absence of husks
and lower diastatic activity are substantial disadvantages compared to barley malt in
beer applications. Wheat mashes tend to filter at a slower rate compared to barley malt
mashes. According to Hough et al. (1993), the ideal wheat for malting should contain
less than 1.9% nitrogen (10.8% protein). Because wheat is not a husked kernel, the water
uptake during steeping is faster. The optimum moisture for germination is approximately
45%, and the optimum germination time takes more than 5 days at 12°C–15°C. Wheat
malts are kilned at temperatures not exceeding 43°C for maximum survival of diastatic
power. Wheat malts yield high extracts because they do not have husks and often yield
high FAN values necessary for yeast nutrition. In addition, wheat malts contain small
amounts of polyphenols and therefore produce mellow-flavored beers. In the past, rye
malt was used to a limited extent in brewing. Today, little of this grain is malted. The
malting conditions for rye and triticale are practically identical to wheat.
422 Cereal Grains
14.3 Malting
The word malt is derived from the Anglo-Saxon mealt or melt, which refers to the grain
softening that occurs during germination, or perhaps to the expression malled or mauled
(broken or ground) because all malts are ground before brewing (Briggs 1998). Malting
and brewing are perhaps the most antique biotechnology processes, having been practiced
for at least 8,000 years. The quality of malt greatly depends on variety, grow conditions,
postharvest grain management, and malting conditions. The process starts by cleaning the
selected kernels in order to remove dockage, shriveled, broken and other contaminating
grains. The cleaned barley kernels are steeped in cold water (15°C) for an average of 24
h in order to start activating the grain (Figure 14.1). The key step is germination of the
hydrated kernels until the maximum diastatic activity is achieved, which usually takes
from 3 to 5 days, followed by kilning in order to stop activity and develop important
Barley Cleaning/Classification Dockage, Broken

100 kg, 12–14% Moisture. Air Aspiration, Screening, Magnets and Thin Kernels
3 kg
Cleaned Barley
Steeping in Excess Water

Water Vertical Tanks or Cylinders Air
12–24 hr, 15°C, Aeration
Excess Water
Hydrated Barley
Heat Losses
Controlled Air Germination/Malt Turning
(15°C/85%RH) Floor, Boxer, Drum or Tower
60 m3/hr/100 kg Germinators 3 to 5 Days, 15°C,
85% Relative Humidity, Ventilation Dry Matter Losses
(Carbon Dioxide)
6.1 kg
Green Malt
Heated Air Kilning Moisture

6,00 m3/hr/100 kg 9–48 hr @ 50–65°C 60 kg
Dried Malt Dressing Culms and Sprouts

84 kg, 6% Moisture Cylindrical Screen with Beaters or 2–3.3 kg, 6% Moisture
Pneumatic Deculmer with Air
Aspiration
Barley Malt
Figure 14.1 Flowchart of the barley malting process.

Sorghum Cleaning/Classification Dockage, Broken

100 kg, 12–14% Moisture Air Aspiration, Screening, Magnets Kernels
3 kg
Cleaned Sorghum
Steeping in Excess Water

Water
16–18 hr, 25°C, Air Rests
Excess Water
Hydrated Sorghum
Germination/Malt Turning Dry Matter Losses

Water 4 to 7 days, 25–30°C 11 kg
Green Malt
Kilning Moisture
Heated Air
37–50°C 46 kg
Dried Malt
77 kg, 7% Moisture
Figure 14.2 Flowchart of the sorghum malting process.
flavorful and colorful compounds. The aim of the process is to achieve the maximum
percentage of germination and diastatic activity and conclude the process with the lowest
possible dry matter loss. There are different malting technologies. The most widely prac-
ticed are floor, drum, rectangular, or Saladin and tower. Briggs (1998) details the advan-
tages and disadvantages of these malting systems. Regardless of the technology, the malt
houses have equipment for grain cleaning, soaking, germination, kilning, and storage.
Figures 14.1 and 14.2 depict typical malting steps for barley and sorghum, respectively.
14.3.1 Malting Systems

Originally, malting was carried out on a small scale. From the seventeenth to the
twentieth centuries, floor malting was the preferred method for making larger
424 Cereal Grains
quantities of malt The development of larger breweries, particularly in the nine-

teenth century, led to the industrialization of malting and a progressive increase in
the size of malting units. By the middle of the twentieth century, malting technolo-
gies had evolved with the use of boxes, drums, and, later, the more sophisticated
tower maltings (Briggs 1998). Independently of the malting technology, barley is
transformed into malt by the sequential steps of steeping, controlled germination,
and kilning (Figure 14.1).
14.3.2 Steeping
The aim of steeping is to hydrate the grain under aerobic conditions in order to
activate the synthesis of gibberellic acid, which will control the whole germination
process. The steep water should have appropriate pH and chemical composition to
enhance the extraction of tannins, resins, and some proteins that are undesirable for
beer production. The water enters the grain through the hilum located in the germ.
The hydration rate is high at the beginning and slows down as the grain absorbs
water. Generally, the operation is simply performed by immersing or by spraying
water onto the grains for 24 to 80 h to increase the grain moisture to 42%–48%.
Most operations take place in vertical tanks with a conic base or vertical cylin-
ders. These containers have perforated pipelines to inject air. The water tempera-
ture plays a critical role because it affects hydration rate and the microbiology of
the grain. A relatively high water temperature allows excessive microbial growth,
decreasing oxygen availability for the developing embryo. The water temperature
range is from 10°C to 20°C, although most procedures adjust the water temperature
to 15°C. Another important control factor is the application of air or oxygen in time
intervals. The air creates aerobic conditions and takes out the respiration heat and
CO2. The frequency of the aeration cycles is less than an hour. Soaking is usually
interrupted after 12 to 24 h by first draining the water and then adding new water.
The drained liquor usually contains soluble solids mainly liberated from broken
kernels and even from sound kernels (Briggs 1998, Hough et al. 1993, Hardwick
1995, Palmer and Bathgate 1976, Palmer 1989, Pyler and Thomas 2000, Pollock
1979, Priest and Stewart 2006).
During steeping, the barley kernels absorb water and increase their volume by
approximately 25%. The water rapidly penetrates through the hilum and husks. The
germs hydrate rapidly, whereas the endosperm hydrates slowly. The absorbed water
catalyzes respiration, synthesis of enzymes, and germination; it also weakens the
grain structure.
14.3.3 Germination
After steeping, the soaked barley kernels germinate under special conditions so as
to achieve the desired diastatic activity, cell division, and the development of the
rootlets and coleoptiles or acrospires. The process is usually carried out on malt-
ing beds placed inside special rooms with strict temperature and relative humidity
controls. This process lasts 4 to 6 days and is greatly affected by the malting house
temperature. The germination rate is controlled according to the initial moisture,
germination temperature, and air that circulates through the malting bed. The opera-
tion can be performed in malting floors especially designed for this purpose. The tra-
ditional floor germination is still widely practiced by the industry. It simply consists
of spreading the soaked kernels in layers of 25–30 cm in a malting room. Moisture
losses due to evaporation are compensated for by spraying water periodically. The
malt is manually turned over or mixed with a wooden shovel. This practice contrib-
utes to the elimination of CO2 and heat, and avoids the tangling or intertwining of
the rootlets.
The special malting equipment consists of malting beds with a perforated floor
or rotating drums. Most commonly, malting beds are packed with an approximately
1 m layer of soaked grains. Air with about 90% relative humidity and at 10°C–18°C
flows from the bottom and through the floor perforations and grain layer so that
respiration heat and CO2 are removed, and to provide the necessary oxygen required
by the developing embryos. The air generally flows at 200–1,000 m3/h/ton. This
system is also equipped with a mechanical device to turn over the malting grain and
enhance uniform germination. The apparatus consists of a set of rotating screws that
moves along the malting bed. Humid and temperature-controlled air is supplied to
the rotary malting drums that rotate slowly at 1–2 rpm.
The main objective of malting is to achieve the maximum diastatic activity with
the lowest dry matter losses. The different stages of the germinating grain are char-
acterized first by protrusion in the hilum area, followed by the gradual develop-
ment of the rootlets and acrospires. The first enzymes generated during malting are
oxidative associated with oxygen absorption required for respiration. Then, citases
are developed in order to attack cell walls and allow the entrance of other enzymes
to the endosperm. In addition, these enzymes are mainly responsible for the pro-
gressive softening of the malt. The proteases are generated and distributed to the
entire caryopsis. They hydrolyze conjugated proteins associated with amylases and
so help to activate these starch-degrading enzymes. The proteases degrade germ and
endosperm proteins, solubilizing approximately 30% of the total protein. The free
nitrogenous compounds, quantified as free amino nitrogen or FAN, are used as sub-
strate by the developing embryo. The most important enzymes are amylases. During
germination, most of the bound β-amylases are liberated or activated, whereas
α-amylases are synthesized. The highest diastatic activity is achieved when the malt
has an acrospire of approximately two-thirds of the grain length. There are other
more sophisticated methods to determine the effectiveness of the malting procedure,
such as the extraction of solubles, degree of cell wall fluorescence, and the deter-
minations of soluble protein and diastatic activity (Briggs 1998, Hough et al. 1993,
Hardwick 1995, Palmer and Bathgate 1976, Palmer 1989, Pyler and Thomas 2000,
Pollock 1979, Priest and Stewart 2006).
Gibberellic acid is often added to soaked kernels with the aim of breaking seed
dormancy, reducing malting time, and increasing malt performance or extraction
rate. However, the addition of this phytohormone can increase dry matter losses
because of the higher seedling growth, and frequently causes a higher degree of pro-
tein and starch modifications, resulting in darker malts. The addition of gibberellic
acid increases embryo metabolism and stimulates higher enzyme production by the
aleurone layer. When applied, the dose generally used ranges from 0.025 to 0.25 mg
426 Cereal Grains
gibberellic acid per kilogram of grain (Briggs 1998, Hough et al. 1993, Hardwick
1995, Palmer and Bathgate 1976, Palmer 1989, Pyler and Thomas 2000, Pollock
14.3.4 Kilning
The objectives of kilning are multiple; the chief goal is stopping germination and
the botanical growth of the rootlets and acrospires so as to obtain a shelf-stable
product that resumes enzymatic activity upon rehydration. The drying program
lowers the moisture to such a level that storage at room temperature is feasible for
several months. Kilning conditions are critical to produce different types of malts
with different enzyme activities, color, and flavor. Non-diastatic malts are kilned or
toasted to develop color and flavor due to nonenzymatic browning and carameliza-
tion reactions.
There are various types of malts for different food uses (Briggs 1998; Table 14.2).
Malts destined for lager beers are generally less extensively modified (higher soluble
sugars and FAN) than those aimed at ales that are kilned to a relatively mild regime.
Lager malts therefore develop less color and produce pale or straw amber-colored
beers. Malts destined for ale production are kilned to a higher temperature, and
the resulting malts have a darker coloration. The high temperature produces mel-
anoidins from soluble sugars and amino acids. The higher kilning temperature also
develops complex flavors. If the malt is kilned at high temperatures, it is possible to
make special dark products and develop flavors described as burnt and smoky. This
is characteristic of color stouts. Non-diastatic malts are also used as flavorings and
dark coloring agents and for production of liquid extracts. For instance, non-diastatic
malt products are extensively used to flavor breakfast cereals (Chapter 11).
The green malt is kilned using traditional methods. The most popular is drying
the malt bed using air that flows through perforated floors, rotary drums, or vertical
dryers. Floor drying consists of 30 cm to 2 m layers of malt that are kilned for 9 to
48 h with forced air that flows at 2,000 to 10,000 m3/h/ton. The first stages of kilning
are carried out at temperatures lower than 50°C to 65°C in order to prevent enzyme
denaturalization. When the moisture content of the malt drops to approximately
10%, the temperatures can be increased up to 100oC. The application of a higher-
temperature program decreases diastatic activity but improves aroma and flavor. The
malt is generally dehydrated to 4.5% moisture. After kilning, the malt is cooled
down with fresh air, the rootlets stripped or dressed from the malt, and the deculmed
malt sampled in order to determine diastatic power, color, reducing sugars, and FAN.
The culms are separated because they impart bitter flavors, are high in nitrogenous
compounds, and contain high levels of nitrosamines. The classic deculming device
consists of a slow-rotating cylindrical screen equipped with a set of beaters that
separate the rootlets from the malt. The small-size rootlets pass the screen and are
collected by a screw conveyor. The exiting malt is usually air-aspirated to remove
dust and other light particles that were not removed beforehand. Another popular
deculmer is the pneumatic device in which the pneumatically transported malt is
impacted with the aim of releasing the rootlets that are lifted by an air stream. The
resulting deculmed malt is withdrawn from the bottom of the machine (Briggs 1998,
Table 14.2
Main Types of Malts
Type of Malt Characteristics
Diastatic
Green Conventionally processed but undried malt that has high extracts and produces
highly fermentable worts rich in soluble nitrogen. It is mainly used for grain
distilling.
Air-dried Also known as wind malts; these are obtained by allowing green malt to
dehydrate and spread on perforated screens in large lofts. Wind malts are used in
brewing traditional Belgian Old Louvain beers.
Providence Grain that sprouts in the spike before harvesting when the weather was wet and
warm. These malts are no longer produced.
Pilsner-Pale Malts that are kilned at low temperature (50°C to 70°C) and fast airflow;
generally produced from two-rowed barleys. The very pale malt has no trace
of caramelization and produces weak aroma.
Ale Preferred malts for brewing traditional British ales. Most are produced from
two-rowed barleys with nitrogen contents of 1.35% to 1.5%. The green malts
are carefully dried, but after the break has occurred, the air temperature is
increased to 60°C to 90°C until curing is finished at a high temperature
(100°C to 105°C). The temperature profile determines if the ale malt is
classified as pale, mild, or standard. Pales are the finest and most in-demand
for the cask conditioned beers.
Vienna Malts from two-rowed barley used in the manufacture of some European
golden brown lagers. The malt is clear, although with higher color values and
lower enzyme activity compared to ale malts. The kilning program starts with
a low temperature, and when the malt is dried, the temperature is raised for
curing to 90°C.
American A wide range of American malts exist made from two- and six-rowed barleys.
Barley is steeped to 46% moisture and germinated for 4 to 6 days at 12°C to
18°C, and the resulting green malt is lightly kilned with high airflow at 35°C
to 50°C and cured at 70°C to 85°C. In general, the malts are allowed to
germinate until the acrospires grow up to three-quarters of the grain length.
The American malts have high diastatic power, extract, and FAN. These are
the preferred malts for production of lagers rich in starchy adjuncts.
Peat smoked Malts almost exclusively used for production of Scotch whiskey. The green
malt is kilned in the presence of peat smoke. The peat is slowly burned and
conducted to the hot air chamber of the kiln, and then in the fan-driven
airstream into the malt. Malts for lowland and highland Scottish whiskies are
lightly (1–5 ppm of total phenols) and heavily (15 to 20 ppm total phenols)
peated, respectively.
Sorghum Malts produced from sorghum grain that is stepped and germinated at
temperatures higher than 25°C and are usually solar-dried or artificially kilned
at low temperature. Sorghum malts are used for the production of opaque
beers and weaning foods in Africa. Sorghum malt contains lower β-amylase
activity compared to barley malt.
—continued
428 Cereal Grains
Main Types of Malts
Type of Malt Characteristics
Low or Non-Diastatic
Amber Produced by carefully drying well-modified green malt from barley or wheat on
a coke-fired kiln and then suddenly raising the temperature to 85°C by burning
oak or other hardwoods. The resulting non-diastatic malt has a fine amber
color and a smoky aroma. Modern amber malts are produced in roasting
drums with a temperature profile increasing from 50°C to as high as 170°C.
Amber malts are used in special dry ales that are golden colored.
Munich Dark malts rich in melanoidins and poor in diastatic power are used for brewing
dark, rich, aromatic, and full-bodied lagers. The kilning program starts at low
temperature (38°C), and when the moisture drops to 15% to 25%, the
temperature is increased to 75°C and then to 87°C to 105°C
Chocolate or black Highly colored non-diastatic malt typically used in grist formulations of stouts
to impart dark colors and special flavors. The lightly kilned malt is roasted in
drums at programmed temperatures. The roasting process starts at
approximately 75°C, first increased to 160°C–175°C, and then to 215°C.
These malts produce dry, burnt, acid, and astringent flavors. Black malts are
similar to chocolate, but the roasting is more intense.
Crystal-caramel In contrast to all other malts, this malt is deliberately stewed at a warm
temperature to promote endosperm liquefaction, and upon cooling and drying
it solidifies into a semicrystalline or glassy sugar-like mass. As a result, these
malts have a characteristic flavor that is imparted by the caramelized sugar and
melanoidins. Crystal malts are produced from green malt roasted in a cylinder.
The temperature program starts at 50°C for 5 to 10 min to remove surface
moisture. Then the drum is closed to prevent evaporation, and the temperature
is increased to 65°C to 70°C to enhance enzyme activity and production of
soluble sugars. After the endosperm liquifies into a sweet liquid, the
temperature is increased to 120°C to 160°C to enhance the development of
color, flavor, and aroma. Caramel malts favor foam formation and retention
and yield golden colors.
Source: Briggs, D.E. 1998. Malts and Malting. Blackie Academic & Professional, London.
Hough et al. 1993, Hardwick 1995, Palmer and Bathgate 1976, Palmer 1989, Pyler
and Thomas 2000, Pollock 1979, Priest and Stewart 2006).
The best-quality brewing malts are obtained after storage for at least one month
(Briggs 1998). During this period, the moisture inside the kernel equilibrates, and
as a result the malt is milled more efficiently. The aged or matured malt has better
extraction rate, more diastatic activity, and thus improved performance during the
critical stage of lautering or wort filtration.
During malting, the barley loses between 5% and 10% of its dry matter. The mois-
ture, malting temperature, and time usually increase dry matter losses. The main
chemical changes that barley suffers during malting are reduction in the assayable
starch content from 64% to about 59%, reduction in hemicellulose content from 9%
to 7%, increase in reducing sugar content from 0.2% to 4%, and increase in sucrose
content from 2% to 5% (Table 14.1).
14.3.5 Classes of Malts
The malt classes and preferred uses are depicted in Table 14.2. In general terms,
malts are divided into two broad categories: diastatic and non-diastatic. In gen-
eral, diastatic malts are allowed to germinate until the acrospires grow to at least
three-quarters of the grain length, and possess high-diastatic power that yields high
extracts and FAN. These malts are kilned at low temperatures (50oC–70°C) and
preferably produced from two-rowed barleys. Non-diastatics, also known as colored
or roasted malts, are used to impart stronger colorations and produce distinct flavors,
especially in dark and stout beers. These malts are usually toasted at temperatures
that range from 100oC to 220°C over 1 or 2 h in order to impart burnt and smoky fla-
vor profiles to beers. The most common colored malts are Amber, Munich, Crystal,
Chocolate, and Black (Briggs 1998, Bamforth 2003; Table 14.2). Peat-smoked malts
are key for the production of Scotch whiskies because they impart special flavor and
aroma (Lyons 1995).
Brewers blend different types of malts to impart characteristic flavor, color, and
aroma to the beer. Generally, clear or pale beers are manufactured from Pilsner-Pale
or ale malts, whereas dark beers and stouts require a combination of diastatic and
roasted malts (Bamforth 2003).
14.4 Production of European Beers

14.4.1 Ingredients
There are many classes of beers that differ in physicochemical properties, color,
flavor, aroma, and appearance. Table 14.3 summarizes the main distinctive charac-
teristics of the chief beer types produced worldwide. The most popular are lager, ale,
and stouts, also known as European beers. These are generally produced from the
following basic ingredients: malt, adjuncts, hops, yeast, and water.
14.4.1.1 Brewing Adjuncts
Brewing adjuncts are defined as raw materials rich in carbohydrates that with malt
are converted to fermentable sugars and do not provide enzymes and soluble nitro-
gen. In the United States, brewing adjuncts average 38% of the total raw materi-
als used for beer production. Most adjuncts consist of refined maize or rice grits
obtained from their respective dry-milling processes, and starch obtained from
wet-milling processes (Chapters 7 and 8). Glucose or maltose syrups are also used
as brewing adjuncts for the production of light or dark beers (Chapter 13). In the
United States, the brewing industry uses maize grits most commonly (46.5%), fol-
lowed by rice grits (31.4%), barley (0.7%), and syrups (21.4%). The starch asso-
ciated with the brewing adjuncts is hydrolyzed by the malt amylases into linear
and branched dextrins, maltotriose, maltose, and traces of glucose. Dextrins
430
Table 14.3
Major Types of Beers
Type of Beer Origin Characteristics
Lager (Bottom Fermenting)

Pilsner Czech Manufactured with pale- or light-colored malt, without a sweet flavor, and hopped. Pilsners usually contain 5% alcohol by
Republic volume.
Pale and Doppelbock Germany A wide array of bocks exists in the market (from pale to dark). These beers have a distinctive malty and sulfur flavor and
usually contain from 6% to 8% alcohol by volume.
Helles Germany Pale or amber lagers with malty flavor and low bitterness (low hop character). These gold- to straw-colored lagers are noted for
their smooth, well-balanced maltiness, unassertive hop bitterness, and usually contain 5% alcohol by volume.
Schwarzbier Germany Dark and dry lager with a characteristic caramel and toasted malt flavor that contains 3.8%–5% alcohol by volume.
Dunkel Germany Bavarian lager dark beer, usually copper-brown-colored, with a characteristic toasted malt flavor that contains 4.5%–5% alcohol
by volume.
Malt liquor United States Sweet and pale but strong lager with low bitterness; contains more than 4% to 6% alcohol by volume.
Kolsh Germany Pale-colored and dry (low-sugar) beer that has both lager and ale characteristics. It usually contains from 4.4% to 5% alcohol by
volume.
Bock Germany Bocks were originally consumed by fasting monks because they provided nutrients when no solid food was allowed. The
standard bock types include bock, Doppelbock, Hellesbock, and Maibock. European bocks are rich, malty, and brown-colored.
American bocks are lighter in body and color compared to their German counterparts.
Kulmbacker Germany Dark beer from the town of Kulmback (Bavaria) that is heavier and darker compared to Erlanger.
Ale (Top Fermenting)

Bitter Great Britain Copper-colored dry beer with malty and bitter flavor and low carbonation. These popular ales have a distinctive malty and bitter
flavor and usually contain from 3% to 7.5% alcohol by volume.
Altbier Germany Alt means old or traditional in German. Alts were originally lagered for long periods in ice-cold caves after a warm fermentation
that mellowed the fruitiness of an ale. Current altbiers have a copper color and bitter flavor and contain more than 4% alcohol
by volume. It is also known as Düsseldorf alt.
Cereal Grains
Pale Great Britain Classic British ale developed in the eighteenth century. It is well hopped, full-bodied, and bronze, golden, or copper in color.
Originally, pales were cask-conditioned, and many in the United Kingdom still are. In the United States they are mainly
kegged or bottled.
Pale Belgium Similar to the British counterpart, although it is maltier, stronger, and more carbonated.
Mild or brown Great Britain Dark or brown beer that originated in Southern England with a sweet and mellow flavor that contains less than 3.5% alcohol by
volume.
Barley wine Great Britain Strong beer with high alcohol content (6% to 12% by volume). The beer has a high final gravity due to its sweetness.
Oud bruin or Belgium Dark and reddish brown to black ale, also known as Flanders brown; fermented for long periods of time in wood casks where it
Flanders brown is exposed to souring or lactic acid bacteria. The slightly sour and acidic beer is flavored with raspberry or cherry and contains
from 4% to 8% alcohol by volume.
Rauchbier Germany Seasonal Bavarian beer produced with smoked malt (oak or beech wood smoke) with intermediate color and 4%–6% alcohol by
volume.
Stouts (Top Fermenting)

Stouts Ireland Black, heavy, and opaque ale produced from toasted malts with bitter flavor that contains from 4% to 7% alcohol by volume.
Stouts may be sweet or dry. Dry stouts are usually dispensed with a high-pressure nitrogen–carbon dioxide mixture to form the
traditional intense creamy head.
Porter Great Britain Black beer similar to Irish stouts, but with less toasted character. Porter contains from 4.5% to 6.5% alcohol by volume.
Sweet stout Great Britain Dark, brown, or black beer with sweet flavor that contains less than 4% alcohol by volume.
Others
Weizenbier Germany Straw-colored beer produced from wheat malt with slightly cloudy appearance.
Lambic and Geuze Belgium Primitive acidic beer made using spontaneous fermentation in which a large number of microorganisms ferment the wort.
Production of Malts, Beers, Alcohol Spirits, and Fuel Ethanol
Mashes are obtained from at least 30% wheat and barley malt, and the beer is rich in lactic acid produced by Lactobacillus. In
addition, Lambics are cloudy yellow, lightly hopped, and frothy. Lambics usually contain from 5% to 7% alcohol by volume.
Draft Lager or ale beers that are dispensed from kegs or casks via pipes and pumps. These beers are not pasteurized and are usually
consumed within a few weeks.
—continued
431
432
Major Types of Beers
Type of Beer Origin Characteristics
Others
Light Lager or ale beers that are low in dextrins and calories and are usually light-colored, low in flavor, and less viscous or with less
body. Dextrins are usually converted during mashing into fermentable carbohydrates with amyloglucosidase. These beers
usually contain one-third fewer calories and are less filling compared to regular beers.
Dark Manufactured with dark or toasted malt and higher amounts of hops that impart stronger flavors and darker colorations. Some
dark beers are supplemented with syrups rich in soluble sugars that, upon heating, produce Maillard and caramelization
reactions.
Low-alcohol and Lager or ale beers that contain less than 2% and 0.05% alcohol by volume, respectively. The alcohol is removed by
nonalcoholic beers ultrafiltration or vacuum distillation.
Gluten-free Beers especially brewed for gluten-intolerant people. They are made from sorghum malt and/or microbial enzymes and
gluten-free brewing adjuncts such as rice, maize, or sorghum grits. The beer should be made avoiding barley malt and adjuncts
or starches from wheat, rye, triticale, and oats.
Opaque
Kafir, Otika, Africa Lactic-acid-rich beers generally produced from sorghum malt. Mashes are produced from sorghum malt and adjuncts from maize,
Burukutu, Bantu, sorghum, and/or millets. These beers are the result of two fermentations: lactic and yeast. The opaque and sour beverage has higher
Pito, Basuto, Zulu, solids (protein, carbohydrates, etc.) compared to clear beers and usually contains 4% ethanol. The beer is bottled and served
Amgba, Pombe, and without clarification and undergoing fermentation.
Merissa
Source: Data from Bamforth, C. 2003. Beer: Tap into the Art and Science of Brewing, Second edition. Oxford University Press, New York; Daiber, K.H., and Taylor, J.R.N.
1995. Chapter 10 in Sorghum and Millets: Chemistry and Technology. D.A.V. Dendy (ed.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN; Pollock, J.R.A.
1979. Brewing Science. Academic Press, New York; Priest, F.G., and Stewart, G.G. 2006. Handbook of Brewing. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL; and Snyder, S. 1996.
The Beer Companion. A Connposseur´s Guide to the World´s Finest Craft Beers. Simon & Schuster, New York.
Cereal Grains
are responsible for imparting the typical body, whereas simpler carbohydrates
are yeast substrate that is converted into ethanol and other organic compounds.
Brewing adjuncts obtained from dry-milling processes contain less than 0.7% oil
and 1% fiber and should meet stringent specifications in terms of particle size or
granulation, color, and starch content. Most brewing grits have an average particle
size of 40 to 60 U.S. mesh, which favors filtration and extraction. Refined grits are
preferred because they contain more convertible carbohydrates, less pigments and
oil, and better color. The resulting beers are less prone to oxidation and have better
flavor and color.
14.4.1.2 Hops
Hops are the basic raw material for the production of clear or European beers.
According to Bamforth (2003), hops were cultivated in Babylon as far back as 200
AD, but it is recorded that not until the year 1079 were they used in the production
of beer. Indeed, ancient beers were flavored with herbs or seeds such as rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis), coriander (Coriandrum sativum), caraway (Carum carvi),
potato (Solanum tuberosum) leaves, and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). By the thir-
teenth century, hops were used as flavoring for German beers. It was not until 1524
that hops started to be grown in England, a hundred years before they were first
cultivated in North America.
Hops are obtained from the female flower (cones) of the perennial plant Humulus
lupulus, which belongs to the Cannabinaceae family. The hop plant, native to north-
ern temperate zones, adapts to cold or temperate climates and has difficulties in
adapting to other environments because it requires a relatively lengthy period of
daylight during the growing season. More than 100,000 tons are grown each year.
Approximately 70% of the world production is harvested in Germany, the United
States, Czechoslovakia, and the United Kingdom. Hop plantations mainly consist
of female plants that grow in fields equipped with 7-m-high posts that intercom-
municate with wires which support the vines. In recent years, dwarf varieties that
are easier to harvest have been bred. These retain the bittering and aroma poten-
tial of traditional hops. The female mature flowers or cones have a green-to-yellow
coloration before harvesting. They contain microscopic organelles named lupulins
that are rich in resins, phenolics (including tannins), and essential oils. The typical
chemical composition is detailed in Table 14.4. The cones are carefully dried at low
temperature (60°C–65°C) for an average of 10 h or until the moisture drops to about
8% to 10%. The hops must be stored cold and under airtight conditions to minimize
the degradation of bitter and flavor compounds. The aim is to minimize the oxidation
of essential oils and other volatile compounds. Hops have several different function-
alities in the beer system. They contribute to the typical flavor and aroma due to the
essential oils and resins. The tannins and other polyphenols help to clarify the beer
because they bind soluble proteins that cause turbidity. Furthermore, hops contribute
to the typical flavor profile of beer because they are rich in aldehydes, carboxy-
lic acids, and alcohols. The characteristic bitter flavor is due to resins classified as
humulones or α-acids, and lupulones or β-acids (Figure 14.3). The essential oils are a
mixture of 300 compounds such as terpenes, aldehydes, ketones, and alcohols. These
organic compounds polymerize, forming resin bodies. The essential oil imparts the
434 Cereal Grains
Table 14.4
Chemical Composition of Hops
(Humulus lupulus)
Component Amount (%)
Moisture 6–12
Protein 13–24
Ash 7–10
Oil 0.2–0.5
Pectins 12–14
Resins 11–21
Tanins 2–4
Glucose and fructose 3–4
Source: Kirk, R.E., and Othmer, D.F. 1962.

Enciclopedia de Tecnología Química, Vol.
4. UTEHA, México, D.F., Mexico.
OH O
H 3C CH3
C HC H2C C CH2 CH
H 3C CH3
OH CH3
H3C
C CHCH2 CH2CH C
H 3C CH3
OH O
H 3C CH3
C HC CH2 C CH2 CH
H 3C CH3
O OH
H3C CH3
C CHCH2 CH2CH C
H 3C CH3
Figure 14.3 Chemical structures of humulones or α-acids and lupulones or β-acids.
typical and characteristic aroma that is greatly lost during boiling of the wort. This
is the reason why a portion of the total hops is commonly added when wort boiling is
discontinued. Generally, 100 to 300 g hops is added for 1 hL wort (Bamforth 2003,
Hardwick 1995, Hough et al. 1993, Pollock 1979, Priest and Stewart 2006).
Hops are classified into aroma and bittering types, depending on the ratio of oil
to resin. Most commercial hop varieties are classified into midrange alpha, high
alpha, and super alpha. Most hops used by the brewing industry are dehydrated
and formed into dense pellets that are vacuum-packaged to prevent oxidation. Hops
extracts are produced by first treating the dehydrated cones with ethanol or meth-
ylene chloride, removing the organic solvent by distillation, and then extracting the
spent hops with water in order to solubilize polyphenols and pectins. Hops extracts
can also be produced with supercritical CO2 technology. Hops extracts are used
primarily for bittering purposes. The advantage is that the extracts are obtained
at a low temperature, which keeps the volatile compounds in higher concentra-
tions (Bamforth 2003, Hardwick 1995, Hough et al. 1993, Pollock 1979, Priest and
Stewart 2006).
14.4.1.3 Yeast
Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is selected according to the fermentation power
and based on the flavorings and volatiles generated during fermentation. Brewing
yeasts are classified according to the mode of action into top (or floating) and bottom
yeasts. The basic difference is in the cell wall structure. The cell walls of top yeast
tend to be more hydrophobic compared to bottom yeast. Bottom yeasts do not sporu-
late and adapt to low-temperature fermentation, and are preferred for the production
of lager beers. Floating brewing yeasts usually produce strong fermentations at high
temperatures (15°C–22°C) and are almost always used for manufacturing Pilsner
beers. Regardless of the type of beer, natural yeast ferments soluble sugars (monosac-
charides, disaccharides, and trisaccharides) into ethanol, carbon dioxide, and inter-
mediate organic metabolites that affect flavor and aroma (Bamforth 2003, Hardwick
1995, Hough et al. 1993, Ingledew 1995, Pollock 1979, Priest and Stewart 2006).
14.4.1.4 Water
Water constitutes approximately 95% of beer. Therefore, its quality and mineral
composition can greatly affect the end and organoleptic properties of the finished
product. Brewing masters recognize the importance of its mineral composition. The
preferred water is from natural springs with pH of 6.5–7.0, less than 500 ppm CaSO4,
from 200 to 300 ppm NaCl, less than 100 ppm CaCO3 and MgCO3, and free of
significant amounts of iron. Water containing more than 1 ppm iron can cause off-
flavors and colors in finished products. Water rich in calcium bicarbonate is preferred
for the production of dark beers (Bamforth 2003, Hardwick 1995, Hough et al. 1993,
Pollock 1979, Priest and Stewart 2006).
14.4.2 Brewing Operations

Beer production is divided into four major and distinctive operations: malting, mashing,
hopping, and pitching or fermentation (Figure 14.4). The first operation is done at the
malt house, whereas the last three sequential operations are performed at the brewery.
14.4.2.1 Mashing
The first step in brewing is the milling of the malt. Malt is coarsely ground immedi-
ately before beer making because the husks protect it against insects, and its enzymes
are more stable when not exposed to air. It should be sufficiently milled so that the
particles are able to access water, which will activate the enzymes. It is important
that the glumes remain as intact as possible because they will act more efficiently
as a filtrating bed. On the other hand, excessive breakage of the glumes or husks
results in the liberation of undesirable phenolic compounds. Generally, the malt is
436 Cereal Grains
Barley Malt Grinding Ground Malt

60 kg, 8% Moisture Roller Mill 60 kg, 8% Moisture
Double Mashing
Mash Tun, pH 5.2
Brewing Adjuncts: Refined 1. Cooking Stage: from 35 to 100°C with Water
Grits (20 kg), Starch (20 kg) One Third of Malt. Time of 1.5 hr 450 L
40 kg, 10–12% Moisture 2. Conversion Stage: Add Rest of Malt
and Ramp Temperature from
35°C – 45–60 - 75–100°C. Time of 2 hr.
Hot Water Lautering/Sparging/Wort Separation Brewers Spent Grains

50 L Lauter Tun, Double Mesh Floor 70 kg, 85% Moisture
Water
Sweet Wort 42 L
Hops (1 kg) or Hop Spent Hops and Trub
530 L, 13.2°Plato, 100–150
Extracts (0.5 kg) 2.5 kg, 80% Moisture
mg FAN
Hop Boiling
Hop Separation and Wort Clarification
1.5–2 hr @ Boiling Temperature. One Third
Water Whirlpool (Conical Trub)
of Hops are Added at end of Extraction
92 L
Adjusted Wort
580 L, 12°P, 150 mg FAN Cooling (heat exchanger), Filtration, Hop Wort
6°C for Lagers and Aeration and Adjustment of °Plato 488 L, 14.3°Plato
15– 20°C for Ales. and FAN
Yeast Yeast Pitching and Fermentation

Carbon Dioxide
0.87 to 1.45 kg Dry Yeast 7–15°C for 8–10 days for Lager
18 kg
Top and Bottom Fermenting 20°C for 3–5 Days for Ales
for Ale and Lagers, Resp.
Green Beer
Yeast Separation 562 kg, 5% Alcohol by Vol.,
Yeast
pH 4.2
21 to 36 kg, 80% Moisture
Final Treatments
Water, Carbon Beer Maturation and Conditioning
Dilution, Pasteurization, Carbonation,
Dioxide 4 to 6 Weeks at 0°C for Lagers
Bottling Canning or Casking
Matured Beer
562 L, 5% Alcohol by Vol.
Figure 14.4 Flowchart of industrial processes for production of lager and ale beers.
ground in roller mills because they produce large pieces of husks. Roller mills yield
endosperm particles with different granulations. The ground malt contains large and
small grits (0.6 to 0.15 mm), semolina, and flour with a particle size of approxi-
mately 0.15 mm. Generally, the ratio among large, intermediate, and fine particles
is 27:35:38. Mashing has the main objective of hydrolyzing the starch and protein
associated with the brewing adjuncts into fermentable carbohydrates, dextrins, and
soluble nitrogen. The fermentable carbohydrates and soluble nitrogen are important
yeast substrates, whereas dextrins impart the typical body or texture associated with
regular beers (Bamforth 2003, Hardwick 1995, Hough et al. 1993, Pollock 1979,
Priest and Stewart 2006).
There are several commercial mashing processes. Independent of the mashing
procedure, the raw materials used are water, usually containing controlled levels
of soluble salts, ground malt, and brewing adjuncts. In some mashing processes,
extrinsic enzymes are used. The most common mashing procedures in Europe are
infusion mashing, temperature-programmed mashing, and decoction (Briggs 1998).
Infusion mashing simply consists of mixing the malt and brewing adjuncts, which
are treated at 63°C–67°C. After standing for about 1 h, the mash is filtered, and then
the wort is filtered onto the surface of the mash until it becomes clear. Temperature-
programmed mashing is carried out in two vessels, a mash-mixing vessel and a wort
separation device or lauter tun. In the mash-mixing vessel, the mash is stirred and
warmed through a carefully chosen program designed to allow optimal enzyme con-
version. The temperature program usually starts at 35°C and after 30 min intervals
is increased to 50°C, 65°C, and 75°C. Next, the mash is transferred to the lauter tun
in order to separate the sweet wort from spent grains. Decoction mashing employs
a mash and decoction vessels and a lauter tun. The decoction vessel is used as a
cereal cooker. The grist is mixed with water and heated to 35oC–40°C for enzyme
conversion. After 1.5 to 2 h ,about one-third of the mash is transferred to the decoc-
tion cooker, where it is first heated to 65°C for about 20 min to enhance starch
liquefaction, and after that is heated to boiling. Then, this hot material is pumped
back to the stirring mash-mixing vessel, increasing the temperature of the combined
mash to 52°C, which is maintained for about 1 h. Once more, about one-third of the
mash undergoes decoction and is returned to the mash vessel, where the temperature
increases to 65°C. Finally, a third decoction takes place, increasing the mash tem-
perature to 76°C. The mash is then transferred to the lauter tun or mash filter. The
disadvantage of the decoction mashing process is that it takes about 6 h (Bamforth
2003, Hardwick 1995, Hough et al. 1993, Pollock 1979, Priest and Stewart 2006).
Most lagers on the American continent are produced by the double-mashing
procedure because the brewers’ grist formulations usually contain high amounts of
starchy adjuncts. These starchy materials require cooking in order to achieve com-
plete starch gelatinization. The mashing consists of two distinctive stages. In the
first, commonly known as adjunct mash, the brewing adjuncts are mixed with water
and heated to 35°C. After a 30 to 60 min stand, the contents are heated first to 70°C
for about 30 min, followed by 100°C for 30–45 min. The aim is to first hydrate the
adjuncts and malt, and then promote starch gelatinization and conversion because
most cereal starches gelatinize at temperatures higher than 65°C. Boiling is required
to denature proteins and to inactivate all microbes and enzymes. Once the adjunct
mashing program is under way, the second mash is prepared by mixing and heating
most of the malt and water to 35°C. Then the contents of the two vessels are mixed.
The aim of the second mashing step is to convert starch and proteins into simpler
carbohydrates and soluble proteins. This is optimally achieved by programming a
gradual temperature increase that starts at 35°C for approximately 30 min. The tem-
perature is usually ramped up by 10°C–15°C until 70°C is achieved. The sequential
temperature increase favors the proteolytic enzymes, followed by β-amylase (opti-
mum temperature of 60°C) and α-amylase (optimum temperature of 70°C). The high
temperature of the last mashing stage stops most enzymatic activity, reduces viscos-
ity, and improves the fluidity and filtering capacity of the resulting mash. During
this operation, the contents are agitated to achieve a better malt solubilization and
438 Cereal Grains
to better expose adjuncts to enzymatic hydrolysis (Bamforth 2003, Hardwick 1995,

Hough et al. 1993, Pollock 1979, Priest and Stewart 2006).
During mashing with rice or maize adjuncts, about 80% of the grits are solubilized
or extracted and become part of the sweet wort. The soluble solids are mainly dex-
trins, maltose, maltotriose, glucose, and FAN. If starch is used, the extraction rates
are usually 100 or more because the hydrolyzed starch gains water after conversion.
14.4.2.2 Lautering
After concluding mashing, the mash is transferred to a filtrating vessel called lauter
tun, where the sweet wort is separated from spent grains. The lauter tun is a relatively
shallow apparatus with a double mesh floor that is equipped with rakes that loosen
the filtrating bed structure, minimizing compaction. The mash contents are allowed
to precipitate for 30 min so as to enhance the formation of the natural filtration bed
rich in the malt husks or glumes. The sweet wort is finally separated by filtration
through the double mesh floor. Generally, in the first stage of lautering, the wort is
recirculated through the bed of spent grains that acts as a filter. Thus, as the early tur-
bid wort recirculates, it gradually becomes clear and bright. The filtering is usually
performed at temperatures of 65°C–70°C and sparged with hot water (75°C–80°C).
The higher temperature of the water used for sparging permits greater efficiency in
removing the remaining extract from the mash. The aim of lautering is to obtain
the maximum sweet wort or extract with the minimum insolubles contamination.
In most operations, lautering is considered the bottleneck of the process. The more
rapidly the wort can be recovered, the more brews can be performed daily (Bamforth
2003, Hardwick 1995, Hough et al. 1993, Pollock 1979, Priest and Stewart 2006).
The typical sweet wort composition is shown in Table 14.5.
14.4.2.3 Addition of Hops
Hops are added to the sweet wort in order to impart the characteristic European beer
flavor. The process simply consists of adding the hops to the wort in order to promote
the extraction of solubles by boiling and lixiviation for 1.5–2.5 h. Generally, half to
two-thirds of the hops are added at the beginning of the program and the rest at the
end of the process, with the objective of retaining key volatiles that enhance beer
flavor and aroma. During boiling, the enzymes are inactivated, the wort becomes
darker due to intrinsic wort compounds and caramelization reactions, and the
hopped wort becomes sterile. During this thermal treatment, from 4% to 12% water
is lost due to evaporation. In addition, some soluble proteins will bind to tannins
and precipitate decreasing turbidity. Spent hops are removed from the hopped wort
using the whirlpool principle. The boiling wort is passed tangentially into a large
whirlpool equipped with a conical trub collector located in the central part of the
base of apparatus. The trub is often mixed with the spent grains and sold as cattle
feed (Chapter 18).
The hopped wort is cooled in a heat exchanger to about 6°C for traditional lagers
and as high as 15°C–20°C for ales. The wort is also aerated with sterile air in order to
increase its oxygen content, which is critically important for yeast growth and bud-
ding, especially during the early phase of fermentation. During cooling, more pro-
Table 14.5
Carbohydrate Composition of a Typical Wort
Obtained after Mashing and Lautering
Component Amount (g/100 mL wort)
Total sugars 10.26
% Sugars of total extract 91.10
Fermentable Sugars
Fructose 0.21
Glucose 0.91
Sucrose 0.23
Maltose 5.24
Maltotriose 1.28
Total 7.87
Nonfermentable Sugars
Maltotetriose 0.26
Oligosaccharides 2.13
Dextrins 2.39
Total 4.78
Source: Gjertsen, P. 1953. J. Inst. Brewing 59:296.
teins become insoluble and are removed by centrifugation (Bamforth 2003, Hough
et al. 1993, Palmer and Bathgate 1976, Palmer 1989).
14.4.2.4 Fermentation
The wort is fermented into beer in special tanks or reactors equipped with cooling
coils or cooling jackets. The most common equipment consists of a 3- to 5-m-high
stainless steel conical and hermetically sealed tank with 150 to 500 hL capacity.
The wort is pitched with 1.5 to 2.5 g dry yeast/L. During the first stage of fermen-
tation, the yeast reproduces asexually by budding, increasing the biomass four- to
fivefold and utilizing the available oxygen. Thus, the conditions gradually switch
from aerobic to anaerobic. It is considered that after 12 to 24 h fermentation the
reactor conditions are anaerobic. During the anaerobic phase, the yeast metabo-
lizes fermentable carbohydrates and free amino nitrogen producing ethanol and
fusel or higher alcohols, respectively. The main fusel alcohols are isopropanol,
amylic, isoamylic, and butanol. During this stage, carbon dioxide is also produced
as well as intermediate organic products that help to impart the characteristic beer
flavor (Bamforth 2003, Hardwick 1995, Hough et al. 1993, Ingledew 1995, Pollock
For production of lagers, the fermentation process is carried out at 7°C to 15°C
for 8 to 10 d, and for Pilsners at approximately 20°C for 3 to 5 d. Lagers are almost
always fermented with bottom yeast, whereas Pilsners are always fermented with top
yeast. Most beers are kept in closed tanks at a temperature of 0°C for 4–6 additional
440 Cereal Grains
weeks in order to further reduce oxygen levels to less than 0.2 ppm and enhance
bouquet and aroma due to chemical changes such as the generation of diacetyl, dim-
ethylsulfide, and hydrogen sulfide. During fermentation, yeast cells transform malt-
ose and maltotriose into glucose, which is further metabolized into carbon dioxide,
energy, ethanol, and other organic metabolites such as organic acids and volatile
compounds. Approximately one-third of the fermentable sugars are transformed into
carbon dioxide (Ingledew 1995). The progress of fermentation is usually followed
using a refractometer that measures beer density. The initial wort density is about
1.040 and that of the finished product is between 1.008 and 1.010 g/cm3. The organic
acid production decreases pH to a level of 4.2. The change in the acidity coagu-
lates some proteins and decreases even more the solubility of some acidic hop res-
ins. Also, during fermentation, important quantities of FAN or soluble nitrogen are
metabolized into fusel alcohols that affect the organoleptic properties of beer. The
sweetness of beers is due to residual sugars that have not been fermented into alco-
hol. Some beers are supplemented with sugars before packaging (Bamforth 2003,
Hardwick 1995, Hough et al. 1993, Pollock 1979, Priest and Stewart 2006).
The flavor, color, and aroma of beers greatly influence sensory properties and are
the result of many interacting factors (type of malt, type of brewing adjuncts, type
and amount of hops, type of fermenting culture, fermentation temperature, thermal
treatments applied during processing, filtration, degree of carbonation, beer matura-
tion, type of packaging, and storage conditions). Many different types of chemical
compounds besides ethanol, fusel alcohols, and those derived from hops also influ-
ence beer flavor, aroma, and stability. A wide array of esters present in concentrations
of ppm affects sensory properties. The most relevant are ethyl acetate, butyl acetate,
isoamyl acetate, ethyl valerate, isoamyl propionate, phenylethyl acetate, and methyl
and isoamyl caprate, which impart different fruit flavors. The same applies for sulfur
compounds such as dimethyl sulfide or disulfide, ethyl or amyl mercaptan, and methi-
onal. These sulfur-containing volatiles affect flavor (onion, garlic, egg, rotting leek) at
even lower concentrations, generally in ppb. One of the major concerns in the industry
is the control of levels of dimethyl sulfide and diacetyl (Bamforth 2003).
Yeast cells greatly reproduce, especially during the early stages of fermentation
when oxygen is still available in the wort. The final yeast biomass is about five times
greater compared to the yeast originally inoculated into the system. Yeast is recuper-
ated usually by centrifugation, and is washed and reutilized to ferment new batches
of wort (Bamforth 2003, Ingledew 1995).
14.4.2.5 Carbonation, Clarification, and Pasteurization

Most beers require other operations before casking, bottling or canning, and mer-
chandising. The main additional operations are carbonation, clarification, and pas-
teurization. Carbonation could be natural or artificial; the first is the most typical and
occurs during the secondary fermentation stage. Typically, a packaged beer contains
between 2.2 and 2.8 volumes of carbon dioxide. At atmospheric pressure, a beer
will dissolve no more than its own volume of carbon dioxide. Therefore, in order to
introduce higher CO2 levels, it is necessary to pressurize the beer. Foaming is depen-
dent on CO2 concentration and the phenomenon of nucleation of surface tension.
Colder and more viscous beers have better foam stability compared to warmer beers
(Bamforth 2003). For the second case, carbon gas is directly applied into the mature
beer. Carbonation affects foaming and enhances the overall beer acceptability.
The rate of foam collapsing is lower for gases of lower solubility. The addition of
nitrogen, which is only sparingly hydrosoluble, leads to a foam that is creamy and
stable due to the formation of tiny bubbles. Some commercial beers are bottled or
canned with widgets that release nitrogen gas when the container is opened and the
pressure changes. The original widget was patented in Ireland by Guinness. Liquid
nitrogen is added to pressurized beer containers, which vaporizes and expands in
volume after the container is sealed, forcing gas and beer into the widget’s hollow
interior through a tiny hole. The nitrogen and carbon dioxide mixture released cre-
ates a more stable foam, increases head retention and foam adhesion to the side of
the glass (lacing), and enhances the sensory properties of the beer. The nitrogen gas
improves palatability because it affects differently the tongue’s papillae taste buds
(Bamforth 2003).
In some instances, the sweetness, flavor, and color are adjusted before bottling
by the direct addition of syrups and hop extracts. One of the most important post-
fermentation operations is clarification. The mature beer has a certain degree of
turbidity due to biological and nonbiological factors. As indicated earlier, the first
clarification step is the removal of the yeast, which reaches a concentration of up to
1 million cells per mL. This is performed by centrifugation and/or filtration through
active carbon or silica beds. The nonbiological source of turbidity is mainly due to
oxalates, β-glucans, and protein–tannin complexes. These compounds are generally
destabilized by heating–cooling cycles, which result in flocculation, coagulation,
and/or sedimentation. The clear beer could be pasteurized before or after bottling.
The operation prior to bottling consists of applying heat treatment in plaque heat
exchangers aimed at applying a quick temperature treatment at about 5°C followed
by immediate cooling in the same type of equipment. The pasteurized beer is deliv-
ered into containers previously sterilized in an aseptic line. The pasteurization of the
already-packaged beer is generally performed in exhausters or continuous bands,
where hot and cold water are sprayed onto the bottles or cans. It usually takes about
20 min at 60°C to 68°C to pasteurize closed containers. Flash pasteurization consists
of treating the beer in a plate exchanger to a temperature of about 70°C for approxi-
mately 20 s, followed by chilling. After the heat treatment, the containers are imme-
diately cooled with cold water. Pasteurization gets rids of bacteria that contaminated
the product during fermentation, postfermentation operations, and bottling. After
pasteurization, the bottles are labeled, placed in cases, and stored before distribu-
tion (Bamforth 2003, Hardwick 1995, Hough et al. 1993, Pollock 1979, Priest and
Stewart 2006).
14.4.3 Classes of Beers
There is a wide array of beers in the market. The most important are lagers or pilsners,
light, dark, and alcohol-free, produced from barley malt and adjuncts (Table 14.3).
Light beers are less viscous or have lower density (d ≤ 1 g/cm3) and contain fewer
calories compared to regular beers (Table 14.6). These beers are practically carbo-
hydrate free and have less body or viscosity because dextrins are converted during
442 Cereal Grains
Table 14.6
Chemical Composition of Regular and Light Beers
Regular Beer Light Beer
Component (100 mL) (100 mL)
Moisture, g 92.3 95.2
Calories, kcal 41 28
Protein, g 0.3 0.2
Ash, g 0.1 0.1
Alcohol, g 3.6 3.2
Minerals
Ca, mg 5 5
Fe, mg 0.03 0.04
Mg, mg 6 5
P, mg 12 12
K, mg 25 18
Na, mg 5 3
Zn, mg 0.02 0.03
Cu, mg 0.01 0.02
Vitamins
Thiamin or B1, mg 0.006 0.009
Riboflavin or B2, mg 0.026 0.030
Niacin or B3, mg 0.453 0.392
Pyridoxine or B6, mg 0.050 0.034
Folacin, mcg 6 4.1
Cyanocobalamin or B12, mcg 0.02 0.01
Source: USDA 2009. Nutrient Data Laboratory. Agricultural Research

Service. http://www.nal.usda.gov/.
mashing into fermentable sugars, mainly due to the addition of amyloglucosidase.

The total carbohydrate content of light beers is fermented compared to the approxi-
mately 70% to 80% that occurs in regular beers. Light beers have gained market
because of the lower caloric density (Chapter 17) and less sensation of satiety. About
50% of the current market is light beer. There are two basic ways to produce light
beers. The most popular is the utilization of high-dextrose equivalent syrups as
adjuncts instead of starchy feedstocks so as to reduce dextrins and increase ferment-
able sugars. The other is the addition of amyloglucosidase during mashing in order
to convert most dextrins into glucose.
There are several strategies to produce dark beers. Generally, these beers are
denser than regular beers, stronger in flavor, and especially darker in final color.
Dark beers are produced by using dark or roasted malts, sugars that upon heat treat-
ment produce darker colorations, and higher amounts of hops. Some dark beers are
supplemented with syrups after fermentation.
Low-alcohol and nonalcoholic beers contain less than 2% and 0.05% alcohol by
volume, respectively. These beers are slowly gaining popularity, especially among
drinkers that do not want to get drunk or those who want to stay within the threshold
of the allowable alcohol content for driving without sacrificing the consumption of
a beverage with the typical and characteristic beer flavor. There are several ways to
produce low and nonalcoholic beers. The most common techniques are to limit alco-
hol formation during fermentation or to strip out the ethanol from the finished beer.
Alcohol can be removed by ultrafiltration and/or reverse osmosis or by evaporation
using vacuum distillation. Unfortunately, some characteristic flavor compounds are
lost during alcohol removal, so product developers are focusing on returning these
key compounds to the finished beer.
There are European beers produced from sorghum or wheat malt. Wheat-based
beers known as Weizenbier are industrially produced in Europe. These beers are
manufactured from high diastatic wheat malts. The wheat mashes tend to have
higher lautering times compared to barley malt mashes. Weizenbiers are usually
straw-colored and mellow-flavored beers because they are produced from lightly
kilned wheat malt and contain small amounts of polyphenols. However, most of
these beers have a slightly cloudy appearance.
Sorghum lager beers are popular in Nigeria and other African countries. The beer
is produced from sorghum malt that is often supplemented with microbial enzymes
to compensate for its lower β-amylase activity (Hallgren 1995, Rooney and Serna-
Saldivar 2000). A 100% sorghum beer could be brewed using sorghum malt, and
refined sorghum brewing adjuncts are usually obtained after mechanical decortica-
tion to remove the pericarp and germ tissues. The use of waxy sorghum grits has the
advantage of decreasing lautering times, whereas amyloglucosidase allows the pro-
duction of mashes with higher amounts of fermentable sugars (Barredo Moguel et
al. 2001, Del Pozo-Insfran 2004, Ortega-Villicaña and Serna-Saldivar, 2004, Urias-
Lugo et al. 2005).
14.5 Opaque Beer Production

Opaque beers, also known as kaffirs, are extensively consumed in Africa. In some
of these areas, commercial products are displacing home-prepared beers. They are
manufactured from sorghum malt and sorghum, maize, or millet adjuncts. These
beers are not hopped and are consumed while they are still undergoing fermentation
(Daiber and Taylor 1995, Novellie and de Schaepdrijver 1986, Rooney and Serna-
Saldivar 2000, Taylor et al. 2006). The traditional opaque beer process has been
successfully adopted by the industry. The typical industrial procedure is detailed
in Figure 14.5 (Novellie and de Schaepdrijver 1986, Rooney and Serna-Saldivar
2000). In contrast with lager beers, opaque beers are sour and produced from two
mashing steps and two fermentations. Ground sorghum malt is mixed with water
and naturally fermented with a medium rich in lactic-acid-producing bacteria for 24
h. The diastatic sorghum malt breaks down starch and gradually creates substrate
for the bacteria. During this first stage, the pH drops due to organic acid produc-
tion, mainly lactic, produced by naturally occurring bacteria. The second mashing
step starts when the adjuncts are added and mixed with sorghum malt with the aim
444 Cereal Grains
Sorghum Malt Grinding

60 kg, 8% Moisture Roller Mill
Brewing Adjuncts: maize,

sorghum and/or millets Ground Malt
40 kg, 12–14% Moisture 60 kg, 8% Moisture
Cooking
Water
Gelatinized Adjuncts
Lactic Acid Culture or
Starter
Mashing Lactic Acid Fermentation

Water 37°C/ 1 Day 24 hr, 25–30°C
Lactic Acid Fermented

Cooking and Cooling
Mash
Insolubles/Coarse
Filtration/Centrifugation
Wort Particles
25–30°C/2 Days
20 kg Solids
Yeast (Saccharomyces Yeast Pitching and Fermentation

Opaque Beer
cereviceae) 25–30°C/2 Days
Finished Opaque Beer

Final Treatments
660 L, 10% Solids, 2–4% Alcohol
Dilution, Packaging
0.4% Lactic Acid, pH 3.4
Figure 14.5 Flowchart of the industrial process for production of sorghum opaque beer
(photograph courtesy of Dr. John Taylor, University of Pretoria, South Africa).
of yielding fermentable carbohydrates. The pH is of utmost importance because it

affects the fermentation rate and viscosity of the finished alcoholic beverage. The
acidified wort previously fermented with lactic acid bacteria is inoculated with yeast
to produce alcohol and the typical beverage. The wort is fermented for 2 to 3 d at
temperatures of 21°C to 30°C. Opaque beers have an acidic pH (3.3–3.5) and contain
from 2% to 4% alcohol, 0.3% to 0.6% lactic acid, and 4% to 10% solids. These beers
are consumed warm and while they are still undergoing fermentation. This is why
commercial opaque beers are packaged in carton containers that have perforated
lids so to allow the release of fermentation gases. Most opaque beers have a brown-
pink coloration and, due to the higher solid content, are a good source of vitamins,
minerals, proteins, and carbohydrates (dextrins), which solubilize during malting
and mashing.
14.6 Production of Sake

Sake or rice wine is a noncarbonated alcoholic beverage widely consumed in Asia,
mainly Japan. This alcoholic spirit contains from 14% to 16% ethanol and is pro-
duced from refined rice. In Japan alone, more than 1.5 million kiloliters of sake is
produced annually (Yoshizawa and Kishi 1987). For sake production, four basic raw
materials are used: refined polished white rice; water; an Aspergillus oryzae culture,
commonly known as Koji-kin; and yeast.
Sake is one of the oldest alcoholic beverages in the world, dating back to 300 ad.,
though the origins of the beverage are traced in China as far back as 4000 bc. It was
the Japanese who began mass production of this alcoholic beverage. By the time of the
Heian Era (794–1185), the art of sake was refined enough to warrant a government-
sponsored guild comprising professional brewers. During the centuries that followed,
brewers became increasingly skilled at isolating Koji-kin, pasteurizing their products,
and creating new types and flavors.
The traditional sake-making procedure is detailed in Figure 14.6. The first step
is the production of a highly refined white rice obtained following the rice milling
steps described in Chapter 7. One important difference between common white rice
and sake rice is the degree of decortication and polishing. Sake rice is extensively
milled in order to further reduce the fat or oil content. Generally, about 30%–50% of
the weight of the brown kernel is abraded to produce sake rice. Then, polished ker-
nels are washed and steeped in pure water that contains low quantities of iron (<0.02
ppm), nitrates, and organic compounds. About 25 kL of water is used for every ton
of rice. The soaked rice is steamed for approximately 45–50 min, allowed to cool
down, and inoculated with the Koji culture. Koji is industrially produced from a pure
culture of Aspergillus oryzae that is inoculated in previously soaked and cooked rice
and fermented at 35°C for 5 to 6 days. The mold culture produces various types of
enzymes, which are the most relevant amylases and proteases that hydrolyze gela-
tinized starch and proteins, respectively. When the Koji is ready, the next step is to
create the starter mash, known as Shubo or colloquially Moto. Mashing consists of
mixing cooked rice with lactic acid bacteria or simply with water containing lactic
acid (0.7 L/1000 L water). The lactic acid impedes the growth of undesirable micro-
organisms. The ratio of steam-cooked rice and Koji rice is 75:25. During mash-
ing, the starch is hydrolyzed into fermentable carbohydrates at temperatures close
to 10°C. More steamed rice, water, and Koji are added once a day for three days,
doubling the volume of the mash each time. The mixture is now known as the main
mash, or moromi. Next, the mash is fermented with special strains of osmotolerant
yeast that resist high alcohol concentrations. Fermentation is usually carried out at
20°C with intermittent agitation for 10 to 15 days. After 2 to 6 weeks of fermentation,
the fermentation of the sake is deliberately slowed down by lowering the temperature
to less than 10°C. At the end of fermentation, sake is pressed to separate the liquid
from the solids. With some sake, a small amount of distilled alcohol, called brewer’s
alcohol, is added before pressing in order to extract flavors and aromas that would
otherwise stay in the solids. The press-filtered alcoholic beverage with about 20%
ethanol is in most instances pasteurized to inactivate yeast and denature enzymes.
The unpasteurized sake, known as Namazake, retains more flavorful compounds,
446 Cereal Grains
Highly Refined and

Polished White Rice
100 kg
Water Washing and Steeping
Pressure Cooking Koji Production

Mash Tun, pH 5.2 Cooling (Inoculation with
Conversion Steps 35–70°C/2 hrs Aspergillus oryzeae)
Adjuncts Mashing Koji

Fermentation Tanks Water
0.87 to 1.45 kg Dry Yeast
30–37°C for 15–20 Days
Hydrolyzed Rice Syrup Fermented Mash Pure Ethanol
Sake
Filtering Spent Grains and
108–112 L, 31–35%
Press Filter Insolubles
Alcohol by Volume
Pasteurization Aging
Blending, Diluting
3–4 Months Under Refrigeration
Filtration Sake
Pasteurization/Bottling
Charcoal 15% Alcohol
Sake
Figure 14.6 Flowchart of the industrial sake process.
but it should be kept under refrigeration. The most common pasteurized sake is usu-
ally stored for periods of 8 months up to 2 years. Water is subsequently added to
reduce the alcohol percentage from 20% back down to around 15%–16% and, finally,
the sake is pasteurized for the second time and bottled. Sake contains between 12%
and 16% alcohol, 0.7%–0.8% acids, and 3.5% reducing sugars (Yoskizawa and Kishi
1985).
There are two basic types of sake: Futsū-shu and Tokutei meishō-shu. Futsū-shu,
or ordinary sake, is the equivalent of table wine and accounts for the majority of
sake produced. Tokutei meishō-shu, or special-designation sake, refers to premium
beverages distinguished by the degree to which the rice is polished and the added
percentage of brewer’s alcohol or the absence of such additives. Other types are
the Honjōzō-shu, or premium sake, in which a slight amount of brewer’s alcohol is
added to the sake before pressing, in order to extract extra flavors and aromas from
the mash. This term was created in the late 1960s to distinguish it from cheaply
made liquors, to which large amounts of distilled alcohol were added. Sake with this
designation must be made with no more than 116 L of pure alcohol added for every
1,000 kg of rice. The Junmai-shu, or pure rice sake, is made only from rice, water,
and Koji, with no brewer’s alcohol or other additives; the Ginjō-shu and Daiginjō-
shu sakes are made from highly refined rice polished to 60% and 50% or more of its
original weight, respectively.
14.7 Production of Cereal-Based Alcoholic Spirits

The knowledge of the art of distillation and production of alcoholic spirits has been
documented since 1100 ad. Whiskeys differ basically in the nature and proportion
of the cereals used as grist and on the type of still used for distillation. Many differ-
ent ingredients have been historically used as a source of fermentable carbohydrates,
and most of them are cereals. Two types of raw materials are recognized as being of
utmost importance: malt and grain. For the manufacture of cereal-based alcoholic
spirits, the following operations are performed: starch gelatinization in preparation
for hydrolysis with diastatic malt or enzymes, fermentation, distillation, and aging.
There is a wide assortment of alcoholic spirits manufactured from cereals. Table 14.7
describes the characteristics of the most common spirits.
14.7.1 Whiskey
The name whiskey is a corruption of the Gaelic word uisegebaugh meaning “water
of life.” The first whiskies were produced in Ireland rather than Scotland around
the year 1170 ad. Various types of whiskies are produced in a number of different
countries around the globe. They mainly differ in the nature and proportion of the
cereals used as adjuncts along with barley malt, and also in the type of still used for
distillation. Scotch malt whiskey is made exclusively from an all-barley malt grist
and the fermented mash is distilled in relatively small pot stills (Table 14.7). On the
other hand, grain whiskies use a high proportion of cereal adjuncts. For instance,
bourbon, rye, and Scotch grain whiskies contain at least 51% maize, rye or wheat/
maize, respectively (Bathgate 1989, Lyons 1995, Ralph 1995, Yoneya 2007).
14.7.1.1 Malting, Kilning, and Mashing

The lightly kilned and high-diastatic malt is peated or smoked to various extents
to yield spirits with characteristic flavors. Many distillers procure the raw mate-
rial already cooked and mashed. However, some distilleries mill and process from
scratch. Special and selected barley types are procured, dried, stored, and cleaned
448 Cereal Grains
Table 14.7
Types of Cereal-Based Distilled Alcoholic Beverages
Distilled Spirit Characteristics
Scotch malt whiskey Produced only from barley malt in Scotland and matured in oak casks for a
minimum of three years.
Scotch grain whiskey Produced from barley malt and with a high proportion (up to 90%) of wheat or
maize. It is also only produced in Scotland and matured in oak casks for a
minimum of three years.
Irish whiskey Distinctive whiskey distilled in pot stills from a mash of cereals and barley malt
grown in Ireland. It may be produced with the use of microbial enzyme
preparations in addition to the malt.
Bourbon whiskey Whiskey produced at a proof no higher than 160° from a fermented mash of
not less than 51% maize and aged in new charred oak barrels at a proof no
greater than 125°.
Rye whiskey Whiskey produced at a proof no higher than 160° from a fermented mash of
not less than 51% rye and aged in new charred oak barrels at a proof no
greater than 125°.
Wheat whiskey Whiskey produced in the state of Tennessee at a proof no higher than 160°
from a fermented mash of not less than 51% wheat and aged in new charred
oak barrels at a proof no greater than 125°.
Tennessee whiskey Whiskey produced at a proof no higher than 160° from a fermented mash of
maize, rye, or wheat and aged in wood barrels at a proof no greater than 125°.
Vodka Neutral distilled alcoholic spirit generally treated after distillation with
charcoal or other materials without distinctive character, aroma, taste, and
color.
Source: Lyons (1995) and Ralph (1995).
before malting. Malting is a critical operation because it affects the process down-
stream and the organoleptic attributes of the beverage. As brewing malt, the bar-
ley is steeped in cold water (12°C–15°C) to increase the moisture to around 44%
or 48%. The soaking operations usually lasts 48–60 h in vessels that have aera-
tion capabilities. During steeping, air is applied in cycles. The air volumes applied
vary from 0.5 to 17 m3/min/ton, depending on the type of steep tank. The objective
of the air is to provide oxygen, which promotes the physiological activation of the
grain. After steeping, the steeped barley is placed on germination beds for 4 to 5
days at 15°C. The temperature differential across the bed is minimized by forc-
ing humidified air and turning the malt. This is manually done on open floors, or
mechanically performed by screw turners or scoop turners in germination boxes,
or by total immersion in mechanical drums. The malt is kilned after achieving the
desired malt modification and diastatic activity. Scotch whiskey malts are kilned
using peat smoke. The tradition of using peat started a long time ago when it was the
only available fuel for drying malt. Peat forms in bogs, from the decomposed roots
and foliage of moorland plants, principally heather. On very old moors, these layers
may be several meters deep. After draining off as much water as possible, the top
layer of actively growing heather is stripped and the underlying black peat is manu-
ally or machine-cut into blocks. The soggy wet peat blocks are allowed to dry to
around 60% moisture. Generally, malt for whiskey production is dried with high air
flows at relatively low temperature. Kilning cycles of 24 to 36 h are common with
initial air temperatures of 60°C to 65°C, rising to 70°C–75°C at the end of the cycle
(Bathgate 1989). Peat smoke is introduced to the kiln from burners. The resulting
malt, with 4% to 5% moisture, is allowed to rest for several weeks before mashing.
The malt is ground with roller mills that are adjusted to obtain 15% husks, 75%
grits, and 10% flour. The ground malt is mashed alone or with adjuncts, depending
on the type of alcoholic beverage. If adjuncts are used, these are generally provided
as grits. A uniform particle size distribution is desired for homogenous hydration,
adequate enzymatic conversion, and spent grains, which are not too difficult to filter.
Generally, when adjuncts are used, the starch is gelatinized or cooked at atmospheric
pressure or using pressure cookers. Pressure cooking generally improves alcohol
yields. Different flavors that end up in the finished distilled beverage are produced
during cooking. The temperature profile and duration of the thermal treatment affect
the generation of flavorful compounds (Bathgate 1989, Briggs 1998, Lyons 1995,
Ralph 1995).
The gelatinized starch from the adjuncts or enzymatically damaged starch
from the malt is converted into fermentable carbohydrates with the malt diastatic
enzymes, the addition of pure enzymes, or a combination of both. The most common
enzymes used are α-amylase, β-amylase, pullulanase, and amyloglucosidase. The
first two are naturally present in high amounts in barley malt and yield worts rich
in the fermentable carbohydrates maltose and maltotriose and nonfermentable dex-
trins. Pullulanase and amyloglucosidase are frequently used to convert practically
all starch into glucose (Chapter 13). Most distilled beverages are produced from malt
because it enhances flavor. For Scotch whiskeys, the green malt is kilned with peat
smoke in order to impart the distinctive flavor and aroma (Figure 14.7). The grist may
be mashed three times at successively higher temperatures (63°C, 75°C, and 85°C)
to maximize fermentable sugars in the extract. Generally, the first and second worts
are mixed and fermented, whereas the third is used to mash the next batch of grist.
During mashing, the starch of the ground malt and adjuncts is converted to ferment-
able carbohydrates and dextrins, and the protein is broken down into simpler and
soluble molecules. The fermentable carbohydrates and FAN are important substrates
from the subsequent step of yeast fermentation. The mashing protocol is aimed first
at the hydration of the malt; then a gradual temperature increase is applied in order
to enhance enzyme activity and conversion of the different substrates. There are
various mashing programs. When malt is used alone, the most critical temperatures
are 60°C, 70°C, and 80°C, and when adjuncts are utilized, the mash is kept at lower
initial temperatures in order to enhance their starch and protein conversion. After
mashing, the contents are filtered in order to separate the wort from the spent grains.
The specific gravity of the resulting wort is adjusted in preparation for fermentation
(Bathgate 1989, Lyons 1995, Ralph 1995, Yoneya 2007).
450 Cereal Grains
Peat-smoked and/or Regular Adjuncts:

Malts (6% Moisture) 51 kg Maize or Rye Grits for
100 kg for Scotch Malt Whiskey Bourbon or Rye, 10–12% Moisture
49 kg for Bourbon and Rye
Water
Cooking
Grinding Pressure Cooker
Roller Mill 1–1.5 hr with Steam at 120°C
Mashing
Mash Tun, pH 5.2
Conversion Steps 35–70°C/2 hrs
Hot Water Wort Separation Spent Grains

50 L Mash Tub 70 kg, 85% Moisture
Wort Adjusted Wort

Cooling (Heat Exchanger) and
420 L, 18°Plato, 150–180 mg 420 L, 25°C, 150–180 mg
Adjustment of °Plato and FAN
FAN FAN

0.87 to 1.45 kg Dry Yeast Washbacks or Fermentation Tanks Carbon Dioxide
30–37°C for 36–72 hr 23 kg
Beer Distillation and Alcohol

397 L, 7–11% Alcohol by Condensation Feints and Low Wines
Vol. (Pot or Continuous Stills)
Alcoholic Spirit Maturing or Aging

108–112 L, 31–35% Blending, Diluting, Coloring,
Charred Oak Casks
Alcohol by Volume Clarification and Bottling
(at Least 3 Years)
Scotch Malt, Scotch Grain, Bourbon or

Rye Whiskey
108–112 L with 31–35% Alcohol by Volume
Figure 14.7 Flowchart of the commercial production of various types of whiskeys.
The most critical step for production of alcoholic spirits is fermentation. After cool-
ing the wort to 20°C–30°C, a pure strain or a mixture of strains of distillers yeast
is pitched to convert fermentable carbohydrates into ethanol, and soluble protein
into fusel alcohols and a wide array of metabolites that affect the flavor, aroma, and
overall acceptability of the finished distilled product. Most fermentations are carried
out with Saccharomyces cereviceae pitched at a rate of approximately 0.5 kg of fresh
compressed yeast/hL. Most processes are batch, although there are some modern
processes in which the wort is continuously fermented in small fermentation vessels.

The rate of fermentable sugar breakdown depends on the composition of fermentable
carbohydrates, temperature, and osmotic pressure, which is mainly determined by
the concentration of fermentable sugars or specific gravity. Most fermentation pro-
cesses are carried at temperatures lower than 32°C for 48–72 h. During the first stage
of fermentation, the yeast activates, consumes the available oxygen, and reproduces
asexually by budding. Then, fermentable sugars and soluble nitrogen are gradually
converted into ethanol and fusel alcohols, respectively. The fermentation ceases due
to the osmotic pressure caused by the generated alcohol when the substrate is fully
utilized. Full attenuation is complete in 36 to 48 h, when the specific gravity falls 2 to
3 degrees below that of water, giving an alcohol yield of around 8%. It is known that
alcohol concentrations greater than 10%–12% inhibit the fermenting yeast. However,
there are new yeast strains that are osmoresistant and are able to ferment high-spe-
cific-density worts. The rule of thumb applied in distilleries is that the raw material
is transformed into one-third carbon dioxide, one-third alcohol, and one-third spent
grains. One of the major differences between distillery operations and brewing is the
omission of a wort boiling stage after wort runoff. Consequently, amylases continue
to be active during fermentation, so higher amounts of dextrins are first hydrolyzed
into simpler compounds and later on into ethanol (Bathgate 1989, Lyons 1995, Ralph
1995, Yoneya 2007).
14.7.1.3 Distillation and Aging

All alcoholic spirits are obtained after distillation of the fermented beer. During this
operation, the ethanol and other volatile compounds are separated from the beer
in copper pot stills or modern continuous distillation towers. The traditional pot
stills have an onion-shaped or bulbous body with a rising swam neck, a horizontal
arm, and a condenser. Continuous distillers have perforated plates where steam flows
countercurrent to the beer flow. The beer is generally introduced in the middle or top
part of the distiller, and the ethanol and other volatiles are recondensed. The alcohol
concentration depends on the temperature and the type of distiller. The distillate from
the pot still has an alcohol content of over 20% and is commonly known as low wine.
The residue contains all the autolyzed yeast cells and unfermented wort. This residue
is usually concentrated into a thick syrup and sold as animal feed. The low wines are
distilled in a second pot still, and during this operation, low fractions are obtained.
The foreshots contain volatile organic compounds that are deleterious to the flavor
of the finished product. The degree to which vapors are rectified before condensa-
tion regulates the composition and flavor of the spirit. The second fraction contains
about 68% ethanol, and this is considered the green whiskey (Bamforth 1989). High-
alcohol beverages are usually obtained after passing the beer through two or three
distillation units (Bathgate 1989, Lyons 1995, Ralph 1995, Yoneya 2007).
The final step in alcoholic beverage production is aging. The alcoholic beverage
is usually adjusted to the desired alcoholic content or °proof and placed in wooden
barrels or casks made either from American white oak (Quercus alba) or European
oak (Quercus robur). The type of wood and the use of secondhand casks affect flavor
development and bouquet (Yoneya 2007). The amounts of acids, aldehydes, esters,
and ketones increase during aging. Generally, the factors to control during aging are
452 Cereal Grains
beverage alcohol content, temperature of the cellar or aging room, and aging time.
Aging varies according to the distilled beverage and desired quality. Aging times
vary from 1 year up to 12 years or more. After maturing, the alcoholic beverage
is filtered, adjusted to specific alcohol content, and bottled (Bathgate 1989, Briggs
1998, Lyons 1995, Ralph 1995, Yoneya 2007).
14.7.2 Vodka
The distilled alcoholic spirit vodka was first produced by monks of Moscow monas-
teries, who tried to substitute grape spirits or brandy. The word vodka was derived
from voda (meaning water). It is documented that the use of vodka was an unsuccess-
ful remedy for the Great Plague or Black Death back in 1348. The commercial manu-
facturing of vodka started in the 1450s. In 1478 the tsar Ivan the Terrible established
vodka drinking establishments to obtain more profits for the imperial treasury. The
renowned Russian scientist Dmitry Mendeleyev researched the optimum spirit-to-
water ratio for the taste of vodka. The 40° alcohol formula was patented under the
name of Moscow Special. When the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia, many vodka
makers were forced to leave the country and established distilleries in neighboring
countries, and from there vodka spread to other European countries and America.
Vodka is an alcoholic beverage distilled at a high proof from a fermented grain or
vegetable mash. The basic steps for manufacturing vodka are malting, mashing, fer-
mentation, and distillation. The neutral spirit is devoid of color and odor. Vodkas are
classified into two main groups: clear and flavored. Most vodkas are unflavored, and
the main flavors used to produce flavored spirits are red pepper (Capsicum spp.), ginger
(Zingiber officinale), fruits, bison grass (Hierochloe odorata), vanilla (Vanilla planifo-
lia), chocolate (Theobroma cacao), honey, and cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum).
The tradition of flavoring is mainly prevalent in the Nordic countries, where a wide
arrays of vodkas seasoned with herbs, fruits, and spices are currently produced.
14.7.2.1 Malting
Barley malt is preferred, although other types of malts could be used. The malt
hydrolyzes starch into fermentable sugars and dextrins.
14.7.2.2 Mashing
The best-quality vodkas are elaborated from barley malt and quality adjuncts prefer-
ably obtained from wheat or rye. Vodka may be obtained from other starch or sugar
sources such as sorghum, maize, potato (Solanum tuberosum), molasses, sugar beet
(Brassica sp.), and even grapes (Vitis vinifera). In some countries such as Poland,
some vodkas are produced by fermenting a sugar broth.
Vodka mashes are fermented with yeast (Saccharomyces cereviceae) in large stain-
less steel vats under anaerobic conditions. The fermentation time lasts from 2 to 4
days depending on the fermentation temperature, which varies according to region.
Most vodkas are fermented at temperatures ranging from 25°C to 30°C.
14.7.2.4 Distillation and Rectification

The fermented mash is distilled in traditional pot stills or stainless steel columns
where heat or steam strips the alcohol from the fermented mash. The alcohol vapors
are recondensed and redistilled up to nine times. The vodka distillation process
removes the heads and tails rich in ethyl acetate and ethyl lactate as well as fusel
alcohols, so the finished beverage mainly consists of pure ethanol with some water.
Most distilleries obtain 95% ethanol after distillation and rectification and dilute the
vodka to obtain liquor with 40% ethanol. There are some vodkas that contain as low
as 37° alcohol and some that contain up to 70° alcohol. The water used to decrease
the alcohol content is important and is generally obtained from wells, glaciers, lakes,
or springs. The distillation process concentrates the alcohol. Some distilled alcohols
are filtrated through charcoal obtained from the apple tree (Malus domestica) or
abedul (Betula alba) wood.
14.7.3 Shochu
Shochu is a Japanese distilled spirit from rice, barley, or sweet potatoes that
is manufactured by following the basic steps of sake production (Figure 14.6).
Typically, it contains 25% alcohol by volume, so it is weaker compared to whiskey
or standard-strength vodka, but stronger than wine and sake. Compared to sake,
shochu is usually less fruity, and its typical bouquet depends strongly on the nature
of the raw material used in the process. Its flavor is often described as nutty or
earthy. Shochu is produced everywhere in Japan, yet the home of shochu is the island
of Kyushu. The exact origin of shochu is unclear. It likely first arrived either in
Kyushu through Thailand and Okinawa or in Iki Island from Korea, which adopted
it from the Mongols, who themselves acquired the distillation process from Persia.
The distilled alcoholic beverage in Okinawa is known as Awamori. Most shochu is
made from raw steeped milled rice or barley, which is steamed to promote starch
gelatinization. Upon cooling, the Koji culture is added for the same reasons that it
is used with sake. The mash is fermented for several weeks in special vats to form
unrefined alcohol, called Moromi. Then a secondary fermentation takes place by the
further addition of steamed rice, sweet potato or barley, and water to yield second-
stage Moromi. The ingredient added during this second fermentation determines the
shochu variety. Then the fermented mash is single or multiple distilled to obtain the
liquor. There are several types of shochu: rice, barley, potato, brown sugar, Soba or
buckwheat (Fogopyrum esculetum), and Awamori. Most shochus contain from 25%
to 42% alcohol by volume.
14.8 Production of Fuel Ethanol from Cereals

Anhydrous ethanol has been used as a fuel since the early 1900s. During the past
10 years, the interest in and use of fuel ethanol has dramatically increased because
it is a renewable fuel, the escalation of petroleum prices, and the positive proven
environmental benefits compared to combustion of fossil fuels. Brazil and the United
States are the two main producers of fuel ethanol; the former produces most of the
454 Cereal Grains
ethanol from sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) stalks, whereas the second employs
maize. These two countries produce more than 58 billion liters of ethanol per year
(Renewable Fuels Association; www.ethanolrfa.org). There are three basic ways to
produce ethanol: from sweet juices extracted from sugarcane, sugar beets or sweet
sorghum; from starchy cereals; or from fiber or lignocellulose materials. Production
of fuel ethanol from sweet juices or fibrous feed stocks is beyond the scope of this
book. Today, about half of the world’s ethanol is produced from sugarcane and the
other half from cereals, mainly maize. It is expected that these sources of etha-
nol are going to gradually decrease when efficient fiber or cellulosic technologies
emerge. Among cereals, maize is the preferred feedstock because of its high avail-
ability, relatively low cost, and high starch content. However, the recent demand for
maize ethanol has increased the international prices of practically all cereal grains.
Consequently, the use of cereals for fuel ethanol is affecting both the food and feed
industries. The major effect has been in developing countries. Just in the United
States, about 85 million metric tons of maize were processed into fuel ethanol in
2008 (Renewable Fuels Association, www.ethanolrfa.org).
The simplest way to produce ethanol is from sweet juices extracted from sugarcane,
sugar beet, or sweet sorghum because the juice is directly fermented and then distilled
to obtain fuel-grade ethanol. The disadvantages of this process are the relatively low
conversion rates (70 L/ton), the relatively low shelf life of the cut stalks, and the seasonal
harvesting that impedes the utilization of the biorefinery throughout the whole year.
There are three starchy feedstocks used for ethanol: whole grain or dry grind,
modified dry grind or dry-milled fractions, and refined starch. The most commonly
used feedstock is the dry grind. In this process (Singh et al. 2005), the grain is sim-
ply ground and then subjected to the three sequential steps: starch conversion into
glucose, yeast fermentation, and distillation. The yield of 1 ton of yellow dent maize
ranges from 380–400 L (Figure 14.8). In the modified dry grind process (Singh et
al. 2005), the grain is dry-milled with the aim of removing the pericarp and germ,
and the resulting endosperm pieces are further ground into a meal that is processed
in a similar manner as the whole ground maize of the dry grind process. The advan-
tage of this process is higher yields (410–420 L/ton), the separation of shelf-stable
bran and germ coproducts, and the recovery of lower amounts of spent grains with
lower fiber content. The least common way to obtain fuel ethanol is by converting
starch slurries obtained after conventional wet-milling (Chapter 8). The main disad-
vantage of using starch slurries is that the wet-milling process demands important
amounts of energy and more capital investments. The advantages are the recovery
of the typical wet-milling coproducts and the high ethanol yield. Approximately
540 L ethanol is obtained from 1 ton of starch (BBI International 2003, Coble et
al. 1981, Lawton 2000, Madson and Monceaux 1995, Maisch 2003, Norman and
Lutzen 1981, Scheller 1981).
Regardless of the fuel ethanol process, the starch is gelatinized in preparation for
liquefaction or incubation with thermoresistant α-amylase (Sears 1995). Next, the
liquefied mash is treated simultaneously with amyloglucosidase and yeast to con-
vert dextrins into fermentable carbohydrates and, later on, convert these carbohy-
drates into ethanol (Figure 14.8). After 2 days of fermentation, the beer is distilled to
obtain ethanol with 5% to 10% water. The rest of the water is removed via azeotropic
Maize Grinding
100 kg, 14% Moisture Hammer Mill
Continuous Cooking
Water and Heat Stable
Hydro Heater
α-Amylase
1–1.5 hr with Steam at 120°C
145 L
Gelatinized Slurry
245 L, 35% Solids
Cooling (Heat Exchanger) and Liquefaction Reactor Heat Stable

Adjustment of °Plato and FAN 85–90°C, 3–4 hr, pH 6.5 α-Amylase
Water Liquified Slurry

265 L Dextrins
Amyloglucosidase
Yeast Fermentation
0.87 to 1.45 kg Dry Yeast Fermentation Reactors Carbon Dioxide
510 L, 12–13°Plato @ 35°C for 48 hr 30 kg
Fermented Wort or Beer Distillation

510 L, 7.8% Alcohol by Continuous Distillers and Stillage and Distilled
Vol. Azeotropic Distillation or Use Grains
of Molecular Sieve
Drying
Dried Distillers Grains

and Stillage
Fuel Ethanol 30 kg, 12% Moisture
39 L, 98% Pure
Figure 14.8 Flowchart of the commercial production of fuel ethanol from cereal grains.
distillation or with the use of molecular sieves. Optimally, the yeast produces two
ethanol molecules (C2H5OH) from each glucose unit (C6H12O6). During fermenta-
tion, large quantities of carbon dioxide and heat are also produced. The maximum
yield of ethanol from 100 g glucose is 47.5 g ethanol with a density of 0.79 g/cm3
(BBI International 2003, Coble et al. 1981, Lawton 2000, Madson and Monceaux
1995, Norman and Lutzen 1981, Scheller 1981).
The main use of fuel ethanol is to oxygenate gasoline instead of the hazardous
MTBE, which is considered carcinogenic (BBI International 2003). Most ethanol pro-
grams start with the substitution of MTBE in the gasoline. Then fuels with higher lev-
els of ethanol are produced (E10, E15, and E20). When ethanol substitutes more than
15% or 20% of the gasoline, the motors have to be adjusted, especially the carburetor,
which has to be modified. In some countries, the trend is to manufacture automobiles
capable of burning fuels with 85% ethanol (E85).
456 Cereal Grains
From the environmental viewpoint, ethanol burns more cleanly because it pro-
duces less carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, suspended particles, and
other contaminating hydrocarbons. Another important advantage of ethanol is that
when it is accidentally spilled, the ecosystem is not much affected, because it decom-
poses in about a week.
14.8.1 Grinding
Production of fuel ethanol starts by selecting feedstocks high in starch. The selected
grains are reduced in particle size with hammer mills. The meal particle size and
operational conditions of the hydroheater affect the rate of gelatinization and the
downstream process (Naidu et al. 2007). Generally speaking, the finer the granula-
tion, the better conversion rate but the higher use of energy. Generally, the grains
are forced to pass through screens with 2–5 mm orifices. The resulting ground
meals are usually mixed with water to produce slurries with 35% solids (BBI
International 2003, Coble et al. 1981, Lawton 2000, Madson and Monceaux 1995,
Scheller 1981).
14.8.2 Gelatinization
The ground grain–water suspension is mixed with small amounts of heat-stable
α-amylase and then heated in jet cookers or hydroheaters. The continuous operation
consists of first direct steam heating of the incoming slurry to gelatinize the starch
granules and then forcing the pregelatinized slurry to pass through the hydroheater
at pressures and temperatures of up to 10.3 bar and 230°C so as to mechanically
disrupt the swollen and gelatinized starch granules. The heat-stable α-amylase starts
hydrolyzing the gelatinized starch, lowering viscosity. The hydroheater performs
this operation in a matter of seconds and therefore saves energy. The operation is
very efficient in terms of first promoting starch solubilization, gelatinization, and
degradation due to α-amylase hydrolysis (BBI International 2003).
14.8.3 Liquefaction
The gelatinized starch slurry is pumped to an enzymatic reactor for further treatment
with α-amylase. The biocatalysis takes place at pH 6.5 and a temperature of 85°C–
95°C for sufficient time to hydrolyze the starch into a 20–30 DE hydrolysate. The vis-
cosity of the starch slurry lowers due to the formation of linear and branched dextrins
(BBI International 2003, Coble et al. 1981, Lawton 2000, Madson and Monceaux
1995, Maisch 2003, Norman and Lutzen 1981, Scheller 1981, Sears 1995).
14.8.4 Simultaneous Saccharification–Fermentation

The α-amylase-treated hydrolysate is mixed with water to lower the soluble car-
bohydrate content to approximately 12°Plato and the temperature in preparation
for simultaneous saccharification and fermentation. The temperature and pH are
adjusted to 35°C and 5.5, respectively, and the FAN is adjusted to 150–200 mg.
The addition of yeast food is especially important when processing pure starch slur-
ries. The properly diluted and adjusted mash is then placed in large fermentation
conical tanks in preparation for amyloglucosidase addition and yeast pitching. The
fermentation tanks contain heat exchangers in order to remove the heat generated
by the fermenting yeast. Amyloglucosidase, sometimes mixed with pullulanase, and
yeast are simultaneously added at rates of 0.47 g/kg ground meal and 0.35 g yeast/L
mash, respectively. The enzyme and yeast are added concurrently in order to gradu-
ally convert dextrins into fermentable sugars and ferment them into ethanol. As in
other fermentation processes, the yeast reproduce by budding during the first 12 h
fermentation when the mash and head space of the fermentation tank contains oxy-
gen (aerobic fermentation). Dextrins are mainly hydrolyzed into glucose, especially
during the first hours of fermentation. At the same time, the yeast uses the glucose
and available oxygen first to reproduce by budding and then to yield alcohol. The
yeast starts to yield ethanol after 12 h fermentation, when the reactor conditions
turn from aerobic to anaerobic. In addition, the yeast uses the FAN to generate the
fusel alcohols (isopropanol, amylic alcohols, and butanol). Generally, the glucose
is mainly transformed into ethanol during the first 24 h of fermentation, although
it is considered to be totally converted after 48 h of fermentation. During the two-
day fermentation, the glucose is totally used, the pH drops due to the production of
organic acids, and the yeast biomass increases fivefold. The rule of thumb is that 0.51
mL of pure ethanol is produced from each gram of glucose. Most fermented beers
contain from 6% to 8% ethanol, depending on the initial glucose concentration. New
strains of yeast, some genetically modified, tolerate higher concentrations of sugars
and alcohol, and therefore promote better efficiency of the use of the large fermen-
tation tanks (BBI International 2003, Coble et al. 1981, Lawton 2000, Madson and
Monceaux 1995, Maisch 2003, Norman and Lutzen 1981, Scheller 1981).
14.8.5 Distillation and Ethanol Purification

The beer, with approximately 6.5% or 8% ethanol by weight or volume respec-
tively, is then distilled through a couple of columns called distillation and rectifier.
The resulting ethanol is concentrated to more than 90% (BBI International 2003,
Katzen et al. 1995). The first column is capable of concentrating the ethanol to about
90% and the second to 95%. Before, entering the first column, the beer is heated to
approximately 94°C in a heat exchanger. The hot beer is then distilled in a column
equipped with perforated plates Fuel ethanol with less than 1% water is obtained
either by azeotropic distillation or by the use of molecular sieves. The first technol-
ogy requires the use of an azeotrope in order to further refine the ethanol, whereas
the other technology involves passing the ethanol through a molecular sieve. The
azeotropic distillation consists of adding cyclohexane or benzene to the almost pure
alcohol mixture in order to form a ternary azeotrope that is stronger than the original
binary mixture of ethanol-water. The disadvantages of azeotropic distillation are the
possible use of benzene, which is a known carcinogen; the use of more energy and
distillation columns or steps needed to separate the azeotrope; and the possibility
of fuel ethanol contamination with the azeotrope (BBI International 2003, Lawton
2000, Madson and Monceaux 1995, Katzen et al. 1995). The use of molecular sieves
458 Cereal Grains
is gradually displacing the technology of azeotropic distillation. The technology of

molecular sieves is based on the use of microporous particles that selectively adsorb
water. The most common material is zeolite (aluminum silicates) with a porous
diameter of 3Å, which traps water molecules that have a diameter of 2.5 Å. The etha-
nol molecules of 4 Å are not adsorbed, and therefore pass through the zeolite bed.
The industry uses molecular sieves arranged in tandem so that the used adsorbent,
which contains water, is recovered, whereas the other adsorbent purifies the ethanol.
The column is regenerated by overheated anhydrous ethanol vapors that are forced
to pass through the packed bed. The regeneration usually takes 8 min (Swain 1999).
The use of molecular sieves saves about 20% of the energy used in regular distilla-
tion processes.
The almost pure ethanol is denatured with the addition of methanol, isopropyl alco-
hol, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, or methyl isobutyl ketone, and is ready for storage in
containers that avoid air contact because the anhydrous ethanol is highly hygroscopic.
14.8.6 Spent Grains

Spent grains are obtained from the distillation towers. They basically consist of
water, yeast, pericarp and germ tissues, gluten proteins, residual starch, and other
chemical components (Singh et al. 2005). The spent grains usually contain 70%–
80% moisture, and in some processing plants they are dehydrated to yield shelf-
stable feeds. However, with the high cost of energy, some refineries sell wet spent
grains at a reduced cost. The wet or dried spent grains, rich in fiber and protein, are
used as ruminant feed (Chapter 18). Spent grains from modified dry grind processes
can be used for monogastrics (poultry and swine) because they contain less fiber and
more protein.
14.8.7 Production of Bioethanol from Cereals Other Than Maize

After maize, wheat and sorghum are the most important cereals used for fuel etha-
nol production. Wheats, especially of low grade or quality, are converted into fuel
ethanol in Australia, Canada, and other producing countries. The industrial technol-
ogy is practically identical to the one described earlier. Sorghum is being viewed
as an alternative for bioethanol production in Latin America and even the United
States because it is not used for direct food consumption, grows in marginal areas,
and is usually less expensive compared to maize. However, the ethanol conversion
rate is usually lower compared to maize (340 L versus 390 L) because the sorghum
starch is more difficult to hydrolyze into fermentable sugars. The sorghum starch
granules are less susceptible to hydrolysis because they are surrounded by a protein
matrix that is more cross-linked, and sorghum contains more phenolics compared
to maize. Recent research has demonstrated that sorghum is capable of producing
similar yields of ethanol if the grain is ground more finely (Corredor et al. 2006) or
decorticated to remove pericarp and part of the germ and then treated with proteases
that act synergistically with the α-amylase during the initial stage of liquefaction. In
fact, decorticated sorghum treated with proteases yielded more ethanol compared to
maize (Perez-Carrillo et al. 2007, 2008). The advantage of sorghum decortications is
that the bran is separated before the process and has an added value because it does
not require the energy for drying required to dehydrate distillers grains. Another
possible alternative is to steam-flake sorghum kernels before grinding in order to dis-
rupt the internal endosperm structure. Recently, Chuck et al. (2009) researched the
use of steam-flaked sorghum and concluded that the thermal treatment widely used
in feed lots (Chapter 18) made sorghum produce similar yields of ethanol compared
to raw or steam-flaked maize.
Self-Evaluation
1. Define the following terms:
(a) Malting (b) Kilning (c) Lautering
(d) Aging (e) Free amino nitrogen (f) Anhydrous ethanol
(g) Pitching (h) E85 (i) Peat
2. Why is barley the preferred cereal for malting and lager beer production?
3. Describe at least five physicochemical changes that barley undergoes
after malting.
4. Define diastatic activity. What are the practical and analytical criteria gen-
erally used to determine the maximum diastatic activity?
5. Describe the role of gibberellic acid in grain malting or germination.
6. Describe the general industrial operations used to produce barley malt. Why
is kilning critically important in brewing and distilled alcohol operations?
7. What are the main differences between the malting processes of sorghum
and barley?
8. List at least three types of barley malts, indicating their main use.
9. What is a brewing adjunct? What are the most popular adjuncts used by
the brewing industry? What are the main chemical characteristics of brew-
ing adjuncts?
10. What is mashing? Explain why the double mashing procedure is preferred
when brewing lager beers? Why is a gradual temperature profile pro-
grammed during mashing?
11. Why is lautering after mashing one of the most critical unit operations in the
brewing process? What are the main factors affecting rate of wort filtration?
12. What are the main functionalities of hops in lager beer production? Describe
at least three different types of chemical compounds associated with hops
and their functionality?
13. What are the different stages during fermentation of lager beers. In which stage
does yeast reproduce and in which stage is most of the ethanol produced?
14. What are differences among regular, dark, and light lagers?
15. What is the relationship between wort or beer density and alcohol content?
16. What are the main differences between a lager and opaque beers in terms
of processing and product characteristics?
17. How are alcohol-free lager beers industrially produced?
18. What are sake and Koji? Explain and detail the typical process by which
paddy rice is transformed into sake.
460 Cereal Grains
19. In a flowchart, summarize the process to produce Scotch whiskey, empha-

sizing fermentation and distillation.
20. Why are cereals, especially maize, considered a feedstock for fuel ethanol
production. From the economic viewpoint, is it more profitable to produce
fuel ethanol, sugarcane, or maize? Why?
21. Describe the two processes widely used to separate fuel ethanol with less than
1% water from the beer. Which process is more energy efficient? Why?
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15 Quality Control of
Cereal Grains and
Their Products
15.1 Introduction
The postharvest processes and subsequent manufacture of cereal-based products are
subjected to many quality control measurements in the sequential stages of produc-
tion. There are tests for whole grains, other nongrain and functional additives or
raw materials, intermediate processed products (i.e., flours, semolina, grits, starches,
etc.), and finished food products. There are numerous quality tests commonly used
by the various industrial segments, varying from the simple to the sophisticated. The
tests used by grain elevators and plant breeders are generally simple, straightfor-
ward, and discriminatory with the aim of screening the quality of a large number of
samples. The accurate determination of grain properties and characteristics plays a
key role in the selection of new varieties and hybrids by plant breeders. The quality
control of the milling industries is of utmost importance because it determines yields
and the quality of end products. In addition, tests can predict important process-
ing parameters and adjustments in formulations. Generally, these industries require
more sophisticated and specialized equipment. These tests are interrelated and in
most instances complement one another.
Most quality control tests described herein are detailed in Official Methods of the
AACC (2000), AOAC (1990), and ASBC (2009).
15.2 Quality of Whole Grains

The economic value of whole grains is closely related to class and grade, as described
and discussed in Chapter 2. Class and grade greatly depend on the physical grain
properties, presence of other foreign grains, dockage, and other contaminants that
negatively affect quality. The determination of grain quality (Table 15.1) is relevant
for managers of grain elevators, millers, and processors because it relates to stability,
intermediate product yield, and quality of processed cereal-based foods.
15.2.1 Moisture
Moisture determination is crucial in the evaluation of grains and processed prod-
ucts. It is especially important for grading and marketing. Generally, the cost of
463
464 Cereal Grains
Table 15.1
Quality Control Parameters Commonly Used to Assess the Quality of Cereal
Grains
Quality
Control Equipment Instrument Importance
Moisture NIRA, electric Moisture is one of the most important parameters because it
conductivity moisture affects yields and stability during storage. Cereals not
meters, moisture stored at their optimum moisture (>14%) have more
balances, air oven enzyme activity, heat damage, and insect/mold damage,
method (AACC and might require drying.
44-15A)
GMO maize PCR (polymerase chain Molecular biology technique that detects genetically
reaction) modified organisms using PCR assay. A primer
discriminates between the intended and unintended DNA
sequence so that only the targeted sequence is amplified.
Many countries around the world have established
mandatory labeling of food products containing GMO
despite the fact that they are generally recognized as safe
for human consumption (Pantella 2005).
Foreign Dockage test meter The amount of foreign material affects yields. Cereals with
material a high amount of foreign material are usually more prone
to insect and mold damage and require costly precleaning
actions.
Test or Winchester Bushel This is one of the most important measurements for grading.
volumetric Meter (AACC Method Test weight is important because is closely related to the
weight 55-10) kernel condition. Insect, mold, and heat damaged kernels
have lower test weight than sound or healthy kernels.
1000-Kernel Automatic seed counter The 1000-kernel weight gives an indirect indication of grain
weight size and correlates with milling yields. Large kernels have
higher and lower proportions of endosperm and pericarp,
respectively.
Density Pycnometer (nitrogen The density is closely related to the endosperm texture of
displacement) the kernel and correlates well with yields of large and
medium-size grits.
Floaters Sodium nitrate solutions The percentage of kernels that float in a sodium nitrate
with different specific solution with a given specific gravity. The test gives an
gravities indication of grain density.
Broken Sieving Broken kernels are more prone to insect and mold damage
kernels and deterioration.
Endosperm Grain viewer (light box) The observation of grain samples positioned on top of a
texture or dissecting kernels light box or dissected samples allows the determination of
the proportion of floury to vitreous endosperm.
Hardness TADD mill Hardness is indirectly determined by subjecting samples to
decortication with the tangential abrasive dehulling device
(TADD) for a given amount of time. The higher the dry
matter removed, the softer the grain.
Quality Control of Cereal Grains and Their Products 465
Quality Control Parameters Commonly Used to Assess the Quality of Cereal
Grains
Quality
Fissures or Grain viewer (light box) The observation of grain samples positioned on top of a
stress light box allows the determination of stress cracks and
cracks fissures on the endosperm caused by defective drying or
grain mishandling.
Heat Visual inspection Heat-damaged kernels are recognizable because of their
damaged darker coloration. The heat damage is due to the generation
kernels of heat from an active grain during storage. A heat-
damaged kernel undergoes important alterations in its
chemical constituents. In cereals, heat damage is closely
related to starch damage due to amylase activity.
Insect and Visual inspection Insect-damaged kernels are recognized by observing the
mold punctures or holes in the grain or the presence of a weblike
damage material. Mold-damaged grains are recognized because of
their darker coloration and dirty appearance. Molds have
potent amylolytic and lipolytic enzymes that damage
starch and germ lipids, respectively. Several types of molds
can produce high levels of mycotoxins that are harmful for
humans and domestic animals.
Starch AACC Method 76-30A, Starch damage due to faulty storage or sprouting can be
damage falling number (AACC determined via hydrolysis with α-amylase or indirectly
56-81A) or determined by a measurement of the viscosity of a slurry
viscoamylograph prepared from the ground grain or flour. The lower the
viscosity, the greater the starch damage.
Protein NIRA The amount of protein can be rapidly determined using an
content infrared analyzer previously calibrated with a set of
standards. This is particularly important to determine the
class of wheat.
Mycotoxins Black light test equipped This is an extremely convenient screening test for the
with ultraviolet light detection of mycotoxins in grains. The detection of a bright
bulbs (365 nm) greenish gold fluorescence is a sign that a mold is present
and that the sample may contain mycotoxins.
Aflatest, Fumonitest, The utilization of ELISA columns to selectively isolate
Ochratest, and other mycotoxins followed by their quantification via fluorescence
related analysis allows for quick and reliable determination of these important
metabolites, which are regulated by most regulatory agencies.
Test can be performed in less than 10 min.
Source: Data from AACC Approved Methods of Analysis. 2000. Tenth edition. American Association of Cereal
Chemists, St. Paul, MN; Brekke, O.L. et al. 1971. Cereal Chem. 48:499; Halverson, J. and Zeleny, L.
1988. In: Wheat Chemistry and Technology. Y. Pomeranz (ed.). American Association of Cereal
Chemists, St. Paul, MN; Peplinski, A.J. et al. 1984. Cereal Chem. 61:289; Pantella, V. 2005. Cereal
Foods World. 50(4):166–167; Rooney, L.W. and Suhendro, E.L. 2001. Chapter 4 (pp 39–71) in Snack
Foods Processing. E. Lusas and L.W. Rooney (eds.), First edition. Technomic Publishing, Lancaster, PA;
and Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2003. Manufactura y Control de Calidad de Productos Basados en Cereales.
AGT editor, S.A. México, D.F. México.
466 Cereal Grains
any lot of grain is adjusted according to moisture. The reference moisture content of
cereal grains is almost always 14%. Grains with higher moisture are usually penal-
ized because they contain fewer solids and are less stable during storage (Chapters 5
and 6). Moisture is also critically important in milling operations because tempering
affects the quality of milled products. In addition, the final moisture content of pro-
cessed products is closely related to texture and overall acceptability.
There are many ways to assess moisture content. The most common and practical
ones are those that determine moisture in a relatively short time. The most accurate
assays are called gravimetric assays because ground grains are dehydrated in con-
vection ovens set at 100°C (AACC Method 44-15) or 130°C (AACC Method 44-19)
until a constant weight is achieved. The drying time is significantly reduced when
the test is performed in a vacuum oven (AACC Method 44-40). The most practi-
cal way to determine moisture in grain elevators is by the use of electronic probers
such as Motomco (Figure 15.1; AACC Method 44-11). The nondestructive test is
performed on whole grains in a matter of seconds and is based on the principle that
bound and free water conduct electricity differently. Another popular and widely
used method is the determination of moisture with the near-infrared analyzer, or
NIRA (Figure 15.1). This test is accurate, enabling the construction of a reliable
calibration curve (Table 15.1).
15.2.2 Dockage or Foreign Material

Dockage is an important factor in the commercial value of any lot of grain. The for-
eign material includes other grains; stones; rodent feces; vegetative material such as
sticks, cob pieces, and metal; and glass contaminants. There are several methods to
estimate foreign material (AACC Methods 28-00, 28-01, 28-03). Most consist of siev-
ing in an apparatus sometimes equipped with an air aspirator such as the Universal
Dockage Test Meter (Figure 15.1 and Table 15.1). The amount of foreign material,
usually expressed based on the original sample weight, is important because it is
closely related to milling yields (flour, semolina, grits) and quality of end products
(color, aroma, and flavor). In addition, dockage is a source of insect and mold con-
tamination and negatively affects grain stability during storage. Contaminants such
as stones, metals, and glass can damage processing equipment (milling rolls, flaking
equipment, etc.) and food safety if they end up in packaged food products.
Filth tests, insect fragments, and rodent hair and feces are important sanitary indi-
cators. Grains contaminated with insects (larvae, adults) that pass cleaning and are
subsequently milled yield flours with insect fragments. The filth test is very impor-
tant in finished products because it gives an indication of the sanitary and insect con-
trol programs used in milling operations. The most popular tests to determine insect
fragments and rodent hair (AACC Methods 28-19, 28-40, and 28-41A) are based
on treating the flour or food item with a weak HCl solution followed by addition
of mineral oil. After settling, the sample is washed, heated again with a weak HCl
solution, and filtrated with alcohol. The insect fragments are counted and identified
with a dissecting microscope (Table 15.1). A similar principle is used to detect insect
fragments and rodent hair by treating the sample with 40% alcohol and heptane,
followed by filtration and determination by viewing under a microscope (AACC
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 15.1 Instruments commonly used to determine physical and chemical properties

of cereal grains. (a) Boerner divider. (b) Electronic grain moisture tester (photograph from
Desna Controls and Weighing, Inc.). (c) Near-infrared analyzer or NIRA.
468 Cereal Grains
(d)
(e) (f )
Figure 15.1 (Continued) Instruments commonly used to determine physical and chemi-

cal properties of cereal grains. (d) Grain cleaner. (e) Dockage test meter. (f) Automatic seed
counter.
(g) (h)
(i) (j)
Figure 15.1 (Continued) Instruments commonly used to determine physical and chemi-

cal properties of cereal grains. (g) Winchester Bushel Meter. (h) Air displacement pycnom-
eter (photograph from Thermal Spray Research). (i) Tangential abrasive dehulling device or
TADD (photograph from Venables Machines Works Limited). (j) Polymerase chain reaction
apparatus.
470 Cereal Grains
Method 28-20). In order to detect internal insect infestation, grains are viewed with
x-rays (AACC Method 28-21) or broken kernels are treated with 60% isopropyl alco-
hol and heptane. Insects, fragments, and exoskeletons are separated by filtration on a
cloth and viewed and quantified in a microscope (AACC Method 28-22).
15.2.3 Thousand Kernel Weight

This parameter is frequently used because grain weight is an excellent indicator of
grain size that is related to dry- and wet-milling yields. The industry prefers uniform
and large kernels because they contain a higher proportion of endosperm or starch.
The test is simple, practical, and fast and is usually performed using an automatic
seed counter (Figure 15.1 and Table 15.1).
15.2.4 Density
Apparent and true grain densities are closely related to grain quality and endosperm
texture. The most widely used measure is the bushel or volumetric weight (AACC
Method 55-10) performed with a Winchester Bushel Meter (Figure 15.1 and Table 15.1).
The test simply consists of determining the weight of a certain grain volume packaged
under standardized conditions. Results are usually expressed in lb/bushel (2150.42
cubic inches, or 36.37 L) or kg/hectoliter. The test weight is one of the most important
parameters used for grain-grading purposes (Chapter 2). However, the test has been
criticized because it measures a combination of densities of the kernels, and values are
affected by the way grains pack in the container and by the grain moisture content.
True grain density, generally expressed in g/cm3, is generally determined by mea-
suring the weight of a given volume that is displaced by a known weight of test mate-
rial. True density can be determined by ethanol displacement or by air, nitrogen, or
helium displacement using a pycnometer (Figure 15.1 and Table 15.1). Nitrogen is
the most commonly used gas. True or apparent density values are important because
they are closely related to grain condition and milling yields. Dense grains are
less prone to insect damage and have better handling properties (less susceptible
to breakage) during storage, commercialization, and processing. For wheat, density
values are strongly associated to class and functional use. Density of other grains,
such as maize and sorghum, is also important for dry- and wet-millers. For dry mill-
ing, the industry selects grains with higher density because they usually yield more
and better-quality products. The wet-milling industry typically uses less dense or
softer kernels because they require shorter steeping and yield more starch.
15.2.5 Flotation Test

The flotation test was originally developed by the Quaker Oats Company as a quick
index of grain density and dry-milling quality. The test simply consists of prepar-
ing one (i.e., 1.275 g/cm3) or various sodium nitrate solutions with different specific
gravities for the determination of the percentage of floating kernels. The number of
floaters increases as moisture content increases; therefore, the percentage of floaters
is adjusted using a correction chart (Rooney and Suhendro 2001).
15.2.6 Grain Hardness
There are an ample number of subjective tests to estimate grain hardness. Hardness
is mainly affected by the ratio of corneous to floury endosperm and apparent and
true density values. The most practiced assays consist of subjecting, for a given time,
a lot of grain to the abrasive action of a mechanical decorticator such as the tan-
gential abrasive dehulling device or TADD (Figure 15.1). Softer kernels will lose
more material or will break into smaller particles during decortication or impaction.
There are other tests, mainly used by the wheat industry, in which kernels are milled
using a standardized procedure. The particle-size distribution of the resulting flour is
related to hardness. Softer grains produce finer flours. The principle of determining
particle-size distribution has gained popularity because it can be adapted to NIRA.
The USDA is using this assay for grading wheat. There are many new methods to
estimate hardness, especially developed for wheat, varying from the estimation of
hardness in single kernels to others based on the estimation of time, force, and even
noise produced in a standard mill during grinding. There are also microscope-based
techniques, or the traditional observation of kernels placed on a light box for the sub-
jective evaluation of the ratio of vitreous (translucent) to floury (opaque) endosperm.
15.2.7 Stress Cracks

Stress cracks are internal fissures in the vitreous or hard endosperm of cereal grains.
The grain lots with high incidence of stress cracks are more susceptible to breakage.
This is especially important in rice because a high incidence of stress cracks lowers
milling yields (Chapter 7). Stress cracks are mainly generated due to moisture gradi-
ents inside the kernels during artificial drying, especially when the air temperature
exceeds 60°C. Stress cracks are determined by careful examination of a representa-
tive sample of the grain lot. The naked caryopses are placed onto a light box, and
the number of fissures is counted. Each kernel is individually inspected for single,
double, or multiple cracks.
15.2.8 Breakage Susceptibility

The susceptibility of kernels to breakage is used as an index of grain hardness,
although stress cracking predisposes kernels to rupture. There are many different
mechanical methods used to compare the breakage susceptibility of a given lot of
grain. The Stein, Wisconsin, and Ohio Breakage Testers are used to study the effects
of drying temperatures on breakage susceptibility of maize. These testers grind
and sieve a sample subjected to a standardized grinding protocol. After sieving, the
percentage of fines is calculated and the value is related to breakage susceptibility
(Paulsen et al. 2003).
15.2.9 Germ Viability
Germ viability is important because it is closely related to grain soundness and
malting performance. Grains can die or lose their physiological activity due to heat
472 Cereal Grains
damage during storage (Chapters 2 and 6), insect or mold attack (Chapter 7), or even
mechanical damage. Germ viability is usually determined by the tetrazolium test,
which gives an indication of enzyme activity. The advantage is that it is fast, rela-
tively inexpensive, and performed in a short period of time; so it is ideally suited to
purchase grains, especially barley, for malting purposes. The germ of viable kernels
acquires a pink-reddish coloration indicating metabolic activity.
15.2.10 Genetically Modified Grains

Many countries around the world have established mandatory labeling of food prod-
ucts containing GMO grains despite the fact that they are generally recognized as
safe for human consumption (Pantella 2005). Some European and Asian countries
still doubt the safety of these grains and have originated major complications in
trade. Many nations have opted to establish mandatory labeling of all food and feed
products formulated with GMOs. GMOs are almost always detected with molecu-
lar biology techniques such as polymerase chain reaction, or PCR (Figure 15.1).
A primer discriminates between the intended and unintended DNA sequence, so
that only the intended sequence is amplified. The PCR is very sensitive in terms
of detecting GMO kernels in a given lot of grain. In fact, many countries have set
their threshold limit at zero. Zero tolerance is unrealistic for many reasons. First, to
certify the absence of GMOs, it would be necessary to test the entire lot of grain.
Second, it is only statistically possible to claim a zero result with a built-in ± error
due to the limitations of testing devices. Third, zero tolerance is impractical because
farmers and grain elevators use the same machinery to harvest and store regular
and GMO grains, so it is practically impossible to completely avoid the mingling
of grains.
15.3 Quality Control of Dry- and Wet-Milled Products

Quality control for dry- and wet-milling industries is divided into two major types:
value of cereals used as raw materials, and quality of milled fractions or finished
products such as grits and refined starches. The parameters usually measured
for incoming lots of grains are moisture, test weight, dockage or foreign mate-
rial, broken kernels, damaged kernels, endosperm texture, hardness, 1000-kernel
weight, and mycotoxins (Table 15.1). For dry-milled fractions, the most relevant
chemical tests are ash, fat, fiber, protein, and starch content, whereas the most
important physical tests are particle-size distribution and color. Many millers also
adopt functional assays. For wheat, protein, starch damage (falling number), and
dough rheological properties are usually assessed in order to classify incoming
lots of kernels. Wet millers rely on functional assays such as pasting properties,
usually determined with the amylograph. Protein content and gluten functional-
ity are of utmost importance for vital gluten obtained from wheat wet milling
(Chapter 8). Both dry and wet millers regularly rely on quick laboratory milling
procedures to assess the quality of grains and obtain critical information for in-
plant processing.
15.3.1 Laboratory Dry Milling

15.3.1.1 Maize
Although there is no commercial specialized maize dry-milling laboratory equip-
ment, some research centers use tempering devices, degerminators, roller mills,
and sieves to predict yields of products and coproducts. Generally, maize is ini-
tially conditioned to 24% moisture before degerming in an experimental horizontal
drum equipped with a steel screen with 7.9 mm diameter round holes. The resulting
stock is dried, classified, and air-aspirated to remove fiber and germ. The endosperm
pieces are further reduced in particle size by passing them through various sets of
corrugated rolls and classified/sized with sieves again. The yield of the various dry-
milled fractions and by-products is calculated based on the original grain weight
(Table 15.2, Brekke et al. 1971, Duensing et al. 2003, Peplinski et al. 1984).
15.3.1.2 Rice
One of the most important factors related to rice quality is mill yield of head rice,
generally expressed as percentage of the rough rice. There are two types of mills
used to obtain white rice: the dehuller, which removes the husks, yielding brown rice
and the abrasive decorticator, which abrades brown rice to obtain white rice. Second
heads and broken kernels are removed by sifting. The most broadly used laboratory
mills are the shellers and whiteners from McGill and Satake, which only require
small samples of rough rice (125–200 g). These laboratory tests highly correlate
with commercial milling yields. White rice is further analyzed for color, amount of
fissures, and other chemical tests (Table 15.2).
15.3.1.3 Wheat
There are various types of laboratory or pilot plant milling apparatus commonly
used to obtain representative samples of wheat flour or semolina. The milling equip-
ment and tests are designed to produce similar flours as the ones obtained by com-
mercial roll-milling procedures. Samples obtained can be further analyzed in terms
of chemical composition, rheological properties, and functionality (baking tests,
spread factor, etc.). Several experimental mills capable of yielding from 80 g to 2
kg of flour are commercially available (Figure 15.2 and Table 15.2). These mills are
designed to grind tempered wheat with corrugated and smooth rolls, the various mill
fractions being subsequently separated by sifting. Flour yield or extraction rate can
be obtained after weighing milled fractions and by-products (bran and shorts). The
factors that affect extraction rate the most are primarily related to grain condition or
soundness. Sound grains, with lower amounts of foreign material and high thousand
kernel and test weights, generally yield more refined flour after milling. The most
common commercial mills are Quadrumat Jr. and Quadrumat Sr. of Brabender Co.,
and the Chopin Experimental Mill, which are capable of processing wheat samples
of 50–100 g, 1 kg or more, and 250 g, respectively. There are also larger mills such
as the Semiautomatic Experimental Buhler (AACC Method 26-20) and the Allis
Chalmers.
The relationship between milling yield and color or flour ash content is a good
indicator of grain quality and the efficiency of the experimental mill. The quality of
474 Cereal Grains
Table 15.2
Laboratory Milling Procedures and Quality Control Parameters Commonly
Used to Determine Yields and Qualities of Dry- and Wet-Milled Products
Quality Control Equipment Instrument Importance
Dry-Milling Tests
Laboratory maize Laboratory maize milling Maize is initially conditioned to 16% moisture for
milling procedure (Brekke et al. 16 h; next, to 21% for 2 h; and finally, to 24% for
1971, Duensing et al. 15 min before degerming. Tempered kernels are
2003, Peplinski et al. degermed in an experimental horizontal drum
1984) equipped with a steel screen with
7.9-mm-diameter round holes. The degermed
stock is dried, classified, and air-aspirated to
remove pericarp and germ tissues. The endosperm
stock is further reduced in particle size by passing
through three pairs of independent corrugated
rolls and classified/sized with sieves again. The
yield of milled fractions and by-products is
calculated based on the original grain weight.
Laboratory rice Sample sheller for rough This equipment provides a rapid and efficient
milling rice and McGill rice method of shelling and milling rough rice into
miller white rice. They accurately test rice samples for
milling yield by automatically controlling both
the milling pressure and the time cycle.
Laboratory wheat Quadrumat Junior or These mills consist of break and reduction rolls
milling Senior Brabender Mills, and sieves to separate dry-milled fractions and
Chopin Wheat Roller calculate flour extraction or milling yield. The
Mill, Buhler Wheat resulting refined flours can be further
Roller Mill (AACC characterized or used to determine rheological
Method 26-20) properties.
Laboratory sorghum TADD or IDRC abrasive Sorghum is decorticated by abrasion using the
milling mills (Reichert 1982, laboratory TADD mill or the pilot plant IDRC
Oomah and Reichert mill. Decorticated kernels are usually air-
1981) aspirated and classified/sized. The yield of
decorticated kernels, brokens, and by-products is
calculated based on the original grain.
Wet-Milling Tests
Laboratory wet Watson et al. (1951), Cleaned maize or sorghum kernels are steeped for
milling of maize or Eckhoff et al. (1993, 48 h at 50°C in a solution containing sodium
sorghum 1996), Johnson and May sulfite and lactic acid. The steeped kernels are
(2003), Steinke et al. ground with a blender, and the resulting
(1991) fractions first sieved to remove pericarp and
germ. The starch and gluten are then separated
on a table positioned at an angle to separate by
density prime starch, tail starch, and gluten. The
wet-milled fractions are dehydrated and further
analyzed with various quality control
measurements. Eckhoff et al. (1993) improved
the traditional laboratory procedure, and Steinke
et al. (1991) devised a countercurrent laboratory
procedure that emulates commercial operations.
Quality of Milled Fractions

Moisture NIRA, electric Moisture is one of the most important parameters
conductivity moisture because it affects stability during storage and
meters, moisture affects water required for optimum conditioning.
balances, air oven
method (AACC 44-15A)
Particle size Rotap equipped with The particle-size determination of dry-milled
different sieves fractions greatly affects quality.
Specks Visual determination The amount of specks (i.e., black specks in maize
grits, bran specks in flours) can negatively affect
the appearance of processed snack foods. Specks
are present in dry-milled fractions due to broken
sieves or the improper calibration of purifiers.
Extraneous material, AACC Methods 28-00, Dry-milled samples are digested with diverse
filth, insect 28-19, 28-40, 28-41-A, chemical reagents, and the resulting
fragments, rodent 28-50. 28-51 hydrolyzates are treated with mineral oil and
hairs, rodent other chemical compounds to separate
excreta extraneous material, insect fragments, etc. The
number and types of extraneous material are
viewed in a wide-field microscope.
Rodent feces Microscope Technique Dry-milled samples are treated with
(AACC Method 28-50) trichloromethane and carbon tetrachloride to
separate feces. Excreta fragments are viewed in a
microscope.
Mycotoxins Aflatest, Fumonitest, The utilization of ELISA columns to selectively
Ochratest, and other isolate mycotoxins followed by their
related analyses quantification via fluorescence allows a quick
and reliable determination of these important
metabolites, which are regulated by most
regulatory agencies. Tests can be performed in
less than 10 min.
Color score Color meters (Hunter Lab, Color of dry- and wet-milled fractions affects
Agtron [AACC Method color of processed products.
14-30] and others)
May–Grunwald dye Dye test with methylene Decorticated kernels are stained with a May–
test blue and eosin-Y (Barber Grunwald dye containing methylene blue and
and Benedicto de Barber eosin-Y. After washing excess dye with alcohol,
1976, Sheuring and kernels are subjectively evaluated by
Rooney 1979) determining the blue-greenish stained pericarp
and the pink-colored endosperm.
Ash content Muffle furnace AACC This is one of the most important parameters
Method 08-01 associated with milling efficiency or degree of
refinement. Most dry-milled products should
contain less than 1% ash.
—continued
476 Cereal Grains

Fat content NIRA, Goldfisch, or This is one of the most important parameters
Soxhlet apparatus associated with milling efficiency. Most
(AACC Method 30-25) dry-milled products should contain less than 1%
fat. The lower the fat content, the better the
expansion rate in direct extrusion processes.
Starch content NIRA, Analytical This is the most important single component of
Determination of Total dry-milled fractions and greatly affects
Starch (AACC 76-11) functionality.
Starch gelatinization Birefringence with This microscopic technique is used to determine
microscope equipped the relative amount of gelatinized versus native
with polarized filters starch granules that show the characteristic
Maltese cross.
Starch damage AACC Method 76-11, Starch damage due to faulty storage or sprouting
Falling Number (AACC can be determined via hydrolysis with
56-81A) or α-amylase or indirectly determined by a
Viscoamylograph measurement of viscosity of slurries prepared
from ground grits or flours. The lower the
viscosity, the greater the starch damage.
Starch properties Viscoamylograph (Shuey This is one of the most important functional tests
and Tipples 1982) for starches because after analyzing the pasting
curve, temperature at start of gelatinization, peak
viscosity, shear thinning, and setback viscosity
(retrogradation) can be determined. These
properties greatly influence processing
characteristics and quality of end products.
Protein content NIRA (AACC Method The amount of protein can be rapidly determined
39-10) using an infrared analyzer previously calibrated
with a set of standards. This is particularly
important to determine the class of wheat flour
(soft, intermediate, or all-purpose, and hard
wheat flours) and the efficiency of protein or
gluten removal during wet-milling operations.
Kjeldahl Methods (AACC These are the most widely used analytical
46-10, 46-12 or 46-13) procedures to determine nitrogen and/or protein.
Udy-Dye Method Their main disadvantage is that the analysis time
(AACC 46-14A) is relatively long.

Gluten content Hand Washing Method Wheat gluten is determined after producing a
(AACC 38-10) or dough that is washed with water or salt solution
Glutomatic, AACC to selectively remove starch and soluble protein.
(AACC Method 38-11) The wet residue is weighed and then dried to
determine wet and dry gluten, respectively. The
Glutomatic rapidly determines gluten content
automatically. These tests are used to
differentiate classes of wheat.
Source: Data from AACC Approved Methods of Analysis. 2000. Tenth edition. American Association of
Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN; Barber, S. and Benedicto de Barber, C. 1976. Rice Process Eng.
Cent. Rep. 2(2):1; Brekke, O.L. et al. 1971. Cereal Chem. 48:499; Duensing, W.J. et al. Chapter 11
in Corn Chemistry and Technology, P.J. White and L.A. Johnson (eds.), Second edition. American
Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN; Eckhoff, S.R. et al. 1993. Cereal Chem. 70:723;
Eckhoff, S.R. et al. 1996. Cereal Chem. 73:54–57; Halverson, J. and Zeleny, L. 1988. In: Wheat;
Chemistry and Technology. Y. Pomeranz (ed.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul,
MN; Oomah, B.D. and Reichert, R.D. 1981. Cereal Chem. 58:392; Peplinski, A.J. et al. 1984.
Cereal Chem. 61:289; Reichert, R.D. 1982. Pages 547–563 in Sorghum in the Eighties. Proc. Int.
Symp. on Sorghum. ICISAT, Pachanteru, India; Scheuring, J.F. and Rooney, L.W. 1979. Cereal
Chem. 56:545; Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2003. Manufactura y Control de Calidad de Productos
Basados en Cereales. AGT editor, S.A. México, D.F. México 340 pp.; Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2008.
Industrial Manufacture of Snack Foods. Kennedys Publications, London; Shuey, W.C. and Tipples,
K.H. 1982. The Amylograph Handbook. American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN;
Steinke, J.D. et al. 1991. Cereal Chem. 68:12–17; and Watson, S.A. et al. 1951. Cereal Chem.
28:105.
refined dry-milled fractions is usually assessed by determining particle-size distribu-

tion, color, presence of specks, ash, fat, and protein and starch damage (Table 15.2).
Wheat flour is further characterized for gluten content and dough rheological prop-
erties (AACC 2000, Rasper and Walker 2000, D’Appolonia and Kunerth 1984,
Faridi et al. 1987, Finney and Shogren 1972, Halverson and Zeleny 1988, Mailhot
and Patton 1988, Serna Saldivar 2003). The most common method to assess the
rheological properties of a fully developed dough is the farinograph (D’Appolonia
and Kunerth 1984), followed by the alveograph (Faridi et al. 1987).
15.3.1.4 Sorghum
Sorghum is usually decorticated to remove the pericarp and part of the germ tissues and
then subjected to milling. The IDRC and TADD mills are good examples of laboratory
equipment used for this purpose (Reichert 1982, Oomah and Reichert 1981). The IDRC
mill is equipped with a set of abrasive disks that gradually abrades the pericarp and
478 Cereal Grains
(a)
(b)
Figure 15.2 Experimental apparatus commonly used to perform dry milling studies. (a)
Laboratory rice sheller and whitener (courtesy of Seedburo Equipment Company). (b) Chopin
wheat mill.
(c)
(d )
Figure 15.2 (Continued) Experimental apparatus commonly used to perform dry mill-

ing studies. (c) Quadrumat senior wheat mill (courtesy of Guadalupe A. Lopez Ahumada,
DIPA, Universidad de Sonora, Mexico). (d) Buhler experimental mill.
480 Cereal Grains
(e)
Figure 15.2 (Continued) Experimental apparatus commonly used to perform dry mill-

ing studies. (e) Sorghum decorticator.
outer layers, including the germ (Figure 15.2). The extent of pericarp removal can be
determined by the May–Grunwald dye test, which dyes the pericarp green or blue when
reacting with methylene blue and the exposed endosperm pink when reacting with
eosin-Y (Table 15.2). This test was first developed to dye rice (Barber and Benedicto
de Barber 1976) and was subsequently used to assess other cereals, including sorghum
(Scheuring and Rooney 1979) and lime-cooked maize or nixtamal (Serna-Saldivar et
al. 1991).
15.3.2 Laboratory Wet Milling

The classic SO2 laboratory wet-milling procedure was developed by Watson in the
1950s (Watson et al. 1951). Since then, the laboratory procedures have been perfected
(Johnson and May 2003). The basic steps of the milling assay are steeping in SO2
(sodium bisulfite) and lactic acid solution, milling of the steeped kernels, and then
separation and drying of the milled fractions (Table 15.2). The procedures are useful
because they are relatively fast, require small amounts of grain, and the recovery of
the starch is very reproducible. Today, the Eckhoff et al. (1996) wet-milling procedure
is recognized as the standard method. Continuous countercurrent steeping systems
have been developed for use in the laboratory (Steinke et al. 1991, Johnson and May
2003) in order to emulate commercial operations. These methods allow the recovery
of prime and tail starches and the coproducts (fiber, germ, and gluten) that are further
characterized (i.e., color, protein content, viscoamylograph properties, etc.).
15.3.3 Chemical Composition of Milled Products

The efficiency of the various milling procedures is usually determined by the analy-
sis of moisture, ash, fat, and color of refined products. The most common way to
determine milling efficiency is by the quantification of ash (AACC Methods 08-03
and 08-12), because the degree of refining is inversely related to the mineral con-
tent. This is because bran contains 20 times more ash than the endosperm. Ash is
determined gravimetrically after burning or incinerating a sample at temperatures of
600°C. There are other less accurate methods that can predict ash content. The most
popular used today is the NIRA.
The fat (AACC method 30-10) and fiber (AACC method 32-10) analyses are also
used for the same purposes as ash determination. However, these methods are less
common because they are more complicated to perform. Crude fiber is quantified
after acid and alkaline hydrolyses, while fat is gravimetrically determined after
extraction with solvents (usually petroleum ether).
Protein is one of the chemical compounds that affect functionality the most, espe-
cially in wheat products. The amount of protein is closely related to gluten, which
affects optimum water absorption, dough mixing time, and dough stability. The
most used and traditional wet-chemical method to determine protein is the Kjeldahl
(AACC Method 46-10). The main disadvantage of this procedure is that it takes time
and destroys the sample. That is why the industry relies on new precise methods that
can measure protein in seconds. Undoubtedly the most used method is the NIRA
(AACC Method 39-10). The NIRA is equipped with electronic detectors that mea-
sure the amount of electromagnetic radiation that is reflected or transmitted through
the sample. The sample is irradiated with light at several wavelengths usually rang-
ing from 400 to 2,500 nm. The principle is that practically all organic constituents
have molecular bonds that absorb at certain wavelengths of infrared radiation. The
NIRA is capable of scanning in the infrared spectra whole grains, whole milled or
refined milling samples, and processed products. Therefore, it is critically important
to standardize the apparatus with a set of samples differing in the chemical compo-
nent to be analyzed. The value and reliability of the assay greatly depends on the
standard curve. NIR analyzers are also frequently used to measure moisture, oil,
fiber, and starch content.
15.3.4 Color
The evaluation of the color of flour and other milled products is important because
it is related to milling efficiency and extraction rate, and influences quality of fin-
ished products. The whiteness of wheat flours is affected by type of wheat, mill-
ing extraction rate, flour aging, and extent of oxidation of carotenoid pigments by
bleaching compounds. Color is usually measured by light reflectance within the
blue range of the light spectrum. The Kent Jones and Agtron Color Meters are the
most common instruments used by the wheat industry. Hunter Lab colorimeters
and NIR analyzers have also been employed for this determination. The advantage
of the Hunter Lab is that it determines L, a, b, and hue parameters (Rasper and
Walker 2000).
482 Cereal Grains
The color of refined wheat flour (AACC Method 14-30) or semolina is generally
performed in an Agtron colorimeter operating in the green mode (546 nm). The
sample (20 g) is mixed with 25 mL distilled water for 2 min in order to enhance color
formation. Next, the slurry is read in the colorimeter that was previously calibrated
with disc standards 0, 63, 85, and 100. Similar assays (AACC Methods 14-21 and
14-22) are also used to measure pasta and noodle color. The NIRA can be also cali-
brated to determine color.
For durum wheats, the rapid quantitation of carotenes is performed using a spec-
trophotometer or colorimeter (AACC Method 14-50). The yellow pigmentation can
be quantified by overnight extraction in aqueous n-butanol followed by measurement
of absorbance at 435.8 nm (Dexter and Matsuo 1978). More frequently, the color of
semolina is judged visually or with refractive light colorimeters (Allen et al. 1989,
Symons and Dexter 1991).
15.4 Starch Characterization, Quality,

and Functionality
Many different analytical and functional methods are extensively used to determine
the chemical, physical, and functional properties of starches obtained from the vari-
ous wet-milling processes covered in Chapter 8 and from physically and chemically
modified starches described in Chapter 13.
15.4.1 Chemical and Physical Properties

There are various methods used to quantify the total starch content in foods.
In most of these assays, the starch is first gelatinized and then enzymatically
hydrolyzed into glucose that is colorimetrically assayed after reaction with glu-
cose oxidase, peroxidase, and dihydrochloride o-dianasidine. Starch can also be
quantified by the polarimetric AACC (2000) method 76-20. Basically, the starch
is first solubilized in an alkaline solution (mercury chloride and ethanol) that is
treated with calcium chloride acidified with acetic acid and further treated with
stanium chloride. The filtrated sample is polarimetrically analyzed with a sodium
light beam.
The ratio between amylose and amylopectin is critically important because it
greatly affects starch functionality. Amylose is usually quantified by iodine colori-
metric assays in which iodine binds with amylose to produce a blue-colored complex
that is read in a spectrophotometer, whereas amylopectin is calculated by difference
(Table 15.3). Native starch is usually quantified by birefringence by observing the
amount of starch granules showing the typical Maltese cross under a microscope
equipped with polarized filters (Chapter 4). The birefringence end-point tempera-
ture test (BEPT) is performed using the same basic principle, but the microscope is
equipped with a starch slurry heating device that heats at a controlled rate. BEPT
is considered the temperature at which 95% of the granules lose birefringence or
crystallinity. Starch damage is based on the susceptibility of the starch to α- and/
or β-amylases and amyloglucosidases (Table 15.3). Undamaged starch granules are
Table 15.3
Quality Control Parameters Most Commonly Used to Assess Quality and
Functionality of Starches
Quality
Chemical Tests
Moisture NIRA, moisture Moisture is one of the most important parameters
content meters, moisture because it affects stability during storage and affects
balances, air oven water required for optimum processing of starches into
method (AACC syrups, sweeteners, and other products.
44-15A)
Ash content Muffle furnace (AACC This is one of the most important parameters associated
Method 08-01) with milling efficiency.
Protein content NIRA or Kjeldhal Protein content is one of the most important indicators of
methods (AACC degree of starch refining. Prime starches usually contain
46-10, 46-12 or 46-13) less than 0.3% protein.
Color score Color meters (Hunter Starch color is greatly affected by the effectiveness of
Lab, Agtron and the wet-milling process, especially in yellow maize rich
others) in carotenoids.
Sulfur dioxide/ Monier Williams Sulfur dioxide is distilled in a Monier Williams apparatus,
sulfite content method (AOAC 1990) and the distillate is titrated with NaOH. These sulfurous
compounds are used in the wet-milling process of corn.
Residual sulfites are regulated because they can cause
allergic reactions.
Starch content NIRA, enzymatic Determination of the most important product of
analysis of total starch wet-milling processes. Most analytical methods involve
(AACC 76-11 and 13) total hydrolysis of starch with α-amylase and
amyloglucosidase followed by glucose determination
by oxidase-peroxidase reagent.
Amylose and Colorimetric assay Amylose is usually quantified by the iodine colorimetric
amylopectin (Juliano 1971, assay in which iodine binds with amylose to produce a
contents Martinez and blue-colored complex. The starch is gelatinized with
Proboliet 1996) NaOH, neutralized, and reacted with iodine. The
amount of amylose is related to absorbance at 620 nm.
Amylopectin is usually determined by difference.
(100-% amylose)
Iodine dye test Iodine test (0.3% Iodine staining is routine practice to distinguish between
iodine–potassium the red-staining waxy starch and the normal blue-
iodide solution) staining starch.
Congo Red dye Congo Red solution Dye test used to differentiate between native and
test gelatinized and damaged starch. Undamaged native
starch granules do not stain, whereas damaged or
gelatinized granules stain red.
—continued
484 Cereal Grains
Quality
Chemical Tests
BEPT Light microscope Starch gelatinization is measured by loss of granule
equipped with a birefringence in dilute granule suspensions subjected to
Kofler heating an increased temperature profile. This is because not all
platform the granules in any one starch species gelatinize at the
same temperature, but rather over a range of about
10°C–12°C. BEPT is the temperature at which 95% of
the starch granules lose birefringence.
Starch Birefringence with Microscopic technique used to determine the relative
gelatinization microscope equipped amount of gelatinized versus native starch granules
with polarized filters (starch granules show the Maltese cross).
Starch damage Enzyme methods Damaged starch is the portion of starch that is
AACC 76-30A and mechanically disrupted. Starch damage is based on
76- 31 (Baldwin et al. susceptibility to α- and β-amylases or
1994, Williams and amyloglucosidases. Undamaged starch granules are
LeSeelleur 1970) resistant to β-amylase, while damaged counterparts are
attacked at a measurable rate.
Resistant starch Enzyme-digesting This method uses the principle of determining residual
method (Saura- starch from the insoluble dietary fiber residue. It
Calixto et al. 1993) consists of the enzymatic hydrolysis of starch with
heat-stable α-amylase, followed by a proteolytic
degradation with a protease and, finally, the hydrolysis
of the starch with amyloglucosidase to yield glucose.
Glucose is determined in the supernatant with glucose
oxidase and peroxidase.
Functionality Tests
Viscosity Brabender and Rapid This is one of the most important functional tests
Viscoamylograph because after analyzing the viscoamylograph curve,
(Crosbie and Ross temperature at start of gelatinization, peak viscosity,
2007, Deffenbaugh shear thinning, and setback viscosity (retrogradation)
and Waker 1989, can be determined. These properties are considered the
Shuey and Tipples fingerprint of the starch. The traditional and standard
1982, Thiewes and method to determine viscoamylographic properties is
Steeneken 1997, the Brabender and, more recently, the Rapid
Walker and Hazelton Viscoamylograph or improved version of the
1996) Brabender. The RVA greatly reduces analysis time and
correlates with the Brabender.
Viscosimeters The determination of paste viscosity is one of the major
factors affecting functionality of starches. Viscosity
tests should be carefully controlled in terms of water
addition and temperature.
Quality
Functionality Tests
Thermal DSC The DSC is a thermoanalytical assay in which the
analysis difference in the amount of heat required to increase the
temperature of a sample is measured as a function of
temperature (temperature increases linearly as a
function of time). DSC analysis of starch–water slurries
have been used to determine quantitatively starch
gelatinization as an enthalpy (-∆Hg) of gelatinization.
Enthalpy measurements also can be used to measure
the return to crystallinity in aged starch gels. The
endotherm excursions show a broad temperature range
over which crystal structure is being melted. The
temperature at which gelatinization is initiated is in
general agreement with values reported from loss of
birefringence measurements. In addition, the
temperature needed to provide maximum starch
disruption and high viscosity are in close agreement
with the maximum or peak viscosity development in
the Brabender viscoamylograph (Zobel 1984).
X-ray X-ray crystallography Starch granules behave like crystals and when irradiated
diffraction (Thomas and Atwell with x-rays form distinctive patterns according to the
1999) crystal structure. Three general x-ray patterns have been
identified in native starch. Cereal starch yields an A
pattern. The characteristic pattern is disturbed when starch
is subjected to cooking and other thermal treatments.
Gel rigidity and Texture analyzer, Starch gelation occurs as the hydrated and dispersed
strength penetrometer molecules reassociate. Amylose-containing starches set
up quickly because linear amylose associate more
readily than branched amylopectin molecules. Gelation
is related to gel strength. Both parameters are measured
with texture analyzers or with penetrometers.
Source: Data from AACC Approved Methods of Analysis. 2000. Tenth edition. American Association of Cereal
Chemists, St. Paul, MN; AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists). 1990. Official Methods of
Analysis, K. Helrich (ed.), 15th edition. AOAC, Arlington, VA; Crosbie, G.B. and Ross, A.S. 2007. The
RVA Handbook. American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN; Deffenbaugh, L.B. and
Walker, C.E. 1989. Cereal Chem. 66:493–499; Juliano, B.O. 1971. Cereal Sci. Today 16(10):334–360;
Martinez, C. and Prodoliet, J. 1996. Starch/Starke 48(3):81–85; Saura-Calixto, F. et al. 1993. J. Food
Sci. 58:642–643; Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2003. Manufactura y Control de Calidad de Productos Basados
en Cereales. AGT editor, S.A. México, D.F. México 340 pp.; Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2008. Industrial
Manufacture of Snack Foods. Kennedys Publications, London; Shuey, W.C. and Tipples, K.H. 1982. The
Amylograph Handbook. American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN; Thiewes, H.J. and
Steeneken, P.A.M. 1997. Starch/Starke 49(3):85–92; Thomas, D.J. and Atwell, W.A. 1999. Chapter 2 in
Starches, Eagan Press, St. Paul, MN; Walker, C.E. and Hazelton, J.L. 1996. Application of the Rapid
Visco Analyser. New Port Scientific Pty. Ltd., Warriewood, NSW, Australia; Williams, P.C. and
LeSeelleur, G.C. 1970. Cereal Sci. Today 15:4–19; and Zobel, H.F. 1984. Chapter IX in Starch Chemistry
and Technology. R.L. Whisler, et al. (eds.). Second edition. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
486 Cereal Grains
resistant to β-amylase, while damaged counterparts are attacked at a measurable

rate. One accepted and quick way to determine starch damage, mainly associated
with wheat flour, is the falling number assay (AACC Method 56-81B). The test is
based on the principle that heat-damaged or enzymatic damaged (sprouted) wheat
flours that are hydrated and thermally treated generate lower viscosities compared to
undamaged flours. The instrument (Figure 15.3) is named falling number because it
measures the time it takes a plunger to move through the viscous gelatinized slurry.
The longer it takes, the more viscous the slurry is and the less damaged the starch
originally present in the sample.
15.4.2 Viscoamylograph
The viscoamylograph measures the viscosity changes of starch slurries with a
certain amount of solids that are subjected to a standardized and programmed
temperature regime. The classic instrument is the Brabender viscoamylograph
(Figure 15.3). The complete viscoamylograph curve is obtained after four distinc-
tive and sequential stages: temperature increase, hot temperature hold, tempera-
ture decrease or cooling, and cold temperature hold. The instrument records the
viscosity of the starch slurry expressed on viscoamylograph units. Generally, the
assay starts at 50°C with a temperature increase of 1.5°C/min until the maximum
temperature of 95°C is achieved. Next, the temperature is held for 15 to 30 min
followed by gradual cooling (−1.5°C/min) until 50°C is reached. The final stage is
the temperature hold at 50°C (Figure 15.3). The entire test or run can last 120 min
(Thomas and Atwell 1999).
The rapid visco analyzer (RVA) (Figure 15.3) is an instrument that has the same
principles as the Brabender viscoamylograph. The advantage of the RVA is that it sig-
nificantly shortens run time while maintaining a high correlation with the Brabender
(Crosbie and Ross 2007, Thiewes and Steeneken 1997, Deffenbaugh and Walker
1989). Regardless of the type of instrument, the amylograph curve is considered the
fingerprint of starches because it determines the initial change in viscosity related to
gelatinization temperature, peak viscosity during heating, the viscosity fall after the
peak (shear thinning), and viscosity changes through the cooling cycles related to
retrogradation. These instruments are the most frequently used to determine native
and modified starch properties related to gelatinization, viscosity, and retrogradation
(Chapter 13).
15.4.3 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (Thermal Properties)

The differential scanning calorimetry (Figure 15.3) is a thermoanalytical assay in
which the difference in the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of
a sample is measured as a function of temperature (temperature increases linearly
as a function of time). In cereals, DSC analysis of starch-rich and starch–water slur-
ries have been used to determine quantitatively starch gelatinization as an enthalpy
(-∆Hg) of gelatinization (Table 15.3). Enthalpy measurements also can be used to
measure the return to crystallinity in aged starch gels. The endotherm excursions
(a)
(b)
Final
Setback Viscosity
Peak Breakdown
Viscosity
100
90
80
Relative Viscosity
70
Temperature°C
60
50
40
30
Pasting
Temperature 20
10
Time
(c)
Figure 15.3 Falling number apparatus and instruments commonly used to assess func-
tional properties of starches with their typical curves. (a) Falling number apparatus. (b)
Brabender viscoamylograph. (c) Rapid viscoamylograph (photographs (a) to (c) courtesy of
Guadalupe A. Lopez-Ahumada, DIPA, Universidad de Sonora, Mexico).
488 Cereal Grains
Peak = 61.58°C
Onset = 55.87°C
End = 67.26°C
Area = 33.219 mJ
Delta H = 1.2631 J/g
(d)
Figure 15.3 (Continued) (d) Differential scanning calorimeter. The depicted DSC curve
belongs to wheat flour and shows the onset, peak, and end gelatinization temperatures and the
enthalpy energy or area under the curve.
show a broad temperature range over which crystal structure is being melted. The
temperature at which gelatinization is initiated generally agrees with values reported
from loss of birefringence measurements. In addition, the temperature needed to
provide maximum starch disruption and high viscosity are in accordance with the
maximum or peak viscosity development in the Brabender viscoamylograph (Zobel
1984). The instrument is used to determine the degree of gelatinization in bakery
products and measure their rate of retrogradation. The parameters usually evalu-
ated are enthalpy of crystal fusion, onset temperature, and transition temperature
(Figure 15.3).
15.5 Functionality Tests for Wheat

Flours, Seminolas, and Yeast
15.5.1 Wheat Flour Properties
15.5.1.1 Pelshenke and Sedimentation Tests
These quick assays were devised to predict wheat functionality, and as a screening
tool, especially for new hard wheat genotypes being developed by plant breeders.
Results of these assays differ according to the amount of gluten and gluten strength.
The most common are the Pelshenke and sedimentation tests.
The Pelshenke assay (AACC Method 56-50) is based on the formation of a dough
ball with active yeast (Figure 15.4). After mixing, the resulting dough ball is placed in
a graduated cylinder with water and a proof box adjusted to 30°C. The time required
for the dough ball to disrupt is related to gluten quality. High-protein and strong gluten
doughs take longer to disintegrate. For instance, soft wheats usually take from 20 to
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 15.4 Experimental assays commonly employed to assess gluten properties of

wheat flour. (a) Pelshenke test. (b) Zeleny test. (c) Glutomatic (courtesy of Guadalupe A.
Lopez-Ahumada, DIPA, Universidad de Sonora, Mexico).
490 Cereal Grains
30 min up to 100 to 175 min, whereas hard wheats take up to 400 min to disintegrate.
The Pelshenke index is calculated by dividing the disintegration time by the protein
content.
The Zeleny (Zeleny 1947), sedimentation, and microsedimentation tests (AACC
Methods 56-60, 56-61A and 56-63) are based on a 5 min sedimentation volume of a
fixed flour–water slurry stained with bromophenol and a weak acidic acetic–isopro-
panol solution (Figure 15.4). Samples containing high gluten yield higher sedimenta-
tion values. The values are also adjusted according to protein content.
15.5.1.2 Gluten Content
There are other assays for measuring gluten content (AACC Methods 38-10 and
38-11). The simplest assay consists of washing a developed dough ball with water
in order to gradually remove starch and soluble proteins (albumins and part of
globulins). The resulting wet residue, with elastic and cohesive properties or
gluten, is mainly composed of glutelins and prolamins. The wet or dried gluten
weight is expressed based on the original flour weight. The gluten yield is strongly
related to protein content and flour functionality. The Glutomatic (Figure 15.4) is
an automatic apparatus based on the principle described earlier. The instrument is
widely used by quality personnel of grain elevators, millers, and bakers because
of its short assay time. The Glutomatic consists of a scale, dosifier of a 2% salt
solution, dough mixer, the system to automatically wash the dough, a centrifuge,
and a dryer. The instrument determines the yield of centrifuged wet gluten and
dehydrated gluten (dried for only 4 min in between a couple of hot plates). Values
are corrected according to protein content and widely utilized to select and clas-
sify wheats.
15.5.2 Wheat Dough Rheological Properties

The most important wheat flour functionality tests are the ones that determine dough
rheological properties. These assays study the rheological properties of optimally
hydrated and mixed dough. They are of utmost importance because these properties
are strongly associated with processing (optimum water absorption and mixing time)
and quality of bakery products.
Among the various instruments used to test dough rheological properties, most
directly or indirectly measure the force or gluten strength and the dough extensi-
bility or elasticity. The results obtained after analyzing the graphs are used by all
segments of the wheat industry. In grain elevators, rheological tests are used to
classify incoming wheats, whereas in the milling industries they are used to make
important decisions related to blending different types of wheats for production
of certain types of flours. In addition, the instruments are used to determine the
amount of dough strengtheners and other additives needed to standardize for-
mulations. In the baking, cookie, cracker, and even pasta industries, these rheo-
logical tests are considered the most critical in determining important processing
parameters (water absorption, mixing time, dough stability) and predicting prod-
uct quality.
(a)
700 C
A Mixing tolerance Index
600 (5 Min After Peak)
B
Consistency (Brabender Units)
500
400
A = Arrival Time
300 B = Development Time
C = Departure Time
200
C–A = Dough Stability Time
100
0 15
0 5 10
Time (Minutes)
(b)
Figure 15.5 The farinograph used to assess rheological properties of wheat dough, with
its corresponding curve (photograph courtesy of Guadalupe A. Lopez-Ahumada, DIPA,
Universidad de Sonora, Mexico).
492 Cereal Grains
15.5.2.1 Farinograph
The farinograph has been the methodology most commonly used to evaluate the
rheological properties of dough (AACC Method 54-21, D’Appolonia and Kunerth
1984) (Figure 15.5). The two most common instruments process either 50 or 300
g flour. The farinograph measures the resistance of the dough while being mixed.
The assay is based first on the determination of the optimum amount of water to
achieve a consistency of 500 farinograph units (FU). Several pre-farinographs
are run in order to center the curve on the 500 FU line. The amount of water
required to produce this consistency is the flour water absorption. Next, the flour
with its optimum water absorption is run again for up to 20 min in order to
determine optimum mixing time and the behavior of the flour before and after
attaining maximum consistency. The analysis of the typical farinograph curve
(Figure 15.5) yields important parameters such as arrival time to first achieve
500 FU; optimum mix time, also called dough development time (time required
to achieve maximum consistency); departure time, or last time in which the
dough had a 500 FU consistency; and dough stability (calculated by time dif-
ference between departure and arrival times). Another important parameter is
the mixing tolerance index calculated as the drop in consistency 5 min after
achieving dough development time. Both dough stability and mixing tolerance
indexes are important factors, especially for bakers, because they are closely
related to gluten strength and the dough tolerance to overmixing (AACC 2000,
Bloksma and Bushuk 1988, D’Appolonia and Kunerth 1984). The preferred flours
for yeast-leavened products have high water absorption (62%–64%), 4–6 min
dough development time, 8–12 min dough stability, and a mixing tolerance index
of only approximately 40 FU.
15.5.2.2 Extensigraph
The extensigraph is an instrument that measures rheological properties of opti-
mally mixed and formed dough obtained with the farinograph. The dough is
prepared from flour, 2% salt, and the optimum water based on the farinograph.
Pieces of dough (150 g) are formed into a cylinder that is proofed under controlled
conditions of temperature (30±2oC) and relative humidity. The dough cylinder is
then clamped to the extensigraph arms and subjected to a constant displacement
until rupture occurs (AACC Method 54-10, Rasper and Preston 1991, Bloksma
and Bushuk 1988). The dough resistance to stretching is graphed in the typical
extensigraph curve shown in Figure 15.6. The instrument records the resistance
R on the y-axis (R50 mm when the dough is stretched 50 mm and Rmax when the
maximum height is reached) and the extensibility (E), on the x-axis. The ratio R/E
is an important parameter because it relates gluten strength and dough extensibil-
ity and, therefore, dough functionality. The integration of the area under the curve
is proportional to the energy (W) required to bring about rupture of the test piece
and is also closely related to gluten strength. The assay is usually repeated after
fixed amounts of time (45, 90, and 135 min) so that the dough behavior throughout
different proofing times can be determined.
(a)
R50 = Force of the Mass All Purpose Flour

Rm
when Extends 50 mm
Rm = Maximum Resistance
600
Force (Brabender Units)
500
R50
400
300 Rm Soft Flour

R50
200
100
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Extensibility (mm)
(b)
Figure 15.6 The extensigraph (photograph courtesy of C. W. Brabender™ Instruments,

Inc.) used to assess rheological properties of wheat dough, with its corresponding curve.
15.5.2.3 Mixograph
The mixograph is an instrument that works with the same basic principle as the
farinograph (Figure 15.7). However, the analysis of its curve is not as extensive as
the farinograph curve. This is the preferred method used by plant breeders because
it only requires either a 10 or 35 g sample and the assay only lasts 7–8 min (AACC
Method 54-40, Finney and Shogren 1972, Rath et al. 1990, Walker et al. 1997). The
amount of water and sample weight varies according to protein and flour moisture
494 Cereal Grains
(a)
Bread Flour
A = Water Addition
C B = Peak Height
C = Development Time
A
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (Minutes)
(b)
Figure 15.7 The mixograph used for the quick assessment of wheat dough rheological
properties with typical curves for hard and soft wheat flours.
contents, respectively. The instrument graphs a curve that shows a time point of
maximum consistency (dough development time). The analysis of the mixograph
curve is more subjectively evaluated compared to the farinograph curve. Generally,
the height of the curve, the angle, and curve thickness are determined, especially
before and after attaining optimum dough development time.
15.5.2.4 Alveograph
The alveograph (Figure 15.8) is the preferred rheological test in Europe and is gaining
popularity in the rest of the world. The instrument measures properties while injecting
air into a preformed disc of dough. This simulates gas retention during fermentation.
Soft Flour
C A = Water Addition
B = Peak Height
C = Development Time
A
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (Minutes)
(c)
Figure 15.7 (Continued) The mixograph used for the quick assessment of wheat dough
rheological properties with typical curves for hard and soft wheat flours.
The assay consists of mixing 250 g flour with a 2.5% salt solution for 8 min (AACC
Method 54-30, Dubois et al. 2008, Rasper and Walker 2000). The water absorption is
adjusted according to flour moisture content. The resulting dough is divided into four
equal parts that are sheeted with a roll in order to obtain a fixed thickness (12 mm).
The dough sheets are cut into discs with a die, and then the resulting dough discs are
proofed in an isothermic box. The alveograph curves are generally obtained 20 min
after dough cutting. The disc of dough is placed in the equipment in preparation for
air injection. The air is injected at a constant pressure until the dough bubble bursts.
The typical curve (Figure 15.8) consists of the maximum height (P) on the y-axis and
extensibility (L) in the x-axis. The P/L ratio is an excellent indicator of flour func-
tionality. As with the extensigraph, the area under the curve is related to work (W) or
force-distance. Strong gluten flours usually have high P and W values.
15.5.2.5 Mixolab
The mixolab was designed based on the principles of the farinograph and amylo-
graph because it first determines dough-mixing characteristics and gluten strength
and then pasting, viscosity, and retrogradation properties of the same dough system
(Figure 15.9). Therefore, it is the only instrument enabling complete characteriza-
tion of the gluten protein and starch functionality in a single assay. The flour is first
mixed with the optimum amount of water, and then its viscosity is tested similarly
as in the farinograph. After that, the temperature of the dough is gradually increased
to test changes in viscosity through heating and cooling cycles. The instrument has
an integrated simulator that automatically calculates water absorption, dough devel-
opment time, dough stability, and viscosities. The instrument is suited to test gluten
properties, starch damage, amylase activity, and ingredient functionality.
496 Cereal Grains
(b)
(a)
P = h · 1.1
Durum Wheat G = √L
V ·s
W = 1.32 · — V = Volume of Air
L
in the Bubble
P Tenacity (Pressure)
S = Area Under the Curve

W = Deformation Energy
G = Swollen Index
H = Peak Height
Hard Wheat
Soft Wheat
L (Extensibility mm)
(c)
Figure 15.8 The alveograph used to assess rheological properties of wheat dough, with
corresponding curves for durum, hard, and soft wheats (photograph courtesy of Guadalupe
A. Lopez Ahumada, DIPA, Universidad de Sonora, Mexico).
15.5.3 Yeast Fermentation Tests

There are various instruments especially designed to measure yeast activity. The
principle they all use is to measure gas or CO2 production under standardized condi-
tions. The Brabender fermentograph, maturograph, and rheofermentometer measure
yeast activity in a dough, whereas others measure yeast activity in solutions rich in
fermentable sugars.
(a)
Dough
Temperature
γ
Mixer
β Temperature
Dough 1 2 3 4 5
Consistency
1 Mixing 2 Gluten Strength 3 Viscosity 4 Amylolyse 5 Retrogradation
(b)
Figure 15.9 The mixolab used to assess rheological and pasting properties of wheat
dough, with its corresponding curve (courtesy of Chopin Technologies).
15.5.3.1 Fermentograph
The fermentograph (Figure 15.10) measures yeast activity in doughs placed inside
plastic bags that are sealed and placed under controlled temperature conditions in a
water bath. The gas generated by the fermenting yeast is measured through pressure
changes, generally at different time intervals (90, 60, and 30 min). After each interval,
the dough is degassed or punched in order to release the pressure. The fermentograph
emulates fermentation times usually applied in the industry. Fermentograph results
allow processors to determine optimum yeast concentration using a dough system.
15.5.3.2 Maturograph
The Brabender maturograph (Figure 15.10) measures the net results of gas produc-
tion and gas loss by recording the changes in height of fermenting dough subjected
498 Cereal Grains
(a)
(b)
Figure 15.10 Instruments commonly used to assess functional properties of yeast in

dough systems. (a) Fermentograph (photograph from C. W. Brabender). (b) Maturograph
(photograph from C. W. Brabender).
(c) (d)
Figure 15.10 (Continued) Instruments commonly used to assess functional properties of

yeast in dough systems. (c) Rheofermentometer (courtesy of Guadalupe A. Lopez Ahumada,
DIPA, Universidad de Sonora, Mexico). (d) Pressurometer.
to periodic punching at 2 min intervals. After analysis of the maturograph curve,

optimum proofing conditions and fermentation tolerance can be established. The
difference between top and bottom values of the curve band reflects changes in the
height of the dough due to punching and recovery related to elasticity (Seibel 1968,
Rasper and Walker 2000).
15.5.3.3 Rheofermentometer
The Chopin rheofermentometer (Figure 15.10) measures the fermentation of dough
with a weight placed on it, the development being measured by a height sensor and
gas development by a pressure sensor. It is an instrument especially devised to mea-
sure gas production and gas retention in doughs placed inside a sealed chamber with
controlled temperature. The advantage of this apparatus is that it measures total gas
volume related to yeast activity and dough gas retention related to gluten strength
(Rasper and Walker 2000).
15.5.3.4 Gasograph
The gasograph is an instrument designed to measure gas produced by different con-
centrations of yeast mixed with 10 g flour (Rubenthaler et al. 1980). The instrument
has the capacity to run 12 different samples per test, so it is ideally suited to deter-
mine the optimum amount of yeast for bread formulations. The test consists of mix-
ing different amounts of yeast (3.5 up to 7.5 g) to batters made with 6% sugar, 1.5%
500 Cereal Grains
salt, and 150% water based on the original flour weight (10 g). Samples are placed
in closed flasks inside a water bath with strict temperature controls. Each flask is
provided with a perforated plastic lid connected to a system that measures pressure
throughout the time.
15.5.3.5 Pressurometer
The pressurometer is a special metal airtight container equipped with a gauge
(Figure 15.10) designed to measure gas pressure produced by a yeasted suspension
of flour. The test is usually carried out for 5 h under strict temperature conditions
(30°C) in a proof cabinet or in a water bath (AACC Method 22-11). The instrument
is used to determine yeast activity, although it could be also used to indirectly deter-
mine diastatic activity of flours and malts.
15.6 Functionality Tests for Wheat-Based Products

The quality and functionality of flours, semolinas, and ingredients are determined
by experimental performance tests. These tests evaluate many interacting factors
such as flour quality, ingredient functionality, and processing parameters. In addi-
tion, the resulting products can also be evaluated by untrained or trained panelists
and chemically characterized for food labeling purposes. Regardless of the function-
ality test, sensory evaluation tests are frequently used to determine the consumer
preference for finished products. The tests most widely employed are the triangular
and preference tests. Triangular tests are ideally suited to identifying the consumer’s
preference between two samples because panelists try to identify the odd and paired
samples among the three samples in a set. The triangular test is commonly used for
product development purposes. In preference tests, trained or untrained panelists
evaluate the color, aroma, flavor, texture, and overall acceptability of products using
a hedonic scale (Meilgaard et al. 1991). This test is additionally used for shelf-life
studies and to test functionality of additives.
15.6.1 Breads
There are several standardized baking tests, which evaluate the functionality of wheat
flours, that may be adopted for determining the influence on quality of other bread
ingredients and treatments. The most referenced technique is the straight dough bak-
ing test, which uses 100 g flour (Figure 15.11; AACC Method 10-10A). In this test
(Finney 1984), the flour (14% moisture based) is blended with fresh or dried yeast,
6.5% sugar, 3.5% shortening, 1.5% salt, 0.5% diastatic malt, and different amounts of
water, depending on flour properties and strength (from 59%–65% water absorption).
The ingredients are mixed in a laboratory mixer until optimum gluten development is
achieved. Next, the resulting dough is fermented in a proof box with strict tempera-
ture and relative humidity controls (28°C/85% RH) and punched or laminated after
52, 77, and 90 min. The last punch is performed at a wider gap between the rolls in
preparation for molding and panning. The dough sheet is mechanically rolled into a
cylinder, and the dough borders are sealed by hand. The bottom seal of the dough
cylinder is placed facing the bottom of the baking pan. The dough piece is returned
(a)
(b)
Figure 15.11 Sequential steps followed to perform the 100 g flour straight dough baking
test. (a) Raw ingredients. (b) Dough mixing.
to the proof cabinet for final proofing (36 ± 2 min). The baking pans are greased
with shortening in all the interior faces except one of the sides, which is only greased
approximately one-third from the bottom. This is to enhance bread breaking. The
proof-height of the dough is recorded, and then the dough is immediately baked for
20 min at 215°C. After baking, the height and volume of breads are measured. Bread
volume is measured by rapeseed displacement (Figure 15.11). Pup breads obtained
502 Cereal Grains
(c) (d)
(e)
Figure 15.11 (Continued) Sequential steps followed to perform the 100 g flour straight
dough baking test. (c) Fermentation. (d) Punching or degassing. (e) Dough forming and
panning.
(f )
(g)
dough baking test. (f) Determination of proof height. (g) Baking.
504 Cereal Grains
(h) (i)
(j)
dough baking test. (h) Determination of bread height. (i) Determination of bread volume by
rapeseed displacement. (j) Evaluation of crumb texture.
from 100 g flour usually have volumes ranging from 650 up to 1,100 cm3. This test
yields important results such as optimum water absorption, optimum mix time, dough
texture after mixing and during the different stages of fermentation and molding,
bread yield, bread volume, apparent bread density, dough proof-height, and bread
height. The difference between these heights is known as oven spring. In addition,
upon cooling, the bread is cut in order to evaluate crumb texture and color.
Based on the previous methodology, Shogren and Finney (1984) and Rath et
al. (1990) developed microbaking tests that only utilize 10 or 2 g of flour, respec-
tively. The 10 g flour test has a 0.98 correlation with the 100 g baking test and
is ideally suited for plant breeding programs because in many instances plant
breeders do not have enough of the experimental/preliminary samples to run
baking tests.
Test baking in flour mills and bakeries are usually run with 1 lb of flour that is
processed into bread by the sponge baking procedure (AACC Method 10-11). These
tests allow processors to screen and select different flours and modify formulations
and processing (water absorption, mix time, proofing time, etc.) conditions. The data
obtained are practically the same as described in the pup straight dough baking tests.
15.6.2 Cookies
The alkaline water retention (Yamasaki 1953) and spread factor functionality tests
are the most important for soft wheat flours destined for cookies. The spread fac-
tor method (AACC 10-50D) determines the height and diameter of cookies baked
following a standard formula and procedure (Figure 15.12). The test flour (225 g,
14% moisture) is blended with fixed amounts of shortening, sugar, salt, sodium
bicarbonate, dextrose, and distilled water. The resulting dough is divided into six
equal portions that are laminated under standardized conditions (7 mm height). The
dough sheet is cut with a 60-mm-diameter round die. The dough discs are baked
for 10 min at 204°C and allowed to cool down at ambient temperature for 30 min.
The average height or thickness and diameter are measured respectively by overlap-
ping (Figure 15.12) and by placing six cookies side to side. The ratio of diameter
(W) to thickness (T) multiplied by 10 yields the uncorrected spread factor, which is
corrected according to altitude or atmospheric pressure. The best-quality flours for
cookies have high spread factor values.
15.6.3 Crackers
Pizzinatto and Hoseney (1980) developed a laboratory procedure to test functionality
of flours and ingredients for crackers. The method emulates the industrial process,
as the laboratory procedure consists of first producing a sponge that is fermented for
18 h at 23°C and then mixed with the rest of the ingredients and chemical-leavening
agents to yield cracker dough. After 6 h of additional fermentation, the dough is
gradually sheeted to a thickness of 0.6 mm, cut with a roller die into the typical
cracker form, and baked at 265°C for 260 s. After baking and cooling, crackers are
weighed, and the average height, length, and width are measured. The crackers can
also be judged for color, texture, and sensory evaluation tests.
506 Cereal Grains
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 15.12 Sequential steps followed to perform the cookie spread factor test. (a)
Creaming. (b) Dough mixing. (c) Sheeting.
(d)
(e)
(f )
Figure 15.12 (Continued) Sequential steps followed to perform the cookie spread factor
test. (d) Cutting. (e) Baking. (f) Evaluation of cookie diameter and height.
508 Cereal Grains
15.6.4 Cakes
There are several laboratory methods of evaluating flours for cakes. The most
popular method is the standardized high ratio test (AACC Method 10-90). The
flour is mixed with sugar, shortening, nonfat dried milk, egg white solids, salt,
baking powder, and water to yield a batter. Portions of 425 g of batter are placed
on previously greased round baking molds (20.3 cm diameter × 3.8 cm height) in
preparation for baking at 190°C. After 30 min cooling at ambient temperature, the
cake is carefully removed for weighing and volume determination by rapeseed dis-
placement. The cake is cut in the middle for evaluation with a special plastic ruler
in terms of height (central and sides), symmetry, and uniformity indexes (AACC
Method 10-91). Furthermore, the subjective evaluation of crumb texture (distribu-
tion of air cells, texture, and softness), crust color, and flavor is usually done.
Foam cakes are usually evaluated with the AACC (2000) Method 10-15. This method
mainly determines the functionality of egg solids, which are considered the most impor-
tant ingredient. A constant amount of flour is mixed with sugar, eggs, and other ingre-
dients that are blended, panned, and baked following standardized procedures. The
resulting cake is evaluated using procedures similar to those described earlier for cakes.
15.6.5 Wheat Flour Tortillas

Bello et al. (1991) developed a laboratory procedure to prepare and evaluate hot-press
wheat tortillas. Equipment conditions and quality parameters at each stage of process-
ing were optimized. The laboratory technique allows for testing of the functionality
of flour and key ingredients, such as chemical-leavening agents and shortenings, and
the optimization of water absorption, mixing time, and the necessary proof time for
dough ball resting. The dough condition and machinability are recorded during the
sequential processing steps. The laboratory method consists of first mixing dry ingre-
dients, including shortening. Next, warm water is added to dry ingredients and mixed
until the dough is fully developed. The resulting dough is divided into uniform pieces
and rounded into balls with a divider/rounder. Resulting dough balls are rested for
different times (10–30 min) in a proof cabinet set at 32°C and 85% relative humidity.
After proofing, the dough balls are pressed into tortilla discs in between the hot platens
(200°C to 218°C) of a press and then immediately baked in a three-tier gas-fired oven
for 40 s at temperatures ranging from 230°C to 270°C. The hot tortillas are allowed to
cool down before further evaluation. The tortilla weight, thickness, diameter, rollabil-
ity, appearance, texture (rollability and firmness are determined with a texturometer),
color, and sensory properties can be determined in fresh tortillas and tortillas stored
under different conditions. The resulting tortillas are optimally produced for determin-
ing chemical composition and microbial and textural shelf-life studies.
15.6.6 Pasta and Oriental Noodles

15.6.6.1 Pasta
Small commercial presses or extruders are frequently used to test different types of
semolinas and formulations for pasta product development. The fresh pasta could be
tested as is or further dried, emulating commercial drying programs. The pasta is

generally inspected in terms of color, specks, texture, and strength/flexibility. Color
is mainly affected by the amount of carotenoid/xanthophyll pigments in the semo-
lina, as well as polyphenol oxidase and lipoxygenase activities.
The cooking characteristics of pasta are the most relevant for consumers, and
therefore of greatest importance to producers, breeders, and processors. The semo-
lina proteins are chiefly responsible for cooking qualities. Cooking quality is gener-
ally assessed in terms of minimum, optimal, and maximum cooking times, which
respectively correspond to the moment at which the starch is gelatinized, the time
required to give the pasta the desired texture, and the time beyond which the prod-
uct disintegrates (Feillet and Dexter 1996). The water uptake is easily measured by
determining the weight of the pasta before and after cooking (100 g pasta generally
absorbs 160 to 180 g of water). Cooking loss can also be determined by weighing the
residue of cooking water after evaporation or freeze-drying, or by measuring amy-
lose with the iodine assay (Matsuo et al. 1992). The texture of the cooked product,
which generally includes firmness, cohesiveness, elasticity, and stickiness, can be
determined by sensory evaluation or by instrumental texture measurements.
15.6.6.2 Oriental Noodles
The most popular methods of noodle quality evaluations include the characteriza-
tion of wheat quality in terms of chemical composition (i.e., protein, ash), color,
dough rheological properties, and functionality tests. Laboratory noodle produc-
tion includes a simple formula that usually contains only flour, water, and salt. For
instance, Japanese noodles are formulated with 34% deionized water and 2% salt.
The ingredients are mixed in a horizontal or vertical mixer to form and develop the
dough. The dough is then transformed into raw noodles with a testing machine con-
sisting of a pair of stainless steel sheeting rolls and a pair of cutting rolls. Sheeting
rolls are 18 cm in diameter and 15–21 cm wide. The cutting rolls contain square
grooves 2 mm wide. The noodle strands are usually cut into 25 cm lengths (Nagao
1996). The resulting raw noodles are deposited into wire netting baskets that are
immersed into boiling water for 20–24 min. The ratio of water to uncooked noodles
should be 10:1. The cooked noodles are removed from the basket and immediately
washed with cold water; excess water is allowed to drain before weighing and evalu-
ation. The cooked noodle yield, color, surface appearance, texture (softness, elastic-
ity, and smoothness), and taste are usually assessed.
Similar protocols are used for the preparation and evaluation of Chinese,
Cantonese, Hokkien, and instant noodles. The major differences are in the amount
of alkaline salts used in the various types of formulas. The determination of pH in
alkaline cooked noodles is important because the alkaline salts affect color, texture,
and taste (Miskelly 1996).
15.7 Functionality Tests for Rice

Rice quality is mainly related to its behavior during cooking in water. The perfor-
mance during cooking depends on the class of rice (short, medium, or long), the ratio
of amylose to amylopectin, and degree of milling. There are basically two laboratory
510 Cereal Grains
methods to assess rice quality: cooking in excess water or with a fixed amount of
water. The most popular method is cooking in excess water because it is more related
to traditional in-house preparation. Cooking with a fixed amount of water is common
and popular among plant breeders. Cooking tests can be carried out in open contain-
ers or pressure cookers. Regardless of the method, the cooking schedule should be
carefully controlled to increase reproducibility. The cooked rice is tested in terms
of texture with sensory panels, texture analyzers, or by pressing the cooked rice
between two pieces of glass. The texturometers can help to objectively determine
firmness, adhesivity, cohesiveness, fracturability, and chewiness (Kohlwey 1994)
and select the most appropriate rices for microwave cooking and canning. A simpli-
fied method to test grain elongation during rice cooking consists of soaking the rice
samples for 30 min followed by 10 min cooking in boiling water and cooling. The
elongation ratio is calculated by the average length of 10 cooked grains divided by
the original length of 10 raw kernels (Juliano 1985).
Cooking tests are usually complemented with the amylograph test, water absorp-
tion index at 77oC, amylose content, alkaline value, and alkali spreading ratio.
Among these tests, the amylose content is considered the most important because
it affects water absorption and cooked rice properties (Juliano 1971). Amylose is
related to cooked rice firmness as it increases the temperature needed for starch gela-
tinization. Thus, high amylose content lowers water absorption and alkali dispersion
values. The alkaline value relates to the ease of cooking and starch gelatinization
temperature and is widely used to differentiate high-amylose rices (Kohlwey 1994,
Webb 1985).
15.8 Functionality Tests for Lime-Cooked Products

A useful quality control guide for the production of nixtamalized foods is included
in the Corn Quality Assurance Manual of the Snack Food Association (1992). The
fresh and dry masa flour industries have developed numerous measurements to con-
trol the quality of the raw materials, intermediate, and finished products (Table 15.4).
Quality of raw kernels is tested similarly as in other milling industries (Table 15.1).
The main quality control parameters for fresh masa and dry flours are particle-size
distribution, water absorption, color, and pH (Almeida-Dominguez et al. 1996). The
extent of pericarp removal and the evaluation of optimum cooking and incurred
dry matter losses are very useful to standardize processing conditions and quality.
Pericarp removal can be effectively determined after lime-cooking maize and dye-
ing resulting kernels with the May–Grunwald dye (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1991); lime-
cooking properties can be determined by the method devised by Serna-Saldivar
et al. (1993). The industry prefers kernels that easily lose their pericarp because
pericarp-free cooked kernels yield flours with better color scores and functionality.
The most important factor to control during alkaline cooking is the extent of cook-
ing (Table 15.4). Most processors evaluate cooking by observing the condition of the
nixtamal. Analytical approaches that have been applied include tests for enzyme-
susceptible starch, loss of birefringence, viscosity with consistometers, amylograph
peak viscosity, mixograph tests (Lobeira et al. 1998), and Instron shear force (Bedolla
and Rooney 1984). The viscoamylograph (Shuey and Tipples 1982) and rapid visco
Table 15.4
Quality Control Parameters Most Commonly Used to Assess Quality of
Quality
Control Equipment/Instrument Importance
Lime-Cooked Grain or Nixtamal

Moisture NIRA, microwave, moisture The moisture content of the cooked-steeped
meters/ balances, air oven lime-cooked kernels or nixtamal is correlated to
method (AACC 44-15A) the extent of cooking.
pH Potentiometer calibrated with The nixtamal pH correlates to the lime absorbed
buffers during cooking and steeping, and the amount of
washing. The pH affects flavor, texture, and
color of processed products.
Pericarp Use of May–Grunwald dye Maize kernels are placed in nylon bags for lime
removal test (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1991) cooking for a fixed time (20 min) and
subsequently stained with a May–Grunwald
dye containing methylene blue and eosin-Y.
After washing off excess dye, kernels are
subjectively evaluated by determining the
blue-greenish stained pericarp. Insufficient
removal of the pericarp causes darkening and
off-colors in the snacks.
Optimum Mini-cooking trial Maize kernels are placed in a nylon bag and
lime-cooking (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1993) lime-cooked for three different amounts of
and dry matter time, and then steeped in the cooking liquor
loss overnight. Optimum cooking time is calculated
using regression equations, solving for the time
required to achieve a certain nixtamal moisture
level (50% for table tortillas and 48% for
tortilla chips), and dry matter loss is calculated
by estimating the loss incurred during the
cooking process. Both parameters are of utmost
importance for production of fresh masa
tortillas and snacks.
Masa
Moisture NIRA, microwave, moisture The moisture content of the masa greatly affects
meters/ balances, air oven machinability.
method (AACC 44-15A).
Particle-size Use of sieves to fractionate A masa sample is fractionated in a set of sieves
distribution wet masa (Pflugfelder et al. (U.S. No. 35, 60, 100, and filter paper) with the
1988) aid of water sprayed with a squeeze bottle. The
amount of sample recovered from each sieve is
weighed and dried. The particle-size distribution
can be expressed on a wet- or dry-matter basis.
The method is fast and ideally suited to adjust
stone grinders in processing plants.
—continued
512 Cereal Grains
Quality
Masa
Color value Color meters (Hunter Lab and The color of the masa is greatly affected by the
others) color of the raw grain, the amount of lime used
during cooking/steeping, and the amount of
lime removed during nixtamal washing. The
color of the masa correlates with the color of the
raw and fried tortilla chips.
Starch Birefringence with microscope Microscopic technique used to determine the
gelatinization equipped with polarized relative amount of gelatinized versus native
filters starch granules (starch granules show the
Maltese cross).
Glucoamylase method with Chemical analysis in which the masa is subjected
subsequent measurement of to amyloglucosidase hydrolysis followed by the
glucose (AACC Method determination of glucose with glucose oxidase.
76-16) The ESS assay correlates with degree of
cooking and starch gelatinization.
Starch properties Viscoamylograph This is one of the most important functional tests
(Shuey and Tipples 1982) because after analyzing the viscoamylograph
curve, temperature at start of gelatinization,
peak viscosity, shear thinning, and setback
viscosity (retrogradation) can be determined.
These properties greatly influence the
processing characteristics and quality of
finished products. Peak viscosity is closely
related to the amount of starch gelatinized
during the lime-cooking and grinding
processes.
Water Centrifugation of slurry These parameters are greatly affected by the
absorption and (Anderson et al. 1969) degree of starch gelatinization or extent of
solubility cooking.
indexes
Masa hardness Instron or TAXT2 compression A given piece of masa is compressed at a
test constant rate in order to obtain a force-
deformation curve.
Masa texture Penetrometer The force required to deform masa obtained after
hydration with a given amount of water gives
an indication of amount of cooking or starch
gelatinization.
Quality
Masa
Adhesiveness test The adhesiveness of masa can be rapidly
evaluated with a mechanical stickiness device
consisting of two rectangular bars in a parallel
arrangement. A block of masa is formed
between the bars and partially split with a
cutter, and the adhesiveness is measured by
raising the movable bar until the masa detaches
from it. The degree of adhesion of masa to the
upper bar gives an adhesiveness index
(Ramirez-Wong et al. 1993).
Texture analyzer or Instron, Texture profile analysis, or TPA, consists of a
TPA analysis two-bite compression assay developed to
determine adhesivity, cohesiveness, firmness,
springiness, and other rheological parameters of
masa using a texture analyzer. The technique
was developed for quality control purposes and
is sensitive to different degrees of lime cooking,
masa particle size, other processing conditions,
and addition of gums and other additives
(Bosiger 1997).
Tortillas
Moisture NIRA, Microwave, Moisture The moisture content of baked and or
Meters/ Balances, Air oven equilibrated tortillas affects oil absorption
Method (AACC 44-15A) during frying.
Pilot plant Tortilla pilot plant Procedure to evaluate alkaline cooking properties
lime-cooking of kg lots of maize. Kernels are placed in a
test perforated nylon bag, lime cooked, steeped,
washed and stone-ground into masa. The masa
is formed into tortillas or tortilla pieces and
cooked in a small-scale three-tier baking oven.
Yields of tortillas are calculated from the
original moisture content of the grain and the
amount of tortillas obtained. Resulting tortillas
can be used for texture, color, organoleptic, and
shelf-life stability tests.
Texture tests Texture analyzer or Instron The texture of tortillas could be determined
equipped with Kramer shear using the bending test described by Suhendro et
tests. al. (1998b). The bending technique is sensitive
to changes in tortilla texture throughout storage
or equilibration. —continued
514 Cereal Grains
Quality
Tortillas
Rollability test The objective rollability test uses a custom-
designed rollability fixture consisting of an
acrylic cylindrical dowel and a metal chain that
connects the cylinder dowel to the texture
analyzer arm. The force and work required to
pull the axle is determined. The technique is
fast, simple, and sensitive to changes in tortilla
texture (Suhendro et al. 1998a).
Color value Color meters (Hunter Lab and The color of the tortilla affects its consumer
others) acceptance.
Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN; Almeida-Dominguez, H.D. et al. 1997. J. Food Sci. 62: 516–519,
523; Anderson, R.A. et al. 1969. Cereal Sci. Today 14:372–375, 381; AOAC (1988); Bosiger, I.
1997. Evaluation of Masa Texture. MSc thesis. Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas.
75 pp.; Jackson, D.S., and Rooney, L.W. 1987. Cereal Chem. 64:196-198; Lobeira, R. et al.
1998. Cereal Chem. 75(4):417–420; Meilgaard, M. et al. 1991. Sensory Evaluation Techniques.
Second edition. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL; Pflugfelder, R.L. et al. 1988. Cereal Chem.
65:262–266; Pike, O.A. 1994. Pages 225–228 in Food Analysis. S. S. Nielsen (ed), Second edi-
tion. Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg, MD; Ramirez-Wong, B. et al. 1993. Cereal Chem.
70(3):286–290; Rooney, L.W. and Suhendro, E.L. 2001. Chapter 4 (pp 39–71) in Snack Foods
Processing. E. Lusas and L.W. Rooney (eds.), First edition. Technomic Publishing, Lancaster,
PA; Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2003. Manufactura y Control de Calidad de Productos Basados en
Cereales. AGT editor, S.A. México, D.F. México 340 pp.; Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2008. Industrial
Manufacture of Snack Foods. Kennedys Publications, London; Serna‑Saldivar, S.O. et al. 1991.
Crop Sci. 31:842–844; Serna‑Saldivar, S.O. et al. 1993. Cereal Chem. 70:762–764; Shuey, W.C.
and Tipples, K.H. 1982. The Amylograph Handbook. American Association of Cereal Chemists,
St. Paul, MN; Suhendro, E.L. et al. 1998a. Cereal Chem. 75(3):320–324; and Suhendro, E.L. et
al. 1998b. Cereal Chem. 75:854–858.
analyzer (RVA) are effective and fast ways of determining the extent of nixtamal
cooking (Almeida-Dominguez et al. 1997). One of the simplest tests to indirectly
determine gelatinization is the water absorption and solubility indexes proposed by
Anderson et al. (1969). The industry also relies on viscosity tests, in which a certain
amount of flour is mixed with water to produce slurry. More viscous slurries are
obtained from flours with higher cooking or starch gelatinization, and these tend to
flow less (Lobeira et al. 1998) when placed on an inclined ramp or a table marked
with concentric circles. The determination of peak viscosity with the regular or rapid
viscoamylograph correlates well with the extent of cooking, although values change
when hydrocolloids are added beforehand to masa flours. Lobeira et al. (1998) devel-
oped RVA, consistometer, and mixograph methods to evaluate the pasting, hydration,
and mixing properties of dry masa flours. The mixograph was able to differentiate
between the various stages of masa preparation.
The extent of cooking and dry matter losses can be determined by the minicook-
ing trial (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1993). A fixed amount of maize kernels with a known
initial moisture content are placed in perforated nylon bags for different lime-cooking
times (for example: 0, 20, and 40 min) and then steeped overnight. The resulting nix-
tamals are washed, blotted on a paper towel to remove excess water, and immediately
tested for moisture and dry matter. For each maize type, regression equations can
be calculated in order to predict optimum cooking and percentage dry matter loss.
Generally, as cooking time rises, water absorption increases due to higher starch gela-
tinization. Nixtamal for table tortillas and chips is usually cooked in order to increase
the moisture content to 50% and 48% moisture, respectively (Chapter 9).
The granulation of dry masa flours plays an important role in functionality and
product quality. It is generally determined with the Rotap furnished with coarse (35
U.S. mesh), medium (60–80 U.S. mesh), and fine (100 U.S. mesh) sieves. Likewise,
Pflugfelder et al. (1988) developed a quick and simple method to determine the par-
ticle-size distribution of wet masa, in which masa particles are wet-sieved through a
set of sieves and the resulting fractions are weighed.
Plasticity, cohesiveness, and stickiness are some of the subjective rheological
properties of masa used to judge optimum cooking conditions. The stickiness of
masa can be rapidly evaluated with a mechanical stickiness device consisting of two
rectangular bars in a parallel arrangement. A block of masa is formed between the
bars and partially split with a cutter, and the stickiness is measured by raising the
movable bar until the masa detaches from it. The degree of adhesion of masa to the
upper bar gives an adhesiveness index (Ramirez-Wong et al. 1993).
A texture profile analysis (TPA), consisting of a two-bite compression test, was
developed to determine adhesivity, cohesiveness, firmness, springiness, and other
rheological parameters of masa. The texture analyzer technique was developed for
quality control purposes and is sensitive to different degrees of lime-cooking, masa
particle size, other processing conditions, and addition of gums and other additives
(Bosiger 1997).
Objective bending, rollability, and extensibility techniques were developed to
measure tortilla texture with the texture analyzer (Suhendro et al. 1998a, 1998b).
The bending technique detects changes in tortilla texture throughout storage and
correlates with subjective rollability and flexibility test scores. Likewise, the rollabil-
ity technique, measured as the force and work required to pull an axle that caused a
tortilla to roll around a dowel, was more sensitive to changes in texture and tortilla
thickness than subjective evaluations. These techniques can be used to evaluate the
effect of formulation and processing changes on fresh and stored tortillas.
15.9 Functionality Tests for Breakfast Cereals

The breakfast cereal industry relies on the quality control parameters previously
discussed for whole grains, dry- and wet-milled products, and wheat quality tests.
516 Cereal Grains
Quality greatly depends on the characteristics of the various types of raw materi-
als and on the manufacturing steps used throughout processing. For all breakfast
cereals, the qualities of refined grits and starches are critically important because
they affect organoleptic properties, product expansion, and processing conditions.
Moisture, ash, particle-size distribution, starch damage, and color are important
quality attributes. For starches, the viscoamylograph assay is very useful as it pre-
dicts pasting, retrogradation, and other important functionalities (Table 15.3).
The most important quality attributes of breakfast cereals are bulk density, tex-
ture, color, sweetness, and sensory properties. For direct extruded products or puffs,
the radial expansion rate is almost always evaluated by simply dividing the extrudate
diameter by the die orifice diameter. There are different ways to assess the bulk den-
sity of flakes, oven-puffed rice, extruded puffs, and pellets. Most processors subjec-
tively evaluate the bulk density by determining the weight of a certain volume. This
simple, nondestructive, and quick procedure is commonly employed in processing
lines. Analytical approaches that are frequently used to study textural properties of
extrudates are the Instron or Texture Analyzer shear force or compression tests. The
final moisture and sugar content are continuously monitored in most breakfast cereals
because they affect texture or crispness and flavor, respectively. Moisture can be deter-
mined by NIRA and the use of gravimetric methods using the air oven technique.
For extruded products, frequent monitoring of the extrusion process is required
to adjust settings for the greatest product uniformity. The most important factors to
control are moisture in the tempered raw materials, feed rate, temperatures/pressure
in the different zones of the extruder and die, the extrudate expansion rate, and mois-
ture. It is also important to monitor the degree of covering that usually correlates
with the sugar content (Stauffer 1990).
The bowl-life test was developed to study the susceptibility of the breakfast cereal
to losing texture after hydration with milk. The loss of texture throughout time (usu-
ally after 5 min) is determined with a texturometer.
Since most breakfast cereals are enriched or fortified with selected vitamins and
minerals, the determination of these nutrients is of utmost importance for the indus-
try and for labeling purposes. Vitamins are generally determined with HPLC sys-
tems, whereas minerals are labeled via atomic absorption or plasma analyses.
15.10 Functionality Tests for Snacks

Most snacks are obtained after frying or applying oil and are low in protein and
moisture. Therefore, shelf-life expectations greatly depend on the susceptibility of
the oil to rancidity and deterioration. In addition, snacks are frequently analyzed
in terms of textural properties related to residual moisture and oil contents, flavor,
color, and amount of salt and flavorings (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
15.10.1 Popcorn
The quality control for popcorn is divided into two major types: quality of raw ker-
nels and quality of flakes. The parameters are usually measured for incoming lots of
kernels and are discussed in Table 15.1 and include moisture, test weight, dockage
or foreign material, broken/damaged kernels, 1000-kernel weight, and analysis of

mycotoxins. The two most important quality control parameters for raw kernels are
moisture and kernel damage since both greatly affect expansion volume and per-
centage of unpopped kernels. In 1975, the Grades and Standards Committee of the
Popcorn Institute developed the Metric Weight Volume Testers (MWVTs) as the
official testing method for the industry. The current MWVT features a solid-state
digital temperature control, and an adjustable power input with a digital wattmeter so
as to maintain exactly 1,400 W in the popping chamber or kettle. The equipment has
a large-diameter tube to avoid the bridging of the popcorn (Snack Food Association
1992). The device measures popping expansion as cubic centimeters of popped maize
per gram of raw kernels. The MWVT power is set to 1,400 W and a temperature of
260°C. When the pan temperature is reached, 250 g popcorn and 63 g oil are added.
The main advantage of this equipment is the consistency of popping expansion vol-
ume and the low variability regardless of the operator. A similar volume/expansion
test has been especially devised for microwave popcorn. The method was developed
by the Technical Committee of the Popcorn Institute (Popcorn Institute 1989). At
the completion of popping, the volume is measured in a 13-cm-diameter cylinder.
Expansion volume is calculated by measuring the total popped volume (mL) and
dividing by the original sample weight (g); flake size or individual kernel expansion
is calculated by measuring the popped volume (mL) and dividing by the number of
popped kernels. The percentage of unpopped kernels is determined by measuring
the number of unpopped kernels, dividing by the original number of kernels, and
multiplying by 100 (Mohamed et al. 1993). The number of kernels can be precisely
determined in an automatic seed counter (Table 15.1).
15.10.2 Hard Pretzels
The quality of snack pretzels greatly depends on the characteristics of the wheat
flour and other ingredients. Wheat flours are generally characterized for mois-
ture, protein, wet or dry gluten, starch damage (falling number, Figure 15.3), and
color. The rheological properties of wheat flour can be determined with any of the
instruments shown in Figures 15.6 to 15.9. Standardized laboratory methods, which
include the important sodium hydroxide bath, have been devised to study pretzels
(Serna-Saldivar 2003, 2008).
15.10.3 Extruded Snacks
The quality of extruded snacks depends to a great extent on the characteristics
of refined grits and starches (Table 15.5). These are critically important because
they affect organoleptic properties, product expansion, and processing conditions.
Moisture, ash, particle-size distribution, starch damage, and color are important
quality attributes of raw materials (Table 15.2). For starches, their pasting behav-
ior, estimated with the amylograph, is very useful because it predicts gelatinization,
retrogradation, and other important functionalities (Table 15.3). For oils, stability,
acidity, and fatty acid composition are important factors to consider.
518 Cereal Grains
Table 15.5
Snack Foods
Quality Control
Parameter Equipment Instrument Importance
General Tests
Moisture NIRA, moisture meters/ Moisture affects texture of snacks. Most are
balances consumed at moisture levels lower than 2%.
Oil content NIRA Oil content is the most important chemical
determination for snacks. This is generally
determined by near-infrared analysis. When
properly calibrated, NIRA instruments
determine fat and other chemical components
in several seconds. However, instrument
calibration and recalibration are critical for
reliable analyses.
Hydraulic press The hydraulic or Carver press is commonly used
to determine oil for quick quality control
purposes. A ground sample is placed in a
chamber for mechanical-pressing extraction.
After the pressing cycle is completed, the free
oil or the partially defatted snack sample is
weighed. The instrument should be calibrated
for each type of snack because each type leaves
different amounts of residual oil (around 12%
oil). Values should be correlated with solvent
extraction values.
Solvent Extraction The ether extraction technique is the official
Goldfisch or Soxhlet method of fat analysis. It consists of extracting
Extractor (AACC oil using petroleum ether, followed by removal
Method 30-25) of the solvent and weighing of the oil. The
main disadvantage of ether extraction is that it
takes several hours to perform the test.
Blistering or pillowing Visual observation The number and frequency of blisters or pillows
in the chips is considered one of the most
important defects. Blistering is controlled by
the moisture and particle size of the masa and
the temperature profile during baking and
frying operations.
Peroxide value AOCS Cc8-53; amount This value is the most analytical method to
of iodine liberated by determine the stability or oxidation of the oil
its reaction with associated with the product. It is a very
potassium iodide important attribute in RTE long-shelf-life
packaged products because it is closely related
to rancidity and organoleptic properties.
Snack Foods
Quality Control
General Tests
Active oxygen method AOCS Cd12-57, This is the most common rapid method of
(AOM) AACC 58-54 determining oxidative stability of oil-laden
products. The method predicts the resistance of
the extracted heated oil (97.8°C) to oxidation
by bubbling air into the sample. The AOM
method determines the number of hours
required to reach 100 meq peroxides/kg oil.
Hexanal content Gas chromatography Hexanal is a volatile closely related to extent of
lipid oxidation and rancidity. It is determined
in the headspace of the package and correlates
with peroxide values (Pike 1994).
Salt Volhard Method Gives an indication of degree of covering. The
(AgNO3); titration of sodium content should be declared in the food
AgCl with label.
FeNH4(SO4)2 and
NH4(SCN)
Hardness Instron or TAXT2 Chips are compressed at a constant rate in order
Texturometer to obtain a force–deformation curve. Values are
greatly affected by the thickness of the chip.
Color value Color meters (Hunter The color of the chip is one of the most
Lab and others) important attributes affecting the acceptability
of chips. The color of the chip is affected by
the type of maize used as raw material,
percentage of residual lime or masa pH, and
baking and frying temperatures.
Water activity Water activity meter The determination of the Aw is critically
important for low-moisture snack foods. These
products are manufactured to reach a certain or
given Aw level. Water activity affects microbial
growth, enzyme activity, and product texture.
Sensory evaluation Triangular tests These tests are ideally suited for comparison of
(Meilgaard et al 1991) two different samples. The trained or untrained
panelist tries to identify the odd and paired
samples among the three samples in the set and
then is asked why he or she considered the odd
sample different.
—continued
520 Cereal Grains
Snack Foods
Quality Control
General Tests
Hedonic preference test Trained or untrained panelists evaluate the color,
(Meilgaard et al 1991) aroma, flavor, texture, and overall acceptability
of the products in a sensory evaluation
laboratory. Products are usually evaluated
using a nine-point hedonic scale, where 4 =
like extremely, 0 = neither like nor dislike, and
–4 = dislike extremely.
Functionality Tests
Popcorn or flake form Visual observation The form can be mushroom or butterfly.
Mushroom is used for confectionary purposes
and butterfly for conventional use. The
mushroom type has higher bulk density than
the butterfly.
Laboratory pretzel Serna-Saldivar (2003, The yield and quality of pretzels can be
procedure 2008) determined in the laboratory using a
standardized procedure in which flour is mixed
to obtain dough that is manually shaped into
pretzel forms, fermented, washed with NaOH,
salted, and baked.
Extruded expanded Expansion rate Generally calculated by dividing the puff
products diameter/die orifice diameter. Many factors
affect the expansion rate: quality of raw
materials, tempering, extrusion conditions
(temperature-pressure gradient), and pressure
release valves or vents prior to die forming.
Extruded pellets Extrudate density Extrudate density can be effectively determined
by measuring bulk density, or preferably, by true
density using a gas-displacement pycnometer.
The density is closely related to expansion rate
during frying or other thermal treatments.
Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN; AOCS. 2009. Official Methods and Recommended Practices of
the AOCS. Sixth edition. The Society, Danvers, MA; Meilgaard, M. et al. 1991. Sensory
Evaluation Techniques. Second edition. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL; Pike, O.A. 1994. Pages
225–228 in Food Analysis. S. S. Nielsen (ed), Second edition. Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg,
MD; Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2003. Manufactura y Control de Calidad de Productos Basados en
Cereales. AGT editor, S.A. México, D.F. México; and Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2008. Industrial
Manufacture of Snack Foods. Kennedys Publications, London.
The most important factor to control during extrusion cooking is the extrudate
density (Table 15.5), generally measured by radial expansion in direct extruded
collets. There are different ways to assess the density of puffs and pellets. Most
processors subjectively evaluate the bulk density by determining the weight of a cer-
tain volume of extrudates. Analytical approaches that are commonly used to study
textural properties of extrudates are the Instron or Texture Analyzer shear force
or compression tests. As in most snack food products, the final moisture content
and fat content are continuously monitored. Moisture and fat can be determined
with NIRA instruments. The amount of fat can also be rapidly determined with the
Carver Press and analytically assayed via solvent extraction in a Soxhlet or Goldfisch
apparatus. The NIRA can also be used to monitor in-plant color of extruded products
(Table 15.5; Serna-Saldivar 2008). The amount of salt and the percentage of season-
ing in fried products can be analyzed by procedures suggested by the Snack Food
Association (Snack Food Association 1992).
Frequent monitoring of the extrusion process is required to adjust settings for
the greatest product uniformity. The most important factors to control are moisture
in the tempered raw materials, feed rate, temperatures/pressure in the different
zones of the extruder and the die, the extrudate expansion rate, and moisture and
the degree of covering that correlates with the salt content. For frying operations,
the type of oil, the frequency of filtration, and frying practices greatly affect the
shelf life of both the oil and finished snacks (Serna-Saldivar 2008). The free fatty
acid (FFA) content, peroxide value, active oxygen method, and smoke and flash
points are widely used to determine the condition and stability of oil and fried
products (Snack Food Association 1992). Rapid methods for evaluating FFA, oxi-
dation, and polar materials have been developed and are frequently employed by
snack food processors.
15.10.4 Lime-Cooked Snacks
The quality control parameters summarized in Table 15.5 are used to test the qual-
ity of raw materials and intermediate nixtamalized products. Finished products are
usually examined in terms of oil, moisture and salt content, and texture and color.
Color, crispness, texture of corn and tortilla chips, and the amount of oil absorbed
are influenced by masa moisture content, thickness of the chips, frying tempera-
ture, and residence time. A hydraulic press can be used to measure oil content in
a relatively short period of time (Snack Food Association 1992). Chips are placed
in the press, and then the oil is pressed out using a standardized protocol in terms
of applied pressure and press time. The amount of oil expelled is related to the
true oil content, so a calibration chart for a given product should be standardized.
The amount of salt and the percentage of seasoning in fried products can be ana-
lyzed by procedures suggested by the Snack Food Association (SFA 1992). Chips
are usually analyzed with gas chromatography for peroxide value, active oxygen
stability, and hexanal. These assays are excellent indicators of lipid oxidation and
correlate with the consumer’s preference and shelf-life expectations of packaged
products (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
522 Cereal Grains
15.11 Functionality Tests for Cereal-

Based Syrups and Sweeteners
Most physical properties and quality of sweeteners and syrups are directly related to
their carbohydrate composition. Syrups are mainly classified according to their solids
and dextrose equivalent (DE) contents. The DE measures the degree of conversion as
measured by the profile and average molecular weight of the carbohydrates present
in a given syrup or hydrolysate. It is expressed on a dry matter basis (AACC 2000,
Hobbs 2003). The traditional unit of solids measurement in syrups is a specific grav-
ity measurement called Baume. The °Baume is usually measured at 60°C. Tables that
convert °Baume to dry solid readings are available. Another popular way to deter-
mine solids is with the refractive index generally measured at 20°C (Hobbs 2003).
Syrup viscosity depends on the solids level, the carbohydrate profile, and the tem-
perature at which it is measured. Syrups containing a higher percentage of dextrins
will have higher viscosities compared to sweeteners composed mainly of monosac-
charides. The viscosity is usually measured in centipoises at temperatures ranging
from 15.5°C to 82°C.
Sweetness is one of the most important properties of syrups. Sucrose is the stan-
dard of reference for sweetness. The DE measurement gives an approximation of the
relative sweetness of a given syrup, but the carbohydrate profile is a much better tech-
nique. HPLC-RI has supplanted DE as a measurement tool in the industry because it
is capable of determining the carbohydrate composition with minimal error.
Color is the other important attribute, generally determined in terms of optical
density (OD of 0.025 is equivalent to water white, 0.1 to medium light yellow, and
0.2 to yellow) (Pancoast and Junk 1980). The reaction of reducing sugars with free
amino groups of leftover proteins (Maillard reaction) or the application of excessive
heat (caramelization) are the main elicitors of color development. The susceptibil-
ity of syrups to microbial deterioration is greatly influenced by water activity, or
Aw and pH. Generally, commercial syrups contain Aw values that range from 0.6 to
0.8 and pHs that range from 3.9 to 5.2. Syrups with low Aw values and more acidic
pHs exhibit more resistance to microbial growth, both in storage and in application
(Hobbs 2003).
15.12 Functionality Tests for Malt, Beer,

and Distilled Alcoholic Spirits
Many different methods are used to determine quality of malts, beer, and distilled
alcoholic beverages. Most of the official and frequently used methods are detailed in
Methods of Analysis of the American Society of Brewing Chemists (2009) and Methods
of Analysis of the Institute of Brewing (now the Institute of Brewing and Distilling).
15.12.1 Ingredients
A variety of methods have been developed for the analysis of raw materials for beer
and the final product. There are methods especially devised to test the quality of
malt, brewing adjuncts, hops, and yeast.
15.12.1.1 Malt
The germination test, usually expressed as a percentage of germinated grains, is an
excellent indicator of germ viability. Its main disadvantage is that takes from 3 to 4
days. A representative grain sample (i.e., 100 randomly selected caryopses) is first
soaked in excess water with aeration and then placed in a germination cabinet with
strict temperature and relative humidity controls. The number of grains that devel-
oped rootlets and acrospires or plumulae are counted and expressed as a percentage.
Kernels that did not germinate are usually damaged or present dormancy. Dormant
seeds are common in barley. Damaged kernels usually have a darker or even black-
colored germ, indicating that it is not alive or capable of sprouting. Malted grains
obtained by the germination test can further be used to perform diastatic activity
tests and measure dry matter loss incurred during germination.
The ground malt or grist particle-size distribution is critically important in brew-
ing processes because it affects conversion of available extract during mashing, and
chiefly wort filtration and sparging. A finer grist is needed for conversion and sparg-
ing efficiency, whereas a coarser grist is needed to maintain bed permeability at
lauter tun wort filtration. The particle-size distribution is usually determined in a
Rotap furnished with U.S. mesh sieves 10, 14, 18, 30, 60, and 100. Optimally, most
of the particles (about 70%) are retained by sieves 14, 18, and 30. The coarser mesh
sieves retain the husks or glumes that act as a filtrating bed during the critical wort
filtration step.
The diastatic activity is considered the most important quality test for malt. The
amylase activity can be determined by several methods (AACC Methods 22-10,
22-11, 22-12, 22-14, 22-15, 22-16, 56-81B). Methods AACC 22-10 or 22-12 are based
on the study of the pasting properties of malt determined with the amylograph (Fig.
15.3). This is based on the principle that malts with higher diastatic power have lower
peak viscosity because amylases hydrolyze starch during heating. The falling num-
ber apparatus (Figure 15.3) is based on the same principle, but is more frequently
used to assess sprout and heat damage in wheat samples (AACC 56-81B Method).
One of the most common ways to determine diastatic activity is by the determina-
tion of maltose or reducing power (Method AACC 22-15) by titration with thiosulfate
in samples previously treated with a buffer and ferrycyanide and potassium iodate. A
high maltose content is positively correlated with the diastatic power of a given malt
sample. Another popular diastatic activity assay (Method AACC 22-16) is mixing a
fixed amount of starch with a malt extract. The amount of maltose generated during
incubation is directly proportional to the diastatic capacity.
15.12.1.2 Adjuncts
There is an extensive array of adjuncts used for brewing and distilled alcohol produc-
tion. The most relevant sources are maize and rice grits, maize starch, and barley. In
some breweries or distilleries, liquid adjuncts consisting of different types of syrups
(i.e., glucose, invert, maltose) are also used. The preferred adjuncts are carefully
controlled in terms of physical and chemical properties discussed in Tables 15.2 and
15.3. The granulation or particle-size distribution is critically important because it
affects lautering or filtration rate. On the other hand, the adjunct color contributes
524 Cereal Grains
to the color of the wort and finished beer. The most relevant chemical properties of
adjuncts are starch and fat content. The first affects extraction and the second nega-
tively influences beer flavor and organoleptic properties. The gelatinization tempera-
ture of the starch is critically important in beer operations because it can modify the
mashing program and conditions. The gelatinization temperature is determined with
the amylograph or DSC previously discussed.
15.12.1.3 Hops
Hops are usually first examined visually. A corrected dried and pressed sample
should exhibit a noticeable degree of springiness and a crossut of the cones should
have the characteristic yellow to light orange coloration of the lupulins. A dark col-
oration indicates drying at excessively high temperature. Experts also emphasize
the aromatic qualities of hops. It is desirable to have citrus, spicy, piney, grapefruit,
floral, and herbal aromas, and undesirable to have musty, cheesy, and smoky scents.
The amount of leaves and stems contaminating the cones is also important because
excessive quantities translate into a downgraded quality. The most relevant analyses
are related to the quantification of resins, essential oils, polyphenols/flavonoids, and
α- and β-acids. These are determined with spectrophotometric methods, HPLC, gas
chromatography, and NIRA (Roberts and Wilson 2006).
15.12.1.4 Enzymes
Enzymes are frequently used for production of beer, alcoholic spirits, and fuel eth-
anol (Chapter 14). The most common are microbial α-amylase, β-amylase, amylo-
glucosidase, pullulanase, and β-glucanase. Their activity is usually measured by
determining the product yield after a certain time exposure to a buffer solution
containing the substrate. For instance, α-amylase activity is measured by deter-
mining reducing sugars or DE after incubation of gelatinized starch. Activities
of β-amylase and amyloglucosidase are measured by the amount of maltose and
glucose, respectively, released during a fixed amount of time. In all these enzy-
matic assays, the substrate, buffer, pH, and time-temperature profile of the test are
carefully controlled.
15.12.2 Intermediate and Finished Products

15.12.2.1 Wort
Wort is the result of enzymatic hydrolysis of the grist that results from the conversion
of starch and proteins into soluble and simpler carbohydrates and peptides, respec-
tively (Chapter 14). The most important wort properties are soluble solids or extract
yield (°Plato), percent fermentable sugars, viscosity, pH, color, and alpha amino
nitrogen (AAN), also known as free amino nitrogen (FAN). The most relevant deter-
mination is the wort density at the end of mashing because it allows processors to
calculate the efficiency of solubilizing the available extract. The most practical way
is to determine the density as °Plato using a pycnometer (ASBC Wort 3 method). The
total extract is calculated by the volume of wort recovered × density × °Plato. The
volume and density measurements must be referenced to 20°C. Another useful assay
is wort attenuation limit, which is the final solids concentration after all fermentable
extract is utilized. This value is estimated by the technique of rapid fermentation
(ASBC Wort 5,B method). The attenuation limit, expressed as °Plato, real extract
weight concentration, or specific gravity, is used to forecast the time needed for
fermentation (Munroe 2006). The ratio between nonfermentable dextrins and fer-
mentable carbohydrates (maltose, glucose, maltotriose) is very relevant. This could
be determined by HPLC-RI instruments. The AAN or FAN is quantified by the colo-
rimetric reaction with ninhydrin. These soluble proteins are important because yeast
needs them for optimum activity, and the peptides are converted to fusel alcohols
during fermentation (Chapter 14).
Wort separation by filtration is critically important in brewing operations since it
is considered the bottleneck of the process. The efficiency of lautering is measured
in terms of filtration time and wort turbidity. The recovered wort should be low in
turbidity or haze (Gales 2002). The β-glucans associated with barley and adjuncts
increase wort viscosity and turbidity. The use of β-glucanases increases filtration
rate and decreases turbidity (Barnes 2006).
One of the most important tools to monitor hopped worts is the Bittering Unit
analysis. The principle of the test is that the hopped wort or final beer is acidified
to convert resin acids into their nonionic, water-insoluble forms and then extracted
against iso-octane. The hop acids migrate into the organic layer, the UV light absorp-
tion of which may then be read in a spectrophotometer set at 275 nm. The bittering
unit value is obtained by multiplying the absorbance by a factor of the iso-α- acid
content. Other important parameters in hopped worts are pH, color, FAN, volatiles,
polyphenols, turbidity, and oxygenation, the last because hopped worts are usually
supplemented with oxygen before fermentation in order to ensure complete and con-
sistent fermentation. This gas is quantified by a dissolved oxygen probe that houses
an electrochemical cell containing a silver anode and gold cathode dipped in a potas-
sium chloride electrolyte solution (Barnes 2006).
15.12.2.2 Beer
Beer is one of the cereal-based products that has more quality control parameters
because it is subjected to many processing steps and is produced with a wide array
of different raw materials. In addition, and when compared to other alcoholic bever-
ages, beer is unique because it is unstable in the final package.
Several laboratory analyses are necessary to follow the progress of fermentation
and determine the final beer properties. The most common and useful measure-
ment is the specific gravity, measured with a hydrometer (ASBC Method Wort 4), or
more accurately by the measurement of mass and volume (ASBC Method Wort 2).
As fermentable carbohydrates are consumed and alcohol is produced, the specific
gravity falls. One indication of the end of carbohydrate fermentation is that the spe-
cific gravity stops declining. The real degree of fermentation (ASBC Method Beer
6,B) measures the percentage of the extract that was fermented (Munroe 2006). The
quantification of yeast cells during fermentations is relevant because counts strongly
reproduce during the first stages of fermentation. Dead cells can be quantitated by
staining with methylene blue and counting with a hemacytometer (ASBC Method
Yeast 3A). A formula for calculating calories in regular and light beer is based on
526 Cereal Grains
alcohol content, real extract, and ash contents (ASBC Method Beer 33) (Munroe
2006). Other important parameters previously discussed are color, bitterness, haze,
pH, dissolved oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
After bottling, the quality of beer starts to decrease depending on storage
temperature, exposure to light, and other environmental factors. According to
Steward (2006), beer stability is divided into biological and nonbiological. The
first involves contamination by bacteria, wild yeast, and fungi. Fortunately, beer
is an inhospitable environment for microbial growth due to its low pH, ethanol
content, and the bacteriostatic properties of hop acids. The pasteurization of
beer minimizes problems with deteriorative microorganisms. Nonbiological sta-
bility involves a wide range of chemical processes that can be subdivided into
physical, flavor, foam, gushing, and light. Physical stability is mainly dictated by
colloidal stability, which can produce haziness and opaqueness. Although there
are a number of types of haze, primary is the polymerization of polyphenols
and their binding with soluble proteins. Haze formation is increased by a num-
ber of factors, of which storage temperature has the greatest influence, because
an increase in temperature increases the rate of haze formation. The thermal
process of pasteurization and oxidation accelerate haze formation. Haze deter-
mination is based on the principle of nephelometry, in which light reflected from
particles in solution is measured. It is also possible to rate beer haze visually by
comparing the sample with standards prepared with different concentrations of
formazin (Buckee et al. 1986, Gales 2002). The flavor stability of beer depends
primarily on the oxygen content. It is critically important to control the oxygen
level in the bottled beer because it enhances the development of off-flavors such
as unsaturated aldehydes, trans-2-nonenal, nonadenial, decadienal, and others.
Foam stability is also of paramount importance in the acceptability of beer.
There are many foam-promoting compounds such as protein, iso-α-acids from
hops, and polysaccharides, with proteins being the most relevant (Steward 2006).
The foam stability is measured in terms of head retention and lacing properties.
Excess foaming, commonly known as gushing, is also viewed as a defect. The
main reasons for gushing are increased levels of carbonation and the presence of
hydrophobin proteins from contaminating fungi. Beer is sensitive to light espe-
cially in the wavelength range of 350–500 nm. The beer is said to be sunstruck
and skunky due to formation of MBT (3-methyl-2-butene-1-thiol). The formation
of this compound is minimized by using brown glass bottles or by selecting hops
that fail to produce significant quantities of MBT (Steward 2006). The sensory
evaluation of beer is the result of a complex mix of qualities and defects in terms
of color, aroma, clarity, foam, carbonation, and mouthfeel or body. As a result,
most breweries have developed procedures that enable sensory analysis based
on difference, descriptive, preference, and drinkability tests, usually performed
with highly trained panelists.
15.12.2.3 Alcoholic Spirits and Fuel Ethanol

The same quality control parameters described for beer ingredients, enzymes, and
the various processing steps are applied for alcoholic spirits and fuel ethanol. Since
most distilled beverages are aged, the quantification of flavorful compounds via
gas chromatography is even more relevant. The fusel alcohols and volatiles are
the most important products to evaluate because they could be partially or totally
removed during distillation, and they greatly affect the bouquet and acceptability
of final products.
15.13 Nutritional Quality Control

of Foods and Feedstuffs
Food and feed quality begins with the selection of the best-quality ingredients,
which are evaluated in terms of physical properties that include color, smell, taste,
and texture, and proximate and chemical analyses that include amino acids, fatty
acids, minerals, and vitamins. The amino acid profile is usually determined by ion-
exchange chromatography or HPLC systems equipped with fluorescent detectors.
The fatty acid composition is, in most instances, analyzed via gas chromatography
coupled with a flame ionization detector. New capillary columns allow the analysis
of fatty acid isomers, such as trans configured, that need to be declared in food labels
in many countries around the globe.
Minerals are usually analyzed by the traditional method of atomic absorption
spectroscopy or with the newer induced coupled plasma analyzers. Most vitamins
are analyzed by HPLC systems or colorimetric assays. Many laboratories still
quantify folic acid with the use of a microbiological assay. The analysis of dietary
and detergent (neutral and acid) fibers are critically important for foods and feeds,
respectively. Raw materials and feeds should be examined for rodent contamination,
pathogenic bacteria, molds and mycotoxins, and undesirable toxicants such as PCB,
insecticides, herbicides, and heavy metals. The proper selection of ingredients will
ensure the production of high-quality foods that satisfy sensory properties required
for humans, and feeds that are palatable and can meet sensory properties required
for domestic animals (Chapter 18).
Most regulatory agencies around the world have mandatory nutrition label-
ing regulations applied to almost all processed foods sold in packages or con-
tainers (Chapter 17). Nutritional labeling differs in countries around the world.
However, in most instances, the labeling information includes the amount of
food and number of servings in a package, its common name, the list of ingredi-
ents, the address and information of the processors, and nutritional information,
which in some instances can include health claims. The aim of the nutritional
label is to inform consumers of the raw materials used to manufacture the food
item and the primary nutrients affecting human health. It is important to inform
consumers about the raw materials because segments of the general population
have food allergies, the most common being allergies to lactose, gluten, sulfites,
and monosodium glutamate. The relationship between nutrients and dietary con-
cerns should be emphasized. Consumers are aware of the strong relationship
between the abuse of some nutrients and the incidence of chronic diseases and
cancer (Nielsen 1998).
528 Cereal Grains
Self-Evaluation
1. Define the following terms:
(a) BEPT (b) Zeleny sedimentation test (c) Pelshenke test
(d) Floating test (e) May–Grunwald test (f) Oven-spring
(g) Proof height (h) Bread volume (rapeseed displacement)
(i) Triangular test (j) Bowl-life test
(k) Foam (head retention) test (l) AOM
2. What is the principle of moisture determination via electric conductivity?
3. What is the importance and use of bushel or test weight, density, and
1000-kernel weight? What is the difference between test weight and density
determined with the pycnometer?
4. How can you detect the presence of GMO grains in a given lot of grain?
Explain why this is important for regulatory agencies?
5. What are the main color meters used by millers? Describe which is the most
common assay to determine color of wheat flours?
6. What is the principle and use of the Glutomatic test?
7. In a table, compare the principle of the farinograph, extensigraph, alveo-
graph, mixograph, and mixolab. Which of the assays is widely used by plant
breeders? Why?
8. Determine arrival time, departure time, dough development time, dough
stability, and mixing tolerance index of the following farinograph curve. In
you opinion, what sort of flour is it? What kind of products can you make
with this flour?
500
400
300
FU
200
100
0 5 10 15 20
Minutes
9. What is the main advantage of the mixolab compared to other instruments?

10. What is the assay or factor most closely related to the cooking characteris-
tics of rice? List three other methods related to rice cooking?
11. What is the principle of the viscoamylograph? What are the four consecu-
tive stages of the complete viscoamylograph curve? In which stage are peak
viscosity and retrogradation obtained?
12. What is the principle of differential scanning calorimetry? What are the
values generally obtained from the endotherm curves?
13. What is the principle of the falling number? Why is this test widely used by
wheat millers?
14. What are the most common instruments used to determine yeast activity?
15. What is the spread factor? Compare the spread factor of soft wheat and hard
wheat flours.
16. What are the most relevant parameters measured in baking tests?
17. List at least three quality control measurements for direct extruded snacks,
breakfast cereals, and pasta/noodles.
18. List at least three quality control measurements commonly used to assess
properties of maize syrups. What is the most common HPLC technique to
determine carbohydrate composition of maize syrups/sweeteners?
19. List at least three quality control measurements commonly used to assess
properties of barley malt, hops, and fermented beer. What are the most
common practical ways to determine total carbohydrate and alcohol con-
tent in worts and beers?
20. What information can be found in a food label? How does the nutrient
information relate to health?
21. List five factors other than price that affect the feeding value of a given
cereal grain or a cereal by-product.
22. Investigate the most common analytical procedures used to determine
amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, and fiber associated with human foods
and animal feeds.
References
AACC Approved Methods of Analysis. 2000. Tenth edition. American Association of Cereal
Allen, H.M., Oliver, J.R., and Blakeney, A.B. 1989. Use of tristimulus color meter in wheat
breeding programme. Pages 185–189 in Proc. 39th Australian Cereal Chemistry
Conference, T. Wescott, Y. Williams, and R. Ryker (eds.). Royal Australian Chemical
Institute, Perth, Australia.
Almeida-Dominguez, H.D., Cepeda, M., and Rooney, L.W. 1996. Properties of commercial
nixtamalized corn flours. Cereal Foods World 41:624–630.
Almeida-Dominguez, H.D., Suhendro, E.L., and Rooney, L.W. 1997. Corn alkaline cooking prop-
erties related to grain characteristics and viscosity (RVA). J. Food Sci. 62: 516–519, 523.
American Society of Brewing Chemists. 2009. Methods of Analysis. Tenth edition. The
Society, Chicago, IL.
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16 Production of Cereal-
Based Traditional Foods
16.1 Introduction
Cereals were the first and most important foods for early primitive humans, and
today they continue to contribute most of the calories and proteins for at least half
of the world’s population that inhabits poor and developing areas around the globe.
Cereals were probably first consumed raw and then ground with primitive artifacts
such as stone mills to produce whole or semirefined flours that were diluted with
water and cooked into gruels. These foods evolved when they were unintentionally
naturally fermented. The fermenting flora enhanced flavor and nutritional value, and
protected consumers from pathogenic bacteria. From these earliest foods evolved
the first breads obtained from fermented doughs or batters, which were baked on
hot clay griddles. Traditional foods are ancient and easy to manufacture, and their
preparation usually only requires simple cooking utensils and techniques that have
been passed down through generations. Many traditional foods are currently pro-
duced by sophisticated and high-capacity equipment that has replaced the in-house
labor requirement.
Nowadays, there is still a great dependence on traditional foods in many regions
of the globe. In general terms, each country or ethnic region has its own ways to
produce traditional foods. These are generally prepared on a daily basis with simple
utensils and provide most of the daily nutrients. These are especially important in
poor or marginal areas of the world. There are many types of cereal-based tradi-
tional foods that are beyond the scope of this chapter. However, an effort has been
made here to classify the most common conventional foods according to processing
techniques and product characteristics.
16.2 Whole Grains

16.2.1 Pounded Wheat
Pounded or decorticated wheat was one of the first processed foods. Basically,
the grain is pounded while adding sufficient water to soften the pericarp. During
decortications, a negligible amount of water diffuses into the kernels, which resist
breakage. The free-flowing bran is removed by sifting or winnowing. The resulting
decorticated kernels are allowed to solar dry (Bayram 2005). Pounded wheat in its
intact form is known by several names, including dovme, asure, yarma, herish, and
grano. It is still processed and consumed in southern Europe and the Middle East,
535
536 Cereal Grains
where it remains part of the cultural and religious traditions. Pounded wheat is pro-
duced from both T. aestivum and T. durum, depending upon availability. The raw
materials affect its color, appearance, texture, chewiness, and flavor. Soft pounded
wheat is used to produce a traditional dessert (asure) and soups because of its short
cooking time and water absorption. Durum wheat is classified as grano in Italy or
herish in Turkey and Arab countries. The durum pounded wheat has a characteris-
tic light yellowish color and hard texture and, due to its high protein, is the preferred
source to make kibbe, herisi, and kofte. Pounded wheat is used as an alternative
to rice and pasta. It has a firm and chewy consistency and flavor similar to pasta.
Pounded wheat is considered more nutritious because milling only removes part of
the pericarp. Asure is an ancient dessert enjoyed in Muslim cultures, prepared from
12 to 40 ingredients (pounded wheat, chickpeas [Cicer arietinum], different kinds
of beans, hazelnuts [Corylus avellana], dehydrated figs [Ficus carica], raisins [Vitis
vinifera], chestnuts [Aesculus hipocastanum], and various spices). Keskek is another
important breakfast food in Anatolia, and it is the base for the preparation of an
array of foods such as dolma, soups, and kofte (Bayram 2005).
16.2.2 Popcorn
Popcorn is the oldest snack food and was undoubtedly an important source of nutri-
ents to primitive Americans. The Mesoamerican Indians knew popcorn before the
Europeans discovered the New World. Popcorn is regarded as the first type of maize
by many archeologists (Serna-Saldivar 2008, 2009). It is quite possible that ancient
Americans first discovered the usefulness of popcorn when flinty wild kernels were
accidentally exposed to heat. These people, with no grinding tools other than their
own teeth, realized that a very unpromising food became tender, tasty, and attrac-
tive. Pottery utensils for popping maize as well as specimens of prehistoric kernels
have been found in prehistoric Peruvian graves. The oldest positively identified
corn poppers date from the Mohican Indian culture of about 300 ad along the
northeast coast of Peru. Popcorn also forms part of U.S. history because it was
present at the first Thanksgiving when Quadequina, the brother of the Wapanong
chief Massasoit, brought a deerskin bag full of popcorn to the celebration as a gift
(Ziegler 2000, 2003).
The ideal popcorn kernel possesses a thick pericarp and practically 100% vitre-
ous or corneous endosperm. The Indians selected these traits in order to obtain spe-
cialty maizes that, upon bursting, provided a delicious and highly nutritive product.
Maize is not the only grain used to produce popped snacks. In India and neighboring
countries, special types of hard-endosperm sorghum, such as Shallu, have tradition-
ally been used to produce popsorghum.
16.2.3 Rice Analogs

Other cereals are used as a substitute for rice in several regions of the world where
the grain is scarce or prohibitively expensive. The preferred substitute cereal is sor-
ghum. In Haiti, there is a traditional product named Pitiki manufactured from large
sorghum grits obtained after decortication. Similar products are produced in many
Production of Cereal-Based Traditional Foods 537
areas of Africa. The ideal sorghum for this application is a vitreous or hard endosperm
variety with a thin pericarp. In Mali, Burkina Faso, and other sub-Saharan countries,
sorghum and millets are parboiled before decortication in order to increase yields
and properties of the pearled kernels (Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2000, Young et
al. 1990). The method is simple and straightforward because sorghum is soaked in
boiling water, followed by steeping. After parboiling, kernels are sun dried until the
moisture drops to approximately 14%. The resulting kernels are more resistant to
milling, and produce better foods. Soft-textured kernels benefit more with parboil-
ing because the hydrothermal process strengthens the kernel structure. Parboiled
sorghum or millet is a better substitute for rice, although it requires more cooking,
energy use, and labor during milling (Young et al. 1990).
16.3 Traditional Foods from Milled Fractions

16.3.1 Bulgur
Bulgur is widely consumed in Turkey, the Middle East, North Africa, and Eastern
Europe. The first historical information on bulgur was found in the Catalhoyuk
archaeological site (the history of the Catalhoyuk, located in Anatolia, dates back
7000–8000 years). Bulgur is a product generally produced by cleaning, cooking,
drying, tempering, decortication, grinding, polishing, and classification operations.
The preferred raw material for bulgur is durum wheat, but common hard and even
soft wheats may also be used. Bulgur has been traditionally manufactured by first
cleaning and cooking whole kernels in excess water, followed by solar drying. The
cooked and dehydrated grains are then conditioned in preparation for decortication
by pounding. After removing the pericarp, decorticated kernels are stone milled and
the resulting particles classified. Bulgur continues to be the staple food for millions
of people on all continents. The traditional process has gradually evolved into mod-
ern and mechanized processes that manufacture close to 2 million tons around the
globe (Chapter 10).
16.3.2 Frekeh
Frekeh or firik is an ancient and traditional whole-wheat product mentioned in the
Bible. The Hebrew word for frekeh is kawlee. It is specially prepared for religious
festivals associated with Ramadan, by mixing pounded wheat, meat, animal fat,
and other ingredients that are slowly cooked in earthenware jars in a stone oven.
Pounded wheat could be further milled into a coarse (sise) or fine (seferkitel or
cerish) ground grits. Traditional frekeh was produced from immature kernels of
the ancient diploid wheat Emmer. Modern societies produce frekeh from early har-
vested or immature wheat (grain in the milk stage with 35% to 50% moisture),
preferably from durum wheat and sometimes from hard wheats. The main char-
acteristic of the product is that is scorched or charred. It is produced by scorching
immature spikes on flames to burn off the awns and leafy material. Next, the spikes
are sun dehydrated, threshed, and the resulting roasted kernels separated from the
538 Cereal Grains
glumes in preparation for cracking. The charring imparts to the product its unique
and traditional smoky flavor. Frekeh is classified in the same group with bulgur and
pounded wheat, but the unit price is two or three times higher. Frekeh has been
traditionally consumed in Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, and other
neighboring countries (Bayram 2008).
16.3.3 Couscous
Couscous is a product widely consumed in Africa (Galiba et al. 1987, 1988), the
Middle East, and Brazil. It can be prepared from durum wheat, maize, sorghum,
and millets. Wheat couscous is widely known and consumed in the Middle East,
whereas maize and sorghum/millet couscous is popular in Brazil and West Africa,
respectively. Couscous is considered an agglomerated or granola type of breakfast
cereal. In the traditional process, the grain is first decorticated and then milled into
grits. The manufacturing process starts when the grits, semolina, or even flour is
mixed with limited amounts of water to produce small agglomerates that are forced
to pass through a coarse sieve (1.5 mm holes). The agglomerates are then placed on
the top part of a special steamer that cooks the particles for about 45 min. During
steaming, the couscous is occasionally removed from the cooker, remixed, and
passed again through the sieve. During the final cooking stages, flavorings such as
ground Baobab (Adansonia digetata) leaves, butter, okra (Abelmoscis esculentus)
powder, and peanuts (Arachis hypogea) are added. In most instances, the precooked
couscous is dried and stored. Couscous is considered a convenient, easy-to-prepare
food. It is generally consumed with other vegetables, legume seeds, and prepared
foods. Couscous with milk is one of the favorite breakfast cereals in the Sahara
region (Figure 16.1). In northeast Brazil, where there is a great African culinary
influence, maize couscous is widely consumed. Couscous is used to produce many
traditional foods, including desserts.
16.3.4 Others
The northeastern Brazilians inherited the consumption of high quantities of water-
cooked maize. Munguaça are degermed chunks of maize endosperm that are cooked
with coconut (Cocus nucifera) juice and spices such as cinnamon (Cinnamomum
zeylanicum) and clove (Eugenia caryophyllata). On the other hand, canjica are large
maize grits cooked in milk and consumed as a dessert or breakfast cereal. Pononha
is a dish that differs from the previous traditional foods because it is manufactured
from immature maize kernels. For pononha, maize kernels in the milk-dough stage
are wet milled, diluted in water, and then wrapped in husks in preparation for steam
cooking. A similar traditional dish called humita is produced by mixing the milled
immature maize kernels with salt, butter, and condiments. The resulting dough is
spread on maize husks and filled with cheeses, shredded pork meat, chicken, or beef.
Humitas are usually steam cooked for 20 to 30 min before consumption. Hanchi is
prepared in Peru and other neighboring countries. It consists of first cooking fine
maize grits with sugar and dehydrated fruits in water. After cooking, lemon juice is
added to produce a dessert with a gel consistency.
Whole Grain
(Wheat, Maize, Sorghum)
Pericarp, Traditional Milling/Decortication Grinding

Germ
Water Flour, Semolina,

(40% p/p) Refined Grits
Mixing
Agglomerates
Force Through a 1.5 mm Sieve
First Steam-Cooking
Delumping Second Steam-Cooking
Addition of Flavorings Fractioning Partially Cooked

(i.e. Leaves of Baobab Couscous
Trees or Okra)
Force Through a 2.5 mm Sieve
Third Steam-Cooking
Couscous
Figure 16.1 The traditional process for the preparation of couscous. (Photograph cour-
tesy of Dr. John Taylor, University of Pretoria, South Africa.)
Polenta is the most commonly prepared maize-based food in Argentina. The orig-
inal polenta was developed in Italy from durum wheat. The fine refined maize grits
are cooked in water to form a paste that is flavored with tomato paste and different
kinds of cheeses. Polenta is generally served as a side dish, and usually accompanies
ground and spicy meats, stews, and prepared fish.
540 Cereal Grains
16.4 Gruels and Porridges

16.4.1 Nonfermented Gruels
16.4.1.1 Tô
Tô is a gruel widely consumed in the sub-Sahara regions of west Africa. There are three
major types of tô: neutral, acidic, and alkaline. The neutral tô is simply cooked in water,
whereas the acidic and alkaline varieties are cooked with tamarind acid and potas-
sium hydroxide, respectively. Most tôs are produced from sorghum or pearl millet that
has been milled into a fine and refined flour. These cereals are usually decorticated or
pearled using a wood mortar and pestle (Chapter 7) to remove approximately 20%–30%
of the original kernel weight. After pericarp removal, the kernels are sieved or win-
nowed to selectively separate the bran- and germ-rich tissues. The resulting decorticated
kernels are then milled into a semirefined flour using the same wood mortar and pestle.
In Africa, these milling chores are usually performed by women and take several labori-
ous hours of their daily activities. Part of the resulting flour is hydrated with fresh water
and gradually cooked to produce a thin gruel. Next, the rest of the flour is added, and
the result is thoroughly mixed or agitated. The viscosity increases as the starch gela-
tinizes, producing a paste that, upon cooling, sets into a rigid gel. The best quality tôs
are those that have a smooth consistency and that do not stick to the roof of the mouth.
Tô is grabbed with the fingers and is used daily to accompany meats, fish, beans and/or
peanuts that were previously prepared with sauces made with tomato (Solanum lycoper-
sicum), onion (Allium cepa), okra (Abelmaschus esculentus), and other vegetables. Acid
tô has a lighter coloration and more firmness compared with other counterparts (Bello
et al. 1990, Murty and Kumar 1995, Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2000).
16.4.1.2 Pinole
Pinole is a traditional food consumed since prehispanic times in America, mainly
Mexico and Central American countries. Maize kernels are toasted on a hot griddle
until attaining a brown-golden color, dry milled into a meal, and blended with cin-
namon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), anise (Agastache faeniculum), brown sugar, and
other flavorings. The resulting shelf-stable mix is diluted with water or milk, boiled
for several minutes, and consumed as breakfast gruel (Serna-Saldivar 1996, 2008).
16.4.2 Fermented Sour Gruels and Porridges

Many sour gruels and porridges are still consumed in the developing countries of the
world. In most instances, these gruels provide most of the dietary calories.
16.4.2.1 Ogi
Ogi is a sour porridge widely consumed in Nigeria, prepared from maize, sorghum,
or millets. It is estimated that approximately one-third of the average Nigerian caloric
intake is derived from this beverage. Ogi contains only approximately 8% solids, and
it is mainly consumed by weaning children or as a breakfast food. When served to
children, it is supplemented with condensed milk, powdered milk, and sugar. In the
case of adults, ogi is consumed along with meat stews, fried banana (Musa acuminata),
refried beans (Phaseolus sp.), eggs, or traditional breads. For the preparation of this
beverage, the cereal is first soaked in water for 3 days to allow hydration and the
development of acid-producing microorganisms such as Lactobacillus plantarum and
Enterobacter cloacae. The soaked kernels are wet milled using stone mills or the
traditional wood mortar and pestle. The milled kernels are diluted in water and then
passed through a fine sieve. The overs or coarse material is again dissolved in water
and sieved. The solids that passed the sieve are allowed to settle out in a container
and ferment at room temperature for 48 h. The supernatant is separated from the
sediment, yielding ogi that is finally heated to boiling before serving (Akingbala et al.
1981a,b, Murty and Kumar 1995, Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2000).
16.4.2.2 Uji and Bogobe

Uji is a traditional beverage of East Africa (i.e., Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania). It
differs from ogi in that there are some ujis that are nonfermented. Uji is also prepared
form maize, sorghum, or millets. The key processing steps are (1) milling the grain
into a flour, (2) dilution of the flour with four parts water, (3) fermentation at ambient
temperature for up to 5 days with naturally occurring bacteria (i.e., Lactobacillus
plantarum and L. cellobiosus), (4) dilution with water to obtain a beverage with
8% to 10% solids, (5) boiling, and (6) addition of more water and sugar. The pH of
the fermented uji is around 4.2, and it is traditionally consumed warm. There are
commercial instant flours for uji in which the fermented solids are sun dried and
reground. The instant convenient powder only needs rehydration and gentle cooking
(Murty and Kumar 1995, Rooney and Serna Saldivar 2000).
Bogobe is another gruel consumed in Botswana that is very similar to the products
described earlier. The fermented bogobe obtained from sorghum is known as ting,
whereas that obtained from nonfermented sorghum is called mosokwane (Chavan
and Kadam 1989b).
16.4.2.3 Mahewu or Magou

Mahewu is a maize-based sour beverage fermented with acid-producing bacteria,
which is traditionally consumed in South Africa. Maize kernels are milled into a
meal that is diluted with water to obtain a slurry with 8% to 10% solids. The suspen-
sion is cooked to gelatinize the starch and mixed with approximately 5% wheat flour
based on the original maize weight. The resulting mix is naturally fermented for 36
h or until the pH drops to 3.7 (Steinkraus 1983, 1989).
16.4.2.4 Kenkey
Kenkey is the name of a traditional maize-based food consumed in Ghana. From this
basic food are derived other important staples such as banku, abele, akple, koko, and
akasa. Kenkey is produced from whole maize that is hydrated for 12–48 h. Soaked
kernels are stone milled into a dough that is diluted with water and fermented in wood
barrels for 2–3 days. Before cooking, the fermented dough is mixed with new dough
and small amounts of salt. The fermented dough is hand shaped into 9 cm dough balls
or cylinders approximately 10 cm long. The preformed dough is wrapped in maize
husks or banana leaves before cooking. Kenkey is cooked in containers and served as a
side dish to accompany meats, fish, and other prepared foods (Steinkraus 1983, 1989).
542 Cereal Grains
16.4.2.5 Sauces
Many people are unaware that wheat is the most important and key ingredient for
soy sauce preparation. The sauce, popular all over the globe, originated in China,
and from there it was introduced to Japan before the seventh century (Fukushima
1989). In China, it is known as chiang yu, and in Japan as shoyu. The soy sauce
derived from a traditional Oriental food known for more than 3,000 years is know
as chiang. Chiang is an ancient fermented paste instead of a liquid sauce. The addi-
tion of ground millets was fundamental to the growth of Aspergillus needed for
chiang production. The resulting product, known as koji, was used as a source of
key enzymes for the hydrolysis of flesh from fish or red meats. Later on, soybean
(Glycine max) was used as a substitute for animal sources, whereas wheat, barley, or
rice were the key raw material for koji.
The current process of chiang and soy-sauce production is detailed in
Figure 16.2. The wheat-to-soybean ratio for koji is approximately 3:2. The soy-
beans are cooked, whereas the wheat is toasted before inoculation with molds
(Aspergillus oryzae or sojae). Koji hydrolyzes the carbohydrates and proteins into
simpler sugars, peptides, and amino acids, which are key nutrients for the devel-
opment of yeast and lactic-acid bacteria. The media is supplemented with salt in
order to enhance the desired fermentation, which only allows the growth of osmo-
tolerant bacteria and yeast. The fermentation lasts up to 8 months, during which
the pH gradually drops from 7 to 4.8. There is growth of other microorganisms
such as Pediococcus halophilus, Zygosaccharomyces rouxii, and species of the
genus Candida. These microorganisms form lactic acid and alcohol. The phenolic
compounds are crucial to the typical flavor development of the sauce. The final
processing step consists of the separation of the liquid fermented sauce from the
solids. This is achieved by pressing and/or filtration. The sauce is finally pasteur-
ized before bottling.
16.4.2.6 Miso
Miso is a fermented Oriental food used as a flavoring and food enhancer, mainly
supplemented in soups. There are basically rice, barley, and soybean misos. Rice
miso is the most popular in Asia and produced in four consecutive basic steps:
preparation of koji (fermentation of cereals with Aspergillus oryzeae), soaking and
steaming, fermentation in a salt-rich environment, and aging (Figure 16.3). Miso is
a flavor enhancer due to the presence of ethanol, volatile compounds, glutamine,
and methiol. The last is derived from the sulfur-containing amino acid methionine
(Steinkraus 1983, 1989).
16.5 Flat Breads

16.5.1 Roti or Chapati
Roti (or chapati) is considered the most popular food in India. It is classified as a
nonleavened flat bread. The preferred rotis are prepared from wheat semolina or
flour, and alternatively from meals of sorghum, pearl millet, or even maize. The
Wheat Water Soybeans
Toasting Soaking
Starter
Milling Steam-Cooking
Aspergillus oryzae
Cooling/Wet Milling
Blending
Incubation
25–32°C for 72 hr
Salt Solution/Brine Moromi

Koji
20% w/w Mash
Fermentation Lactic Acid Fermentation

28°C for 4 Months and 15°C Pediococcus soyae
for 1 Month
Spent Grains Press Filtering
Soy Sauce
Figure 16.2 The traditional process for the preparation of fermented soy sauce.
Hindu people prefer wheat rotis, but in many marginal areas the most popular are
sorghum or millet rotis. It is estimated that approximately 70% of the sorghum
produced in India (11 million tons) is milled for roti production. Wheat rotis are
easier to manufacture due to the gluten functionality of the flour. In order to pro-
duce rotis from other nonforming gluten cereals, it is critically important to start
with a good-quality flour (Figure 16.4). Kernels are generally stone milled and then
sieved or bolted with the aim of removing pericarp pieces and coarse particles.
The partially refined flour is hydrated with hot water to form a cohesive dough.
The dough pieces are hand molded or rolled into 30 cm diameter and 2 mm thick
rounds. The preformed dough disc is baked on a hot griddle for 30–40 s on one
side and one additional minute on the opposite side. The best-quality rotis are those
that puff during baking. Rotis are usually consumed with other foods such as pro-
cessed meats, vegetables, legumes, malted cereals, and fermented or sour dairy
544 Cereal Grains
White Polished Rice Soy Grits

(60 Kg) (100 kg)
Washing and Soaking Washing and Soaking

(25°C/17 hrs) (25°C/17 hrs)
Excess Water
Steam-Cooking Draining
(70 min)
Steam-Cooking
Starter Cooling (60 min)
Aspergillus oryzae (35°C)
Cooling
Cooked Rice
Inoculum
(25 Kg Miso)
Incubation (75 kg Water) Cooked Soy Grits
(28°C/2 days) (208 Kg)
Salt
Koji Mixing (4 Kg)
Fermentation
28°C for 7 Days and 35°C
for 60 Days
Aging
(28–30°C/15 Days)
Miso
340 Kg
Figure 16.3 The traditional process for the preparation of fermented miso.
products. Generally, these toppings or fillings complement the nutritional value of

rotis (Hoseney et al. 1981, Murty and Kumar 1995, Rooney et al. 1986, Rooney and
16.5.2 Arepas
Arepa, a maize-based traditional flat bread, is considered the staple bread in Venezuela
and Colombia. The name derives from erepa, which was the generic name for maize in
the Venezuelan Indian dialect (Cuevas et al. 1985). Arepas are traditionally made from
debranned and partially degermed maize obtained after traditional milling in a hominy
block or wooden pilon (cylindrical or conical axially hollow wooden bowl made from a
tree trunk) inherited from Africa (Figure 16.5). In order to facilitate milling, the kernels
are moistened and pounded until degermed and the pericarp are released. Then, the peri-
carp and germ-free fractions are washed with water, and the resulting endosperm pieces
are cooked in boiling water and further milled into a dough or masa on a traditional
Sorghum or Other
Wheat Non-Gluten Forming
Cereal
Milling Decortication/Milling
Bran, Shorts Stone Mill-Winnowing-Sifting Stone Mill-Winnowing-Sifting Bran
Wheat Flour Sorghum Flour

100 kg 100 kg
Water Mixing
74 L Dough Kneading
Wheat Dough Sorghum Dough

Dough Resting, Cutting and Forming

Hand-Shaping or Roller Pins
Round Discs (1.3–3 mm Thick, 20–25 cm Diameter)
Baking Water
Hot-Griddle @ 210–345°C for 25–90 sec on Each Side 34 L
Wheat Roti or Chapati Sorghum Roti or Chapati

Figure 16.4 The traditional process for the elaboration of rotis or chapatis.
stone mill (mano and metate). The masa is then mixed with water, seasoned with salt,
and manually kneaded and formed into the characteristic disc configuration (7–10 cm
diameter and 1 cm thick). Dough discs are finally baked on a clay griddle for approxi-
mately 2 min on each side. Alternatively, the uncooked arepa is immersed in boiling
water for a few minutes and then baked. The traditional method of arepa production is
time consuming (about 12 h) and has been replaced by the use of precooked arepa flour
(Chapter 7). Arepas are usually stuffed with fillings such as meat stews, cheeses, butter,
jellies, and other prepared foods (Cuevas et al. 1985).
16.6 Fermented Sour Breads

There is a wide array of indigenous, naturally fermented breads and gruels that are
still widely produced in Africa and India. These products acquire an acidic taste
due to fermentation. The fermenting bacteria also cause important changes in their
nutritional value and shelf life.
546 Cereal Grains
Conditioned or Moistened Maize

100 kg
Hand Milling
(Hominy Block or Hollow Wooden
Bowl)
Germ
Bran
Sifting and Winnowing 13 kg
7 kg
Semi Refined Endosperm

Pieces (80 kg)
Cooking in Excess Hot Water Excess

Water
Stone Milling
(Flat Milling Saddle Stone
or Mano and Metate)
Dough or Masa
Water Salt
18 kg Kneading 1.5 kg
Formation of Dough Balls and Forming

Arepa Discs
Cooking in Boiling Water Baking

(few Minutes) (2 min on Each Side on
a Clay Griddle)
Baking
(2min on Each side on
a Clay Griddle)
Arepas
Figure 16.5 The traditional process for the production of arepas, the national bread
of Venezuela.
16.6.1 Idli and Dosai

Idli is one of the most popular foods in southern India. It is classified as leavened
and acidic bread fermented by lactic-acid bacteria. The bread could be produced
from any cereal, the most popular being rice mixed with Mung bean (Phaseolus
mungo). For example, three parts of white rice and one part mung bean are soaked
in water for 5 to 10 h in preparation for wet milling. After removing the soak
water, the hydrated grains are separately stone milled into fine and coarse par-
ticles, respectively. The milled products are mixed with salt (1%) into a dough
that is fermented at 30°C to 32°C for 12 to 14 h (Figure 16.6). During this period,
natural-occurring lactic-acid bacteria modify the pH and produce metabolites that
impart the product its distinctive flavor. The fermenting batter or paste is placed
in special containers and steamed for approximately 10 min. There is a similar
product named dhokla in which chickpeas (Cicer arietum) are used instead of
mung beans. There is another indigenous food called dosa, produced from a spicy
Mungo Beans Decorticated Sorghum

Black Gram dhal or Polished Rice
Wash and Soak Wash and Soak

(5–10 hours) (5–10 hours)
Mill in Wood Mortar Mill in a Mortar and

and Pestle (Fine Flour) Pestle (Meal)
Water Mixing Salt

(1% w/w)
Viscous Batter Incubation

30–32°C for 12–24 hr
Batter Portions
Steam Cooking Greased Hot-Griddle

(10 min)
Baking
Idli (1 min)
Dosai
Figure 16.6 The traditional processes for the preparation of idli and dosai.
batter with lower viscosity due to higher water addition. This product is fried
into crisps instead of being steam cooked (Steinkraus 1983, Chavan and Kadam
1989a). Dosa is alternatively produced from ground sorghum in India (Rooney
and Serna-Saldivar 2000).
16.6.2 Anarshe
Anarshe is another Indian fermented food prepared from sweetened and fermented
rice. The rice is fermented for about 3 days in excess water. Then the soaked kernels
are wet milled to form a paste that is mixed with equal amounts of sugar and oil and
allowed to further ferment for 5 days. After the second fermentation, the paste is
formed into discs that are fried for 2–4 min (Chavan and Kadam 1989a).
548 Cereal Grains
16.6.3 Puto
Puto is an indigenous food of the Philippines and Cambodia. It is similar to the
Indian idli but is manufactured only from rice. After the addition of small amounts
of sugar, the rice paste is allowed to naturally ferment for 9–12 h. More sugar is
added for 6 h fermentation after the acid produced by the fermenting media is neu-
tralized with sodium hydroxide. The paste is steamed for 20–30 min. Generally, puto
is served with shredded coconut (Steinkraus 1983, 1989).
16.6.4 Ambali
Ambali is produced from a naturally occurring lactic acid bacteria that ferments a
paste produced from finger millet. After fermentation, the paste is mixed with par-
tially cooked rice and heated until completely cooked. Then the mixture is allowed
to cool down and flavored with sour milk before consumption (Steinkraus 1983,
1989).
16.6.5 Injera
Injera or enjera is the most popular single food in Ethiopia. It is mainly produced
from tef millet, although sorghum, maize, wheat, and barley are also utilized
(Yetnerberk et al. 2004). Sorghum is the second most preferred cereal for injera
preparation. Preparing injera from sorghum has economic advantages over tef, but
the finished product becomes firmer and more friable upon storage (Yetnerberk
et al. 2004). The ground cereal is fermented with naturally occurring lactic-acid
bacteria and commonly used as a vehicle for the consumption of other foods such
as vegetables, meats, or legumes. According to Steinkraus (1983), some Ethiopians
get up to 95% of their total caloric intake from this traditional bread. The injera
is classified as leavened flat and round bread similar to hot-cakes but with a larger
diameter that averages 60 cm. In addition, it has many air cells that impart the
typical honeycomb-like structure that characterizes the product (Hoseney et al.
1981, Murty and Kumar 1995, Rooney et al. 1986, Rooney and Serna-Saldivar
2000). Tef is preferred for injera because the tiny kernels are easy to mill into
whole flour and produce better organoleptic and textural properties. Regardless of
the type of cereal used, the flour is mixed with water and a starter from a previous
batch. The mixture is allowed to ferment for approximately 3 days at temperatures
of 20°C–25°C. The major fermenting organisms are molds of the genus Candida,
Penicillum, and Aspergillus, and various species of lactic-acid bacteria. The fer-
menting batter separates into two distinctive phases: the liquid and the sedimented
paste. The liquid phase, rich in microorganisms, serves as inoculum for the next
batch, whereas the paste is mixed with three parts water and boiled. The final bat-
ter is produced by reincorporating the original batter. Finally, small portions of
the batter are deposited onto a concave hot griddle and immediately covered with
a lid so as to produce an internal atmosphere rich in saturated water or steam. The
regular cooking lasts 2–3 min (Figure 16.7).
Water Tef or Sorghum Flour

Starter
6.0 L 3 kg
From Previous Batch
~0.5 kg
Mixing
Incubation Supernatant
30–40°C for 17–72* hr Liquid
Fermented Separation after Settling

Batter
Mixing
0.5 L Fermented Slurry with
Fermented Batter 1.5 L Water
Boiling
(Starch Gelatinization)
Final Fermentation
Mixing Cooling
35–40°C for 0.5–2.0 hr
Baking
Pouring of a Thin Layer onto a Hot-Griddle
Placing of Lid or Covering
Steam-Cooking, 2–3 min
Injera
Figure 16.7 The traditional process for the elaboration of injera, the most popular food in
Ethiopia. (Photograph courtesy of Dr. John Taylor, University of Pretoria, South Africa.)
16.6.6 Kisra
Kisra is the name of the indigenous food consumed in Sudan. It is generally manu-
factured from white sorghum meals obtained from decorticated kernels. As in the
case of injera, kisra is used to accompany other prepared foods. The preparation of
kisra consists of mixing one part sorghum or sorghum–pearl millet flour with 1.5
parts water and the starter (yeast and Lactobacillus and Acetobacter) saved from a
previous batch. The mixture is allowed to ferment for 12–18 h at an average tempera-
ture of 30°C. Before cooking, the kisra dough is diluted with water to obtain a vis-
cous batter that is cooked on a hot griddle for 1–2 min. There is another food derived
from kisra known as aseeda, which is manufactured with a less diluted batter and
cooked in a container instead of on a surface (Murty and Kumar 1995, Rooney et al.
1986, Rooney and Serna Saldivar 2000).
550 Cereal Grains
16.6.7 Appa
Appa and appan are popular in Sri Lanka and India. Both are produced from a mixture
of rice flour and coconut juice. The basic steps in its preparation are the blending of
the rice flour, sometimes supplemented with wheat flour, with sugar (0.5%), yeast (2%),
and coconut juice (35%–50%) to form a firm dough. The dough is allowed to ferment
at ambient conditions for 12–14 h. Then more coconut juice (1–1.5 L/kg flour), a pinch
of salt and, in some instances, sodium bicarbonate are added to form a flowing batter.
The viscous batter is baked on a hot surface previously covered with small amounts
of oil. After depositing the batter, the hot griddle is immediately covered with a lid to
enhance steaming. The total baking time is from 3 to 4 min (Steinkraus 1983, 1989).
16.7 Yeast-Leavened Wheat Breads

Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods, dating back to the Neolithic era. The
first breads produced were probably cooked versions of ground grain-based pastes.
The origins of bread can be closely linked to those of agriculture in the area known
as the Fertile Crescent, stretching north of the Nile Valley of Egypt and curving
through Syria and then south to the Persian Gulf (Chapter 1). This is the area where
the ancestors of wheat originated (Quail 1996). The first breads were created in the
Middle East region as unleavened flat prototypes. The wheat was probably first eaten
as a gruel of crushed grain and water. Then, the gruel or dough was baked on hot
stones into primitive flat unfermented breads. Fermentation was the next develop-
ment when doughs, exposed to natural yeasts and microflora, fermented before bak-
ing. Fermentation yielded more appealing products in terms of flavor and texture.
The Egyptian culture is responsible for spreading the art of baking to neighbor-
ing countries and then the whole world. The basic materials for bread making have
changed little; however, bread types have diverged to a wide array of varieties. The
many different types can be broadly classified according to the region and specific
volume. The main traditional yeast-raised breads include flat-Arabic, steamed-Chi-
nese, French, Danish, and Western breads.
16.7.1 Central Asian Breads

Bread has historically been a traditional and critical food staple in Central Asian
countries such as Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Today,
bread continues to be the main staple, for which the daily wheat flour consumption
ranges from 300–500 g. Central Asians have traditionally consumed dense, dark,
pan-type and flat breads. One of the most traditional flat breads is tandyr made from
a lean (flour, water, and salt) yeast-leavened dough baked in traditional clay ovens.
Milk and oil are occasionally included in the formulation. The dough is usually
kneaded by hand, allowed to ferment for 60–180 min, and then flattened and shaped
into a disc. The disk is stamped with wood or steel pins in the center before baking.
The dough may be moistened with milk to yield a shiny surface. Tandyr breads, also
known as nan or lepyoshka in Russia, are round (15–20 cm diameter) to oval shaped
(25×35 cm), with thicknesses that fluctuate from 5 to 10 cm (Ranum et al. 2006).
16.7.2 Arabic Flat Breads

Arabic flat breads are still the staple of the Middle East and neighboring countries,
and are usually consumed with all meals. The Arabic flat breads have evolved into
many types recognized by different names. In Egypt, it is known as baladi, shami,
and shamsey; in Iran as barbari and lavash; in Iraq as gubbiz and sauge; in Israel
as pita and matzo; in Jordan as markook and suage; in Saudi Arabia and Sudan as
tanoor; and in Turkey as bazalama, gomme, and pisili. The flat-Arabic breads are
perhaps the oldest known and are classified into two major classes: single and dou-
ble layered. The main difference is in the proof time. Single-layered breads have
a short (2 min) fermentation time, whereas the double-layered have proof times of
15 min or more. The production of an internal pocket is essential in double-layered
breads. In order to assure its formation, the sheeted dough is docked before baking,
which normally occurs at very high temperatures (350°C to 600°C) (Quail 1996).
16.7.3 French
The characteristic hard-crusted loaves of French baguettes date back to the Industrial
Revolution. Interestingly, baguettes are not truly French, because they were first pro-
duced by Austrian bakers. The traditional French bread recipe includes only wheat
flour, water, and salt (Chapter 10). The first breads were produced from wild yeast
that grew in the dough. New batches of dough were supplemented with fermenting
dough obtained from previous batches. The key to the production of good-quality
French breads is the steaming of the bread while baking in a hearth or in Viennese
ovens.
16.7.4 Croissants
The origin of the croissant is one of the great food legends of all time. Historically,
these crescent-shaped pastries were first baked during the seventeenth century either
in Vienna or Budapest in the 1680s. Croissants soon gained popularity and migrated
to France. The typical recipe consists of flours, salt, yeast, shortening or lard, sugar,
eggs, milk, and butter. Therefore, croissants are higher in calories and have a longer
textural shelf life. The ingredients are mixed until the gluten network is developed.
Next, the dough is fermented, sometimes at low temperatures, for long time. The fer-
mented dough is sheeted, covered with butter, folded several times, and relaminated
in order to produce the characteristic multilayered structure. The dough sheet is cut
into triangles and folded to produce the characteristic crescent shape. After final
proofing, the dough is baked into croissants.
16.7.5 Bagels
Most food historians conclude that bagels are of Jewish origin, probably in south
Germany or Poland, sometime in the seventeenth century. The name derives from
the Yiddish word beygalor from the German dialect word beugel, meaning ring or
bracelet. Bagels are produced from a simple formula that includes wheat flour, sugar
552 Cereal Grains
(3%), salt (2%) and yeast (Chapter 10). The distinctive processing characteristics are
fermentation at low temperatures (5°C) for long periods of time and the cooking of
the fermented and formed dough in boiling or hot water. As a result, baked bagels
have distinctive crust and crumb textures.
16.7.6 Steamed-Chinese Bread

The Chinese bread or mantou is a yeast-raised wheat-flour-based product cooked by
steaming instead of baking. It has been the traditional Chinese bread and staple for
more than 2,000 years. As a result of steaming, the bread develops the characteris-
tic white and thin crust. Mantou is produced from a lean formulation consisting of
common ingredients such as wheat flour, salt, and yeast from previous batches. Milk
and sugar are optional ingredients. Today, the elaboration of Chinese breads demands
approximately 40% of the total wheat produced in China. Two major styles of Chinese
steamed bread are recognized: Northern and Southern. They are either round or square
shaped, weighing from 30 to 150 g. The steamed bread is consumed fresh daily or
refreshed by steaming. Most Chinese breads are used to accompany other foods.
16.8 Nixtamalized Maize Products

Maize has traditionally been processed by cooking and steeping the kernels with
lime or wood ashes, discarding cooking liquor or nejayotl (from tenextli = lime and
ayotl = broth), and the resulting soft and cooked kernels or nixtamalli (from the
Nahuatl words nixtli = ashes and tamalli = dough) rubbed between the hands to
remove the bran. The cleaned nixtamal was hand ground with a cylindrical stone and
a metatl or flat stone slab. The resulting masa formed the backbone for the produc-
tion of many staples. Pieces of masa, called textli, were patted into thin round discs
that were baked on a hot circular clay griddle or comalli to produce tortillas. For the
Aztec nobles, tortillas were produced from red kernels ground with beautiful linseed
flowers and some other medical herbs or roots. Tortillas consumed daily by nobles
were named totanquil tlaxcalli, meaning folded-hot tortillas; hueitlaxcalli (white,
soft-textured, and thin tortillas); and cuauhtlacualli (white, large, and thick torti-
llas). Tlacepoalli tlaxcalli were delicious tortillas prepared from multilayered masa,
Elotlaxcalli made from tender or immature maize, and Iztac tlaxcalli etica tlaoyo
made from white maize and beans. The Aztecs also produced totopochtli, an ancient
prototype of the free-fat tortilla chips, by toasting tortillas on a hot griddle. This
product had an increased shelf life and was carried as food by travelers or warriors
(Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990, Serna-Saldivar 2008). Today, nixtamalized products are
still traditionally produced by Indians or ethnic populations. Masa continuous to be
the key ingredient for the production of many other traditional foods summarized
in Table 16.1.
16.8.1 Atole
Masa was widely used among the Aztecs to produce atole or nutritive gru-
els. Different kinds of atoles are still consumed in south Mexico and Central
Table 16.1
Major Uses of Lime-Cooked Maize for the Preparation of Indigenous Foods
Food Description of Traditional Food
Tortillas Maize is lime cooked for 5–30 min and steeped overnight. The cooking liquor is
discarded and the resulting nixtamal rubbed between the hands to remove the bran.
The washed nixtamal is hand ground with a cylindrical stone and a metate or flat
stone slab to produce a dough or masa. Pieces of masa are patted into thin round
discs that are baked for 30 to 60 s on a clay hot griddle (Figure 16.8).
Pozole Prehispanic dishes in which one of the main ingredients is whole nixtamal,
generally prepared from Cacahuacintle (white and large kernels with floury
endosperm) maize. Pozole is a spicy soup that generally contains peppers,
shredded meats, and other spices. The lime or lye-cooked maize is mixed with beef
stomach or shredded pork, peppers, spices, and onions to yield pozole.
Piki Traditional dish of American Indians of the southwest, prepared from a thin batter
of blue maize meal, ash, and water. The batter is cooked on a hot flat stone to form
a parchment-like product. Piki can be crumbled, salted, roasted, and eaten like
chips.
Atole and Prehispanic breakfast gruels or porridges made out of masa that is diluted in water,
Champurrado sweetened with sugar, and flavored with cinnamon, vanilla, orange leaves, and
other flavorings. Champurrado is produced from cocoa beans, brown sugar, and
cinnamon (Figure 16.8).
Pinole Maize kernels are toasted on a hot griddle until attaining a brown-golden color, dry
milled into a meal, and blended with cinnamon, anise, brown sugar, and other
flavorings. The resulting shelf-stable mix is diluted with water or milk, boiled for
about 4 min, and consumed as breakfast gruel.
Pozol Prehispanic beverage made out of fermented masa. Fresh masa is wrapped in
banana leaves and allowed to naturally ferment for 3–5 days. The fermented masa
is diluted in water and consumed as a beverage. It is considered the major source
of nutrients and the “job beverage” for some indigenous groups in south Mexico.
Tamales Prehispanic dish widely consumed during festivities, Christmas holidays, and
weekends. Consists of masa surrounding a filling that has been placed in a wrapper
and steamed. In tropical areas, tamales are wrapped in banana leaves; hydrated
maize husks are used in the rest of Mexico. The coarsely ground masa is blended
with lard, salt, chicken or beef broth, and baking powder. Cooking times vary from
1 to 3 h or until the masa does not stick to the wrapper. The most common tamales
contain spicy beans, shredded meats, fish/seafood, cheese, or sweets.
Tacos and This is the most popular way of consuming table tortillas. Soft tortillas are filled
Sincronizadas with refried beans, shredded meat or poultry, eggs, guacamole, and vegetables.
Quesadillas are tacos filled with cheese, while sincronizadas contain a
combination of cheese and ham. Tacos are generally rolled or simply folded.
Flautas Tortillas are filled with shredded meat, rolled into small cylinders, and fried until
crisp. Guacamole or mashed avocado paste, sour cream, different cheeses, and
vegetables are usually spread on top of the flautas.
—continued
554 Cereal Grains
Enchiladas Masa for table tortillas is blended with coloring agents (mild red pepper extract,
paprika, or artificial colors), molded, and baked into a red tortilla. Tortillas are
fried for a few seconds and immediately filled with cheese mixed with raw onions.
Some people also call enchiladas red-colored tortillas, filled with shredded chicken
or other fillings (mashed potatoes, various types of meats). Shredded fresh cheese
and sauces are spread on top of the filled tortillas prior to serving.
Panuchos or Thick tortillas are filled with refried beans, shredded meats, or poultry with the filling
Papusas placed underneath the tortilla skin. The product can also be fried. Baked or fried
panuchos are generally served with sliced tomato and cooked or cured onions.
Sopes, Masa, sometimes blended with lard, is formed into a flat thick disc (1 cm thick and
Chalupas, or about 10 cm diameter). While baking, a 1-cm-high peripheral wall is formed by
Garnachas pinching. The sope is filled with a combination of refried beans, cheese, shredded
meats or poultry, and vegetables.
Tlacoyos Masa is flattened into thick discs, and refried beans are placed in the middle of the
formed cake. Both sides are folded to cover the beans and to impart the typical
oval–elongated-shaped configuration. Tlacoyos are baked on both sides on a hot
griddle and usually served with green sauce and dairy cream. Blue maize tlacoyos
are very popular in central and south Mexico.
Empanadas Masa, sometimes mixed with baking powder, is formed into small balls and pressed
into thin discs. The preformed masa is filled with shredded meats, beans, and
cheeses, and folded. The rim of the folded (half moon) tortilla is sealed by pressing
with a fork, and then fried.
Tostadas and Tostadas are tortillas fried in the flat form and widely used as the base to hold
Taco Shells different fillings. For their preparation, nixtamal and red-paprika peppers or
annatto are stone ground together into a coarse masa. The red- or orange-colored
masa is baked into a tortilla and then fried into a tostada. Tostadas are the base for
the preparation of a wide array of meals. It is common to consume tostadas with
refried beans, cheeses, shredded meats, and vegetables such as lettuce, tomato,
onions, peppers, and radish. Taco shells are the U.S. version of tostadas, with the
only difference being that they are usually fried bent (U form) and rarely colored.
Pimes Mayan dish. Masa is blended with salt and lard and sometimes ground peppers, and
formed into thick discs that are baked on a hot griddle previously greased with
lard.
Pemoles Mayan dish. Black beans are smashed, fried, and sun dried. Then, they are mixed
with masa to form a thick black tortilla disc. The discs are fried and served with
hot sauce.
Joroch Mayan dish. Small masa balls are cooked with smashed beans, and the resulting
blend is served with ground squash seeds.
Tobi Holoch Mayan dish. Annato (Bixa orellana L.) seeds are fried in lard until they release their
color. The resulting colored lard is mixed with masa and salt. At the same time,
ground meat is cooked with finely ground onion, tomato, and sweet peppers. The
masa is hand-shaped into an oval form and the filling placed in the center. It is
folded, wrapped in banana leaves, and steam cooked.
—continued
Salbutes Masa is blended with salt and wheat flour. Hand-made tortilla discs are fried and
then lettuce or cabbage, shredded poultry, cured onions, and tomato are spread on
top.
Tortilla Soup One of the most popular Mexican soups. Contains up to 15 different ingredients, of
which the main one is fried tortilla strips. Garlic, onion, and tomato are ground
into a sauce and diluted and simmered in chicken broth. Salt, peppers, and other
seasonings are also added. The soup is reheated, and fried tortilla strips, cheese
cubes, and avocado are incorporated onto the top of the mix.
Chilaquiles Prehispanic dish very popular in all of Mexico. The Nahuatl word derives from
chilli = peppers and quilitl = edible herbs. Chilaquiles are prepared by first
producing a sauce based on tomato, onion, peppers, garlic, and salt. Stale or
leftover tortillas are cut into pieces and fried until crisp, and then sauces, shredded
chicken, cream, and cheeses are usually placed on top of the Chilaquiles.
Source: Data from Rooney, L.W. and Serna‑Saldivar, S.O. 2003. Chapter 13 (pp. 495–535) in Corn
Chemistry and Technology, Second edition, P. White and L. Johnson (eds.). American Association
of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN; Serna-Saldivar, S.O., Gomez, M.H., and Rooney, L.W. 2001.
Chapter 11 in: Speciality Types of Corn, A.R. Hallauer (ed.). Second edition. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL; Serna-Saldivar, S.O. 2008. Research and Development in the Science and Technology
of Nixtamalized Maize Based Foods. 13th International ICC Cereal and Bread Congress. 15–18
July 2008. Madrid, Spain; J. Taylor and R. Cracknell (eds.). International Association for Cereal
Science and Technology, Vienna, Austria; Serna‑Saldivar, S.O. et al. 1990. Chapter 4 in Advances
in Cereal Science and Technology. Vol. X., Y. Pomeranz (ed.). American Association of Cereal
Chemists, St. Paul, MN; Steinkraus, K.H. 1983. Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Foods.
Marcel Dekker, New York; Vivas, N.E. et al. 1987. Cereal Chem. 64:390; and Wacher, M.C. and
Lappe, P. 1993. Alimentos Fermentados Indigenas de Mexico. Mexico: Universidad Autonoma
de Mexico.
America, especially by children. Atoles are manufactured by taking a small piece

of masa, which is then diluted in water or milk and heated to achieve complete
starch gelatinization (Figure 16.8). After cooking, sugar, cinnamon, orange leaves,
and other flavorings are optionally added to improve palatability (Vivas et al.
1987). Champurrado is another type of atole that is produced from cocoa beans
(Theobroma cacao), brown sugar, and cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum)
16.8.2 Tortillas
Undoubtedly, the most widely produced nixtamalized product is the tortilla. The
traditional tortilla process has been passed down through the generations and
has remained practically unchanged since the time of the Aztecs. In this process
(Figure 16.8), maize kernels are lime cooked in excess water to yield nixtamal (from
the Náhualt nixtli = ashes + tamalli = dough or masa). The nixtamal is hand washed
556 Cereal Grains
Water Maize Wood Ashes or

300 L 100 kg, 14% Moisture Lime (CaOH2)
1–1.5 kg
Lime Cooking/Steeping
Clay Pots, 90–98°C for 5–40 min.
Steeping for 12–16 hr
Discarding of Cooking Liquor or Cooking Liquor

Nejayote and Washing of Nixtamal or Nejayote
(6 kg solids)
Nixtamal Water
154 kg, 48% Moisture 36.5 Kg
Milling
Flat Milling Saddle Stone or Mano
and Metate and Stone-Mills
Water Sugar Dough or Masa

677 Kg Flavorings 195 kg, 58% Moisture
95 kg
Mixing and Cooking Tortilla Disk Forming

(15–20 min) Hand Patting, 2–4 mm Thick and
15–20 cm Diameter.
Baking Water
Atole Hot Griddle or Comal, 190–260°C
967 kg, 82% Moisture 42 Kg
for 0.5 to 1 min on Each Side
Tortillas
Figure 16.8 The traditional processes used to prepare atole and tortillas in Mexico and
Central America.
to remove excess lime and pericarp that was partially or totally hydrolyzed due to the
hot alkali. The cleaned nixtamal is stone ground with a mano and metate to produce
a fine dough. Water with lime is added to facilitate grinding and produce handleable
and shapeable dough. The masa is formed into thin discs by patting, and then the
thin or thick discs (in Mexico and Central America, respectively) are baked on a
hot griddle for about 30 s on each side. In Central America, tortillas are thicker and
with a lower diameter compared to Mexican tortillas. Tortillas are, in most cases,
used as wraps to contain fillings made from beans, various meats, eggs, cheeses, and
vegetables. They continue to be the icon of the Latin American cuisine and the main
form of traditional nixtamalized foods (Table 16.1). Tortillas in their different forms
and colors are widely used to prepare tacos, enchiladas, panuchos, tlacoyos, flautas,
sopes, chilaquiles, and tortilla soup.
16.8.3 Tamales
Tamales are one of the oldest-prepared nixtamalized foods (Table 16.1) consumed
especially during festivities. The food product consists of masa surrounding a filling
that has been placed in a wrapper and steamed. In tropical areas, tamales are wrapped
in banana leaves, whereas hydrated maize husks are used in most of Mexico. Today,
coarsely ground masa is blended with lard, salt, chicken or beef/chicken broth, and
baking powder. Tamales are cooked in a large pot or steamer equipped with a rack
in the bottom so as to avoid their contacting the boiling water. Before cooking,
tamales are packed or stacked in an organized way because they increase in volume
upon cooking. The pot should be tightly covered with the lid to prevent vapor loss.
Cooking time varies from 1 to 3 h or until the masa does not stick to the wrapper.
The most common tamales contain spicy beans, shredded chicken, beef, pork, fish,
seafood, cheese, or sweets (fruit pastes, jelly, nuts, and raisins) (Serna-Saldivar et al.
1990, Serna-Saldivar 2004, 2008).
The Hopi Indians, native to New Mexico and Arizona, produce a wide array of
nixtamalized maize-based foods, the most important being bivildiki, piki, and som-
eviki. Piki is a product prepared from a nixtamalized blue maize batter that is baked
on a hot griddle. Bividiki and someviki are also preferably produced from blue maize
and produced similarly to piki. Nixtamalized dough balls are wrapped in maize
husks and cooked in water. Both the cooked masa and the liquid used for cooking
are consumed. The only difference between someviki and bividiki is that the first is
sweetened with sugar.
16.8.4 Pozol
The name pozol derives from the Aztec word pozolli meaning foamy. Pozol is
another product derived from nixtamalized dough. It is widely consumed by peas-
ants in southeast Mexico. Large portions of masa (about 1 kg) are wrapped in banana
leaves and naturally fermented for 2 weeks. During fermentation, the characteristic
acid and sour flavor will be produced. The fermented pozol is divided into balls
diluted with 2 or 3 parts water to obtain a high solid beverage that is usually flavored
with salt, toasted chili pods, sugar, or honey. The resulting beverage is consumed
during work, at meals, or as refreshment at any hour of the day (Steinkraus 1983).
Balls of fermented and moldy pozol are taken as provision for journeys through the
jungle. Pozol is also consumed to control diarrhea and treat skin lesions and wounds.
In the state of Tabasco, Mexico, pozol is frequently mixed with ground cocoa before
fermentation to produce chorote (Steinkraus 1983, Wacher and Lappe 1993). The
main fermenting microorganisms associated with pozol are Geothricum candidum,
Trichosporum cutaneum, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Aureobasidium pullulans,
Bacillus cereus, Agrobacterium azotophilum, and Achromobacter pozolis.
16.9 Fermented Porridges and Beers

Traditional cereal malting or germination is practiced mainly in Asia and Africa for
the further preparation of numerous indigenous foods. The main use of malt is as
558 Cereal Grains
an inexpensive source of enzymes needed to break down chemical compounds into

simpler molecules that could be metabolized by yeast or other fermenting microor-
ganisms. Malting usually precedes fermentation and enhances the nutritional value
or nutrient bioavailability of prepared foods (Chapter 17). Traditional malting pro-
cesses consist of grain soaking, controlled germination, and drying. The resulting
malt is generally milled and utilized for the production of many foods. One example
is the production of chapati from malted wheat, or bhakari from sprouted sorghum
(Chavan and Kadam 1989b, Steinkraus 1983). However, the main food use of malted
cereals is in the production of fermented beverages and weaning foods.
Alcoholic beverages obtained from malted cereals usually have an acidic pH and
high alcohol content, making these shelf-stable and less prone to contamination with
pathogenic bacteria.
16.9.1 Chicha
Chicha is an ancient maize-based alcoholic beverage developed by the Inca culture.
It is still consumed in the Andes region of South America and is one of the few or
only alcoholic beverage obtained by hydrolyzing starch via salivation. The amylolitic
enzymes present in the saliva breakdown the starch into dextrins and fermentable
carbohydrates. Chicha is classified as a sour-alcoholic effervescent beverage that
varies in color (yellow to purple or red) depending on the type and color of the maize
used as raw material.
Chicha could be obtained from two processes: one where saliva is used as a
source of starch-hydrolyzing enzymes, and the second where maize malt supplies
the starch-degrading enzymes. Chicha could be also produced by combining saliva-
tion and malt (Figure 16.9). After enzyme conversion, the mash produces a sweet
wort that is naturally fermented into the alcoholic beverage.
The process starts when maize kernels are soaked in excess water for 12–18 h.
Then the water is drained, and the hydrated kernels are allowed to germinate in a
moist and dark environment for approximately 3 or more days until the sprouts have
a length of about 5 mm. Next, malted kernels are sun dried to produce a Jora. The
jora is milled into malted flour known as pachucho. At the same time, raw maize
kernels are stone milled into a coarse meal, using a mortar and pestle. The resulting
meal is hydrated and formed into small dough balls that are deposited in the mouth
for salivation. After a certain residence time, the salivated dough balls are pressed
or flattened against the roof of the mouth. The salivated pressed dough is then solar
dried and stone milled into a product known as muko. The pachucho and muko
meals are mixed, hydrated in excess water, and heated to 75°C for approximately 1
h. After cooling, three distinctive layers are formed: the top viscous slurry known
as upi, an intermediate fraction, and the bottom fraction rich in coarse particles,
known as hanchi. Upi is transferred into other container and heated for several
hours to enhance caramelization and flavor development. This product is known
as misqui kheta. Misqui kheta is blended with upi and naturally fermented for 4–6
days to produce the final product. The alcohol content of chicha varies, but usu-
ally ranges from 5% to 9%. The beverage should be quickly consumed because it
is prone to contamination with acetic-acid-forming bacteria that negatively affect
Maize
Milling Saliva or Maize Malt

Maize Flour
Stone-Mill or Metate (Jova or Pachucho)
Sugar
Mashing
<75°C for 60 min
Water
Resting/Seetling
Three-Phase Formation
Sediment Liquid (Upi) Gel-Like Phase
Boiling Caramelized
Filtration Cooking Marqueta
<3 hr
Cooling
Misqui kheta
Natural Fermentation
Room Temperature for 2–6 days
Chicha
Figure 16.9 The traditional process for the elaboration of Chicha.
flavor. Chicha containers are not washed or cleaned, so they keep the inoculums
required for the fermentation of other batches. According to Steinkraus (1983), the
main fermenting microorganisms are yeast (Saccharomyces cereviceae, S. apicu-
lata) and bacteria from the genera Lactobacillus and Leuconostoc. The interme-
diate and bottom (or hanchi) fractions are also used for the elaboration of other
products.
16.9.2 Tesguino
Tesguino, from the Nahuatl word tecuin meaning heartbeat, is an opaque maize beer
high in solids, consumed by diverse ethnic groups in Mexico. For many indigenous
groups, tesguino constitutes the preferred alcoholic beverage during social events
and in religious and sport ceremonies. The process of making tesguino varies among
560 Cereal Grains
tribes, but the most common way to produce it is by first soaking soft-textured maize
kernels in excess water for 2–3 days, sprouting the hydrated kernels in the dark,
followed by grinding the malt in traditional stone mills in preparation for mashing.
The maize malt is diluted in water and thermally treated until a yellowish gruel is
obtained. Then the mash is filtrated and poured into clay pots in preparation for
natural fermentation. The clay pots are never washed, so their internal surfaces
have adhered residues from previous fermentations. After 1–10 days of fermenta-
tion, tesguino is ready for consumption. The alcoholic beverage contains fermenting
microflora mainly composed of yeast (Saccharomyces cereviceae, Pichia membra-
naefaciens, Candida guillermondi, and Candida valida) and acid-forming bacteria
(Bacillus megaterium, Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus)
(Lappe and Ulloa 1989).
16.9.3 Opaque Beers
Opaque or sour beers are widely consumed in Central and South Africa. According
to Steinkraus (1983), Zambian peasants drink up to 180 L of these per year. Opaque
beers are produced from malted sorghum and sorghum, maize, or millet adjuncts.
In contrast to lager beers, opaque beers are not flavored with hops, and are produced
after two mashing and two fermentation steps. The preferred malt is from selected
sorghum cultivars, although sprouted millet and maize are also used. The sun-dried
malt is ground and mixed with water to promote the growth of naturally occurring
lactic-acid forming bacteria for 24 h. The intrinsic malt enzymes breakdown starch,
producing substrate more suitable for lactic bacteria. During this first mashing step,
the pH drops due to organic acids, mainly lactic acid. The second mashing step
consists of adding the adjuncts consisting of precooked cereal meals and additional
amounts of sorghum malt with the aim of increasing the fermentable carbohydrates
in the mash (Figure 16.10). The mash pH is critically important because it affects
viscosity, sugar concentration, and the amount of alcohol in the final product. The
sour wort is then inoculated with yeast for ethanol production. The wort is generally
fermented for 2–3 days at ambient temperature (21°C–30°C). Opaque beers have an
acidic pH of around 3.5 and contain 2%–4% alcohol, 0.3%–0.6% lactic acid, and
a color that varies from yellow to brown, depending on the color of the malt and
adjuncts utilized as raw materials. These beers are consumed while fermenting and
at ambient temperature. Opaque beers from Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya, and South
Africa are known as pito, talla, busas/urwaga, and chibuko, respectively (Daiber and
Taylor 1995, Murty and Kumar 1995, Novellie and deSchaepdrijver 1986, Rooney et
al. 1986, Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2000).
16.9.4 Sake
Sake is the traditional Japanese alcoholic beverage or wine produced from polished
rice, a culture of Aspergillus oryzeae, commonly known as koji-kin, and special
strains of osmotolerant yeast. Sake is considered by the Japanese culture as the
“drink of the gods” and is one of the oldest alcoholic beverages in the world, dat-
ing back to 300 ad. Since then, it has played an important role in Japanese culture
Sorghum Sorghum Malt

60 kg, 12% Moisture Soaking/Malting/Sun-Drying 52 kg, 8% Moisture
Brewing Adjuncts
Maize, Sorghum or Millets
Grinding
40 kg, 12–14% Moisture Cooking Hominy Block or Hollow
Wooden Bowl
Water
Ground Sorghum
Gelatinized Malt
Adjuncts
Mashing Natural Lactic Acid

37°C/1 day Fermentation
24 hr 25–30°C
Lactic Acid
Cooking and Cooling Fermented Mash
Filtration
Wort Natural Yeast
25–30°C/2 days
Starter
Natural Fermentation
Insolubles/Coarse
25–30°C/2 days
Particles
13 kg
Opaque Beer
600–640 L, 10% Solids, 4%
Alcohol, 0.5% Lactic Acid
Figure 16.10 The traditional process for the production of sorghum opaque beer.
(Photographs courtesy of Dr. John Taylor, University of Pretoria, South Africa.)
and history. By the time of the Heian Era (794–1185), the art of sake was refined
enough to warrant a government-sponsored guild comprised of professional brew-
ers. At first, sake was produced for private consumption by individual families
or villages. While this practice continued, sake rice also became a large-scale
agricultural product. The largest production area was centered around Nada, near
the city of Kobe. Although more sake was being made, it was mostly consumed
by the upper classes. Sake was used for many different purposes in the Shinto
religion, including as an offering to the Gods and to purify the temple. The bride
and groom each consume sake in a Shinto wedding ceremony in a process known
as Sansankudo.
The earliest-recorded sake process was performed by a whole village: each
person would chew rice and nuts and then spit the mixture into a communal tub to
produce a sake called “kuchikami no sake,” meaning “chewing the mouth sake.”
The chewing process provided the amylases necessary for fermentation. Although
562 Cereal Grains
it was part of a Shinto religious ceremony, this practice was discontinued when
it was learned that the koji culture provided the key enzymes to convert starch
and protein into fermentable products, and that yeast could be added to the mash
to enhance the fermentation process. Today, it is known that koji produces more
than 50 different enzymes, the most important being amylases and proteases.
The process starts when polished rice is produced, soaked in water, and then the
soaked rice is boiled in a large pot. The degree of cooking is carefully controlled
because overcooked rice will ferment too quickly for flavors to develop well,
and undercooked rice will only ferment on the outside. Part of the cooked rice is
inoculated with koji for about 2 days, creating the starter mash known as shubo or
moto. When the starter mash is ready, more cooked rice, water, and koji are added
once a day for 3 days, doubling the volume of the mash each time. The mixture
is now known as the main mash or moromi. The moromi is then inoculated with
yeast and fermented for 2–6 weeks. After fermentation, the sake is pressed to
separate the liquid from the solids. It is then left to ripen, which usually takes
from 6 months to as much as 2 years. The detailed commercial sake process used
today is described in Chapter 14.
Self-Evaluation
1. What are main differences between indigenous and commercially prepared
foods?
2. Describe the general process to produce bulgur.
3. What are the difference between tortillas, rotis or chapatis, and arepas?
4. Why do acid-fermented foods usually have better nutritional value and shelf
life compared with other nonfermented foods?
5. Briefly describe the key manufacturing steps of the following indige-
nous foods:
(a) Tô (b) Kisra (c) Injera (d) Koji
(e) Atole (f) Pozol (g) Tesguino (h) Sake
6. From what kind of indigenous food was soy sauce derived? Why should soy
sauce also be considered as a cereal-based item?
7. What are the main characteristics of indigenous breads? How do they com-
pare with commercial breads in terms of formulation and processing?
8. What are the differences in processing between an acidic or sour fermented
food and a yeast-raised food?
9. What are differences in terms of processing, product characteristics, and
nutritional value between opaque and lager beers?
10. How does milling, germination-malting, and natural fermentation affect the
nutritional value of indigenous foods? What kind of indigenous foods and
cereals have better nutritional value for weaned babies and children? Why?
11. Describe and compare the general flowcharts of the ancient Incan beverage
known as chicha and the oriental beverage known as sake. What is the aim
of salivation before fermentation?
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London.
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Nixtamalized Maize Based Foods. 13th International ICC Cereal and Bread Congress.
15–18 July 2008. Madrid, Spain.
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tional value of maize-based nixtamalized foods. In: Ethnic Cereal-Based Foods Across
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Serna-Saldivar, S.O., Gomez, M.H., and Rooney, L.W. 2001. Food uses of regular and spe-
cialty corns and their dry milled fractions. In: Speciality Types of Corn, A.R. Hallauer
(ed.). Second edition. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, chap. 11.
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17 Role of Cereals in Human
Nutrition and Health
17.1 Introduction
Cereal-based foods are the most important source of nutrients for mankind (FAO
2009). Table 17.1 summarizes the contribution of the most important foods to the
average human diet. Cereals continue to be the primary sources of energy, due to the
high starch content, protein, dietary fiber, B-vitamins, and minerals. The majority of
diets are based on one particular cereal grain as the main substance in most countries
around the world. The cereals most widely consumed are rice, wheat, and maize,
mainly by inhabitants of Asia, Europe–United States–Canada, and Latin America,
respectively. In Africa, maize, sorghum, and millets are widely cultivated in order to
produce grains for the manufacturing of many traditional foods (Chapter 16).
The protein quality of cereal grains and their products is not adequate to sus-
tain optimum growth, especially for preschool children. In developing countries,
the consumption of cereals with legumes (i.e., beans, soybeans, peas, chickpeas, and
lentils) greatly improves protein quality and quantity. Legumes contain at least twice
as much protein as cereals and complement their amino acid balance because they
contain high amounts of lysine and tryptophan.
Protein malnutrition and hunger are still endemic in some regions of the world.
Marasmus and kwashiorkor are still the main cause of more than 25,000 daily
deaths of infants around the globe. These infants die due to the lack of foods and/or
the consumption of diets based solely on cereals that gradually cause loss of body
mass and weakening of the immune system. According to a recent report from the
Population Reference Bureau (2007), the infant mortality rate in less developed
countries is approximately 60 per 1,000 infants under the age of one, per 1,000 live
births; whereas in developed countries, the total is about 6. In some African nations,
the infant mortality rate still reaches the alarming figure of 250.
Plant breeders and agrobiotechnologists have helped to partially alleviate world
hunger and malnutrition by the development of new highly productive genotypes
that, in some instances, have better protein quality, and overall nutritional value. For
example, high lysine-tryptophan quality protein maize is being used in Ghana and
other parts of Africa to diminish protein malnutrition. New highly nutritious cereal
types will be produced by traditional plant breeding or by the use of new tools of
molecular biology. One example is the development of golden rice, which expresses
high quantities of β-carotenes or provitamin A. The use of this genetically modified
crop could diminish the lack of vitamin A, especially in Asia, that results in more
susceptibility to infectious diseases, and night and permanent blindness.
565
566 Cereal Grains
Table 17.1
Estimated World Food Production and Per Capita
Availability of Different Foods in 2007
Per Capita
Production, Availability,
Food Group 1,000 Ton kg/year
Cereals 2,342,427 353.57
Roots and tubers 748,382 112.96
• Potato 321,736 48.56
Pulses 613,41 9.25
Vegetables and melons 893,432 134.86
Fruits (excluding melons) 499,711 75.43
• Grapes 662,71 0.100
• Citrus 713,7 1.077
• Banana 812,63 12.26
• Apples 642,55 9.698
Oil crops 144,805 21.86
• Oil 127,527 19.25
Oil cakes 263,295 39.74
Nuts 725 0.109
Sugar and sweeteners 160,039 24.16
Cocoa beans 401,2 0.605
Coffee, green 774,2 1.168
Tea 387,1 0.584
Beer 161,961 24.45
Meat 273,984 41.36
Milk 664,421 100.29
Eggs 667,454 100.75
Source: FAO. 2009. FAOSTAT Agricultural Database. http://faostat.fao.org.
Cereals have great potential for the production of the new wave of nutraceutical
foods. Specialty rices, maizes, and wheats could be used as raw materials for the pro-
duction of foods that benefit human health and improve quality of life (Chapter 2).
Whole grains are rich sources of dietary fiber, and contain significant quantities of
B-vitamins, tocopherols, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. The main phytochemicals
naturally associated with cereal matrixes are phenolics, flavonoids, anthocyanins, phy-
tosterols, phospholipids, policosanols, carotenoids, and xanthophylls. Most of these
compounds combat oxidative stress, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, high blood cho-
lesterol, and other chronic diseases that cause about 60% of current deaths. Regrettably,
most of the nutraceuticals associated with cereals are located in the pericarp and germ
tissues that are commonly removed during milling (Chapters 7, 8, and 9).
In modern societies, where the number of obese people continues to increase,
regular diets commonly exceed the recommended allowances for fat, energy, and
Role of Cereals in Human Nutrition and Health 567
sodium. Globally, one out of six people is overweight, and at least 300 million people
are obese (body mass index > 30). Obesity and overweight pose a major risk for
chronic diseases including type II diabetes, coronary heart disease (CHD), hyperten-
sion, strokes, and certain forms of cancers. Key reasons are increased consumption
of energy-dense foods high in saturated fats and sugars, accompanied by reduced
physical activity. Childhood obesity is endemic in some regions of the world, and on
the rise in others. About 17.6 million preschool children are estimated to be over-
weight worldwide.
The new trend of the cereal industry is the development of new nutraceutical or
functional foods. Most cereal processors face the challenge of developing new foods
if they want to subsist in the market.
17.2 World Malnutrition

The estimated world population in the year 2008 was about 6.3 billion (FAO 2009).
The population is projected to grow at a net yearly rate of 740 million by 2025. It
is estimated that about one billion people are at risk of malnourishment (Onuma
Okezie 1998). Most of the practical malnutrition problems are due to the lack of
energy foods, proteins, vitamin A, and iron. Hunger is still prevalent in some areas of
the world, especially in Africa, Asia, and some regions of the Americas. Hunger has
been documented since biblical times. For example, two-thirds of the Italian popula-
tion and 43 million people died in Europe during the years 1347–1349. Sixteen to
twenty-three million people inhabiting Asia and the Far East died in 1960, 1.5 mil-
lion in Bangladesh in 1974, and two million Africans, mainly infants and children, in
the period of 1984–1985. During the last two decades, acute hunger hit Somalia and
Ethiopia on several occasions. It is documented that energy and protein deficiencies
are still responsible for about 17% of the infant deaths in Ethiopia.
Malnutrition is the major factor responsible for the daily deaths of 25,000 people.
Approximately 40% of these people are infants, and chronic malnutrition particularly
affects this life stage. Figure 17.1 depicts the typical mode in which protein and
micronutrient deficiencies kill most of these infants. The rest of the problems mostly
occur in child bearing mothers. The lack of proper and balanced nutrition during
pregnancy and lactation significantly decrease birth weight, making newborns more
susceptible to infectious diseases and death.
17.2.1 Marasmus and Kwashiorkor

Most nutritionists agree that the main causes of malnutrition in developing coun-
tries are the lack of calories and good quality protein. Inadequate carbohydrate and
protein consumption lead to two major malnutrition problems: marasmus (from the
Greek marasmos, meaning dying away) and kwashiorkor, respectively. The most
vulnerable groups generally demonstrate a combination of these two syndromes.
It is important to point out that adults have a relatively low protein requirement
compared to infants, and the sole consumption of cereals can meet that require-
ment. In contrast, infants, schoolchildren, and pregnant and lactating women need
more protein and essential amino acids to fulfill requirements for growth, fetal
568 Cereal Grains
Healthy Lactating Infant Weaning
Diet Change
Diet rich in carbohydrates and low in protein
quality and micronutrients
Micronutrient Deficiencies
Protein Malnutrition or Kwashiorkor
Vitamins and Minerals
Clinical Manifestations
Iron: Anemia, weakness, fatigue
Zinc: Stunt Growth (dwarfism) and
Clinical Manifestations hypogonodism.
Stunt growth, weight loss, abdominal and feet Vitamin A: Night and permanent
edema, apathy, fatty liver infiltrations, skin blindness, stunt
ulcers, kinky and discolored hair. growth, xerophtalmia, queratomalacia.
Vitamins B: Growth retardation, Beriberi,
Pellagra (diarrhea, dermatitis),
Pernicious Anemia.
Malnourishment
Weakening of Immune System
Infectious Diseases
Diarrhea, Pneumonia
Age: 2 Year 11 months Age: 3 Years

Weight: 6.7 kgs Death Weight: 12.4 kgs
Height: 82 cm Height: 85 cm
Figure 17.1 Progressive clinical manifestations of children affected by kwashiorkor and

micronutrient deficiencies. The photographs show a child severely affected by malnutrition
before and after nutritional intervention for nearly 2 months. (Photographs provided with
permission by Programa Integral de Nutrición, Un Kilo de Ayuda, INNSZ).
development, and synthesis of milk. Most malnutrition problems are observed in

postweaned infants because in this life stage humans have one of the highest essen-
tial amino acid and energy requirements. An infant usually requires up to four times
more essential amino acids expressed per kg of body weight compared to an adult.
That is the reason why a cereal diet does not meet the essential amino acid require-
ments, especially for lysine. These amino acids are needed to build muscle and other
important proteins (i.e., antibodies, enzymes, peptidic hormones). There are three
known categories of malnutrition that differ according to body weight related to
height and/or age: severe, moderate, and slight. A severely malnourished person has
less than 60% of the ideal body weight, whereas moderate and slight counterparts
have between 60%–75% and 75%–90%, respectively. According to USAID, about 1
out of 4 children under the age of 5 are underweight (2 or more standard deviations
below the median weight for their particular age). Higher incidences are observed in
south central Asia (41%) and Africa (24%) (Population Reference Bureau 2007).
Figure 17.1 depicts the typical symptoms of kwashiorkor. Generally, the lactating

baby is weaned at an early age due to the birth of another baby or simply because the
mother becomes dry or unable to continue lactating. The infant is forced to change
to a cereal/tuber-based diet that contains low protein and an inadequate amino acid
balance. The infant’s development is stunted, and eventually the infant loses weight
and appetite. As a result, the child gradually catabolizes his muscle mass in order to
produce energy, enzymes, antibodies, and other important proteins. Thereafter, the
classic symptoms of abdominal edema, joint fluid retention, kinky and discolored
hair, skin ulcers, and apathy appear. If severe malnutrition persists, the infant will
eventually pass away due to his higher susceptibility to infectious diseases (diarrhea,
pneumonia). The lower blood albumin, mainly responsible for osmotic regulation,
produces abdominal edema and fatty liver infiltrations. The lower amount of anti-
bodies weakens the immune system, making these infants more susceptible to infec-
tious diseases. Infants that can survive kwashiorkor do not fully recover their body
mass, and cerebral functioning. It is well documented that infants that recovered
from severe kwashiorkor had lower cerebral DNA and intellectual quotient (IQ).
The best way to prevent malnutrition in developing countries is focused toward
enhancing agricultural productivity, increasing the number of storage facilities, and
improving food distribution, the availability of potable water, nutritional and hygiene
education, and development of national programs aimed toward the enrichment and
fortification of staple foods.
17.2.2 Vitamin Deficiencies

According to the World Health Organization, the deficiency of vitamins A and
B-complex are among the top causes of death through disease in developing coun-
tries around the globe (Figure 17.1).
17.2.2.1 Vitamin A
Most nutritionists agree that the second most prevalent global deficiency after calo-
ries/proteins is vitamin A (Sommer 1987). There is clear evidence of vitamin A
deficiency in the Egyptian culture 3,500 years ago. Recent statistics indicate that
annually more than half a million children become partially or totally blind due to
the chronic deficiency of vitamin A, and 13 million preschool children are affected by
xerophthalmia (Onuma Okezie 1998). Vitamin A deficiency occurs more frequently
among people inhabiting Asia (India, Indonesia, Philippines, and Bangladesh),
Africa (Tanzania, Kenya, and Zambia), and Latin America (Haiti, Guatemala,
Salvador, Cuba, and Peru). Between one-fourth and one-half of preschool children in
developing countries show symptoms of vitamin A deficiency. As with most nutrient
deficiencies, the lack of vitamin A is more prevalent among children between 1 and
5 years of age that live in poverty. Humans require vitamin A in order to sustain nor-
mal growth, resist infectious diseases, and have normal vision. More specifically, the
lack of vitamin A is observed in the eyes, and conditions of epithelial tissues associ-
ated with skin, the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory system, and urogenital system
that lead to dry skin, diarrhea, and pneumonia. Vitamin A deficiency also affects
bone development, and is associated with anemia. A chronic deficiency depresses
570 Cereal Grains
the immune and nervous systems. The most common symptoms are xerophthalmia
(dry eyes), hyperkeratinization (lack of mucopolysaccharide secretions that protect
epithelial eye cells), and keratomalacia, characterized by the irreversible drying of
the eye, which leads to corneal degeneration and permanent blindness (Hoffmann
1972, Mason et al. 2001, Van den Briel and Webb 2003).
The typical vitamin A deficiency starts when newborns rapidly deplete the stored
hepatic vitamin A reserves that usually last 4–6 months. Human milk is practi-
cally free of retinol, and therefore infants should start getting appropriate amounts
of β-carotenes or retinol from the diet. In developing countries, most infants are
weaned with cereal-based gruels that unfortunately lack enough carotenes. The
simple supplementation of the diet with fruits and vegetables rich in carotenes and
retinol is enough to prevent the avitaminosis. The chronic deficiency of vitamin A
leads to night blindness, and a higher susceptibility to infectious diseases that the
infants are more prone to get due to lack of hygiene, potable water, and the poor over-
all environment. The vitamin A requirement increases in infants that present with
episodes of diseases such as measles, chicken pox, intestinal parasites, and calorie
and protein malnutrition.
The active form of vitamin A or retinol could be synthesized from β-carotenes.
Vegetable tissues do not contain retinol, but some contain high quantities of car-
otenes. Most cereals, with the exception of those that possess yellow endosperm,
contain small quantities of β-carotenes. These carotenes are converted to retinol
in the intestinal mucosa and liver. One molecule of β-carotene is transformed into
two identical retinol units due to the hydrolysis of the carotene by diooxygenase to
yield two retinoaldehyde molecules, with the later transformation to retinol with a
reductase. Fat-soluble retinol units are transported from the intestinal epithelial cells
in chylomicrons to the liver, and then to the rest of the body bound to retinol binding
protein. The most effective way to assure a good vitamin A status is by the adminis-
tration of megadoses of the active form. The vitamin A is stored in the liver, and is
gradually used by the body. The United Nations International Children’s Educational
Fund (UNICEF) has distributed more than 80 million tablets of vitamin A. There
are also supplementation programs in which small quantities of vitamin A are added
to staple foods. A good example is the sugar supplementation in Guatemala.
17.2.2.2 B-Vitamins
Historically, humans have always had deficiencies of B-vitamins, although cereal
grains are considered as an adequate source of these micronutrients. All B-vitamins,
except B12 or cyanocobalamin, are naturally present in whole cereal grains (Chapter
3). The most common deficiencies are due to the lack of thiamin (B1), niacin (B3),
folic acid, and cyanocobalamin (B12).
Thiamin or B1 has been recognized historically as the main cause of beriberi.
Thiamin exists in free and bound forms (thiamin diphosphate and the protein–phos-
phate–thiamin complex). The bound forms are split in the gastrointestinal tract. The
absorbed thiamin acts as a coenzyme in energy metabolism, mainly in the conver-
sion of glucose to fats. In addition, it has high implications in the functioning of
peripheral nerves (nerve impulses), brain, and muscles. Thiamin deficiency causes
weakness, lack of appetite, constipation, depression, and in severe cases, cardiac

insufficiency. It is one of the major causes of death among Asian babies.
Riboflavin or B2 functions as part of enzymes called flavoproteins (FMN and
FAD) critically important in respiration and cell metabolism. It plays a major role
with thiamin and niacin in oxidation-reduction reactions. The deficiency of this vita-
min is characterized by photophobia, angular lip stomatitis, dermatitis, and swelling
of the tongue.
The discovery of the role of niacin was the result of humanities’ struggle against
pellagra (pelle = skin, and agra = sour). Pellagra spread with the dissemination and
cultivation of maize, and its use in the human diet. Pellagra was endemic in Europe
and Africa, and reached epidemic proportion in the United States during the Civil
War. Today, pellagra is less prevalent thanks to the cereal enrichment programs
enacted by many nations. Africa is the only continent in which pellagra is still a pub-
lic health problem. The symptoms of pellagra, known as the “3D disease,” are diar-
rhea, dermatitis, dementia, and in severe cases, death. In addition, pellagra causes
apathy, confusion, anorexia, glossitis, and gastritis. Metabolically, this vitamin is a
constituent of two important coenzymes (NAD and NADP) necessary for cell respi-
ration, and carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism. These enzymes are involved
in the release of metabolic energy.
Cyanocobalamin (B12), which is not present in grains and vegetables, also acts
as a coenzyme, especially in bone marrow, neurons, and gastrointestinal epithelial
cells. It is involved in hemoglobin formation, and plays a major role in the prevention
of pernicious or macrocytic anemia (fewer and larger red blood cells than normal)
and the maintenance of nerve tissues. The acute deficiency can also cause mental
disorders. It is important to point out that cyanocobalamin is the only vitamin that
requires a specific factor for its absorption. This factor is called intrinsic castle and
is a muco- or glycoprotein secreted by the stomach.
Folic acid (pteroylmonoglutamic acid or PGA) exists in different forms in nature.
These forms are changed to at least five active coenzymes critically important for the
formation of purines and pyrimidines needed for the synthesis of DNA and RNA, the
formation of hemoglobin, the interconversion of amino acids such as homocysteine to
methionine, and the synthesis of choline from ethanolamine. Vitamins B12, B6, and C
are essential as coenzymes for the activity of folacin in many metabolic processes. In
practical terms, folic acid is required for cell division and reproduction, and prevents
neural tube defects in newborns and cardiovascular diseases in adults. The cardiovas-
cular protective role is because folacin and vitamin B12 lower levels of homocysteine.
17.2.3 Mineral Deficiencies

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the deficiency of iron, zinc,
and iodine are the most common nutritional problems, especially among low socio-
economic groups.
17.2.3.1 Iron (Anemia)
Most anemias are caused by a nutritional imbalance (i.e., iron, vitamin B12, and/or
folic acid deficiencies). These deficiencies are widely distributed in different areas of
572 Cereal Grains
the globe, especially in developing, and poor countries. The most common anemia is
due to iron deficiency. It is estimated that at least 1 billion of the 6.3 billion current
world population have anemia (<10 g hemoglobin/100 mL blood). At least half of all
pregnant women and young children around the world are deficient. Children under 2
years are especially at risk of anemia, which impairs their mental and physical devel-
opment, and reduces their ability to concentrate and perform well in school (Van den
Briel and Webb 2003). In pregnant women, the marked deficiency of this important
mineral is associated with preterm births, lower birth weight, and higher susceptibil-
ity of newborns to death. There are many factors that can lead to anemia, the main
one being the lack of animal products in the diet. The typical cereal-based diets that
sustain most people in developing countries do not have enough iron, and the bio-
availability is low because it is commonly bound to phytates (Lasztity and Lasztity
1990). Another important consideration is that cereals do not contain vitamin B12 or
cyanocobalamin, which is the other causal factor of anemia. Iron requirements vary
according to physiological stage, and increase in reproductive-age women due to
periodic menstrual hemorrhages. Pregnant women have a higher iron requirement
due to higher blood production and fetus development. In less developed countries,
higher amounts of iron are needed due to intestinal parasites.
Heme-iron, only present in animal foods, is more bioavailable compared to other
sources contained in grains and vegetables. The consumption of animal products
enhances iron absorption associated with grains. Another important enhancer of
iron absorption is vitamin C because it chelates nonheme-iron under stomach acidic
conditions, and keeps it soluble under the relatively neutral pH conditions of the
duodenum. Vitamin C reduces ferric iron (Fe+3) into ferrous iron (Fe+2) in the stom-
ach. The ferrous form is more efficiently absorbed by the duodenum epithelial cells.
Heme-iron enters the epithelial cells complexed to porphyrin myoglobin and hemo-
globin. The absorbed iron is stored in ferritin molecules located inside the intesti-
nal cells and transported bound to transferrin. There are known inhibitors of iron
absorption, the most important being phytates and fiber.
There are several ways to supplement iron. The most practical way is by the enrich-
ment of selected foods. The most common vehicles are dry-milled products such as
refined white rice, maize meals, and wheat flours. The most important sources are
ferrous sulfate (32.1% Fe), ferrous (22.3% Fe) or ferric citrate (17% Fe), ferric chlo-
ride (34.4% Fe), and elemental iron (97% Fe). The last source is the least expensive
but the one that has the lowest availability. There are new sources of highly bioavail-
able iron that include chelated and amino acid forms.
17.2.3.2 Zinc (Dwarfism and Hypogonadism)

As with iron, zinc is an essential nutrient for normal growth and reproduction, and
promotes wound healing and tissue repair. Zinc is a key component of many vital
enzymes involved in most metabolic pathways. It is part of the enzyme retinene–
reductase required for the proper functioning of vitamin A, and therefore indirectly
affects vision. Zinc is also part of carbonic anhydrase, which is responsible for the
transfer of carbon dioxide, especially in hemoglobin and renal tubules, and of car-
boxypeptidase, key in protein metabolism. It also forms a complex with insulin,
increasing the activity of this hormone, and helps to increase the activity of thymidine
kinase required for DNA synthesis and cell division. This is the reason why this min-
eral is considered crucial for child growth. An acute deficiency in humans results in
dwarfism and hypogonadism. Refined cereals are a poor source of zinc, and the zinc
associated with whole grain products is not well absorbed because of the fiber and
phytates (Lasztity and Lasztity 1990). According to Van den Briel and Webb (2003),
removing zinc deficiencies would prevent approximately 800,000 yearly deaths. In
many countries around the world, zinc has become part of enrichment programs, and
it is generally supplemented as zinc oxide.
17.2.3.3 Iodine (Cretinism)
At least 1 billion people live in iodine-deficient areas, and 200 million suffer from
goiter (Onuma Okezie 1998). A severe iodine deficiency during pregnancy can cause
extreme and irreversible mental and physical retardation, known as cretinism. Iodine
is essential for the synthesis of thyroxin, and tri-iodothyronine or thyroid hormones
necessary for normal cell metabolism. Its deficiency affects approximately 6 million
people worldwide, and can be averted by early diagnosis and treatment. A worldwide
effort to provide iodized salt has been very successful in preventing cretinism.
17.3 Improvement of the Nutritional Value of Cereal

through Plant Breeding and Biotechnology
Plant breeding of cereals has traditionally focused on higher productivity or yields
and functionality. However, nowadays most breeding programs also focus on nutri-
tional improvement and the selection of key phytochemicals, which have proven
health benefits. One of the best examples is the development of high-lysine cereals
with better protein quality, which enhances child growth, and has better feed con-
version when fed to domestic animals (Chapter 18). High-lysine cultivars such as
opaque-2 maize, quality protein maize (QPM), high-lysine sorghum, and high-lysine
barley contain lesser amounts of prolamins, and higher amounts of albumins and
globulins (Chapter 3). The significant change in the amount of these protein fractions
improves growth and nitrogen retention in humans and monogastrics. This is espe-
cially important in weaned infants who depend on cereals as their main food source.
Among high-lysine cultivars, QPM has been extensively researched and promoted.
New varieties and hybrids are practically indistinguishable compared to regular
counterparts. These cultivars were developed from the opaque-2 maize discovered
by Dr. Edwin Mertz in the 1960s (Mertz et al. 1964, NRC 1988). Commercially,
opaque-2 maize cultivars failed because of their poor yields and kernel characteristics
(chalky or soft endosperm more susceptible to storage and field pests). Researchers
from CIMMYT, after many years of hard breeding work, converted the opaque-2
into new QPM populations. The key was the recurrent selection of grains that had
intermediate endosperm texture, and high lysine, and tryptophan contents (Vasal
2001). New QPM populations, adapted to different ecosystems, were disseminated
throughout the globe for the further development of open-pollinated varieties and
highly productive hybrids. The future of QPM looks promising because new geno-
types are high yielding, and contain almost twice as much lysine and tryptophan
574 Cereal Grains
compared to regular counterparts. Studies with humans and laboratory and domes-
tic animals have demonstrated that QPM products have about 80% of the protein
quality of casein, and promote better physiological and brain development (Amaya
Guerra et al. 2004, 2006, Bressani 1992, National Research Council 1988).
17.4 Nutrient Composition of Cereals

and Nutritional Requirements
Cereal grains are packages of nutrients mainly composed of starch, protein, fiber, and
micronutrients. The chemical composition of each cereal grain is detailed in Chapter
3. In this chapter, the relationship between chemical composition and nutritional
value for the different physiological stages of the human life cycle is discussed.
17.4.1 Starch and Soluble Carbohydrates

Cereal-based foods provide approximately 50% of the calories consumed by the
world population and play a more important role in less developed countries. As the
level of poverty increases, the dependence on cereal grains is augmented. In many
regions of the globe, cereals supply close to 80% of the total caloric intake. Starch
is by far the most abundant carbohydrate, and the most important supplier of gross
and digestible calories. Most food processes partially or totally gelatinize the starch,
making both amylose and amylopectin more prone or susceptible to pancreatic amy-
lases. In practical terms, all starch is digested and absorbed as glucose in the human
system. When cereals are heat-abused, some of the starch could become unavailable.
This starch is named enzyme resistant (Chapter 13), and is generally considered as
part of the soluble dietary fiber because of its susceptibility to fermentation by natu-
rally occurring microflora present in the hind gut. Other factors that decrease starch
digestibility are fiber, and enzyme inhibitors such as tannins that act as a mechanical
barrier, and hinder digestion.
The digestible energy of cereals is correlated positively and negatively with the
contents of lipids, and dietary fiber, respectively. Therefore, refined products possess
higher digestible energy than counterparts produced from whole flours. Cereals, in
their natural forms, do not contain significant quantities of soluble carbohydrates (i.e.
glucose, sucrose, fructose, and maltose), making them ideally suited for diabetics. It
is known that cereal foods manufactured from refined flours or milled fractions have
a higher glycemic index compared to counterparts obtained from whole grains.
17.4.2 Dietary Fiber
Whole cereals are considered rich sources of dietary fiber. This fraction, rich in
insoluble or structural carbohydrates, is not digested in the human gastrointestinal
tract, and therefore does not provide calories. Dietary fiber is playing an important
role in the current design of diets because it affects gastrointestinal function, and is
considered as preventive and therapeutic for weight control, metabolic syndrome,
and chronic diseases. There are clear differences in the composition and quality
of dietary fiber due to the cereal type and processing. Most of the dietary fiber is
associated with bran. Therefore, refined products obtained after the milling proce-
dures described in Chapters 7 and 8 remove practically all fiber. The new industry
trend is to develop and produce whole grain items for health conscientious custom-
ers. The market is offering more whole grain breads, as well as breakfast cereals,
cookies, and other products supplemented with brans from wheat, oats, rice, and/
or maize.
The insoluble dietary fiber, mainly comprised of cellulose, insoluble hemicel-
lulose, and lignin, enhances intestinal movements and transit time, and lowers the
occurrence of colon and other gastrointestinal cancers. A diet high in insoluble
dietary fiber contains less digestible energy and reduces diabetes, obesity, con-
stipation, diverticulitis, and hemorrhoids. Diabetic patients are benefited because
the fiber lowers glucose diffusion throughout the intestinal mucosa, and regulates
pancreatic insulin secretion (Jacobs et al. 1995, 1998, Kritchevsky and Bonfield
1995, Marquat et al. 2002, McCleary, and Prosky 2001, Meyer et al. 2000, Morris
et al. 1977).
The soluble dietary fiber, chiefly comprised of pectins, pentosans, β-glucans, and
soluble hemicelluloses, exerts other health benefits. These fiber components have
affinity for water, and are highly fermentable by the microflora present in the hind
gut. Therefore, they are considered as prebiotic. The consumption of soluble fiber
generally lowers the large intestine luminal pH, increases viscosity of the bulk, and
enhances the excretion of bile acids and cholesterol (Gorecka et al. 2005). Most
soluble fibers are known to diminish blood glucose and cholesterol, and therefore
are recommended to lower the risk of diabetes, arteriosclerosis, high blood pressure,
and cardiovascular diseases. Among cereals, oats is considered the richest source of
soluble dietary fiber (Chapter 3) (Jacobs et al. 1995, Jacobs et al. 1998, Kritchevsky
and Bonfield 1995, Marquart et al. 2002, McCleary and Prosky 2001).
17.4.3 Lipids
The lipid fraction of cereals is relatively low compared to carbohydrates and pro-
teins. About 85% of the total lipids are located in the germ. The removal of the germ
for production of refined meals and flours significantly lowers the amounts of these
compounds. More than 95% of the lipids are triglycerides stored in the scutellum
followed by polar phospholipids (Chung and Ohm 2000, White and Weber 2003).
The main fatty acid present in these two fractions is linoleic acid (18:2 ∆ 9,12). This
fatty acid is essential in human nutrition because it is required for the synthesis of
prostaglandins and other important fatty acids such as EPA and DHA. The triglycer-
ides or nonpolar lipids contain from 30% to 60% linoleic acid, followed by oleic (18:1
∆9), palmitic (16:0), and stearic (18:0). The high intake of saturated fats is associated
with the risk of arteriosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. It is known that these
saturated fatty acids inhibit the regeneration of LDL receptors (B-100) that mediate
absorption into the cells.
Cereals contain significant quantities of phytosterols that are known to decrease
blood cholesterol. The phytosterols are mainly located in the germ; therefore, cereals
lose important quantities after milling.
576 Cereal Grains
17.4.4 Energy Requirements
Energy requirements vary according to age, weight or body mass index, sex, physical
activity, physiological stage (i.e., pregnancy, lactation), and environmental tempera-
ture. Figure 17.2 depicts how nutritionists partition the energy associated with foods
and feeds, and shows the typical energy values for white pan bread. The gross energy
is not a good indicator because fiber that, upon combustion, yields approximately
4 kcal/g does not provide usable energy for humans and other monogastrics. The
digestible and metabolizable energies are obtained after subtracting fecal and urine
energy losses, respectively. These two ways to express energy are better indicators
of the true caloric value associated with foods. Digestible energy values are low in
high fiber foods and high in foods rich in fats and oils because these provide 9 kcal/g.
Most digestible energy is metabolized; only small quantities of energy are lost in the
urine. The net energy is calculated by subtracting the energy required to keep the
body warm (heat losses) from the metabolizable energy. Generally speaking, the
caloric content of a given food can be estimated based on the chemical composi-
tion. The conversion factors used are 4 kcal/g for soluble carbohydrates and protein,
and 9 kcal/g for fat. It is important to point out that dietary fiber and minerals do
not provide any usable or digestible energy. The alcohol or ethanol in foods and
drinks provides 7 kcal/g ethanol or 5.6 kcal/mL ethanol (RDA 1989). For example,
the consumption of 100 g of white table bread with an average composition (g/100
White Pan Bread

Gross Energy
270 kcal/100 g
Energy Excreted
in Feces
Digestible Energy 251 kcal/100 g
Energy Excreted
in Urine
Metabolizable Energy 246 kcal/100 g
Heat Energy
Losses
Net Energy 241 kcal/100 g
Energy for Maintenance, Growth,

Work, Pregnancy and Lactation
Figure 17.2 Scheme of the energy partition and corresponding energy values for white
pan bread.
Table 17.2
Recommended Caloric Intake According to Age, Gender, and
Physiological Stage
Energy Requirement
Age
Basal Factor Per Kg Per Day
Physiological Weight Height
Category Stage (kg) (cm) Caloric Intake, Kcal
Infants 0.0–0.5 6 60 320 108 650
0.5–1.0 9 71 500 98 850
Children 1–3 13 90 740 102 1,300
4–6 20 112 950 90 1,800
7–10 28 132 1,130 70 2,000
Men 11–14 45 157 1,440 1.70 55 2,500
15–18 66 176 1,760 1.67 45 3,000
19–24 72 177 1,780 1.67 40 2,900
25–50 79 176 1,800 1.60 37 2,900
51+ 77 173 1,530 1.50 30 2,300
Women 11–14 46 157 1,310 1.67 47 2,200

15–18 55 163 1,370 1.60 40 2,200
19–24 58 164 1,350 1.60 38 2,200
25–50 63 163 1,380 1.55 36 2,200
51+ 65 160 1,280 1.50 30 1,900
Pregnancy, Trimester
First +300
Second +300
Third +300
Lactation +500
Source: Modified and adapted from Recommended Daily Allowances. 1989. 10th ed. National Research
Council. Washington D.C.
g) of 36.4 g moisture, 7.6 g protein, 50.6 g soluble carbohydrates, 3.3 g lipids, 2.4
g dietary fiber, and 2.1 g minerals provides approximately 262 kcal. One kg of raw
or unprocessed cereals provides more than 4,500 kcal gross energy, and 4,000 kcal
of digestible energy. Therefore, the daily consumption of 500 g or its equivalent in
prepared foods is enough to meet daily requirements of a 2,000 kcal diet.
Table 17.2 summarizes the recommended caloric intake as affected by age, gen-
der, and physiological stage, considering light to moderate physical activity. Energy
requirements, expressed as kcal/kg body weight, are higher for younger children, and
are gradually lower as humans turn to adults. For example, infants and children require
from 2 to 2.5 times more energy per kilogram body weight compared to adults. More
energy is required in the first life stages due to the higher energy demands for muscle
and bone growth. Something similar occurs in pregnant and lactating women who need
more energy for the developing fetus and synthesis of maternal milk, respectively.
578 Cereal Grains
17.4.5 Protein
Cereals are mainly considered as caloric foods although they supply approximately
50% of the world’s protein intake. Cereal proteins have been more extensively studied
than starch because they have more nutritional implications for solving malnutrition.
This is because their protein fractions greatly differ in amino acid composition and
nutritional value (Chapter 3). In general, the protein quality of cereal is considered
intermediate because it does not provide enough lysine to sustain optimum growth
in infants and children. The type of cereal, genotype, environment, and processing
affect protein quantity and quality. Generally speaking, rice and oat products contain
the lowest and highest protein, respectively. Figure 17.3 depicts concepts and dif-
ferences between protein quality indicators such as protein digestibility, biological
value, and net utilization values using maize tortillas as the model. Protein quality
is mainly affected by the essential amino acid profile or balance, protein digestibil-
ity, and the presence of antinutritional factors that affect digestibility or amino acid
availability. The protein digestibility of cereals ranges from 75% to 90%. The high-
tannin or brown sorghums, barley, rye, and oats have lower digestibility compared
to the rest of the cereals.
Maize Tortilla
Total Protein or 5.53 g Protein/100 g
Nitrogen 0.88 g Nitrogen/100 g
Fecal Protein or
Nitrogen Excreted
0.97 g Protein
0.16 g Nitrogen
Protein or Nitrogen 5.53 g Protein/100 g

Absorbed or Digested 0.88 g Nitrogen/100 g
Urinary Nitrogen
Excreted
0.38 g Nitrogen
Protein or Nitrogen
3.15 g Protein/100 g
Retained or
0.50 g Nitrogen/100 g
Metabolized
Protein for Maintenance, Growth,

Pregnancy and Lactation
% Apparent Protein Digestibility = (N2 Food – N2 Feces)/N2 Food = 85.5%
% Biological Value = N2 Retained/N2 Absorbed = (N2 Food – N2 Feces – N2 Urine)/

(N2 Food – N2 Feces) = 56.9%
% Net Protein Utilization = (% Apparent Protein Digestibility * % Biological Value)/100 = 48.6%
Figure 17.3 The concept of protein quality using maize tortillas as example.

The processes of milling, fermentation, and malting increase protein digestibility

due to the removal of the fiber-rich pericarp, and due to the partial protein hydrolysis
by the fermenting microorganisms and proteases produced during germination. It
is also well known that fermentation improves protein quality by the de novo syn-
thesis of lysine by the fermenting microorganisms. The alcohol soluble prolamins,
considered as reserve proteins, are the poorest in terms of essential amino acids.
They are practically devoid of lysine, the most important amino acid in human nutri-
tion. In contrast, the albumins and globulins, mainly located in the germ, contain
an adequate essential amino acid balance that sustains growth or a positive nitrogen
balance. Within a certain cereal genotype or variety, protein quantity differences are
mainly due to the content of prolamins. Nitrogen fertilization during grain growth
and development usually increases the amounts of prolamins and total protein.
Unfortunately, the extra protein is irrelevant from the nutritional viewpoint because
prolamins lack lysine.
The first limiting amino acid in all cereal grains is lysine. Oats, rice, barley, and
high-lysine genotypes contain a more favorable essential amino acid profile com-
pared to the rest of the cereals (Serna-Saldivar 1993). Lysine deficiency mainly
occurs in weaned infants who consume cereal/tuber-based diets without any other
source of protein. The supplementation of these diets with legume seeds or ani-
mal foods (i.e., meat, milk, eggs) improves protein quality and growth. The second
and third limiting amino acids for maize and the rest of the cereals are tryptophan
and threonine, respectively. Among amino acids, lysine is the most susceptible to
availability loss due to processing. This is because this basic amino acid has a free
amino group that is highly reactive. Both Maillard reactions and alkali cooking are
recognized as the main processes that lower lysine availability. On the other hand,
milling and degermination partially or totally remove the germ, rich in albumins and
globulins, thus considerably decreasing protein quality.
17.4.6 Essential Amino Acid Requirements

Compared to energy nutrition, protein nutrition is more complex and important
because humans require the consumption of nine essential amino acids. These amino
acids are used in important metabolic events such as the production of enzymes,
hormones, neurotransmitters, and other important metabolites (i.e., serum albumin,
protein carriers, antibodies) that play important and critical roles in human physiol-
ogy. The amino acids are used as building blocks to produce muscle or body mass.
Our body is not capable of synthesizing muscle and other important proteins with
a deficiency of even one of the essential amino acids. An essential amino acid is
defined as one that cannot be synthesized in the human body or that is not pro-
duced in sufficient amounts to sustain optimum growth. The essential amino acids
are histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryp-
tophan, and valine (Young and Pellett 1990). Only histidine falls within the cat-
egory of essential amino acids that can be synthesized in the body, but not in enough
quantities to sustain normal growth. Among the essential amino acids, the most
important in practical nutrition are lysine, methionine, and tryptophan. Lysine is
by far the most important and critical because it is the one that generally limits the
580 Cereal Grains
utilization of the other amino acids associated with cereals. Its main metabolic role
is the donation of epsilon amino groups for the synthesis of other critical organic
compounds. Methionine is a sulfur-containing amino acid that can be spared by
cysteine, and its main metabolic role is the donation of methyl groups for the synthe-
sis of important phospholipids. Legumes are rich sources of lysine but are generally
low in sulfur-containing amino acids. Thus, the consumption of cereals and legumes
balance the amino acid profile of the diet because cereals contain adequate amounts
of methionine, and legumes are rich sources of lysine and tryptophan. This is known
among nutritionists as “complementary effect.” Tryptophan is important because it
is required for optimum growth, and could be transformed into niacin. About 60 mg
tryptophan produces 1 mg niacin.
In general terms, cereal proteins are highly digestible but lack the proper and
optimum amino acid composition for complete human nutrition. Most cereals, except
high-tannin sorghums, do not contain antinutritional factors that lower protein uti-
lization. Therefore, the protein value of cereals basically depends on the essential
amino acid balance (Serna-Saldivar 1993). It is important to point out that several
food processes could significantly lower the availability of some amino acids. This
mainly occurs with lysine because it contains a highly reactive amino group. The bio-
availability of lysine decreases during thermal processes, especially in the presence
of sugars or strong alkaline solutions. Sugars and lysine react to produce Maillard
or browning reactions, whereas alkalis produce an indigestible peptide known as
lysinoalanine.
Table 17.3 summarizes the essential amino acid requirements for different physi-
ological stages expressed per kg body weight, and Table 17.4 shows requirements
based on essential amino acid concentrations in foods (mg amino acid/100 g protein
contained in the food). Similar to energy requirements, higher quantities of amino
acids per kg body weight are required in the early life stages (Young and Pellett 1990).
This is the reason why most protein malnutrition problems are observed in infants
and preschool children. In order to sustain optimum growth, all amino acids should
be consumed in the diet in the optimum amounts. The limiting essential amino acid
is that present in the lowest amount in the diet in relation to its requirement. The diet
could be improved if the limiting amino acid is supplemented. For example, most
cereal-based diets are limited by lysine, which is provided in the range of 40–60% of
the recommended level for infants. Therefore, the supplementation of a cereal-based
diet with milk, meat, fish, egg, and/or legumes, or even synthetic lysine enhances
protein quality, growth, and health.
17.4.7 Minerals
Cereals are considered a very poor source of calcium (Serna-Saldivar 1993). However,
some food processes such as nixtamalization for tortilla making (Chapter 9) and
cooking in the presence of ashes (i.e., alkaline tô, Chapter 16) increase its concentra-
tion (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990, 1991, 1992). Phosphorus is the mineral present in
the highest amounts; unfortunately, its bioavailability is questionable because most
is bound to phytic acid (Lasztity and Lasztity 1990). Phytates also bind other cat-
ions such as iron and zinc, considerably lowering their availability. The phytic acid
Table 17.3
Amino Acid Requirements According to Age and Body Weight
Stage Infants Children Children Adults
Age 3–4 Months 2 Years 10–12 Years +20 years
Weight 6 kg 13 kg 45 kg 75 kg
mg/kg/day mg/day mg/kg/day mg/day mg/kg/day mg/day mg/kg/day mg/day
Histidine 28 168 — — — — 10 750
Isoleucine 70 420 31 403 28 1,260 10 750
Leucine 161 966 73 949 42 1,890 14 1,050
Lysine 103 618 64 832 44 572 12 900
Role of Cereals in Human Nutrition and Health
Methionine + cystein 58 348 27 351 22 990 13 975

Phenylalanine+ tyrosine 125 750 69 897 22 990 14 1,050
Threonine 87 522 37 481 28 1,260 7 525
Tryptophan 17 102 12.5 163 3.3 149 3.5 263
Valine 93 558 38 494 25 1,125 10 750
Source: Modified, and adapted from Recommended Daily Allowances. 1989. 10th ed. National Research Council. Washington, D.C.
581
582 Cereal Grains
Table 17.4
Essential Amino Acid Requirements Based on Food Protein Composition
Suggested Requirement
Children
Amino Acid
(g AA/100 g Protein) Infant 2–5 Years 10–12 Years Adult
Phenylalanine + tyrosine 7.2 6.3 2.2 1.9
Histidine 2.6 1.9 1.9 1.6
Isoleucine 4.6 2.8 2.8 1.3
Leucine 9.3 6.6 4.4 1.9
Lysine 6.6 5.8 4.4 1.6
Methionine + cystein 4.2 2.5 2.2 1.7
Threonine 4.3 3.4 2.8 0.9
Tryptophan 1.7 1.1 0.9 0.5
Valine 5.5 3.5 2.5 1.3
Source: FAO/WHO. 1990. Protein Quality Evaluation. Report of a Joint Expert Consultation. Paper
51 Food and Nutrition. Rome, Italy.
concentration decreases when cereals are malted or germinated and/or fermented due
to phytases. The different types of phytases hydrolyze the bonds between the miner-
als and inositol, increasing mineral bioavailability, and the nutraceutical properties
of the food. Inositol is considered a potent nutraceutical because helps to maintain
cell membrane integrity and brain functioning (Holub 1982, Majumder and Biswas
2006, Phillippy 2003, Vucenik and Shamsuddin 2006).
Cereals are a good source of potassium, and contain practically no sodium. Whole
grain products contain significant quantities of the trace minerals Fe, Zn, and Cu.
The daily requirements of minerals and electrolytes for the different physiological
stages are summarized in Table 17.5. Cereals provide low quantities of Ca and Na,
and decent amounts of K, P, and Mg (Chapter 3). The pericarp, germ, and aleurone
layer are the anatomical parts with the highest concentration of minerals. Therefore,
refined meals, flours, and grits lose most of these nutrients during milling operations.
This is the main reason why most cereal enrichment programs throughout the world
supplement iron and zinc.
17.4.8 Vitamins
The germ and aleurone are rich in liposoluble and hydrosoluble vitamins, respec-
tively. The removal of these parts during milling or other processes very sig-
nificantly reduces the vitamin content. The enrichment of cereal-based foods is
aimed towards restoring selected vitamins that are critical in human nutrition.
Most enrichment programs restore and, in some instances, add higher quantities
of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and folic acid. According to recent statistics of the
FAO (2009), cereals provide approximately 80%, 50%, and 70% of the average
intake of thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin, respectively. These vitamins are mainly
Table 17.5
Recommended Daily Allowances for Essential Minerals and Vitamins
Throughout the Life Cycle
Infants Children Teenagers Adults
Stage
0-1 year 1-3 years 11-14 years 23–50 years
Age
Weight 7.5 kg 13 kg 45 kg 46 kg 70 kg 55 kg
Macrominerals (mg/day)
Calcium 450 800 1200 1200 800 800
Phosphorus 300 800 1200 1200 800 800
Magnesium 60 150 350 300 350 300
Electrolytes (mg/day)
Sodium 432 650 1800 1800 2200 2200
Potassium 812 1100 3050 3050 3750 3750
Chloride 738 1000 2800 2800 3400 3400
Microminerals (mg/day)
Iron 12.5 15 18 18 10 18
Zinc 4 10 15 15 15 15
Copper 0.8 1.3 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Manganese 0.8 1.3 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8
Iodine 0.04 0.07 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin A (μg retinol 410 400 1000 800 1000 800
equivalents)
Vitamin D or 10 10 10 10 5 5
cholecalciferol (μg)
Vitamin E or alpha 3.5 5.0 8.0 8.0 10.0 8.0
tocopherol (mg)
Vitamin K (μg) 16.0 22.5 75.0 75.0 105.0 105.0
Water-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin C (mg) 35 45 50 50 60 60
Vitamin B1 (mg) 0.4 0.7 1.4 1.1 1.4 1.0
Vitamin B2 (mg) 0.5 0.8 1.6 1.3 1.6 1.2
Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.5 0.9 1.8 1.8 2.2 2.0
Vitamin B12 (mcg) 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
Niacin (mg) 7 9 18 15 18 13
Folacin (μg) 38 100 400 400 400 400
Biotin (μg) 43 65 150 150 150 150
Source: Modified, and adapted from Recommended Daily Allowances. 1989. 10th ed. National Research
Council. Washington, D.C.
Note: IU Vitamin A = 0.3 μg retinol; IU Vitamin D = 0.025 μg.
584 Cereal Grains
associated with the aleurone layer, therefore the mechanical removal of the outer
endosperm can cause nutritional deficiencies such as beriberi, still endemic in
the rice-consuming countries of Asia. For instance, white polished rice only
contains 10% of the thiamin found in brown kernels. The niacin is found in free
and bound forms, and could be synthesized in the human body from tryptophan.
The acute deficiency of niacin causes pellagra that is still prevalent in some
regions of the world, such as South Africa, where maize is the staple. Pellagra is
unknown in Mexico and other countries of Latin America because, when maize
is lime-cooked to produce tortillas and related products, the alkaline treatment
increases niacin bioavailability (Koetz and Neukom 1977). This is due to the
hydrolysis of the glycosidic bond that impedes its absorption. It is important to
point out that mature cereal grains and their products do not contain ascorbic
acid or vitamin C.
Yellow endosperm cereals (i.e., yellow maize, yellow sorghum, durum wheat)
contain β-carotenes or provitamin A activity, and important xanthophylls such as
lutein, zeaxanthin, and cryptoxanthin. The human system transforms β-carotenes
into the active form of vitamin A or retinol by two sequential enzyme hydrolyses. The
first enzyme, named diooxygenase, breaks the carotene molecule into two identical
parts, and then a reductase transforms the resulting retinoaldehyde into retinol. The
intestinal epithelial cells and the hepatic cells are those mainly responsible for mak-
ing these transformations. The various types of tocopherols, including α-tocopherol
or vitamin E, are potent antioxidants. These important nutraceuticals are mainly
associated with the germ, and therefore are lost during milling operations. Vitamin
A and other fat soluble vitamins can be stored in the human body, mainly the liver,
for long periods of time. Therefore, oral or injected supplementation can provide
this vitamin for several months. Vitamin A is generally injected intramuscularly in
order to prevent deficiency for up to 6 months. Cereals contain very low amounts of
vitamins D and K, and among B-vitamins, only B12 is not present.
The recommended daily allowances of hydrosoluble and liposoluble vitamins,
according to age and physiological stage, are summarized in Table 17.5.
17.5 Effect of Processing on Nutritional Value

Humans usually consume processed cereal products instead of whole grains. Most
processed foods are manufactured from refined milled products such as decorti-
cated grains, flours, meals, semolina, and grits. The removal of the pericarp and
germ tissues considerably modifies the chemical composition. Refined products are
practically fiber free, and contain lower amounts of oil, minerals, vitamins, and even
essential amino acids. In addition to physical losses, thermal treatments usually
lower the bioavailability of important vitamins. The different types of vitamins are
lost due to pH, ultraviolet light, oxygen, and the enzymatic or fermentative action of
yeast and other fermenting media.
Germination or sprouting and fermentation have been an effective way to improve
the nutritional value of cereal-based products. The high enzymatic activity of malted
cereals improves nutrient digestibility, mineral bioavailability due to phytases, and
the bioactivity of some nutraceuticals. Likewise, fermentation causes similar benefits.
Fermentation is known to improve protein quality due to higher nitrogen digestibility

and the de novo production of some amino acids such as lysine and tryptophan. In
addition, these processes lower the presence of antinutritional factors (Chavan and
Kadam 1989a).
17.5.1 Milling
All cereals suffer important chemical changes in their nutritional value when they
are subjected to the various types of milling processes described in Chapters 7,
8, and 9. Generally, decortication, degermination, and milling cause loss of fiber,
minerals, oil, and proteins (Inglett 1977). The aim of these processes is to remove
the husks or glumes in covered caryopses, and the pericarp and germ in naked
caryopses. This is to produce shelf-stable products with better color and function-
ality. The protein quality of refined products is inferior compared to whole grains
because the proteins of germ contain a more balanced essential amino acid com-
position. For example, the decortication processes of rice and sorghum result in the
important loss of lysine and other essential amino acids. Milling wheat into refined
straight-grade flour results in the loss of approximately 1%–1.5% protein and 20%
lysine. The protein and amino acid change results in lower nitrogen retention and
growth. However, the removal of most of the dietary fiber originally present in
whole grains improves the rate of protein digestibility. Decortication or pearling of
high-tannin sorghums reduces significantly the amount of condensed tannins, and
helps to lower the detrimental effects of these antinutritional factors. For example,
decortication to remove 37% of the original grain weight reduced tannins from 4.5
to 0.2 catechin equivalents (Butler 1992, Klopfenstein and Hoseney, 1995, Rooney
and Serna-Saldivar 2000).
17.5.2 Cooking and pH
Water, alkali, or acid cooking slightly reduces protein digestibility due to the insolu-
bilization of prolamins and formation of disulfide bonds. As a result, proteins are
more difficult to hydrolyze, and the speed of catalysis is reduced. Maize and sor-
ghum are frequently alkali-cooked to produce traditional foods such as tortillas and
tô. Cooking in the presence of alkali leacheates (i.e., wood ashes, lime, or potassium
hydroxide) slightly lowers protein quality and lysine bioavailability. Lime-cooking of
maize solubilizes albumins, globulins, and prolamins with the consequent increase
in residual or nonextractable proteins. These changes reduce the dry matter and pro-
tein digestibilities by about 5% compared to the raw grain.
Maize is practically devoid of calcium (18 mg/100 g). The tortilla-making process
increases the content of this essential mineral to approximately 150 mg Ca/100 g.
Studies have demonstrated that the calcium of lime used during nixtamalization is
highly bioavailable (Serna-Saldivar et al. 1991, 1992). Laboratory rats absorbed and
retained more calcium and had denser and stronger bones compared to counterparts
fed the raw grain. It is also known that lime-cooking enhances niacin bioavailability.
This is very relevant or important in countries where pellagra is still endemic among
some groups. Maize is low in tryptophan, and most of the niacin is bound in the
586 Cereal Grains
forms of niacinogen and niacitin (Koetz and Neukom 1977). The raw kernel contains
2.6 mg total niacin/100 g with only 1.5% free or available. Lime-cooking breaks
down the bond, and therefore enhances niacin availability. This is the reason why
pellagra is practically unknown in Mexico and other tortilla-consuming countries.
Parboiling of rice and other cereals such as sorghum and millets produces impor-
tant changes in the nutritional value. The thermal treatment gelatinizes starch and
hardens the endosperm, reducing the kernel susceptibility to breakage during mill-
ing. Parboiled rice has higher quantities of vitamins and minerals because the nutri-
ents located in the aleurone leach into the inner endosperm during hydration and
parboiling.
17.5.3 Malting or Sprouting

Malting of barley and other cereals is widely practiced for the production of alcoholic
beverages, weaning foods, and in combination with fermentation for the production
of many fermented traditional foods discussed in the previous chapter. Malted cere-
als are known to have a better nutritional value and digestibility compared to raw
kernels due to the activation of enzymes that degrade proteins and carbohydrates
(Chavan and Kadam 1989b). Mineral bioavailability is enhanced because phytases
release bound minerals associated with phytic acid. The complete hydrolysis of
phytic acid results in the production of inositol that is known as an important nutra-
ceutical (Holub 1982, Majumder and Biswas 2006, Phillippy 2003, Vucenik and
Shamsuddin 2006). The only negative effect of malting is that it results in dry matter
losses that range from 5 to 15%.
During germination, the amylases and proteases hydrolyze starch and proteins
associated with protein bodies, and the protein matrix becomes increasing digest-
ible. The protein fractions, prolamins, and glutelins decrease during germination
with a significant increment in albumin and globulins that contain a better essential
amino acid profile. The lysine content of malted cereals is higher due to the changes
in the ratio of these protein fractions. All these changes increase weight gain and
enhance the overall nutritional value.
17.5.4 Fermentation
Fermented foods, porridges, and beverages are widely produced in India, Latin
America, and Africa (Chapter 16). The process of producing these foods generally
consists of two stages: malting and fermentation. Fermentation is performed by lac-
tic acid microorganisms, yeast, or a combination of both. The grain components are
degraded by the enzymes provided by the malt and microorganisms. The generation
of organic acids lowers the pH, helping to control the growth of pathogens or unde-
sirable microorganisms. As with malting, fermentation causes dry matter loss but
enhances the nutritional value through a higher nutrient availability, hydrolysis of
phytates, and the synthesis of lysine and other key amino acids, as well as vitamins
B12 and C (Chavan and Kadam 1989a).
The fermented protein, and carbohydrates are more susceptible to digestive
enzymes. Fermentation also progressively increases soluble proteins and free amino
acids, improving protein quality due to higher digestibility and better amino acid
balance. For instance, Graham et al. (1986) determined that the consumption by
malnourished infants of nasha, a fermented food of the Sudan, increased protein
and carbohydrate digestibilities, and overall nutritional value. Eggum et al. (1983)
compared the nutritional value of kisra, aceda, ugali, and marissa (Chapter 16) with
the original raw materials, and observed that cooking and fermentation increased
the nutritional value (i.e., biological and net protein utilization values) of high tan-
nin sorghums and finger millet. The thiamin and riboflavin contents significantly
increased when these cereals were fermented.
17.6 Effect of Environmental Conditions and

Packaging on Nutrient Stability
There are many factors that lower nutrient availability in packaged and stored foods.
Environmental factors such as the presence of oxygen and light, or processing vari-
ables such as temperature, time, pH, and oxidizing and reducing agents affect the
stability of nutrients like amino acids and vitamins (Borenstein et al. 1990, Harris
1977). Table 17.6 summarizes the susceptibility of hydrosoluble and liposoluble vita-
mins to these factors.
The different water soluble vitamins lose activity when exposed to light, oxygen,
heat, and the presence of metals, acids, or alkalis. Vitamin C is air stable when it is
Table 17.6
Susceptibility of Water and Fat-Soluble Vitamins to Light, Oxygen,
Heat, and Presence of Trace Minerals
Vitamin Light Oxygen Heat Metals
Water Soluble
Ca Medium Very high High Very high
B1 High Low Very high High
B2 Very high Low Low High
Niacin Low Low Low Low
B6 High Low Low Low
Folacin High Medium Low High
B12 High Low Low Medium
Fat-Soluble
A Very high Very high High Very high
D Very high Very high High Very high
E High High Medium High
K Very high High Low —
Source: Modified from Borenstein, B. et al. 1990. Chapter 10 in Breakfast Cereals, and How
Are They Made, R.B. Fast, and E.F. Caldwell (eds.). American Association of Cereal
a Vitamin C shows high stability in the presence of oxygen in its powdered form or when it is
protected from moisture. In aqueous solutions, it is highly susceptible to oxidation.

588 Cereal Grains
in powder or protected from moisture. In aqueous solutions it is slightly susceptible

to oxidation especially under alkaline pH or when metals such as cooper are pres-
ent. Vitamin C lowers the availability of folic acid and vitamin B12, especially when
these are not protected or encapsulated. Thiamin is stable in the range of pH 3–4.5.
Riboflavin is susceptible to reducing agents, alkalis, and light. Its higher stability is
at pH 3.5 to 4.0. Vitamin B6 or pyridoxine is heat and oxygen stable, and susceptible
to loss activity when exposed to light and neutral or alkaline pH. Its optimum stabil-
ity is in the pH range of 3 to 5. Niacin is relatively not susceptible to light, oxygen,
heat, or metals. However, strong acids or alkalis lower its biological activity. Folic
acid is air and heat stable, and shows the best stability at neutral or slightly alkaline
pH, but ultraviolet light significantly lowers its activity.
Vitamins A and D are sensitive to oxidation that is catalyzed by ultraviolet light,
heat, metals, and peroxides (Table 17.6). The provitamin A or β-carotenes are also
sensitive to light, oxygen, and acids. The antioxidant vitamin E in its natural form
readily oxidizes, but in the acetate form is relatively stable.
The negative effects of ultraviolet light and oxygen can be diminished through
the use of appropriate packaging (i.e., carton, thins, aluminized plastic, and glass
previously treated with protective films that impede the passage of ultraviolet light)
or through the use of special processing techniques. The objective is to impede or
reduce oxidation reactions that result in rancidity. For oil-laden snacks, the use of
inert gases, which displace oxygen inside the package, is highly recommended. This
is the reason why snacks are packaged with films that possess an excellent oxygen
barrier and filter that avoids the penetration of ultraviolet light. Niacin, riboflavin,
pyridoxine, and vitamin E can be added to food products before cooking and pro-
cessing because they possess good heat stability, whereas vitamin C, A, D, and thia-
min are usually added after thermal processing.
17.7 Nutritional Labeling
Most regulatory agencies around the world have mandatory nutrition labeling
regulations applied for almost all processed foods sold in packages or containers.
Nutritional labeling differs in countries around the world. However, in most instances
the labeling information includes the amount of food and number of servings in a
package, its common name, the list of ingredients, the address and information of
the processors, and the nutritional information that, in some instances, can include
health claims. The main objective of the nutritional label is to inform consumers of
the raw materials used to manufacture the food item, and the most relevant nutrients
affecting human health. It is important to inform consumers of the raw materials
because segments of the general population have food allergies. The most common
food allergies are to lactose, gluten, sulfites, and monosodium glutamate. The popu-
lation segment with gluten intolerance has dramatically increased during the past
years. Wheat-based products should be avoided by this population segment because
they trigger important allergic reactions and gastrointestinal problems such as diar-
rhea and bowel inflammation. The label of these products should contain a warning
indicating that they were manufactured with gluten-containing ingredients.
Emphasis is placed on the relationship between nutrients and dietary concerns,

especially in terms of energy density, fats (saturated, and trans), sugars, and sodium.
Consumers are aware of the strong relationship between the abuse of some nutrients
and the incidence of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, hypertension,
hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, and cancer. Table 17.7 summarizes mandatory nutri-
ents with their corresponding RDI, considering a 2,000 kcal diet, and their relationship
with human health and disease. In the United States, three types of claims can be made:
free, low, and reduced. The most common claim is that of “reduced” or less. In order
to claim “reduced,” processors have to decrease the concentration of the specific nutri-
ent (calories, fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, sodium, or sugar) by 25% or more. These
nutrient claims are mainly aimed towards health conscious consumers, and people
suffering from obesity and/or chronic diseases. The FDA allows the labeling of health
claims for the following nutrients and conditions: calcium and osteoporosis, sodium
and hypertension, dietary fat and cancer, dietary saturated fat and risk of cardiovas-
cular disease (CVD), cholesterol and CVD, fiber and cancer, soluble fiber and CVD,
folate and neural tube defects, and sugar alcohol and dental caries (Nielsen 1998).
17.8 Nutritional Value of Cereal-Based Foods

17.8.1 Fermented Bakery Products
The extensive numbers of fermented bakery products described in Chapter 10 are
primarily considered as caloric foods and the main staple for most cultures around
the globe. Most of the calories are provided by flour, sugar and fats, and oils. The
energy density varies according to the level of fat used in the formulation and the
final moisture content. Products such as baguettes, pita, bagels, and pan breads sup-
ply less calories compared to other yeast-leavened products such as donuts, Danish
pastries, and cinnamon rolls (Table 17.8). Generally, these products have a better
protein quality compared to the flour or composite flours used as raw materials. This
is due to the addition of dry or compressed fresh yeast that contains high protein
(75% based on dry matter weight) with an excellent amino acid balance and quality
(biological value higher than 80%). Additionally, many bakery goods include in their
formula eggs and milk products that contain high protein and essential amino acids.
However, the thermal treatment of baking commonly lowers lysine bioavailability
due to Maillard reactions and caramelization. The use of calcium propionate as an
antimycotic agent increases the amount of bioavailable calcium. Other aspects that
affect the nutritional value of these products are the use of enriched flour and dia-
static malt that contains proteases, amylases, and phytases, which hydrolyze protein,
starch, and phytates, respectively. Yeast and malt phytases enhance the bioavailabil-
ity of phosphorus and other essential minerals such as iron and zinc.
Whole wheat bakery products are produced in order to provide higher amounts
of dietary fiber with proven health benefits. A comparison between white pan and
whole breads indicates that the first contains about one-third of the dietary fiber found
in whole wheat pan bread (Table 17.8). The consumption of whole grain breads also
slightly lowers energy density and it has a lower glycemic index, improving gastroin-
590 Cereal Grains
Table 17.7
Food Labeling: Mandatory Nutrients with Their Reference Daily Intake
(RDI) Values and Relationships to Human Health and Disease
Nutrient RDI Health Implications
Total calories 2,000 kcal The total calorie intake is closely related to overweight and obesity.
Calories from <585 kcal The calories from fat should be limited especially in overweight,
fat obese, and super-obese people, and people suffering from
chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and
arteriosclerosis.
Fat <65 g The fat intake should be limited in people suffering from obesity,
metabolic syndrome, and chronic diseases. Fats should provide
less than 30% of the total caloric intake.
Saturated fat <20 g The high intake of saturated fats is one of the main factors that
increase cardiovascular disease.
Trans fats 0 Trans fatty acids have detrimental effects on human health because
they increase the risk of cardiovascular disease,
hypercholesterolemia, and cancer. Most new food labeling
regulations mandate that processors declare the amount of trans
fats.
Cholesterol <300 mg The high intake of cholesterol from animal sources is associated
with higher risk of cardiovascular disease and
hypercholesterolemia.
Total 300 g The total carbohydrate content is constituted by simple and
carbohydrate complex carbohydrates. Complex (starch) are digested more
slowly than simple carbohydrates, and have a lower glycemic
index. These carbohydrates provide 4 kcal/g.
Sugar <50 g The consumption of high amounts of sugars increases the risk of
diabetes and caries or tooth decay. The modern human diet tends to
abuse the consumption of simple sugars considered as empty foods.
Dietary fiber >25 g The consumption of insoluble and soluble dietary fiber lowers the
caloric density of foods and helps to prevent cardiovascular
disease, colon cancer, constipation, and hemorrhoids; lowers the
glycemic index of foods. The soluble dietary fiber lowers blood
cholesterol. Most dietary fibers contain important amounts of
nutraceutical compounds that have positive health implications.
Protein 50 g Protein is especially important to sustain growth in infants,
children, and adolescents or teenagers. It also helps to prevent
diseases via production of antibodies.
Sodium <2400 mg Sodium is the nutrient that is most abused by humans. The high
consumption of sodium is related to hypertension.
Vitamin A 5000 IU Most important liposoluble vitamin in human nutrition. Prevents
night blindness, strengths the immune system, and prevents
infectious diseases.
Vitamin C 60 mg Prevents scurvy.
—continued
Food Labeling: Mandatory Nutrients with Their Reference Daily Intake
(RDI) Values and Relationships to Human Health and Disease
Nutrient RDI Health Implications
Calcium 1000 mg Calcium is the most important macro mineral in human nutrition.
Growing children especially require it. Its deficiency is the main
cause of osteoporosis, especially among postmenopausal women
and geriatric people.
Iron 18 mg Iron is the most important micro mineral in human nutrition
because it is deficient especially among low socioeconomic
children and pregnant women. Iron helps to prevent anemia and
strengthens the immune system.
Source: Nielsen, S. 1998. Chapter 3 in Food Analysis. S. Nielsen (ed). Aspen Publication, Gaithersburg,
MD.
testinal health and helping to prevent colon cancer and cardiovascular diseases (Jacobs
et al. 1995, 1998, Marquart et al. 2002, Meyer et al. 2000, Morris et al. 1977).
17.8.2 Chemical-Leavened Bakery Products

17.8.2.1 Cookies
Cookies are one of the most energy-dense products existing in the market because the
majority contain large quantities of fat, sugar, and starch, and are practically devoid of
moisture (Table 17.9). A 100 g serving of cookies provides between 450 and 500 kcal.
These products are low in dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, and protein because they
are high in sugar and fat (Chapter 10). The protein quality is poor because products
are low in lysine, and protein bioavailability is questionable due to its being baked
with reducing sugars. One of the major nutrition concerns in the cookie industry is
lowering the amount of trans fats or the production of trans-free products. These
products are usually high in trans fats because of the use of hydrogenated shorten-
ings for preparation of doughs, creams, and fillings. Some fillings may contain more
than 50% plastic shortenings in the formulation. Alternatively, the industry is using
fractionated natural fats (stearins) instead of shortenings in order to produce trans-
free items. The consumption of foods high in fat calories, saturated fatty acids, and
trans fatty acids increases arteriosclerosis and the risk of CVD. This is the reason why
most regulatory agencies modified labeling regulations and enforce the declaration
of the amount of trans fatty acids per portion. The controversy of trans fats started
in the 1980s after a scientific study comparing diets of Scandinavians to those of
Americans. The conclusion was that Scandinavians had relatively low levels of CVD
even though they consumed large amounts of saturated fats. The American group
with lower intakes of saturated fats consumed higher levels of trans fatty acids, and
had a higher incidence of CVD. Additional research demonstrated that trans fatty
acids were considered more harmful than saturated fatty acids (Juttelstad 2004).
592
Table 17.8
Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Selected Yeast-Leavened Bakery Products (100 g)
Pita Bagels with
Wheat Bread Bread Poppy or Cinnamon
Rye Whole Sesame Soft Butter Rolls with Glazed
Nutrient White Whole French Bread Wheat Seeds Pretzels Croissants Raisins Doughnut
Water, g 36.44 38.58 27.81 37.30 30.60 32.60 15 23.20 24.80 25.40
Energy, kcal 266 247 289 258 266 275 338 406 372 403
Protein, g 7.64 12.95 11.75 8.50 9.80 10.50 8.20 8.20 6.20 6.40
Tryptophan, g 0.089 0.082 1.121 0.096 0.149 0.124 — 0.099 0.074 0.045
Lysine, g 0.203 0.148 0.295 0.233 0.265 0.251 — 0.329 0.243 0.146
Methionine, g 0.135 0.082 1.152 0.139 0.153 0.188 — 0.175 0.117 0.055
Lipids, g 3.29 3.35 1.83 3.30 2.60 1.60 3.10 21.00 16.43 22.80
Saturated, g 0.717 0.747 0.497 0.626 0.410 0.220 0.695 11.659 3.079 5.813
Monounsat., g 0.681 1.597 0.347 1.311 0.349 0.131 1.071 5.525 4.797 12.865
Polyunsat., g 1.355 0.600 0.787 0.799 1.055 0.696 0.948 1.094 7.473 2.902
Carbohydrates, g 50.61 41.29 56.44 48.30 55.00 53.40 69.39 45.80 50.90 44.30
Sugars, g 4.31 5.57 2.56 3.85 0.82 — 0.25 11.26 31.73 -
Dietary fiber, g 2.4 6.8 2.4 5.8 7.4 2.3 1.7 2.6 2.4 1.2
Calcium, mg 151 107 44 73 15 18 23 37 72 43
Iron, mg 3.74 2.43 3.63 2.83 3.06 1.36 3.92 2.03 1.60 0.60
Sodium, mg 681 472 650 660 532 534 1404 744 383 342
Thiamine, mg 0.455 0.353 0.433 0.434 0.339 0.163 0.410 0.388 0.324 0.890
Riboflavin, mg 0.331 0.216 0.287 0.335 0.080 0.052 0.290 0.241 0.265 0.067
Niacin, mg 4.385 4.714 4.760 3.805 2.840 1.758 4.270 2.188 2.384 0.473
Folate, mcg 111 50 148 110 35 22 24 88 72 22
Vitamin E, mg 0.22 0.51 0.18 0.33 0.61 — 0.54 0.84 1.99 —
Source: USDA. 2009. Nutrient Data Laboratory. Agricultural Research Service. Electronic page: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp.
Cereal Grains
Table 17.9
Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Selected Chemically Leavened Cookies (per 100 g)
Animal Chocolate Sandwich Chocolate Sugar Wafer with
Nutrient Crackers with Cream Filling Oatmeal Chip Brownie Cream Filling
Water, g 3.90 2.20 5.70 8.35 13.60 1
Energy, kcal 446 469 450 454 405 511
Protein, g 6.90 5.61 6.20 4.90 4.80 4.10
Tryptophan, g 0.099 0.090 0.099 0.051 0.064 0.059
Lysine, g 0.242 0.050 0.237 0.156 0.260 0.144
Methionine, g 0.116 0.080 0.120 0.069 0.112 0.070
Lipids, g 13.80 19.78 18.10 20.62 16.30 24.30
Saturated, g 3.463 6.375 4.519 9.949 4.235 3.622
Monounsat., g .878 8.503 10.025 7.279 8.965 10.331
Polyunsat., g 1.776 3.554 2.543 2.681 2.259 9.158
Carbohydrates, g 74.10 70.67 68.70 65.05 63.90 70.10
Sugars, g 13.93 41.01 24.66 37.85 36.61 35.44

Dietary fiber, g 1.1 2.08 2.8 2.4 2.1 0.4
Calcium, mg 43 22 37 20 29 18
Iron, mg 2.75 8.68 2.58 2.97 2.25 1.95
Sodium, mg 393 503 383 272 312 147
Thiamine, mg 0.350 0.135 0.267 0.130 0.255 0.102
Riboflavin, mg 0.326 0.117 0.230 0.094 0.210 0.196
Niacin, mg 3.470 2.185 2.227 1.780 1.721 2.432
Folate, mcg 103 70 59 46 47 52
Vitamin E, mg 0.12 2.61 0.26 2.24 0.15 1.95
593
594 Cereal Grains
17.8.2.2 Cakes and Related Products

Chemical-leavened bakery foods contain high quantities of sugar, fats, and oils,
which in most instances are included in higher quantities compared to the flour. The
mixture of flour, sugar, and shortening make these products rich in calories, and
nonsuitable for diabetics because of their high glycemic index. In addition, these
products may contain significant amounts of trans fats, and low amounts of protein
and micronutrients. Protein quality is low due to the thermal treatment in the pres-
ence of high amounts of sugar. Table 17.10 depicts nutritional compositions of typical
products that are included in this category.
17.8.3 Maize and Wheat Flour Tortillas

There are two types of tortillas, the ones produced from nixtamalized maize (Chapter
9), and those processed from wheat flour (Chapter 10). Both are considered round-
shaped flat breads, and are an excellent source of calories due to their high starch
content (Table 17.11). Maize tortillas are basically ground maize mixed with small
quantities of lime (CaO) that were absorbed during cooking and steeping. Some
nutritionists consider maize tortillas a whole grain item, although the alkali treat-
ments break down fiber that is partially lost during the subsequent steps of steeping
and nixtamal washing. The starch is, in practical terms, 100% digested and absorbed,
and while being digested glucose is transported to the blood stream more slowly,
thus favoring its value for diabetic people. The consumption of a 100 g serving of
tortillas (three pieces) with 46% moisture provides about 210 kcal (Table 17.11).
Campas-Baypoli et al. (1999) monitored changes of resistant starch when maize was
transformed into nixtamal, masa, and tortillas. As expected, the whole kernel had
the lowest resistant-starch values. When the grain was lime-cooked into nixtamal,
and stone-ground into masa, more starch became resistant. The largest increment in
resistant starch was observed when the dough or masa was baked into tortillas.
The protein quality of maize tortillas is considered low because these products
do not contain enough quantities of lysine and tryptophan to sustain regular growth
in infants. These amino acids are present in about half of the amount required
for optimum growth. Therefore, the biological value (BV), net protein utilization
(NPU), and protein efficiency ratio (PER) are approximately half of those reported
for animal products (i.e., meat and milk). Animal and human trials have dem-
onstrated the clear nutritional superiority of opaque-2 and quality protein maize
(QPM) over regular corn (Sproule et al. 1988, Bressani 1990, 1992, Amaya-Guerra
et al. 2004, Amaya-Guerra et al. 2006). This is because QPM has higher levels of
lysine and tryptophan that result in better nitrogen retention and growth. Lime-
cooking significantly increases calcium levels (Serna-Saldivar and Amaya-Guerra
2008, Serna-Saldivar et al. 1990, Serna-Saldivar et al. 1991, Serna-Saldivar et al.
1992). It is estimated that nixtamalized products provide approximately 50% of the
calcium ingested by inhabitants of countries where these products are the staple.
Tortillas are considered a poor source of iron, zinc, and copper, and their bioavail-
ability is limited due to the presence of phytic acid. Tortillas are a poor source of
iron because the raw grain has low quantities of this important mineral, and part
Table 17.10
Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Selected Chemical-Leavened Cakes and Related Products (per 100 g)
Cakes Doughnuts
Chocolate,
with Muffins, Cake Cake
Chocolate Oat English Type, Type,
Nutrient Pancakes Angel Fruit Sponge Pound Frosting White Biscuits Waffles Bran Muffin Sugared Plain
Water, g 52.9 33.2 25.3 29.7 23.1 22.9 23.3 26.7 42.0 35.0 42.1 19.6 22.9
Energy, kcal 220 258 324 289 389 367 357 365 291 270 235 426 418
Protein, g 6.40 5.90 2.90 5.40 5.20 4.10 5.40 6.20 7.90 7 7.70 5.2 5.87
Tryptophan, g 0.080 0.075 0.042 0.072 0.069 0.056 0.067 0.076 0.099 0.105 0.092 0.069 0.066
Lysine, g 0.321 0.364 0.121 0.297 0.283 0.236 0.241 0.167 0.384 0.277 0.241 0.256 0.207
Methionine, g 0.147 0.183 0.059 0.126 0.125 0.085 0.128 0.112 0.179 0.123 0.139 0.105 0.085
Lipids, g 9.70 0.80 9.10 2.70 17.90 16.40 12.40 16.50 14.10 7.40 1.80 22.9 23.55
Saturated, g 2.122 0.121 1.048 0.802 4.647 4.771 3.269 2.490 2.866 1.087 0.259 5.926 7.127
Monounsat., g 2.474 0.071 4.200 0.949 9.935 8.760 5.309 6.906 3.521 1.695 0.302 12.697 12.732
Polyunsat., g 4.447 0.367 3.323 0.448 2.251 1.845 3.148 6.209 6.785 4.129 0.888 2.909 2.559
Carbohydrates, g 28.30 57.80 61.60 61.10 52.50 54.60 57.20 48.50 32.90 48.30 46.0 50.80 45.63
Sugars, g ND ND 29.84 36.66 ND ND 35.49 3.48 ND 8.22 ND ND 16.28
Dietary fiber, g — 1.5 3.7 0.5 1.0 2.8 0.8 1.3 — 4.6 2.7 — 1.6
Calcium, mg 219 140 33 70 64 43 130 49 255 63 52 60 25
Iron, mg 1.80 0.52 2.07 2.72 0.60 2.20 1.52 3.30 2.31 4.20 0.89 1.06 3.00
Sodium, mg 439 749 270 244 400 334 327 1052 511 393 464 402 557
Thiamine, mg 0.201 0.102 0.050 0.240 0.024 0.027 0.186 0.427 0.263 0.260 0.181 0.233 0.237
Riboflavin, mg 0.281 0.491 0.099 0.269 0.124 0.133 0.242 0.292 0.347 0.0.95 0.154 0.198 0.150
Niacin, mg 1.567 0.883 0.791 1.932 0.342 0.577 1.533 3.352 2.073 0.420 1.566 1.512 1.97
Folate, mcg 38 35 20 47 0.285 17 38 70 46 89 37 46 80
Vitamin E, mg — — 0.90 0.24 — — 0.12 — — 0.66 — 1.89
595
596 Cereal Grains
Table 17.11
Nutritional and Chemical Composition of
Maize and Wheat Flour Tortillas (per 100 g)
Nutrient Maize Wheat
Water, g 45.89 30.22
Energy, kcal 218 312
Protein, g 5.70 8.29
Tryptophan, g 0.042 0.106
Lysine, g 0.163 0.213
Methionine, g 0.121 0.155
Lipids, g 2.85 7.75
Saturated, g 0.453 1.886
Monounsat., g 0.692 3.894
Polyunsat., g 1.419 1.584
Carbohydrates, g 44.64 51.35
Sugars, g 0.88 1.92
Dietary fiber, g 6.3 3.1
Calcium, mg 81 129
Iron, mg 1.23 3.34
Sodium, mg 45 636
Thiamine, mg 0.094 0.539
Riboflavin, mg 0.065 0.267
Niacin, mg 1.498 3.572
Folate, mcg 5 104
Vitamin E, mg 0.28 0.19
Source: USDA. 2009. Nutrient Data Laboratory. Agricultural

Research Service. Electronic page: http://www.nal.
usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp.
is lost during lime cooking. Maize tortillas contain significant amounts of most
B-vitamins in spite of the loss during nixtamalization. Loss of pericarp, germ,
and aleurone tissues during processing contributes to the decreased amounts of
vitamins.
Wheat flour tortillas have a nutritional composition similar to table bread,
although it is slightly more caloric because its recipe contains higher quantities of
shortening. In addition, most wheat tortillas are chemically leavened and not fer-
mented. However, wheat flour tortillas contain approximately 36% more calories
compared to maize tortillas due to their lower moisture and higher fat contents. The
consumption of 100 g of flour tortillas provides about 310 kcal (Serna-Saldivar 1996,
1997, Table 17.11). Nutrient density of whole-wheat flour tortillas decreases by 7%
due to the bran. Fat is the second largest nutrient in flour tortillas (4%–10% fat), and
therefore they are high in energy from fat and saturated fatty acids, especially when
hydrogenated shortenings or lard are utilized. Degree of fat saturation or hydrogena-
tion affects contents of saturated and trans fatty acids.
Wheat flour tortillas have a high rate of protein digestibility (85%) but relatively
low protein quality because gliadins and glutelins have insufficient levels of lysine
and threonine (Gonzalez-Agramon and Serna-Saldivar 1988). Lysine is present in
about half the amount required for optimum child growth. The protein quality of
flour tortillas is improved when nonfat dry milk or related products are used in the
formulation. Whole wheat flour tortillas contain 6.9% dietary fiber (3.2% insoluble
and 3.7% soluble) instead of 1.8% (0.7% soluble and 1.1% insoluble) of counterparts
produced from refined flour (Friend et al. 1992).
17.8.4 Crackers
The nutritional value of crackers more closely resembles bakery products than
snacks. The main difference is that, since these products are low in moisture, they
are usually more energy dense than other bakery products. Saltines and crackers are
also considered healthful bakery items because they do not contain high amounts of
fats. Among crackers, oil-sprayed or filled items generally contain higher amounts
of oil and calories. Whole-wheat or graham crackers contain important quantities of
dietary fiber and reduced calories (Table 17.12).
17.8.5 Pasta Products and Oriental Noodles

Most pasta products are produced from semolina mixed with small quantities of salt
and, in some instances, with egg products. Thus, the chemical composition of pasta is
practically equal to semolina. In order to produce semolina, durum wheat is milled,
and the pericarp, germ, and aleurone layer are removed (Chapter 7). Therefore, the
refined milled product is practically devoid of fiber and fat, and is rich in starch
(>75%) and protein (11%–13%). Fresh eggs or egg solids are used to manufacture
some pasta and noodles in order to improve flavor, texture, and color. The use of egg
upgrades protein content and quality, and also supplies phospholipids and essential
vitamins and minerals. Table 17.13 depicts the chemical compositions of pasta prod-
ucts before and after cooking.
In Asia, oriental noodles play an important role in the diet. Similar to pasta products,
oriental noodles manufactured from wheat flours are considered an important source of
calories. Practically all the caloric load is supplied by starch and gluten proteins. Alkali
noodles contain significant amounts of potassium carbonates, bicarbonates, and phos-
phates used to impart typical flavors, aroma, texture, and colors. These salts increase
sodium, phosphorus, and potassium levels. Wonton or egg noodles contain higher pro-
tein content, quality, and overall nutritional value due to the addition of whole eggs.
17.8.6 Breakfast Cereals

There is a wide array of breakfast cereals with different nutritional compositions.
The most common feature is that they are low in fat, and most are flavored with sugar
or sweeteners (Chapter 11).
The strong marketing programs and high competition in the industry have resulted
in the development and launching of new products. The current trend is towards the
598 Cereal Grains
Table 17.12
Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Selected Yeast and Chemical-
Leavened Crackers (per 100 g)
Wheat
Saltines,
Nutrient Graham Cheese Low Salt Regular Whole Ritz™
Water, g 4.40 3.10 4.06 3.10 2.70 3.12
Energy, kcal 423 503 421 474 444 492
Protein, g 6.90 10.10 9.50 8.60 8.80 7.23
Tryptophan, g 0.091 0.129 0.122 0.124 0.137 —
Lysine, g 0.162 0.418 0.230 0.236 0.245 —
Methionine, g 1.119 0.194 0.177 0.138 0.137 —
Lipids, g 10.10 25.30 8.85 20.60 17.20 23.21
Saturated, g 1.519 9.371 2.001 5.178 3.393 5.450
Monounsat., g 4.086 12.105 2.247 11.448 5.880 6.276
Polyunsat., g 3.832 2.472 4.068 2.796 6.596 10.896
Carbohydrates, g 76.80 58.20 74.34 64.90 68.60 63.51
Sugars, g 31.10 0.28 2.22 13.04 0.37 8.14
Dietary fiber, g 2.8 2.4 2.9 4.5 10.5 2.3
Calcium, mg 24 151 119 49 50 154
Iron, mg 3.73 4.77 5.9 4.40 3.08 4.47
Sodium, mg 605 995 636 795 659 882
Thiamine, mg 0.222 0.570 0.611 0.505 0.201 0.442
Riboflavin, mg 0.314 0.428 0.331 0.327 0.100 0.265
Niacin, mg 4.122 4.671 5.235 4.961 4.519 4.880
Folate, mcg 46 152 140 117 28 72
Vitamin E, mg 0.33 0.06 1.12 0.50 0.86 3.49
Source: USDA. 2009. Nutrient Data Laboratory. Agricultural Research Service. Electronic page:
http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp.
manufacture of products high in dietary fiber, other nutraceuticals, and products

enriched and fortified with many vitamins and minerals. There are some items in the
current market enriched with the essential vitamins and minerals. Breakfast cereals are
mainly considered as caloric foods. Most of the calories are provided by starch that is
generally partially or totally gelatinized. Most of the gross energy is digestible because
the starch is, in most instances, completely digested and is absorbed as glucose in the
gastrointestinal tract. Whole grain or bran-rich breakfast cereals contain less digestible
energy and a lower glycemic index. The high fiber is aimed to promote better gastro-
intestinal functioning and to prevent constipation, high cholesterol, colon cancer, and
CVD. Breakfast cereals rich in oats are gaining in popularity because of the nutraceuti-
cal properties. The high soluble fiber is prebiotic and a known hypocholesterolemic
nutraceutical. The B-vitamins intrinsic to the raw materials are added as part of the
enrichment mix and help to metabolize carbohydrates and protein more efficiently.
Table 17.13
Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Pasta and Noodles before, and after Cooking (100 g)
Noodles
Spaghetti Japanese Soba Japanese Somen Rice
Nutrient Dried Cooked Dried Cooked Dried Cooked Dried Cooked
Water, g 9.90 62.13 6.88 73.01 9.21 67.91 11.91 73.38
Energy, kcal 371 158 336 99 356 131 364 109
Protein, g 13.04 5.80 14.38 5.06 11.35 4.00 3.44 0.91
Tryptophan, g 0.185 0.083 0.204 0.072 0.145 0.051 0.040 0.011
Lysine, g 0.298 0.133 0607 0.214 0.218 0.077 0.124 0.033
Methionine, g 0.147 0.065 0.204 0.072 0.177 0.062 0.081 0.021
Lipids, g 1.51 0.93 0.71 0.10 0.81 0.18 0.56 0.20
Saturated, g 0.277 0.170 0.136 0.019 0.115 0.025 0.153 0.023
Monounsat., g 0.171 0.131 0.185 0.026 0.095 0.021 0.175 0.026
Polyunsat., g 0.564 0.319 0.220 0.031 0.330 0.073 0.150 0.023
Carbohydrates, g 74.67 30.86 74.62 21.44 74.10 27.54 83.24 24.90

Sugars, g 2.67 0.56 — — — — — —
Dietary fiber, g 3.2 1.8 — — 4.3 — 1.6 1.0
Calcium, mg 21 7 35 4 23 8 18 4
Iron, mg 1.30 1.28 2.70 0.48 1.32 0.52 0.70 0.14
Sodium, mg 6 1 792 60 1840 161 182 19
Thiamine, mg 0.090 0.020 0.480 0.094 0.101 0.020 0.031 0.018
Riboflavin, mg 0.060 0.020 0.130 0.026 0.026 0.033 0.017 0.004
Niacin, mg 1.700 0.400 3.210 0.510 0.875 0.097 0.221 0.072
Folate, mcg 18 7 60 7 14 2 3 3
Vitamin E, mg 0.11 0.06 — — — — — —
599
600 Cereal Grains
The protein associated with breakfast cereals is well-utilized because these prod-
ucts are usually consumed with milk. Milk proteins complement the amino acid
composition of cereals. In addition, milk also provides important quantities of cal-
cium, magnesium, and vitamins. Table 17.14 depicts the nutritional value of the most
popular breakfast cereals. It is important to point out that chemical compositions do
not include milk that usually accompanies most breakfast cereals.
17.8.7 Snacks
Snack foods are one of the most concentrated forms of food energy because the major-
ity contain large quantities of oil and starch, and are practically free of water. The
dietary fiber, vitamin, mineral, protein content, and protein quality of most snacks are
low because they are generally manufactured from refined cereal grits, and/or starches.
The most limiting essential amino acid in cereal-based snacks is lysine, and when this
amino acid is thermally abused in the presence of alkali or reducing sugars its bioavail-
ability is significantly reduced. Furthermore, the various thermal operations decrease
the availability of vitamins. All these reasons explain why snacks are considered as
“empty foods” and have a bad image among dietitians (Serna-Saldivar 2008).
Most snacks are salted or flavored with salt-based flavorings (Chapter 12); there-
fore, these products usually contain large quantities of sodium. This essential elec-
trolyte is considered the single nutrient most abused by modern humans because an
average diet usually provides at least 10 times the recommended intake. Hypertension
is the main health risk associated with high intake of this mineral.
Nowadays, food scientists are including in their research and product develop-
ment equations the production of snacks with minimal fat calories and fat decompo-
sition products to counter contents known to have adverse effects on human health.
At the same time they seek to produce snacks with similar sensory properties (flavor,
texture, and overall acceptability) compared to the norm. A healthful balance of
fatty acids (saturated:monounsaturated:polyunsaturated and omega 6:omega 3) and
the production of snacks free of trans fatty acids are taken into consideration.
Among snacks, popcorn is one of the best snack foods nutritionally because it is
rich in starch and dietary fiber, and contains important amounts of vitamins present
in the whole kernel. In fact, the American Diabetes Association and the American
Dietetic Association allow popcorn as a bread exchange in weight-control diets.
Oil-popped popcorn contains more than 25% oil, and provides approximately 500
kcal/100 g serving (Table 17.15). In contrast, air-popped popcorn only contains the
intrinsic oil mainly associated with the germ (4%) and 380 kcal. Air-popped popcorn
also contains the highest amount of dietary fiber and protein. One 100-g serving sup-
plies about 15 g dietary fiber and 12 g protein.
Corn and tortilla chips are an important source of energy, protein, dietary fiber,
and calcium. Corn chips are higher in calories and oil than tortilla chips. The aver-
age oil content of regular corn and tortilla chips is 36% and 24%, respectively. Corn
and tortilla chips are energy dense because most of the moisture evaporates during
the frying process, and part of this moisture is substituted by the frying oil. A 100
g serving each of regular corn and tortilla chips provides more than 540 and 500
Table 17.14
Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Selected Breakfast Cereals (per 100 g)
Corn Frosted Special Raisin Toasted Rice Corn Cap’n All-
Nutrient Flakes FlakesTM K TM WheatiesTM BranTM OatmealTM KrispiesTM PopsTM CrunchTM BranTM
Water, g 3.50 3.27 3.00 2.59 2.56 2.50 4.13 3 2.50 3
Energy, kcal 360 367 379 367 373 383 387 378 402 250
Protein, g 6.70 4.34 17.24 10.0 6.05 9.83 6.84 3.70 4.37 7
Tryptophan, g — 0.023 — — — — 0.090 — — —
Lysine, g — 0.023 — — — — 0.153 — — —
Methionine, g — 0.054 — — — — 0.137 — — —
Lipids, g 0.10 0.26 1.55 3.33 1.61 4.22 0.96 0.75 5.89 2.15
Saturated, g 0.000 0.069 0.350 0.489 0.400 1.270 0.216 0.180 4.200 0.400
Monounsat., g 0.030 0.040 0.400 1.076 0.214 1.240 0.279 0.240 0.700 0.500
Polyunsat., g 0.051 0.102 0.800 1.168 0.368 1.170 0.295 0.200 0.790 1.300
Carbohydrates, g 86.70 90.86 71.00 80.77 85.55 80.39 85.24 90.00 84.78 80.00
Sugars, g 6.50 38.72 12.90 13.33 11.00 23.76 9.46 47.90 43.84 27.00
Dietary fiber, g 4.5 1.8 2.4 10.0 2.5 5.6 0.8 0.8 2.5 43.0
Calcium, mg 3 3 30 67 3333 357 7 17 11 63
Iron, mg 19.29 23.41 27.00 28.00 60.0 18.65 34.40 6.20 19.24 15.00
Sodium, mg 949 462 721 700 698 560 907 386 748 676
Thiamine, mg 1.340 2.057 1.700 2.500 5.000 4.1 1.822 1.200 1.600 1.200
Riboflavin, mg 1.520 1.892 1.900 2.830 5.670 1.490 2.225 1.400 1.810 1.400
Niacin, mg 17.860 26.750 23.00 33.330 66.700 1.650 21.325 16.100 21.280 17.000
Folate, mcg 357 382 1290 667 1333 19.410 539 329 1555 1345
Vitamin E, mg 0.25 0.09 15.30 1.18 45.00 — 0.10 0.07 0.72 1.58
—continued
601
602
Table 17.14 (continued)
Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Selected Breakfast Cereals (per 100 g)
Shredded Granola
Froot Corn Puffed Wheat Grape with
Nutrient CheeriosTM TrixTM LoopsTM KixTM ChexTM Wheat MiniaturesTM NutsTM Almonds MueslixTM
Water, g 3.76 2.00 3.00 2.79 2.50 4.00 5.00 3.00 1.37 8.70
Energy, kcal 367 400 393 367 367 322 339 359 467 357
Protein, g 11.33 3.33 3.40 7.69 6.67 15.00 11.00 12.48 11.77 9.10
Tryptophan, g 0.157 0.085 — 0.054 — — — 0.190 — —
Lysine, g 0.343 0.096 — 0.152 — — — 0.180 — —
Methionine, g 0.167 0.074 — 0.116 — — — 0.150 — —
Lipids, g 5.90 5.00 4.10 3.46 1.67 1.60 2.10 1.85 18.02 5.50
Saturated, g 0.954 0.670 1.900 0.576 0.381 0.300 0.400 0.305 2.220 0.800
Monounsat., g 1.917 2.334 1.000 0.990 0.381 0.600 0.300 0.261 5.840 2.900
Polyunsat., g 1.973 1.596 1.200 1.277 0.657 0.700 1.400 0.871 3.180 1.800
Carbohydrates, g 74.68 86.67 87.50 82.82 85.06 77.00 80.00 80.10 67.20 73.00
Sugars, g 4.02 43.33 45.00 9.76 10.00 0.00 2.00 12.61 20.42 31
Dietary Fiber, g 10.1 3.3 3.1 8.9 4.0 15.0 13.00 8.8 5.2 7.3
Calcium, mg 408 313 78 570 333 40 42 39 86 58
Iron, mg 31.77 14.06 14.10 32.00 30.0 0.00 30.00 38.06 4.35 8.20
Sodium, mg 665 563 471 662 933 3 0 547 33 309
Thiamine, mg 1.932 1.172 1.200 1.955 1.250 — 0.500 1.002 0.310 0.800
Riboflavin, mg 1.608 1.328 1.300 2.000 1.420 — 0.600 0.698 0.180 0.800
Niacin, mg 19.100 15.625 15.600 24.250 16.670 — 6.700 14.600 0.950 10.000
Folate, mcg 975 313 313 787 667 — 133 488 34 738
Vit., E, mg 0.68 1.19 0.10 0.00 0.25 — — 0.64 3.85 7.20
Cereal Grains
Table 17.15
Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Selected Snack Foods (per 100 g)
Popcorn Tortilla Chips Extruded Snacks Wheat-Based
Corn Corn Regular Puffs Cones, Pretzels Bread
Air- Oil- NutsTM Chips Ranch- Cheese- Nacho- Hard Sticks Sesame
Nutrient Popped Popped Plain Plain Plain FlavorTM Light Flavor Flavor Plain Sesame Sticks
Water, g 4.1 2.8 1.3 1.0 1.8 1.7 1.3 1.5 1.9 3.3 6.1 2.0
Energy, kcal 382 500 446 539 501 490 465 554 536 381 412 541
Protein, g 12.0 9.0 8.5 6.6 7.0 7.6 8.7 7.6 6.5 9.1 12.0 10.9
Tryptophan, g 0.09 0.06 — 0.05 0.05 0.06 — 0.09 0.06 0.11 0.14 0.14
Lysine, g 0.34 0.25 — 0.19 0.20 0.25 — 0.46 0.26 0.22 0.28 0.36
Methionine, g 0.25 0.19 — 0.14 0.15 0.15 — 0.15 0.14 0.16 0.21 0.19
Lipids, g 4.20 28.1 15.6 33.4 26.2 23.8 15.6 34.4 31.7 3.5 9.5 36.7
Saturated, g 0.57 4.89 2.43 4.55 5.02 4.56 2.84 6.59 26.70 0.75 1.41 6.48
Monounsat., g 1.10 8.17 9.46 9.66 15.45 14.05 6.34 20.28 2.14 1.36 3.57 10.91
Polyunsat., g 1.90 13.42 3.05 16.48 3.63 3.30 5.02 4.76 0.84 1.22 2.09 17.42
Carbohydrates, g 77.9 57.2 71.9 56.9 62.9 64.6 73.4 53.8 57.3 79.2 68.4 46.5
Dietary fiber, g 15.1 10.0 6.9 4.9 6.5 3.9 5.7 1.1 1.0 2.8 3.0 2.8
Calcium, mg 10 10 9 127 154 141 159 58 36 36 22 170
Iron, mg 2.66 2.78 1.67 1.32 1.52 1.46 1.63 1.10 1.27 4.32 4.28 0.74
Sodium, mg 4 884 549 630 528 612 1003 1050 952 289 657 1488
Thiamine, mg 0.20 0.13 0.04 0.03 0.08 0.11 0.22 0.26 0.21 0.46 0.59 0.12
Riboflavin, mg 0.28 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.18 0.24 0.28 0.20 0.12 0.62 0.55 0.06
Niacin, mg 1.94 1.55 1.69 1.18 1.28 1.46 0.42 1.18 1.41 5.25 5.28 1.55
Folate, mcg 23 17 0 20 10 17 16 23 5 171 162 22
Vitamin E, mg 0.29 5.01 1.98 1.36 3.53 — 3.53 — — 0.35 1.01 3.85
603
604 Cereal Grains
kcal, respectively (Table 17.15). Corn and tortilla chips contain moderate to high
quantities of calcium due to lime cooking/steeping.
The nutritional composition of several types of extruded snacks is in Table 17.15.
Most snacks are produced from refined grits and starches, and contain high quantities
of oil added during seasoning, or absorbed by the pellet or extrudate during deep-fat
frying. Most extruded snacks contain more than 30% oil and 500 kcal/100 g serving.
Therefore, extruded snacks are a rich source of calories and oil, but do not contain
significant quantities of other nutrients such as protein, vitamins, and minerals.
Among snacks, hard pretzels and other wheat-based products are relatively lower
in calories compared to other snacks. The nutritional value of these products more
closely resembles bakery products than snacks. The main difference is that since
these products are low in moisture, they are usually more energy-dense than soft
bakery products. Pretzels are considered low energy because most formulations do
not contain any added fat (Table 17.15). Most commercially available snacks are high
in sodium, and therefore are not recommended for patients with hypertension. One
100 g serving of most snacks provides more than 800 mg sodium.
17.8.8 Beer and Distilled Alcoholic Beverages

Alcoholic and fermented beverages have different nutritional attributes. Among alco-
holic beverages, beers, especially opaque beers consumed in Africa, possess better
nutritional properties because they provide energy and B-vitamins. The caloric den-
sity of lager or pilsner beers (Chapter 14) varies according to soluble carbohydrates or
dextrins, and alcohol content. The dextrins impart body or viscosity to the beer, and
are totally digested in the gastrointestinal tract. Light beers contain fewer amounts of
dextrins, and therefore supply less energy per serving and cause less stomach filling.
Spirits or distilled alcoholic beverages (i.e., whiskey) are practically vitamin-, car-
bohydrate-, protein-, and mineral-free. This is the reason they are viewed as empty
foods. The caloric value of these beverages is highly related to the ethanol content.
This alcohol is broken down in the liver by the alcohol dehydrogenase enzyme. One
gram of ethanol yields in the human body approximately 7 kcal. Table 17.16 summa-
rizes the nutritional composition of whiskey, and regular and light beers.
17.9 Resistant and Slowly Digestible Starch

Starch is the main carbohydrate in human diets, so its digestion is an important
metabolic response. The major factors that affect the rate of starch digestion are the
physical form of the food, the crystalline nature of the starch granules, the degree of
retrogradation, and the presence of amylose–lipid complexes (Englyst et al. 1992).
For nutritional purposes, starch is classified into three general types based on rate
of digestion: rapidly digestible starch, slowly digestible starch, and resistant starch.
Slowly digestible and resistant starches are considered beneficial for dietary manage-
ment of metabolic diseases such as diabetes mellitus and hyperlipidemia. As a result,
much attention is being given to these two types of starches. Slowly digestible starch
is produced based on chemical, enzymatic, or physical treatments. One of the most
effective ways to produce slowly digestible starch is by chemical derivatization and
Table 17.16
Nutritional and Chemical Composition of
Alcoholic Beverages (per 100 g)
Beer
Nutrient Regular Light Whiskey
Water, g 91.96 94.88 63.90
Energy, kcal 43 29 250
Protein, g 0.46 0.24 0
Carbohydrates, g 3.55 1.64 0.10
Sugars, g 0 0 0.10
Calcium, mg 4 4 0
Iron, mg 3 0.03 0.02
Sodium, mg 4 4 0
Thiamine, mg 0.005 0.005 0.008
Riboflavin, mg 0.025 0.015 0.001
Niacin, mg 0.513 0.391 0.050
Folate, mcg 6 6 0
Source: USDA. 2009. Nutrient Data Laboratory. Agricultural

Research Service. http://www.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp.
modification, and by promoting retrogradation. Wongsagonsup et al. (2008) con-

cluded that, when the high moisture thermal treatment of regular and waxy maizes
was followed by cooling at −24°C, the amount of slowly digestible starch increased
1.7- and 1.6-fold, respectively These starches have the potential of producing greater
satiety, improving glucose tolerance, and lowering the glycemic index. Thus, they
could be used as novel nutraceutical or functional foods.
Resistant starch is defined as the sum of starch and products of starch degrada-
tion not absorbed in the small intestine by healthy individuals. Resistant starches not
digested in the small intestine reach the colon where they are readily fermented by
the naturally occurring microflora (Erickson 2005). One of the main acids produced
by these microorganisms is butyric acid, which is believed to play a positive role in
promoting colon health (Champ et al. 2003). According to Erickson (2005), resistant
starch is classified into four categories (Table 17.17). Although the resistant starch
types described in Table 17.17 are largely insoluble, there is a fifth type of soluble
polysaccharide named “resistant maltodextrins.” The most important type of resis-
tant starch associated with cereal products is type 3. This type is formed during heat
treatments that first gelatinize the starch, and then upon cooling, forms retrograded
starch and starch complexed with other food components (Garcia Alonso et al. 1998).
Retrogradation is the reassociation of starch molecules, and this term has been used
to describe changes in starch physical behavior following gelatinization (Fisher
and Thompson 1997). This phenomenon causes gradual increase in the firmness of
bakery foods (Biliaderis 1992, Chinnaswamy et al. 1989, Englyst and MacFarlane
1986). The heat treatments applied during preparation of most cereal-based products
606 Cereal Grains
Table 17.17
Classification or Resistant Starches and Their Main Sources
Type of Resistant
Starch Source Occurrence
RS1 Grains and vegetables Physically inaccessible starch
RS2 Raw potato and banana, high amylose starch Raw starch granules
RS3 Heat-treated cereals, crystalline starch Nongranular, retrograded, or
crystalline starch
RS4 Modified starches from cereals Chemically modified starches
Source: Erickson, W. 2005. Cereal Foods World 50(1):6–8.
promotes the interaction of the starch with other components (proteins, or lipids) or
itself throughout storage, making it less accessible to enzyme hydrolysis (Englyst
and MacFarlane 1986). Biliaderis (1992) reported that during the thermal processing
of starch-rich foods, resistant starch is formed due to amylose retrogradation. This
event involves the formation of a double helix structure that is thermally revers-
ible at temperatures higher than 120°C. The microflora present in the large intestine
degrades or ferments resistant starch, lowering the intestinal lumen pH. Several pro-
biotic bacteria can produce important metabolites such as short-chain volatile acids
that can inhibit important enzymes involved in the synthesis of cholesterol.
17.10 Nutraceutical Properties
The strong relationship between foods and health has been recognized for more than
2,500 years. Hippocrates, the Greek philosopher and father of medicine, postulated
that foods had a great impact on health. The new trend in the cereal processing
industry is the development of nutraceutical or functional foods. Nutraceutical foods
are defined as those that contain chemical compounds that exert a positive effect on
human health. These chemicals are not considered nutrients that have been tradition-
ally associated with deficiencies. The main nutraceuticals are those with proven pos-
itive effects to combat oxidative stress, chronic diseases, and cancer (Hasler 1998,
Wildman 2000). In some instances, the scientific evidence of the positive effects is
so solid and overwhelming that regulatory agencies allow processors to declare them
on the nutritional label. For example, insoluble and soluble dietary fiber, calcium,
folic acid, and phytosterols can be declared on labels in the United States. In most
instances, the nutraceuticals are intrinsic to the food, such as oats rich in soluble
fiber or β-glucans, or maize germ rich in phytosterols, tocopherols, and policosanols.
Folic acid has received special attention lately because its deficiency can cause abor-
tion or miscarriage and neural tube defects. In addition, folic acid is related to brain
health and prevents cardiovascular disease in adults.
Nutraceutical compounds are classified according to their chemistry and biologi-
cal activity (Table 17.18). Modern humans are more prone to oxidative stress because
they are exposed to many oxidative agents such as air contamination, stress, cigarette
Table 17.18
Major Nutraceuticals Associated with Cereal Grains
Nutraceutical Compound
Anatomical Part/ Preventive or Therapeutic
Family Class Main Cereals Effect
Phenolics Simple phenolics such Mainly associated Prevent oxidative stress, cancer,
as ferulic with pericarp; cholesterolemia,
present in all cereal atherosclerosis, and aging
grains
Avenathramide Associated with outer There are 35–40 phenolic
layers of oats alkaloids that occur as amides of
(pericarp, aleurone) substituted anthranilic acids.
They are antiinflammatory,
antiirritant, and prevent chronic
inflammatory disease,
cardiovascular disease, cancer,
diabetes, Alzheimer’s, and
schizophrenia
Flavonoids Anthocyanidins Mainly associated Prevent oxidative stress, cancer,
Flavonols with aleurone of cholesterolemia,
Flavan-3-ols blue- and atherosclerosis, and aging
Flavanones red- colored maize.
Flavanones
(erodictyol, and
naringenin) are
found in yellow-
lemon sorghums.
Condensed tannins Mainly associated Prevent oxidative stress, cancer,
with testa of cholesterolemia,
high-tannin or atherosclerosis, stomach ulcers,
brown sorghums. and aging
Carotenoids Carotenes Mainly associated to β-Carotenes are converted to
starchy endosperm vitamin A or retinol. Prevent
in yellow cancer, cardiovascular disease,
endosperm cereals. and strengthen the immune
system.
Xanthophylls Mainly associated Prevent age-related macular
Lutein with yellow degeneration and cataracts
Zeaxanthin endosperm maizes, (opacity of the crystalline lens
Cryptoxanthin wheat, and of the eye); slow down
sorghum. symptoms of retinitis
pigmentosa; prevent
cardiovascular disease and
cancer
Phytosterols Sitosterol Mainly associated Compete with cholesterol for
Stigmasterol with germ, pericarp, absorption, and therefore are
Campesterol and aleuronie of hypocholesterolemic; prevent
Avenasterol most cereals cardiovascular diseases
—continued
608 Cereal Grains
Fiber Soluble Mainly associated Improves function of
with oats and rice gastrointestinal tract, increases
bran viscosity, and lowers glycemic
index. Reduces risk of diabetes,
and hypercholesterolemia. Most
soluble fibers are probiotic
because they are readily
fermented in the hind gut,
yielding short-chain fatty acids
that inhibit hepatic HMG Co A
reductase.
Insoluble Mainly found in Improves gastrointestinal
pericarp associated functionality; increases bile
with cell walls of all acid binding, fecal bulk, and
cereal grains reduces constipation,
hemorrhoids, diverticulitis, and
cancer of the large bowel
Phytic acid Inositol Mainly associated Antioxidant, antineoplastic
Inositol hexakisphosphate with aleurone and properties in breast, colon, liver,
pericarp of all leukemia, prostate, sarcomas,
cereal grains and skin cancer
Polyunsaturated Linoleic acid Mainly associated Help to reduce cholesterol and
fatty acids (18:2 ω6) with the germ or hyperlipidemia. Linoleic and
Linolenic acid scutellum of all linolenic acids are transformed
(18:3 ω3) cereals into prostaglandins and the
nutraceutical fatty acids EPA
and DHA.
Lecithin and Phosphatydil choline, Mainly associated Phosphatydil choline (lecithin),
choline phosphatydil ethanol with the germ ethanol amine, inositol, and
amine, phosphatydil serine are essential for proper
inositol, function of cell membranes and
phosphatydil serine brain. They slow down the
process of cell aging and
prevent high cholesterol.
Choline is used for the
synthesis of acetyl choline,
which is the main
neurotransmission.
Vitamins Tocopherols Mainly associated Tocopherols are important
with the germ of all antioxidants. α-Tocopherol or
cereals vitamin E is considered the
second line of defense against
oxidative stress. Prevents
cardiovascular disease and high
cholesterol, and improves
mental health and brain
function; considered
antimutagenic and anticancer.
Folic acid Mainly associated Prevents neural tube defects in
with aleuronie of all newborn babies, miscarriages,
cereal grains and aids in proper brain
development; lowers
homocysteine, and therefore
helps to prevent cardiovascular
diseases
Policosanols Long chained Mainly associated Have beneficial physiological
alcohols (waxes): with outer part of activities such as reducing
octacosanol, the pericarp and blood lipid levels and platelet
tricontanol, germ aggregation
hexacosanol, Maize and sorghum
dotriacontanol contain significant
quantities
smoke, and others. In addition, the human body constantly produces free radicals that
can cause cell membrane oxidation and DNA damage that exacerbates mutations of
protoncogenes, aging, and increases the probability of cancer and chronic diseases.
17.10.1 Phenolic Compounds

Phenolic compounds are the most widely distributed secondary metabolites pres-
ent in the plant kingdom (Dicko et al. 2006). They can be divided into three major
categories: simple phenolics, flavonoids, and tannins. Phenolics are usually derived
from benzoic or cinnamic acids (Figure 17.4). On the other hand, flavonoids and
anthocyanins are built from two units: a C6‑C3 unit from cinnamic and a C6 frag-
ment from malonyl-CoA. Tannins are polymers of 5–7 units or more of flavan‑3‑ol or
catechins. Most phenolics associated with cereal grains are present in the pericarp,
testa or seed coat, aleurone, and glumes or husks.
Ferulic acid in its free, conjugated, and bound forms is the most important simple
phenolic compound present in cereal grains. It is a hydroxycinnamic acid associated
610 Cereal Grains
CH CHCOOH COOH
(a) (b)
CH3O B
O O
HO CH CH C OH A
(c) (d)
OH
HO O
OH
OH
OH
OH
HO O OH
OH
OH
n
OH
O
HO OH
OH
OH
(e)
Figure 17.4 Chemical structure of main types of phenolic compounds associated with
cereal grains. (a) Cinnamic acid. (b) Benzoic acid. (c) Ferulic acid. (d) Anthocyanidin. (e)
Condensed tannins.
with cell walls (Hernaz et al. 2001, Rouaua et al. 2003). In cereals, most ferulic acid
is found in bound or conjugated forms. The insoluble-bound ferulic forms (diferulic)
are covalently linked to polysaccharides, mainly in the pericarp and aleurone layers.
The function of these compounds is to crosslink and strengthen cell walls, therefore
playing an important role in the lignification process that influences the physical and
textural attributes of plants and foods (Kroon and Williamson 1999). Regardless of
the ferulic acid form, it is considered a potent antioxidant and a nutraceutical that
prevents inflammation, cancer, LDL oxidation, and neuron degeneration (Kanski et
al. 2002). Generally, phenolic compounds possessing ortho hydroxyl groups possess
higher antioxidant capacity than others.
Among cereals, sorghum and maize had higher antioxidant activity compared to
wheat, oats, and rice. Sorghum is known to contain the highest content of phenolic
compounds, reaching up to 6% in some varieties (Dicko et al. 2006). The wide array
of sorghum genotypes may contain all classes of phenolic compounds including con-
densed tannins (Awika et al. 2003, 2004, Awika and Rooney 2004). Moreover, some
sorghums have higher antioxidant capacity compared to the most significant sources
of antioxidants such as those found in blackberries (Awika et al. 2004). According
to Sosulski et al. (1982) and Adom and Liu (2002), maize in some instances contains
up to three times more phenolics compared to wheat, rice, and oats. Milling and
nixtamalization greatly affect the amount of phenolics and antioxidant capacity of
cereal grains. The physical removal of the fibrous-rich outer layers takes away most
phenolics, and consequently greatly affects the nutraceutical potential. De la Parra
et al. (2007) demonstrated that the lime-cooking of maize for production of torti-
llas significantly reduced total phenols and antioxidant activities (losses of approxi-
mately 50% or more). However, the nixtamalized grains contained higher amounts
of free phenolics and free and conjugated ferulic acid, and lowered concentrations
of bound phenolics and ferulic acid, indicating that lime-cooking released these
phytochemicals.
Cereals may contain significant amounts of flavonoids such as flavanols, fla-
vanones, flavones, and anthocyanins. Red, blue, and purple-pigmented maize ker-
nels are rich in anthocyanins, and several reports indicate that these are similar to
the ones found in red wine. The main anthocyanins are cyanidin and peonidin gly-
cosides (Cortes et al. 2006, Del Pozo-Insfran 2006, 2007, Mazza and Miniati 1993).
Simple or acylated anthocyanin glycosides are mainly located in the endosperm’s
aleurone layer. Cumulative results of epidemiological in vitro and in vivo research
suggest an inverse relationship between anthocyanin consumption and the incidence
of various chronic and degenerative diseases. Their health benefits have been related
to their high antioxidant and antiradical activities (Tsuda et al. 2003, Fimognari et
al. 2004). Del Pozo-Insfran et al. (2006, 2007) concluded that processing of blue
maize into tortillas reduced the amount of anthocyanidins more than 50%, and that
these losses were correlated to the loss of antioxidant capacity (r = 0.94). Most of
these nutraceuticals leached into the cooking liquor or nejayote during lime cooking
and steeping.
Sorghum is the most promising cereal grain in terms of flavonoids and nutraceu-
tical potential. For instance, sorghum may contain flavan-3-ols, flavan-4-ols, and
anthocyanins such as apigeninidin and luteolinidin (Awika et al. 2003, 2004, Dicko
et al. 2006). The main type of flavonoid from sorghum is flavanes. The flavan-3‑en-
3‑ols with double bonds between C3 and C4, and hydroxylated in position C3, are
called anthocyanins. Among flavonols, the flavan-4-ols have particular therapeutic
interest because of their antitumor activity (Awika et al. 2004, Ferreira and Slade
2002) and enhancement of immune response. Sorghums with a black pericarp such
as Shawaya contain higher levels of flavan-4-ols, and anthocyanins compared to
other varieties (Dykes et al. 2005).
Among commercial cereals, sorghum is the only one that may contain significant
amounts of condensed tannins. Deprez et al. (2001) reported that procyanidins could
be absorbed through the intestinal cell monolayer (Caco-2 cells) but only up to trim-
ers. The tannins have nutraceutical benefits due to their strong antioxidant capacity.
Experimental animal studies have demonstrated that some high-tannin sorghums
decrease colon and mammary cancers in induced animals.
612 Cereal Grains
17.10.2 Lipids, Phospholipids, and Inositol

Cereal lipids are relatively minor constituents in cereal grains. Most lipids are
located in the germ’s scutellum. Thus, lipid contents are significantly reduced when
kernels are degermed or decorticated. The lipids can be subdivided into nonpolar,
polar, and nonsaponifiable. By far the most abundant type is the nonpolar fraction
consisting of triglycerides. In all cereal grains except brown rice and oats, the major
fatty acid component is linoleic (18:2 ∆ 9, 12), followed by palmitic acid (16:0). In
brown rice and groats, oleic acid (18:1 ∆9) is the major unsaturated fatty acid (Chung
and Ohm 2000). Linoleic acid is considered the only essential fatty acid for humans,
and cereals do contain high amounts of this essential nutrient. Both maize and rice
oils are commonly used as a source of commercial refined oils. Most cereal-derived
oils contain more than 40% of linoleic acid (18:2 ∆ 9, 12) (see Table 3.5, Chapter 3).
The consumption of oils rich in linoleic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid, improves the
ratio between saturated and unsaturated dietary fats. Unfortunately, linoleic does
not improve the ratio between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. Linoleic acid (18:3
∆ 9, 12, 15) can be converted in the human system to linolenic acid and then to
other important fatty acids and metabolites such as eicosanoids and prostaglandins.
Only the triglycerides of barley and rye contain significant amounts of linolenic
acid (6%–7%). From the nutraceutical viewpoint, the polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty
acids are known to reduce serum cholesterol, especially linolenic and the long-chain
polyunsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic or EPA (20:5 ∆ 5, 8, 11, 14, 17), and
docosahexaenoic or DHA (22:6 ∆ 4,7,10, 13, 16, 19). These polyunsaturated acids are
considered the best in terms of nutraceutical properties. Linolenic acid can be con-
verted to EPA and DHA in the human body but with very low efficiency. The benefi-
cial role of these long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids has been well documented in
more than 2,000 clinical studies pointing to health improvements of various human
disorders like CVD, breast and prostate cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, and inflamma-
tory diseases, as well as the new evidence pointing to the benefits in slowing the pro-
gression of Alzheimer’s disease. DHA is considered the most important long-chain
omega-3 fatty acid because it plays an important role in brain chemistry and devel-
opment. It constitutes about half of the lipids found in the neuron cell membrane, in
spermatozoa, and in the photoreceptors of the retina. DHA supplementation is criti-
cal in infants because infants show important limitations in the conversion of lino-
lenic acid into DHA. Both DHA and EPA are known antiinflammatory compounds,
because they are used for synthesis of eicosanoids (Newton and Snyder 1997, Kumar
Rudra et al. 2001, Connor et al. 1992).
The lipid fraction of cereals contains significant amounts of phospholipids such
as phosphatidyl choline, inositol, ethanolamine, and serine. The total lipid fraction of
maize, brown rice, wheat, barley, sorghum, and groats contain about 5%, 9%, 17%,
13%, and 20% phospholipids, respectively (Chung and Ohm 2000). Unfortunately,
most of these phospholipids are lost during the first step or degumming of the oil refin-
ing process. These polar lipids are considered nutraceuticals because they form part
of the cell membranes and keep their integrity. Phosphatidyl choline or lecithin helps
to maintain proper functioning of the liver and to transport lipids, and its deficiency
is related to increased susceptibility to hepatic cancer. Lecithin and choline lower the
risk of cardiovascular disease, and positively affect brain and mental development
of both the fetus and infant; their chronic inadequacy may be related to Alzheimer’s
disease. Choline is considered as one of the most important neurotransmittors, and
is supplemented in geriatrics in order to maintain proper brain function (Canty 2001,
Canty and Zeisel 1994, Signore et al. 2008, Zeisel 1994). Phosphatidyl inositol and
serine are lipotropic and reduce blood triglycerides. One of the most relevant effects
is the reduction of fatty liver and the prevention of bipolar disorders and Alzheimer’s
disease. The deficiency of these phospholipids is related to increased susceptibility
to hepatic cancer (Majumder and Biswas 2006, Phillippy 2003). Inositol, from phos-
phatidyl inositol or from the enzymatic hydrolysis of phytates by phytases, is known
as a potent nutraceutical because it is essential for brain functioning, and prevents
liver damage and fatty infiltrations. It is especially recommended for newborns and
geriatrics. Inositol is considered a potent biological active compound, and by some
nutritionists as part of the B-vitamin complex (Vitamin B8) because it helps to main-
tain cell membrane integrity and other important metabolic functions such as part of
phosphatidyl inositol required for the proper functioning of the brain and heart. In
addition, it helps in the synthesis of RNA and to transport lipids and cholesterol. As
a result, inositol is considered hypocholesterolemic, cardioprotective, and anticarci-
nogenic (Holub 1982, Phillippy 2003, Vucenik and Shamsuddin 2006).
Stabilized whole rice bran is rich in protein, lipids, dietary fiber, vitamins, essen-
tial minerals, and important nutraceuticals such as phospholipids, choline, inositol,
phytosterols, tocols, and tocotrienols. Tocols and tocotrienols are potent antioxidants
that reduce the risk of cancers and CVD. The whole rice bran is stabilized in order to
denature lipases that cause oxidative rancidity and to protect the intrinsic nutraceuti-
cal compounds. The stabilization of the rice bran is usually done by applying heat in
an extruder. The preservation of the oryzanol is of utmost importance because this
compound is very effective in promoting cardiovascular health (Hoffpauer 2005).
17.10.3 Phytosterols
There has been much interest in the health benefits of consuming phytosterols, espe-
cially since the FDA issued a health claim for their use. These phytochemicals inhibit
the absorption of cholesterol from the small intestine, thus effectively lowering total
blood cholesterol, and LDL. An amount of only 1 to 3 g per day reduces cholesterol
by 5% to 20%. A typical dietary intake of phytosterols varies from 200 to 400 mg
per day (White and Weber 2003). The main sterol present in the whole oat kernel and
extracted oil is β-sitosterol, followed by campesterol, and stigmasterol. The second
dominant sterol in oats is avenasterol (Chung and Ohm 2000).
The sterol composition of rice bran oil was 53% 4-demethylsterols, 12% monom-
ethylsterols, and 35% triterpene alcohols including 4,4´-dimethylsterols. These levels
are substantially higher than those in maize oil and wheat germ oil (Kuroda et al.
1977). According to Kornfeldt and Croon (1981), maize oil contains 1441, 62, and 54
mg/100 g oil of 4-desmethylsterols, 4-monomethylsterols, and 4,4-dimethylsterols,
respectively. Among desmethylsterols, sitosterol is the predominant sterol (60%–
70%), followed by campesterol (16%–22%) and stigmasterol (4%–10%). Ohnishi et
614 Cereal Grains
al. (1986) reported that the relative proportions of wheat kernel sterols were 85%
4-demethylsterols, 12% 4,4´-dimethylsterols, and 3% 4-monomethylsterols.
Sorghum grain contains 39.4 mg/100 g of 4-demethysterols mainly present as
free forms. Approximately 75% of these compounds were associated with the germ.
Mahadevappa and Raina (1978) reported the total sterol lipid content as 149 mg/100
g in finger millet. The major sterol was β-sitosterol, which comprised 80%–84% of
the total sterols.
Research on maize fiber (Moreau et al. 1996) has shown that oil associated with
the fiber fraction is different in composition compared to regular oil obtained from
the germ. The fiber oil contains important amounts of ferulate phytosterol esters,
free phytosterols, and fatty acid phytosterol esters, which lower serum cholesterol in
laboratory animals. The most common class is ferulate phytosterol esters dominated
by sitostanol, which is considered more efficient in lowering cholesterol. Phytosterols,
such as ergosterol, campesterol, β-sitosterol, and stigmasterol, compete for choles-
terol absorption, and therefore are considered hypocholesterolemic and preventive
against CVD. According to Raicht et al. (1980) and Fiala et al. (1985) the supple-
mentation of 0.2% β-sitosterol decreases the occurrence of chemically induced colon
tumors.
17.10.4 Carotenoids and Xanthophylls

Other important groups of antioxidants are the carotenoids and xanthophylls.
Carotenoids are polyisoprenoids containing 40 carbons that provide color to
plants, microorganisms, fish, and birds, but they cannot be synthesized in animals.
Carotenoid hydrocarbons are known as carotenes and are the biosynthetic plant pre-
cursors of the oxygenated derivatives named xanthophylls. The absorption of these
compounds is not regulated, therefore their concentration in blood and peripheral
tissues reflect ingestion. Carotenoids are constituted by a conjugated polyene chain,
which accounts for the color and sensibility to light.
Carotenoids are very minor constituents of cereal grains. They are most abun-
dant in yellow maize, yellow sorghum, and durum wheat. In a study by Blessin et
al. (1963), the distribution of carotenoids in yellow maize kernels was 74%–86% in
the corneous endosperm, 9%–23% in the floury endosperm, 2%–4% in the germ,
and only 1% in the pericarp. By far the predominant types in maize are lutein (2–33
mg/kg) and zeaxanthin (0.6–27.4 mg/kg), followed by β-carotenes (0.1–5.4 mg/kg)
(White and Weber 2003). Wall and Blessin (1969, 1970) report that zeaxanthin (2.8
mg/kg) and lutein (2.2 mg/kg) are also the major carotenoids in yellow endosperm
sorghums. Durum wheats generally contain more carotenoids than common bread
wheats. The Canadian Grain Commission reported a concentration of 5.5–8.4 mg/kg
of β-carotenes from an analysis of more than 10,000 entries (Chung and Ohm 2000).
In wheat, the carotenoids are not homogenously distributed in the different anatomi-
cal parts. The bran, germ, and endosperm tissues contain 0.88–2.22, 4.13–11.0, and
1.57–2.18 mg/kg, respectively. According to Laignelet (1983), the total carotenoid
loss during the pasta-making process ranged from 24% to 75%. Lepage and Sims
(1968) reported that durum and bread wheat flours contained total carotenoids of 3.7
and 2.8 mg/kg, respectively. Nearly 85% of the carotenoids were xanthophylls. Barley
oil contains significant amounts of β-carotenes (52–85 mg/kg oil) and γ-carotenes
(46–65 mg/kg oil). The variety and growing location have significant effects on the
carotenoid contents of durum wheats. Adom et al. (2003) studied differences among
wheat varieties and found that a soft white winter wheat variety (Superior) contained
the highest levels of lutein (145 µg/100 g grain) and zeaxanthin (27 µg/100 g grain),
whereas the hard red spring wheat genotype (Stoa) contained the highest level of
β-cryptoxanthin (13 µg/100 g). Surprisingly, these varieties contained higher levels
of carotenoids compared to a red spring durum type. Recently, efforts have been
made to produce genetically modified rice and maize that express high amounts of
carotenes.
The consumption of yellow endosperm cereal grains can potentially benefit at
least one million children who die every year due to weakness and a deficiency of
vitamin A, and 350,000 more who become completely blind. The main nutraceuti-
cal role of carotenoids for humans is the molecular protection against free radicals.
From the nutritional viewpoint, the most important metabolite is β-carotene because
one molecule is converted into two of the active form of vitamin A or retinol in a
normal human system. In addition, β-Carotenes can regenerate the activity of vita-
min E, and possibly other oxidized antioxidants. β-carotenes also act as an antioxi-
dant that scavenges free radicals deep in human LDL and HDL, as well as in cell
membranes. As explained before, vitamin A is considered the most important lipo-
soluble vitamin for human nutrition and health. The supplementation of vitamin A
or β-carotenes prevents partial and complete blindness, xerophthalmia, cancer, and
CVD, and strengthens the immune system. Lutein, zeaxanthin, and cryptoxanthin
are xanthophylls that have received special attention because they prevent macu-
lar degeneration highly associated with blindness in geriatric patients (Fullmer and
Shao 2001).
17.10.5 Tocopherols
Tocol derivatives such as tocopherols and tocotrienols are responsible for the vita-
min E activity of plant tissues. Various combinations of all eight tocols are found
among cereals. The most predominant forms are α-tocopherol, γ-tocopherol, and
α-tocotrienol (Chung and Ohm 2000). Among the structural parts of cereal grains,
tocol derivatives are most abundant in the germ of barley, wheat, and maize (Chung
and Ohm 2000).
Maize oil is a major source of vitamin E and other tocols (White and Weber
2003). The main function of these tocols is to prevent linoleic acid oxidation. The
total tocol content of maize is 0.03% to 0.33% of the oil. The two major tocols are
α-tocopherol and γ-tocopherol. Increased α-tocopherol content may be desirable
because it is much more biologically active than its γ-tocopherol counterpart, espe-
cially in terms of vitamin E activity (White and Weber 2003). Grams et al. (1970)
evaluated four different maize hybrids (two normal, one high-oil, and one opaque-2)
for tocopherol content, and concluded that 70 to 80% of tocopherols were associated
with the germ tissue, and 11% to 27% with the endosperm. The high oil hybrid con-
tained higher levels of α-, and γ-tocopherols, compared to the normal hybrids.
616 Cereal Grains
Vitamin E is considered as a potent antioxidant that blocks the formation of

free radicals in cell membranes. As a result, it prevents CVD, LDL oxidation, and
polyunsaturated fatty acids, and strengthens the immune system by lymphocytes-T
(Bender 1992, Berdanier 2002).
17.10.6 Policosanols
A considerable amount of wax-like material that contains significant amounts of
policosanols can be extracted from maize kernels. The wax is mainly associated
with the outer pericarp layers or epicarp, and germ. Policosanols are a mixture of
long-chained alcohols containing mostly hexacosanol (26:0), octacosanol (28:0),
triacontanol (30:0), and docatriacontanol (32:0). They are commercially obtained
from sugarcane and cereal germs obtained from the milling industries. According
to Hwang et al. (2005), the yield of this wax-like material from maize was 10
mg/100 g of dry kernels. Policosanols, as determined by HPLC in the wax mate-
rial, were only 2% of the total being docosanol (22:0) the major one found in
maize, rice, and wheat (Hwang et al. 2005). Kawaniski et al. (1991) reported octa-
cosanol (28:0) contents of germs of maize, rice, wheat, and maize of 0.82, 0.46, and
0.22/100 g, respectively. A considerable amount of policosanols can be extracted
from sorghum grain or its dried-distilled grains obtained from biorefineries. The
extracted policosonal consists primarily of octacosanol (28:0) and triacontanol
(30:0), which comprises more than 80% of the total policosanols present in whole
sorghum kernels and its dried distilled grains (Hwang et al. 2004). Policosanols
reportedly exert physiological activities such as reducing serum lipid levels and
platelet aggregation (Arruzazabala et al. 1994, 1996, Gouni-Berthold and Berthold
2002, Hargrove et al. 2004).
17.11 Antinutritional Factors
17.11.1 Phytates
Cereals contain significant quantities of phytates (Figure 3.8, Chapter 3). Phytates
are molecules that store phosphorus critical for grain germination. Phytates are
molecules that bind other minerals, and therefore lower their bioavailability. The
phosphorus bound to phytates is not available for monogastrics, including humans.
The available phosphorus in cereal grains ranges from 40%–80%. The phytic acid
binds essential minerals such as calcium, zinc, iron, and magnesium, lowering their
absorption in the gastrointestinal tract (Lasztity and Lasztity 1990). Malting and
fermentation significantly increase phosphorus and other mineral bioavailability,
because the germinating grain or fermenting media produce phytases. Decortication
also reduced phytates due to the removal of pericarp and aleurone cells that are
rich in phytic bodies. After sorghum decortication, approximately 40–45% of the
phytates are removed. Phytates can be converted to myo-inositol when hydrolyzed
by different types of phytases.
17.11.2 Tannins
All cereals contain phenolic compounds but only type III grain sorghums with
pigmented testa possess significant levels of condensed tannins (Figure 17.4). Most
commercial sorghums do not contain tannins because they are classed as type I
or II. It is estimated that only 10% of the sorghum planted worldwide is brown or
type III. Tannins protect the grain against insects, birds, and weathering. Grain
sprouting in the field is considerably lower in tannin sorghums compared to other
types. These properties are excellent from the agronomy viewpoint but unfortu-
nately are accompanied by a reduction in the nutritional value and food quality.
The main antinutritional effects of tannins are a lower rate of protein digestibil-
ity, lower efficiency of feed conversion, and reduced growth in monogastrics and
humans (Butler 1992). These negative effects are mainly due to the great affinity
of tannins for dietary proteins, and digestive enzymes. Tannins bind specifically to
proline rich proteins such as that present in saliva. Therefore, a high tannin intake
increases saliva secretion and the excretion of endogenous proteins. In addition,
tannins bind to digestive enzymes, decreasing the rate of digestibility and nutrient
absorption. The phenolic compounds (i.e., monomers, polyphenols, and tannins)
interfere with iron absorption. This inhibition is mainly attributed to the presence
of tannic, chlorogenic, and gallic acids (Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 1991, Serna-
Saldivar and Rooney 1995).
There are several ways to decrease tannins or detoxify type III sorghums. The
most effective and widely practiced is the selective removal of the pericarp and
testa via manual or mechanical decortications (Chapter 7); however, this process
is not too efficient because most type III sorghums are soft textured, and therefore
are more prone to break during decortication. Grain germination or treatment with
alkali considerably lowers tannins. Detoxification with magadi alkali or wood ashes
decreases up to 97% the level of tannins, improving protein digestibility and overall
nutritional value.
17.11.3 Cyanogenic Glycosides
Cyanogenic glycosides (Figure 17.5) can be produced in germinated or sprouted sor-
ghum. The main cyanogenic compound, called dhurrin, is hydrolyzed into hydrocya-
nic or prussic acid and p‑hydroxybenzaldehyde (Serna-Saldivar and Rooney 1995).
This toxin is mainly produced in the leaves of the growing plant. The cyanogens are
important because they affect the respiratory chain (cytochrome oxidase) and pro-
duce tachycardia, convulsions, nausea, paralysis, coma, and in high concentrations,
even death. The sorghum caryopses are low in cyanogens (1–29 ppm). However,
when sorghum is germinated, the cyanogenic compounds greatly increase in con-
centrations, reaching levels of more than 1,000 ppm (Panasiuk and Bills 1984). The
cyanogenic compounds are mainly concentrated in the coleoptile and shoot primor-
dial region and the upper growing portion of the mesocotyl of the germinating kernel
(Newton et al. 1980). Drying and milling do not affect cyanogen concentrations in
sorghum malt. However, the selective removal of the rootlets and acrospire signifi-
cantly reduces levels.
618 Cereal Grains
CH CN
H3C O CH2 O
C
O CH2 CH2OH
H3C CN OH O O
OH O OH
HO OH
OH HO OH
OH OH
(a)
CH2 CH O S
(b)
Figure 17.5 Chemical structure of antinutritional factors associated with some cereal
grains. (a) Cyanogenic glucosides. (b) Goitrogens.
17.11.4 Goitrogens
Epidemiological studies have related the consumption of pearl millet with the high
incidence of goiter in some regions of Sudan (Klopfenstein et al. 1983). The goi-
trogenic compound is a thioamide derived from the flavonoid C‑glucosilflavone,
vitexin, glucosilvitexin, and glucosylorientina (Figure 17.5; Birzer, and Klopfenstein
1988). Goitrogens are mainly found in the pericarp or bran, and produce goiter
because they inhibit the conversion of thyroxine (T4) to tri-iodothyronine (T3). The
high consumption of pearl millet causes histological changes such as thyroid cell
enlargement. Grain fermentation, widely practiced for the production of indigenous
African foods, does not affect goiter-producing compounds. However, wet milling
and thermal treatment in an autoclave significantly reduces the quantities of these
antinutritional factors.
17.12 Gluten Intolerance
The enteropathy syndrome caused by the ingestion of gluten present in wheat, bar-
ley, rye, triticale, and possibly oat products is more common in Irish and Caucasian
females. The prevalence among Caucasians is thought to be in a range of 1:100–300
people. This inflammatory disorder of the upper small intestine is also known as
celiac disease. It may be defined as an inflammatory disease of the upper small
intestine in genetically susceptible people. The precipitating factors of cereals toxic
to celiac patients are the storage proteins of wheat known as gliadin and glutelin,
secalins (associated with rye), and hordeins (barley). There is still disagreement
about the toxicity of oat avenins. The clinical feature of celiac disease is charac-
terized by a flat intestinal mucosa with the absence of normal villi resulting in a
generalized nutrient malabsorption. Some peptides from gliadin adhere to a specific
villi receptor, acting as an antigen that triggers the liberation of immune factors
which gradually destroy the intestinal mucosa. There is a strong genetic associa-
tion with human leukocyte antigens (HLA) DQ2 and DQ8, and currently unknown
non-HLA genes (Wieser and Koehler 2008). The structural features unique to these
proteins are sequence domains rich in glutamic acid and proline. The proline renders
these proteins resistant to gastrointestinal proteases. Therefore, large proline and
glutamic acid peptides are accumulated in the duodenum and reach the subepithe-
lial lymphatic tissue, triggering two possible immune responses: the liberation of
cytokine interleukin-15 or stimulation of T cells. Both immune responses result in
mucosal destruction, and apoptosis (Wieser and Koehler 2008). Patients affected by
celiac disease show classic symptoms of chronic diarrhea, steatorrhea (presence of
significant amounts of lipids in feces), dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, anemia,
and vitamin B12, folic acid, and iron deficiencies. The most common therapy after
the diagnosis of celiac disease is to withdraw gluten from the diet. Patients should
be aware of numerous foods that contain hidden sources of gluten such as sauces,
soups, puddings, and sausages. Gluten-free foods are mostly substitutes of products
containing wheat, rye, and barley such as yeast-raised breads, chemical-leavened
bakery items, pasta, and beer. The most common raw materials used are rice, maize,
sorghum, and pseudocereals. It is a challenge for cereal technologists to develop
gluten-free leavened bakery and beer products. For bakery products, waxy starches,
various types of gums, and emulsifiers are utilized to enhance functionality and
product quality. For production of gluten-free beers, sorghum malt and/or enzymes
are used to substitute barley malt.
Self-Evaluation
1. What is the role of cereals in fulfilling the food needs of mankind?
2. What are the nutritional deficiencies observed if a person consumes exclu-
sively cereal-based foods? What are the most marked nutrient deficiencies?
Explain the symptoms generally observed due to each nutrient deficiency.
3. What are the main reasons why mankind still faces hunger and malnutrition,
even though the world produces enough cereals and foods for all humans?
4. What are main differences between marasmus and kwashiorkor? How
many people are affected by these deficiencies? What are the classic symp-
toms of an infant severely affected by kwashiorkor?
5. Vitamin A can be produced from β-carotenes in the human system. How
are β-carotenes transformed into the active form of vitamin A? Explain
how the genetically modified golden rice can help to alleviate vitamin A
deficiencies in Asia.
6. Explain the reason why whole grain products are a good source of calories
for diabetic people. What is glycemic index? Explain the significance of the
glucose tolerance index and how the test is performed?
7. Whole cereals are considered a good source of dietary fiber. Explain the
reason why dietary fiber is considered as essential even though it does not
provide any digestible or useful nutrients.
620 Cereal Grains
8. Describe differences in chemical composition and health benefits of soluble

and insoluble dietary fibers. Which cereal has received more attention as a
good source of dietary fiber? Why?
9. What are the differences among gross, digestible, metabolized, and net
energies?
10. Calculate, and compare the gross and digestible energies provided by 100 g
of wheat flour tortillas with the following composition:
Moisture. 32.0 g Minerals 2.4 g

Carbohydrates 46.0 g Crude fiber 0.3 g
Lipids 12.0 g Gross energy ??
Protein 7.3 g Digestible energy ??
11. What is resistant starch? Which type of resistant starch is most common in
cereal-based processed foods?
12. Why is protein nutrition considered more complex than energy nutrition?
13. Explain why the development of high-lysine cereals can partially solve pro-
tein malnutrition problems around the world? Which cereals have geno-
types that contain high-protein quality?
14. Define the following terms used in protein nutrition:
a. Essential amino acid f. Limiting amino acid
b. Complementary effects of proteins g. Chemical value
c. Biological value h. Protein digestibility
d. Net protein utilization i. PER or protein efficiency ratio
e. PDCEAA or protein digestibility corrected essential amino acid value
15. What factors affect protein quality of a given food? In your opinion, which
of these factors is the one that affects most the protein quality of cereals?
16. What is the difference in amino acid composition or balance and protein
quality among the protein fractions that compose any cereal grain.
17. Of the following list of amino acids underline those essential for humans, and
indicate if nonpolar, aliphatic, sulfur, basic, acidic, branched, or aromatic:
a. Glutamic g. Methionine m. Tyrosine
b. Serine h. Phenylalanine n. Cystine
c. Tryptophan i. Leucine o. Arginine
d. Glycine j. Isoleucine p. Alanine
e. Lysine k. Aspartic q. Glutamine
f. Histidine l. Threonine
18. What is the chemical value of the following protein? Mark the first and sec-
ond limiting amino acid. How can you improve the protein quality of this
food?
Amino Acid Protein Requirement Chemical Value (%)

g/100 g protein
A 3.1 5.44
B 3.0 3.52
C 2.5 2.80
D 0.6 1.00
E 7.4 7.04
F 4.5 4.09
19. Explain the reason why weaned infants are the most prone or susceptible to
protein malnutrition?
20. What is the only fatty acid essential in human nutrition. Why is it consid-
ered essential?
21. Explain the reason why trans fats are a major concern in the food industry.
What are the major sources of trans fats?
22. What mineral is the most abundant in cereals? Why is its availability
questionable?
23. What are the main reasons cereals have lower iron bioavailability compared
to animal foods.
24. Cereals are considered a good source of most B-vitamins. Which B-vitamin
is not present in cereal grains?
25. Which amino acid can be converted into niacin? Why is niacin bioavail-
ability low in raw maize?
26. Fill in the following table, indicating the deficiency disease and common
symptoms for the following vitamins and minerals.
Vitamin Disease Symptoms

Thiamin
Niacin
Folic acid
Cobalamine
Vitamin A
Iron
Zinc
Iodine
27. For the following cereal processes describe how they affect starch, protein,
dietary fiber, vitamin content, bioavailability, and overall nutritional value.
Preparation Effects
Method Starch Protein/ Fiber Vitamins Minerals
Amino
Acids
Dry milling
Cooking
Alkali cooking
Malting/
germination
Fermentation
622 Cereal Grains
28. What is gluten intolerance? What kind of cereals are the most used to pro-
duce gluten-free products?
29. What are condensed tannins? Why are they considered as both antinutri-
tional factors and nutraceuticals? Which cereal grain has genotypes that
contain significant quantities of these compounds?
30. What are cyanogenic glucosides? What kind of cereal, and in what stage,
contains important quantities of these antinutritional compounds?
31. What are the effects of goitrogens on human health? What type of cereal
can contain important quantities of these antinutritional compounds?
32. For the following nutraceuticals, indicate in which anatomic cereal part
they are mainly concentrated and their effects on human health.
Nutraceutical Anatomical Part Health Effects

Ferulic acid
β-carotenes
Zeaxanthin
Lutein
Phytosterols
Anthocyanins
Tannins
Policosanols
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18 Cereals as Feedstuffs
for Animal Nutrition
18.1 Introduction
Cereal grains are by far the most important feed for domestic animals. Approximately
660 million metric tons of cereals were converted in a recent year-end estima-
tion by 17,250, 1,389, 989, and 58 million head of chickens, bovines, swine, and
horses, respectively, into eggs, milk, and various types of meat products (FAO 2009,
Table 18.1). Significant amounts of cereals are also channeled to feed fish, crusta-
ceans, and pet animals. Among cereals, maize is the most important feed grain,
followed by barley, wheat, sorghum, and oats. More than 400 million tons of maize
moved into the feed industry. Maize is the preferred feedstock because it is relatively
cheap, palatable, readily digested by both monogastrics and ruminants, and widely
available around the globe. Cereals are biotransformed into animal products that
possess excellent protein quality and digestibility, and provide some essential nutri-
ents that are scarce in cereal-based foods (i.e., calcium, iron, vitamin B12) (Chapter
17). Additionally, the minerals and vitamins associated with animal products are
more bioavailable to the human system.
Poultry, swine, dairy, and feedlot-raised cattle (Figure 18.1) consume most cereals
and their by-products. Poultry and swine diets usually contain up to 70% cereal-
based products, whereas feedlot rations contain up to 90%. The feed industry formu-
lates feeds from whole cereals and the wide array of by-products obtained from the
dry-milling (Chapter 7), wet-milling (Chapter 8), brewing, and bioethanol industries
(Chapter 14). The main use of cereals is as a source of highly digestible energy,
although some by-products are rich in fiber, fat, and protein. Cereals alone are not
capable of sustaining growth in most domestic animals, especially in the early stages
of development, because they do not have the protein quality required for optimum
growth. The cereal protein is not well-balanced in terms of essential amino acids,
therefore most feeds are supplemented with legume or oilseed proteins. The most
widely used sources are soybean (Glycine max) protein and/or synthetic amino acids
(lysine, methionine, and tryptophan) for monogastrics and canola (Brassica sp.), cot-
tonseed (Gossypum hirsitum), and other defatted meals for ruminants. For ruminants
such as bovines, sheep, and goats, it is possible to balance diets using cereals without
protein meals because these animals can convert even nonprotein nitrogen (i.e., urea)
into essential amino acids.
The digestive system of animals allows the conversion of nutrients into simpler
forms that can be absorbed and metabolized. These feed nutrients are converted into
eggs, meats, milk, and even energy for work.
629
630 Cereal Grains
Table 18.1
Percent Utilization of Cereal Grains for Animal Feeds in
2007
Feed Use Total Production
Cereal (Millions Tons) (Million Tons) % Feed Use
Maize 413.14 630.03 65.6
Wheat 86.58 546.23 15.9
Paddy rice 5.88 585.38 1.0
Barley 88.30 137.46 64.2
Sorghum 26.31 56.43 46.6
Oats 18.50 26.13 70.8
Rye 9.66 15.11 63.9
Triticale 8.83 9.99 88.4
Millet 2.91 29.42 9.9
Total 660.1 2,036.2 32.4
Source: FAO (Food Agriculture Organization). 2009. Statistical Database.

Rome, Italy. Electronic page http://faostat.fao.org.
18.2 Monogastrics
Monogastrics are animals or birds that have a simple stomach. Basically, there are
three major types: poultry, swine, and equines (Figure 18.1), although cats, dogs, and
rabbits are also classed as monogastrics.
18.2.1 Poultry
Among domestic animals, poultry (includes broilers, layers, turkeys, and other
less common birds) are the most efficient converters of feed to animal food.
Generally, broilers and turkeys take less than 2 and 4 months, respectively, to
reach the market with an efficiency of food conversion of only 1.9 kg/kg body
weight. Poultry are considered omnivores, and their nutrition and feeding must be
provided in adequate supply to support growth, feathering, egg production, repro-
duction, and hatchability. In the poultry industry, feed expense is the largest sin-
gle cost item, amounting to 60%–75%. Therefore, farmers place much emphasis
on formulating diets using least cost formulation. According to the FAO (2009),
the per capita consumption in 2003 of poultry meat and eggs amounted to 11 and
8 kg, respectively.
18.2.1.1 Digestive System and Digestion

Poultry’s lack of teeth requires the consumed feed to be temporarily stored in the
gizzard, which reduces the feed particle size for better digestion. Poultry have a
complex foregut composed of three sections (crop, proventriculus, and gizzard)
that replace a conventional stomach, and a relatively simple intestinal tract. The
Cereals as Feedstuffs for Animal Nutrition 631
(a)
(b)
Figure 18.1 Domestic animals that consume approximately 30% of the world cereal pro-
duction and provide humankind with nearly all its meat, milk, and eggs. (a) Poultry (layers
and broilers, courtesy of Alejandra Martinez, Ana Margarita Farm, Allende, N.L., Mexico).
(b) Swine (piglets and finisher pig, courtesy of Alejandra Martinez, Ana Margarita Farm,
Allende, N.L, Mexico).
632 Cereal Grains
(c)
(d)
Figure 18.1 (Continued) Domestic animals that consume approximately 30% of the
world cereal production and provide humankind with nearly all the meat, milk, and eggs. (c)
Horses (courtesy of Juan Serna). (d) Feedlot cattle.
esophagus empties directly into the crop where the feed is stored and soaked. From
the crop, the feed passes to the proventriculus or glandular stomach where gastric
secretions are produced. Then the digesting feed passes to the gizzard, which is
characterized by having a very tough muscular lining, and small stones or grit that
help to grind up the ingested feed as a replacement for the chewing actions that
occurs in mammals. Then, the feed continues through the small intestine, ceca, and
(e)
Figure 18.1 (Continued) Domestic animals that consume approximately 30% of the
world cereal production and provide humankind with nearly all the meat, milk, and eggs. (e)
Dairy cattle (courtesy of Joel Velasco Molina).
cloacae. Most of the digested nutrients are absorbed in the duodenum, and the rest
in a relatively long small intestine. The ceca and remainder of the large intestine are
short in comparison with other domestic animal species. Poultry also differ from
mammals in that, instead of having separate excretory ducts for urine and feces,
their urinary secretions are combined with the feces. In addition, nitrogen is excreted
in the urine as uric acid. That is the reason the energy of poultry feed is expressed in
terms of metabolic energy (gross energy − fecal and urine energy). In other species,
the most common way to express the feedstuff energy is digestible (gross energy −
fecal energy) (Ensminger et al. 1990, Kellems, and Church 1998).
18.2.1.2 Nutrient Requirements
The nutrient requirements of poultry mainly vary according to age or physiological
stages and season (NRC 1988). For broilers, three different phases are recognized:
starter, grower, and finisher (Table 18.2). Generally, younger birds (chicks or poul-
try poults) require less metabolizable energy but more dietary protein and essential
amino acids compared to finishers. Layers usually require less protein in the diet but
more metabolizable energy to sustain daily egg production. To minimize egg break-
age, the diets must have an adequate balance between calcium (3.5% to 4.5%), and
available phosphorus (0.25% to 0.5%), depending upon age of the layers and produc-
tion. It is typical to molt hens by feed withdrawl for a few weeks because egg produc-
tion reaches peak (about 85% of original peak) more rapidly in molted hens than in
pullets. Poultry hens usually consume about 100 g of feed per day. The feed is almost
always produced by combining a cereal with a protein meal (soybean meal), and
essential vitamins and minerals. In most instances, the amount of cereal utilized usu-
ally exceeds 50%. As mentioned above, since younger birds require more protein and
essential amino acids, their feed usually contains less cereal and more protein meal
rich in lysine and other essential amino acids. High-fat feedstuffs should be carefully
634 Cereal Grains
Table 18.2
Nutrient Requirements of Broilers and Laying Hens
Broilers
Energy Base
(Kcal ME/kg 0–6 Weeks 6–14 Weeks 14–20 Weeks
Diet) 2900 2900 2900 Laying Hens
Protein (%) 18 15 12 14.5
Lysine (%) 0.85 0.60 0.45 0.64
Methionine + 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.55
Cysteine (%)
Tryptophan (%) 0.17 0.14 0.11 0.14
Minerals
Ca (%) 0.80 0.70 0.60 3.40
P (%) 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.32
Zn (mg) 40 35 35 50
Fe (mg) 80 60 60 50
Vitamins
A (IU) 1500 1500 1500 4000
D (ICU) 200 200 200 400
B1 (mg) 1.8 1.3 1.3 0.80
B2 (mg) 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.055
Niacin (mg) 27.0 11.0 11.0 10.0
B6 (mg) 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
B12 0.009 0.003 0.003 0.004
Source: NRC (National Research Council) 1988b. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. Eighth edition.
National Academy Press. Washington, D.C.
controlled in formulated poultry diets because an excess can cause gastrointestinal

disorders. Most poultry diets are formulated to contain less than 5% fat.
18.2.2 Swine
Swine production represents an important segment of the feed industry worldwide
except in Muslim countries. Pork is an important source of dietary protein for
humans, and is considered the most widely consumed red meat in the world. The
per capita annual consumption of pork meat in 2003 was approximately 15 kg (FAO
2009). Pigs are omnivores, and the anatomy of their digestive tract, nutrient absorp-
tion, and metabolism are akin to humans’. Swine usually take six months to reach
market (100 kg body weight) with an efficiency of food conversion of approximately
3.1–3.3 kg feed/kg gain. If the boar and sow feeds are taken into consideration,
the feed conversion rate ranges from 3.5 to 3.7 kg feed/kg gain (Ensminger et al.
1990). Cereal grains and by-products represent the major part of the typical diet.
Traditionally, feed represents 65%–75% of the total production cost. Thus, farmers
place much emphasis on optimum diet formulation. Needless to say, the feeding
program has a major impact on pig performance, and on the overall profitability of
the swine operation.

Swine masticate and hydrate their feed with saliva before swallowing. The saliva
contains significant amounts of amylases that initiate starch digestion. The feed
reaches the stomach where gastric juices (HCl acid and pepsin) denature and hydro-
lyze proteins. The acidic pH also destroys most of the bacteria. The hydrochloric
acid activates the main proteolytic enzyme by the modification of inactive pepsino-
gen to active pepsin, which is classified as an endoprotease. The predigested feed
then reaches the duodenum where pancreatic juices rich in lipases, amylases, and
proteases (trypsin and chymotrypsin) start lipid hydrolysis and further hydrolyze
starch and proteins. The pancreatic proteases are also secreted as zymogens or inac-
tive forms. These zymogens are modified in the duodenum into the active forms.
These enzymes are classified as endopeptidases, and with the activity of other exo-
peptidases, digest protein and peptides into free amino acids. These amino acids
are absorbed by active transport and require specific carriers to enter epithelial
cells. The undigested protein escapes the small intestine and is fermented by the
microflora present in the hind gut, yielding volatile fatty acids and amines such as
cadaverine and putrecine that cause off-odors in feces. The absorbed pool of amino
acids reach the liver and from there is anabolized or catabolized. If the amino acid
pool contains a well-balanced essential amino acid profile, the body will synthesize
muscle, antibodies, enzymes, and other proteins. In contrast, if the amino acid pool
lacks the proper balance of essential amino acids, the liver will deaminate amino
acids to produce keto acids that are further used as carbon skeletons to yield energy.
The amino groups are excreted as urea in the urine.
Practically all the starch is hydrolyzed by the pancreatic α- and β-amylases. Most
starch is degraded in the duodenum, and then absorbed by diffusion as glucose in
the three sections of the small intestine. The pancreatic juice, rich in bicarbonate
and other buffering compounds, increases the lumen pH, allowing the activation of
pancreatic amylases. The α-amylase hydrolyzes α-1,4-glycosidic bonds at random,
whereas the β-amylase complements its action by hydrolyzing maltose units from
nonreducing ends of linear and branched dextrins. Dextrins, maltose, and other sim-
pler molecules are hydrolyzed to glucose units with enzymes such as α-dextrinase,
maltase, and invertase or sucrase. Small quantities of starch can escape the small
intestine and then be quickly fermented by the microflora of the hind gut. This starch
is known as resistant and lowers the amount of digestible energy. The absorbed glu-
cose almost immediately reaches the blood stream, and then is delivered to all tissues
to be used as energy or stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles, or even fat in
adipose tissue.
In the same way as the starch, the fat is fully hydrolyzed by the pancreatic lipases
and then absorbed by intestinal epithelial cells. The lipid digestion process needs
bile acids secreted by the liver. The bile acids act as emulsifiers, allowing the contact
between the nonpolar lipids and the polar lipases. The bile produced from choles-
terol is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder. The gall bladder releases
636 Cereal Grains
the bile to the duodenum via the gastrointestinal hormone cholecystokinin, whereas
the pancreas secretes the pancreatic juice containing lipases mediated by secretin.
Two major types of lipases are secreted: lipases A1, and A2. The first hydrolyzes
fatty acids positioned on the ends of the triglycerides, whereas the second is selec-
tive only for fatty acids positioned in the center of the triglyceride. Likewise, phos-
pholipases A1 and A2 release fatty acids from phospholipids. Both monoglycerides
and free fatty acids are absorbed by diffusion, and then immediately reformed into
triglycerides and stored in lipoproteins known as chylomicrons. The chylomicrons
travel in the blood stream, delivering lipids to different tissues. Lipoprotein lipases
are the enzymes responsible for degrading chylomicrons. The chylomicron remnant
is transformed into LDL or HDL in the liver. These two lipoproteins have the main
responsibility for delivering lipids and cholesterol to all tissues.
The nutrient requirements for pigs of various weight or physiological stages are sum-
marized in Table 18.3 (NRC 1988). Requirements mainly vary according to age or
physiological stage and season, and are broadly divided into three phases: starter,
grower, and finisher. Generally, weanling piglets require more protein and essential
amino acids in the diet compared to older counterparts. Finishers usually require
less protein in the diet but more energy. Therefore, the finisher diet contains higher
amounts of cereal grains and lower amounts of protein meals such as soybean. The
diet must contain high amounts of digestible energy because it is required for the
basic body processes, protein synthesis, and fat deposition. Most of this energy is
derived from the starch. For protein synthesis or growth to occur at a rapid rate, the
diet must supply sufficient amounts of all the essential amino acids, especially lysine,
methionine + cysteine, and tryptophan. Lysine is generally the first limiting amino
acid because it is required to build muscle, and is present in relatively low concentra-
tions in cereals. The protein and amino acid requirements, expressed as a percentage
of the diet, decrease with increasing body weight or age. For example, a 9 kg pig
and a 68 kg pig require 20% and 14% crude protein in the diet, respectively. Swine
diets are almost always produced by combining a ground cereal grain with a protein
meal (soybean meal) and vitamin and mineral premixes. The amount of cereal used
usually exceeds 50%. High-fat feedstuff should be carefully controlled in formulated
diets because an excess can cause diarrhea and other gastrointestinal disorders. Most
swine diets contain less than 5% fat and 5% fiber. The fiber is needed to promote
gastrointestinal or peristaltic movements. It is especially important in sows because
it decreases the incidence of constipation that is common during pregnancy.
18.2.3 Equines
Horses and related animals were domesticated approximately five thousand years
ago, and since then have provided meat and the much needed energy power for work
and transportation. Today, equines continue to be an important source of meat in
many regions of the world, and provide the needed power for transportation, and
work in many developing countries. In industrialized countries of the world, horse
riding is practiced as a hobby or recreation, and horse racing represents a very
Table 18.3
Nutrient Requirements of Starter, Grower, and Finisher Pigs
Weight (kg)
Intake and Performance Levels Starter 5–10 Grower 20–50 Finisher 50–110
Expected weight gain (g/d) 250 700 820
Expected feed intake (g/d) 460 1,900 3,110
Expected efficiency (feed/gain) 1.84 2.71 3.79
Digestible energy (kcal/d) 1,560 6,460 10,570
Metabolize energy (kcal/day) 1,490 6,200 10,185
Energy concentration (kcal ME/kg diet) 3,240 3,260 3,275
Protein (%) 20 15 13
Requirement (% or Amount/kg Diet)
Amino Acids
Lysine 1.15 0.75 0.60
Methionine + Cysteine 0.58 0.41 0.34
Tryptophan 0.17 0.12 0.10
Minerals
Calcium (%) 0.80 0.60 0.50
Phosphorus, total (%) 0.65 0.50 0.40
Iron (mg) 0.14 60 0.14
Zinc (mg) 100 60 0.10
Vitamins
Vitamin A (IU) 2,200 1,300 1,300
Thiamin B1 (mg) 1.0 1.0 1.0
Niacin, available (mg) 15.0 10.0 7.0
Vitamin B6 (mg) 1.5 1.5 1.0
Vitamin B12 (μg) 17.5 10.0 5.0
Folacin (mg) 0.3 0.3 0.3
Source: NRC (National Research Council). 1988c. Nutrient Requirements of Swine. National Research
Council. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C.
lucrative activity. The equine meat is leaner or less fatty compared to ruminant or
monogastric meats, and it is viewed as a dietetic food. In some parts of the world,
horse meat is considered a delicacy.

Digestion in equines starts in the mouth where the incisors and molar teeth play an
important role in tearing and grinding forages and whole grains. The stomach of
equines is relatively small, and little digestion occurs in this organ. The enzymatic
digestion of starch, protein, and fat occurs in the small intestine. However, if an exces-
sive amount of cereal grains is consumed, the capacity of the small intestine to digest
and absorb the starch may be exceeded, and some of the starch will bypass into the
638 Cereal Grains
large bowel. Most digestion in the large intestine occurs in the cecum and large colon.
These structures contain microbial populations similar to those found in the rumen
of bovines. If a large amount of starch reaches the large intestine, the microflora may
be negatively affected, resulting in colic, diarrhea, or laminitis. The main function of
the microflora is to digest the fiber into volatile fatty acids that are absorbed through
the large intestinal wall. The short-chain fatty acids such as propionate and acetate
can be utilized as a source of energy. The limited protein synthesis in the horse com-
pared to ruminants, and the lack of amino acid absorption in the cecum, indicate that
horse rations should contain high quality proteins with a well-balanced amino acid
composition (Ensminger et al. 1990, Kellems and Church 1998).
The nutrient requirements of horses mainly vary according to age and energy
required for work (Table 18.4, NRC 1989). In practical equine nutrition, forages are
the primary dietary component. In fact, a horse can meet its nutrient requirements
based solely on a good quality forage diet. Increased energy of horses is generally
met by augmenting grain and decreasing roughages. However, an excessive intake
of cereal grains can lead to serious digestive and metabolic problems such as diar-
rhea, founder, colic, and laminitis. To minimize digestive problems, forage should
comprise at least 50% of the diet. Horses of all ages require adequate amounts of
protein of suitable quality for maintenance, growth, reproduction, and work. The
protein requirements during growth, reproduction, and lactation are the greatest,
and most critical. Since all cereal grains are deficient in lysine and tryptophan, other
protein supplements such as alfalfa, soybean, and dried milk are recommended,
especially for young animals. Oats have been the traditional feed for horses because
they contain more favorable fiber content, and release their energy at a slower rate.
In addition, oats are somewhat higher in protein quantity and quality compared
to maize and other cereals. A number of cereal grain by-products are also com-
monly used as horse feeds. Wheat bran, and middlings and maize gluten feed are
frequently used in the preparation of pelleted feeds (Ensminger et al. 1990, Kellems
and Church 1998).
18.3 Ruminants
The most important ruminant species for mankind are bovines (Figure 18.1) fol-
lowed by sheep and goats. These animals provide humankind with two important
protein foods: meat and milk. Dairy and meat products are important suppliers of
proteins, energy, and important vitamins and minerals. The average per capita con-
sumption of ruminant meat and milk products in the year 2003 was approximately
9 kg and 80 kg, respectively (FAO 2009). To meet the huge demands for these prod-
ucts, approximately 1,389 billion beef and dairy cows are in intensive and extensive
production systems throughout the globe. A dairy cow with an average body weight
of 450 kg consumes about 15 kg of dry matter per day, whereas a feedlot steer eats
at least 7 kg per day.
Ruminants have a major modification in their gastrointestinal tract because the
stomach is divided into four compartments. The rumen is one of the compartments,
Table 18.4
Nutrient Requirements of Mature and Growing Horses
Minerals
Digestible Crude
Weight Daily Energy Protein Lys Ca P Mg K Vitamin
(kg) Gain (kg) (Mcal) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) A (103IU)
Mature Horses
Maintenance 600 — 19.4 776 27 24 17 9.0 30.0 18
Stallions (breading season) 600 — 24.3 970 34 30 21 11.2 36.9 27
Pregnant mares
10 months 600 — 21.9 965 34 42 32 10.5 35.1 36
Lactating mares
Foaling to 3 months 600 — 33.7 1,711 60 67 43 13.1 55.2 36
Lactating mares
Cereals as Feedstuffs for Animal Nutrition
3 months to weaning 600 — 28.9 1,258 44 43 27 10.4 39.6 36

Working horses
Moderate work 600 — 29.1 1,164 41 36 25 13.4 44.2 27.2
Growing Horses
Weanling, 4 months 200 1.00 16.5 825 35 40 22 4.3 13.0 9
Weanling, 6 months
Moderate growth 245 0.75 17.0 850 36 34 19 4.6 14.5 11
Yearling, 12 months
Moderate growth 375 0.65 22.7 1,023 43 36 20 6.4 20.7 17
Source: NRC (National Research Council). 1989. Nutrient Requirements of Horses. Fifth edition. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
639
640 Cereal Grains
and allows these animals to derive energy and nutrients from fiber. The ingested
food is subjected to very extensive pregastric microbial fermentation before reach-
ing the true stomach, or abomasums, and the rest of the gastrointestinal tract. The
stomach of ruminants amounts to about 25%–28% of the body weight, whereas the
stomach of monogastrics equals only about 4%. The main advantage of ruminants
is their ability to transform forage into milk and meat. However, these animals
often require at least twice as much feed/kg gain compared to swine or poul-
try. When a ruminant animal is born it has a nonfunctional rumen, and therefore
behaves more like a monogastric. When the animal starts to consume fibrous foods
the rumen will gradually develop, and will become fully functional by about 6
months in domestic bovines and 2 months in lambs and goats. Although ruminants
are mainly adapted to diets that consist primarily of fibrous plants, many animals
are fed high-energy diets in order to increase milk productivity (dairy cattle), daily
weight gains, and carcass quality or grade (feedlot cattle). These intensive produc-
tion systems based on high-energy diets are capable of sustaining average daily
gains of up to 2 kg/day, and milk production of dairy cows of more than 35 L/d
(Ensminger et al. 1990, Kellems and Church 1998).
18.3.1 Digestive System and Digestion

Ruminants are animals that possess four different stomach compartments:
rumen, reticulum, omasum, and the true stomach or abomasum. The largest and
most important compartment is the rumen that comprises approximately 80%
of the total digestive tract. The masticated feed first reaches the rumen where
millions of anaerobic bacteria (25 to 80 billion/ml) and protozoa (0.2 to 0.5
million/ml rumen fluid) ferment most of the chemical components. The number
of rumen bacteria and types varies according to species, the nature of the diet,
and feeding regime. The main advantage of the gastrointestinal tract of rumi-
nants is that it allows these animals to digest most fiber components and convert
nonprotein sources (i.e., urea) into microbial protein that has a good essential
amino acid balance or high biological value. The main source of energy for
ruminants is volatile fatty acids generated during fiber and starch degradation
in the rumen. Lignin is the only fiber component that resists fermentation or is
highly indigestible. The compartment that is positioned in the front of the rumen
is the reticulum. This relatively small organ possesses strong muscles that send
the prefermented ruminant contents back to the mouth for further mastication.
During rumination, the animal regurgitates and remasticates the feed particles,
named bolus. Each bolus is chewed for about 1 minute, and then reswallowed.
Ruminants may spend one-third of the day in rumination. The fermented rumen
contents are then transferred to the omasum where electrolytes and water are
absorbed, creating a more viscous bolus. These predigested contents are further
digested by the enzymes present in the abomasum or true stomach. From there
the digestive system of the ruminant is similar to monogastrics. Most of the
hydrolyzed nutrients are absorbed in the first part of the small intestine or duo-
denum (Ensminger et al. 1990, Kellems and Church 1998).
18.3.1.1 Protein Digestion and Utilization

The microflora present in the rumen are greatly implicated in protein utilization. The
protein quality or amino acid composition is not as critical and important because
ruminants can use bacterial protein generated in the rumen. The microbial protein is
digested in the abomasum and duodenum into a well-balanced pool of amino acids.
The amino acid profile of rumen bacteria is comparable with some high-protein
feedstuffs. However, when supplementing high-protein feedstuffs to dairy and feed-
lot cattle it is desirable that these proteins bypass the rumen so they can be digested
into an excellent pool of essential amino acids in the duodenum. Regardless of the
protein quality or composition, the rumen microflora break down and decompose
essential amino acids. One of the most effective ways to increase bypass protein is to
heat treat the feedstuff. The heat denatures proteins, changing their configuration in
such a way that they resist more rumen fermentation (Ensminger et al. 1990, Kellems
and Church 1998).
For optimum performance, ruminants need a proper balance between escape
and nonescape proteins. Nonescape proteins are required to promote microflora
activity needed to degrade fiber and other components. A good and cheap source of
readily fermentable nitrogen is urea. This source of nonprotein nitrogen is hydro-
lyzed by the microflora into ammonia that is used to produce different amino acids.
An excess of dietary urea can cause acute intoxication or death. Most feedlot diets
never exceed more than 2% urea. If urea or another nonprotein nitrogen source
is included in the diet, it should be progressively supplemented so the microflora
gradually adjusts to the new substrate (Ensminger et al. 1990, Kellems and Church
1998).
18.3.1.2 Carbohydrate Digestion and Energy Utilization

Cereals are the preferred feedstuff in animal nutrition because of their high energy
density. In general, cereals contain between 65% and 80% starch based on total dry
weight. The starch stored in granules is composed of linear amylose and branched
amylopectin (Chapter 3). Normally, cereals contain 25% amylose and 75% amy-
lopectin. The waxy and heterowaxy cereals contain almost pure amylopectin and
approximately 12% amylose, respectively. Since ruminants are capable of producing
energy from fiber sources, cereals are mainly used in the last stages of their growing
cycle when diets need to provide higher amounts of digestible energy. The finishing
diets can contain up to 90% cereal grains. Most starch is fermented in the rumen,
although some that bypasses the rumen is generally hydrolyzed in the duodenum by
pancreatic amylases (Ensminger et al. 1990, Kellems and Church 1998).
In the rumen, the starch is hydrolyzed first into dextrins and later on into glu-
cose and other fermentable carbohydrates, which are further transformed into
pyruvate. The microflora transforms pyruvate into the three major volatile short-
chain fatty acids: acetic, propionic, and butyric. The ratio among these fatty acids
is greatly affected by the diet. When cattle are fed with high-forage or high-fiber
diets, the bacteria mainly produces acetic acid, whereas starch-rich diets tend
to produce higher quantities of propionic acid (Ensminger et al. 1990, Kellems
and Church 1998). The volatile fatty acids are absorbed by the rumen and are
642 Cereal Grains
considered the main energy source (Ensminger et al. 1990, Kellems and Church
1998). Propionic acid is glucogenic because the liver can convert it back to glu-
cose. In addition, it can be transformed into different amino acids by the micro-
flora. It is highly desirable in high-performance feedlot diets to produce large
amounts of propionic acid, whereas in dairy cattle diets, acetic acid is desired.
Acetic acid is the main milk fat precursor, and therefore low-fiber dairy diets tend
to yield lower fat in the milk (<3.5%).
During rumen fermentation other important reactions occur, yielding other
by-products such as ethanol, methanol, methane, and CO2. Ruminants should
gradually adjust to a high cereal or starch diet in order to prevent bloat or acute
timpany due to excessive intraruminal gas production. The types of microorgan-
isms present in a ruminant fed forage are quite different compared to a counter-
part fed a high-starch diet. Another important consideration in ruminant nutrition
is that excessive fermentation causes important pH changes. Only the lactic acid
bacteria are capable of continuing to degrade compounds at low or acidic ruminal
pH. Therefore, high-energy diets are usually supplemented with buffers to assure
proper fermentation, minimize epithelial damage, and prevent liver abscesses
(Ensminger et al. 1990). Approximately 95% of starch is degraded in the rumen
and converted into volatile fatty acids, methane, carbon dioxide, and ethanol.
The rest is usually digested in the small intestine where pancreatic amylases are
secreted, or in the large intestine where more fermenting bacteria are present.
If starch is degraded in the hind gut, the volatile fatty acids are absorbed and
transported in the blood stream to reach the liver where they are also used as an
energy source.
High-fat feedstuff such as tallow and vegetable oils should be carefully controlled
in formulated diets because an excess can cause diarrhea and other gastrointestinal
disorders. For ruminants, the use of more than 8% total dietary fat lowers carbohy-
drate and fiber fermentation and therefore overall feed efficiency.
18.3.2 Nutrient Requirements of Ruminants

18.3.2.1 Beef Cattle
Nutrient requirements for beef cattle vary according to age or weight, physiological
stage (pregnancy or lactation), and the desired level of growth (Table 18.5, NRC
1996). In feedlots, animals are usually divided into growing and finishing steers. The
growing period starts after weaning when animals weigh between 160 and 240 kg.
These animals are fed a growing diet that allows daily gains of 1 to 2 kg (Table 18.6).
A steer with daily gains of 2 kg needs at least twice as much net energy and protein,
compared to a counterpart gaining 1 kg. Most often, steers are grown to a body
weight of 320 to 340 kg before shifting to the finishing diet. Steers will be fed the
finishing diet until reaching an optimum slaughter weight of 450–500 kg. During
the finishing phase, feedlot steers will continue gaining from 1 to 2 kg/day on grain,
depending on the energy density of the diet and the average feed consumption. Both
growing and finishing high-energy diets almost always contain significant amounts
of ground or processed cereal grains with a protein meal (cottonseed or canola meal)
Table 18.5
Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cows
Months Since Conception
3 6 9
Net Energy of Maintenance NEm (Mcal/d)

Maintenance 6.30 6.77 7.23
Growth 2.42 2.59 2.77
Pregnancy 0.16 1.18 5.37
Total 8.87 10.55 15.37
Metabolized Protein (g/d)

Maintenance 311 334 357
Growth 119 117 110
Pregnancy 7 50 251
Total 437 501 718
Calcium (g/d)
Growth 9 8 8
Pregnancy 0 0 12
Total 20 20 33
Phosphorus (g/d)
Maintenance 8 9 10
Growth 3 3 3
Pregnancy 0 0 7
Total 12 13 20
Average Daily Gain (kg/d)

Growth 0.39 0.39 0.39
Pregnancy 0.08 0.28 0.77
Total 0.47 0.67 1.16
Body Weight (kg)

Shrunk body 355 391 426
Gravid uterus 4 19 64
mass
Total 360 410 491
Month Since Calving
3 6 9
Net Energy of Maintenance NEm (Mcal/d)

Maintenance 10.25 10.25 8.54
Growth 0.00 0.00 0.00
Lactation 5.17 2.23 0.00
Pregnancy 0.01 0.16 1.18
Total 15.43 12.64 9.72
—continued
644 Cereal Grains
Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cows
Month Since Calving
3 6 9
Metabolized Protein (g/d)

Growth 0 0 0
Lactation 376 163 0
Pregnancy 1 7 50
Total 799 591 471
Calcium (g/d)
Growth 0 0 0
Lactation 18 8 0
Pregnancy 0 0 0
Total 34 24 16
Phosphorus (g/d)
Growth 0 0 0
Lactation 10 4 0
Pregnancy 0 0 0
Total 23 17 13
Average Daily Gains (kg/d)

Growth 0.00 0.00 0.00
Pregnancy 0.02 0.08 0.28
Total 0.02 0.08 0.28
Milk (kg/d) 7.2 3.1 0.0
Body Weight (kg)

Shrunk body 533 533 533
Conceptus 1 4 19
Total 534 537 552
Source: NRC (National Research Council). 1996. Nutrient

Requirements of Beef Cattle. Seventh edition.
and mineral and vitamin premixes. These diets are usually supplemented with buf-
fers and ionophores such as rumensin or monensin. The buffers are included to pre-
vent acidosis, whereas ionophores prevent bloating and enhance feed efficiency.
Precooked or gelatinized grains are typically digested to a greater extent in the
rumen and total digestive tract than unprocessed grains. The benefits from process-
ing are inversely related to the digestibility of the raw grain. Sorghum is the cereal
Table 18.6
Nutrient Requirements for Growing and Finishing Beef Cattle
Body Weight (kg) 200 300 400
NEm (Mcal/d) 4.1 5.55 6.89
MP (g/d) 202 274 340
Ca (g/d) 6 9 12
P (g/d) 5 7 10
Growth Requirements (Average Daily Gains [kg/d])
Net Energy of Gain NEg (Mcal/d)

1.0 kg/d 2.72 3.68 4.57
2.0 kg/d 5.81 7.88 9.77
Metabolized Protein for Gain (g/d)

1.0 kg/d 299 303 272
2.0 kg/d 580 577 505
Calcium for Gain (g/d)

1.0 kg/d 27 23 19
2.0 kg/d 52 43 35
Phosphorus for Gain (g/d)

1.0 kg/d 11 9 8
2.0 kg/d 21 18 14
Source: NRC (National Research Council). 1996. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle.
Seventh edition. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C.
grain that is most often processed because the thermal treatment greatly enhances
digestibility and feed efficiency (Rooney and Riggs 1971, Defoor et al. 2000).
18.3.2.2 Dairy Cattle
Nutrient requirements for dairy cattle vary according to age, sex, body weight, and to
the stage of lactation, and level of milk production (Tables 18.7, and 18.8, NRC 1988).
Dairy cows are usually supplemented according to the lactation stage, usually consist-
ing of three distinctive trimesters. The dry matter intake of a high-energy diet should
be achieved, especially during early lactation, in order to sustain high milk produc-
tivity. This will minimize the negative nutrient balance experienced postpartum, and
during the first trimester of lactation. A positive energy balance will increase con-
ception rates, decrease the quick loss of body weight, and enhance productivity. The
feed energy density can be augmented by increasing the concentrate to forage ratio.
However, an excess of cereal grains increases the chances of acidosis, bloat, and milk
fat depression. High-energy diets are commonly supplemented with sodium bicar-
bonate and magnesium oxide to minimize acidosis and increase feed intake. Cows
can compensate for much of their deficit in energy intake by burning energy from
body fat; however, they cannot break down very much protein. Therefore, most of the
646
Table 18.7
Nutrient Requirements of Large Breed Dairy Cattle
Dry Energy (Mcal) Net Energy (Mcal) Minerals (g) Vitamins (1000 IU)
Matter
Live Gain Intake TDNa Crude
Weight (kg) (kg) (kg) Digestible Metabolizable Maintenance Gain Protein (g) Ca P A D
Calves 45 0.3 0.54 0.70 3.07 2.86 1.49 0.56 120 8 5 1.94 0.30
kg
Growing Females
75 kg 0.8 1.98 2.22 9.78 8.98 2.19 1.30 435 16 8 3.20 0.50
200 kg 0.7 4.68 3.14 13.84 11.87 4.57 1.65 749 21 14 8.48 1.32
300 kg 0.7 6.66 4.27 18.81 16.00 6.20 2.39 814 24 18 12.72 1.98
400 kg 0.7 8.92 5.44 24.00 20.23 7.69 2.80 1070 26 21 16.96 2.64
500 kg 0.7 11.63 6.75 29.74 24.81 9.09 3.18 1395 28 20 21.20 3.30
Growing Males
100 kg 0.9 2.97 2.08 9.16 7.92 2.72 1.60 475 19 10 4.24 0.66
200 kg 0.9 4.66 3.18 14.02 12.06 4.57 2.08 745 23 15 8.48 1.32
300 kg 0.9 6.43 4.23 18.66 15.96 6.20 2.51 934 25 19 12.72 1.98
400 kg 0.9 8.34 5.29 23.32 19.80 7.69 2.89 1001 27 21 16.96 2.64
500 kg 0.9 10.48 6.39 28.19 23.76 9.09 3.25 1257 29 22 21.20 3.30
600 kg 0.9 12.95 7.59 33.47 27.29 10.43 3.60 1554 29 22 25.44 3.96
Mature Breeding Bulls

900 kg — 12.27 6.75 29.76 24.53 14.13 — 1227 36 22 38.16 5.94
1100 kg — 13.28 7.30 32.20 26.55 15.29 — 1328 41 25 42.20 6.60
1300 kg — 16.16 8.89 39.21 32.32 18.62 — 1616 53 32 55.12 8.58
Source: NRC (National Research Council). 1988a. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C.
a Total digestible nutrients.
Cereal Grains
TABLE 18.8
Nutrient Requirements of Lactating Dairy Cows
Net Energy Lactation Protein (g) Minerals (g)
Live Weight, % Milk Dry Matter (Mcal/kg Degraded Undegraded
Body Fat (kg) Intake (kg) TDNa (kg) (Mcal) Dry Matter) Intake Intake Ca P
400 kg, 5% Fat 8 10.36 6.60 14.94 1.44 778 525 46 30
20 15.35 10.93 24.93 1.62 1419 902 90 57
32 20.30 15.25 34.91 1.72 1745 1048 112 71
500 kg, 4.5% Fat 9 11.84 7.49 16.92 1.43 911 556 51 33
25 18.16 12.92 29.47 1.62 1715 1043 107 68
41 24.44 18.35 42.02 1.72 2519 1526 162 102
600 kg, 3.5% Fat 10 12.86 8.08 18.27 1.42 1004 557 54 35
30 20.04 14.06 32.03 1.60 1879 1137 113 72

50 26.63 20.00 45.78 1.72 2763 1654 173 109
700 kg, 3.5% Fat 12 14.86 9.34 21.11 1.42 1190 636 64 42
36 23.26 16.50 37.62 1.62 2244 1309 135 86
60 31.48 23.65 54.13 1.72 3300 1964 207 130
Source: NRC (1988a).

647
648 Cereal Grains
protein must be supplied in the diet. The percent protein needed in the diet during lac-
tation is high and increases with the level of milk production (Table 18.8). Early lac-
tation cows will benefit from ruminal bypass or escape proteins because nonprotein
nitrogen is not efficiently used. During late lactation (from 6 to 9 months after parturi-
tion) the nutrient intake normally exceeds requirements because milk production is
declining. This is the time to replace the weight lost during early lactation so the cow
regains good condition at drying off. During this phase the forage to concentrate ratio
is increased to match nutrient needs based on milk production and body condition. A
lower protein content is needed because the protein required for weight gain is less
than that required for milk production. Dry cows often meet their nutrient require-
ments with only forages. The supplements of lactating cows usually contain important
amounts of ground or feed grains or their by-products. However, not all grain sources
are equal in providing fermentable energy in the rumen. Maize and sorghum starch is
usually fermented less rapidly than starches associated with barley, oats, and wheat.
Processing the fed grains typically makes them more easily digested and more fully
utilized. For instance, high moisture maize is usually more digestible than dry maize,
and ground, cracked, or steam-flaked grains are usually more readily utilized than
those not processed (Ensminger et al. 1990, Kellems and Church 1998). In many parts
of the world, brewers spent grains and distilled grains are mainly channeled to dairy
farms. These by-products, rich in protein and fiber, are especially well-utilized by
dairy cows and usually improve the amount of fat in milk.
18.4 Cereal Grains and Coproducts as Feedstuffs

18.4.1 Nutritional Value of Whole Cereal Grains
Cereals constitute the main source of energy for poultry and swine. The most popu-
lar feed grains are maize, sorghum, oats, and barley. These grains have an excellent
palatability, especially oats. Tables 18.9 and 18.10 summarize nutrition composition
and energy values for poultry and different livestock animals of the most common
feed cereal gains and their by-products.
Maize is the most popular feed grain due to its high energy value and digestibility.
Most feed maizes are dent, yellow, and soft. These kernels are easier to mill into flour,
and have higher rates of both protein and energy digestibilities. As a result, maize is
considered to have the highest energy value for all domestic animals (Table 18.10).
Sorghum and maize are generally used interchangeably to formulate poultry or
swine rations because they possess a practically identical chemical composition
(Table 18.9). Sorghum is slightly higher in protein and lower in fat and digestible
or metabolizable energy compared to maize (Tables 18.9, and 18.10). Its slightly
lower energy value is due to its lower energy and protein digestibility. This is due
to the presence of a tough subaleurone protein layer, and a more difficult to digest
protein matrix that retards hydrolysis and digestion. However, waxy sorghums that
contain more than 95% amylopectin are considered to have the same nutritional
value as maize because they possess a weaker protein matrix and similar digest-
ibility (Rooney and Riggs 1971, Rooney and Pflugfelder 1986, Rooney and Serna-
Saldivar 2000).
Table 18.9
Nutrient Composition of Cereal-Based Feedstuffs Commonly Used in Animal Nutrition
Detergent Fiber
(%) Minerals Vitamins (mg/kg)
Amino Acids (%) % mg/kg
Dry Crude Crude
Matter Protein Met + Fat Fiber
Feed (%) (%) Lys Cys Trp (%) (%) Neutral Acid Ca P Fe Zn B1 B2 Niacin E
Grains
Barley 89 11.6 0.40 0.36 0.14 1.8 5.1 16.8 6.2 0.03 0.36 50 17 1.9 1.8 55 20
Yellow 89 8.8 0.24 0.35 0.09 3.8 2.2 9.5 3.6 0.02 0.28 35 10 3.5 1.0 24 22
maize
High- 77 10.7 — — — 3.3 2.1 9.5 3.8 0.02 0.32 30 25 — — — —
moisture
maize
Sorghum 87 8.8 0.21 0.32 0.10 2.9 2.3 20.7 8.3 0.04 0.32 57 27 3.9 1.3 41 7
Steam- 70 8.4 — — — 2.3 3 16.0 — 0.04 0.34 — — — — — —
flaked
sorghum
Oats 89 11.4 0.50 0.40 0.16 4.2 10.8 24.4 14.2 0.06 0.27 70 17 6.0 1.1 12 20
Hard wheat 87 14.1 0.40 0.45 0.18 1.9 2.4 10.4 3.4 0.05 0.37 50 31 4.5 1.4 48 13
Rye 88 12.1 0.42 0.36 0.11 1.5 2.2 16.3 3.7 0.06 0.32 60 31 3.6 1.6 19 15
Triticale 90 15.8 0.52 0.50 0.18 1.5 4.0 — — 0.05 0.30 44 32 — — — —
Polished 89 8.7 0.24 0.23 0.13 0.7 0.9 — — 0.08 — — 17 1.4 0.7 46 60
white rice
Pearl millet 91 13.1 0.45 0.49 0.08 4.3 4.3 — — 0.05 0.32 25 13 6.7 1–6 53 —
Proso millet 90 11.6 0.26 — 0.17 3.5 6.1 — — 0.03 0.30 71 — 7.3 3.8 23 —
649
— continued
650
Nutrient Composition of Cereal-Based Feedstuffs Commonly Used in Animal Nutrition
Detergent Fiber
(%) Minerals Vitamins (mg/kg)
Amino Acids (%) % mg/kg
Dry Crude Crude
Matter Protein Met + Fat Fiber
Feed (%) (%) Lys Cys Trp (%) (%) Neutral Acid Ca P Fe Zn B1 B2 Niacin E
Grain By-Products
Dried 92 25.3 0.90 0.96 0.34 6.2 15.3 42.3 22.1 0.29 0.52 250 98 0.5 1.4 29 25
brewers
grains
Malt 93 22.9 1.4 14.2 — — 0.18 0.63 18 56 8.3 2.8 55 4
sprouts
Dried 94 27.8 0.78 0.64 0.20 9.2 11,.3 39.6 15.6 0.10 0.40 209 33 1.7 5.2 37 —
distillers
grains
(DDG),
maize
DDG with 93 27.4 0.75 1.00 0.19 9.0 9.1 46.0 21.3 0.17 0.72 280 80 2.9 8.6 71 40
solubles,
maize
Dry 92 28.5 0.90 0.90 0.30 9.0 4.0 20.9 0.35 1.33 560 85 6.9 17.0 116 55
distillers
solubles,
maize
Gluten, 90 62.0 1.00 3.02 0.25 2.5 1.3 33.7 8.2 — 0.50 400 33 0.3 2.2 55 24
maize
Cereal Grains
Gluten 90 22.0 0.63 0.96 0.10 2.5 8.0 36.2 12.7 0.40 0.80 460 7 2.0 2.4 66 15
feed,
maize
Hominy 90 10.4 0.40 0.26 0.10 6.9 6.0 0.05 0.52 67 30 8.1 2.1 47 —
feed,
maize
Oat hulls 92 4.6 0.14 0.13 0.07 1.4 28.7 66.7 33.5 0.13 0.10 128 27 0.6 1.5 7 —
Rice hulls 92 2.8 0.08 — — 1.0 39.2 75.7 66.1 0.11 0.07 91 22 0.5 7.9 28 7.5
Rice bran 91 12.9 0.59 0.30 0.15 13.0 11.4 30.0 18.0 0.07 1.50 190 30 22.5 2.5 293 60
with germ
Wheat bran 89 15.7 0.59 0.42 0.30 3.0 11.0 38.1 12.5 0.14 1.15 170 133 8.0 4.6 188 14
Wheat red 88 15.3 0.59 0.60 0.19 3.3 2.6 — — 0.04 0.49 46 65 22.8 2.2 42 33
dog
Wheat 88 16.0 0.69 0.53 0.20 3.0 7.5 31.1 10.5 0.12 0.90 40 150 16.5 2.2 98 40
middlings
Wheat 88 16.5 0.79 0.62 0.21 4.6 6.8 — 9.9 0.09 0.81 73 109 19.1 4.2 107 54
shorts
Source: Data from NRC (National Research Council). 1988a. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C.; NRC (National
Research Council) 1988b. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. Eighth edition. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C.; NRC (National Research Council).
1988c. Nutrient Requirements of Swine. National Research Council. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C.; NRC (National Research Council). 1989.
Nutrient Requirements of Horses. Fifth edition. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.; NRC (National Research Council). 1996. Nutrient Requirements
of Beef Cattle. Seventh edition. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C.; Ensminger, M.E. et al. 1990. Feeds and Nutrition. Second edition. The Ensminger
Publishing Co., Clovis, CA.; and Kellems, R.O., and Church, D.C. 1998. Livestock Feeds and Feeding. Fourth edition. Prentice Hall, NJ.
651
652
Table 18.10
Energy Values of Cereal-Based Feedstuffs for Poultry and Livestock Animalsa
Swine Horse Beef
Dairy
Poultry DE ME DE ME NEm NEg NElac
ME (Kcal/ (Kcal/ (Kcal/ TDN DE TDN (Mcal/ (Mcal/ (Mcal/ (Mcal/ TDN (Mcal/
Feedstock kg) kg) kg) (%) (Mcal/kg) (%) kg) kg) kg) kg) (%) kg)
Grains
Barley 2640 3120 3040 70 3.68 79 3.70 3.04 2.06 1.40 84 1.45
Yellow maize 3350 3488 3275 79 3.84 88 3.97 3.25 2.24 1.55 90 2.04
High-moisture maize — 2984 2826 68 2.18 54 3.11 2.80 1.75 1.22 71 1.63
Sorghum 3250 3453 3229 78 3.56 80 3.70 3.04 2.06 1.40 84 1.84
Steam-flaked sorghum — — — — — — 3.90 3.18 2.18 1.50 88 —
Oats 2250 2860 2668 65 3.36 76 3.40 2.78 1.85 1.22 77 1.77
Hard wheat 3071 3520 3277 80 3.86 87 3.88 3.18 2.18 1.50 88 2.04
Rye 3212 3300 3079 75 3.84 80 3.70 3.04 2.06 1.40 84 1.94
Triticale 3130 3203 3130 — 3.13 79 3.17 2.80 1.65 1.09 75 1.57
Rough rice 2668 2511 2367 57 2.51 — 3.48 2.86 1.91 1.27 79 1.82
Proso millet 2890 2983 2807 68 2.06 62 3.25 2.88 1.66 1.09 74 1.59
Foxtail millet 3178 2900 2697 66 2.46 61 3.39 2.58 1.90 1.29 61 1.79
By-Products
Dried brewers grains 2308 2303 2288 66 — 48 2.76 2.22 1.41 0.86 65 1.48
Malt sprouts 1592 2688 2307 61 — — 2.86 2.50 1.52 0.95 66 1.48
Dried distillers grains 1970 2746 2636 65 3.08 70 3.41 2.82 1.92 1.30 81 1.86
(DDG), maize
Dry distillers solubles, 2919 3250 3128 78 — — 3.42 2.96 2.03 1.40 80 1.89
maize
Cereal Grains
Maize bran — 3227 3048 73 2.66 66 3.02 2.65 1.67 1.10 67 1.59
Gluten meal, maize 3015 3609 3168 80 3.29 — 3.31 2.74 1.85 1.25 78 1.75
Gluten feed, maize — — — — — — 3.66 3.00 2.03 1.37 83 1.37
Hominy feed, maize 2866 3595 3365 82 — — 3.73 — — — 84 —
Oat hulls — — — 27 1.59 — 1.54 1.27 0.41 0.0 35 —
Rice hulls — — — — 1.15 — 0.53 0.43 0.0 0.0 11 —
Rice bran with germ 2028 3256 3028 74 — — 3.09 2.53 1.63 1.03 70 1.60
Wheat bran 1300 2512 2321 57 2.94 67 3.09 2.53 1.63 1.03 70 1.60
Wheat shorts 2646 3168 2912 72 2.39 59 3.24 2.75 1.88 1.28 76 1.75
Wheat middlings 2072 2912 2702 68 2.39 59 3.07 2.57 1.72 1.15 74 1.73
Wheat mill run 1764 3168 2934 72 2.35 58 3.21 2.52 1.68 1.11 71 1.68
Source: Data from NRC (National Research Council). 1988a. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C.; NRC (National
Research Council) 1988b. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. Eighth edition. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C.; NRC (National Research Council).
1988c. Nutrient Requirements of Swine. National Research Council. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C.; NRC (National Research Council). 1989.
Nutrient Requirements of Horses. Fifth edition. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.; NRC (National Research Council). 1996. Nutrient Requirements of
Beef Cattle. Seventh edition. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C.; Ensminger, M.E. et al. 1990. Feeds and Nutrition. Second edition. The Ensminger
Publishing Co., Clovis, CA.; and Kellems, R.O., and Church, D.C. 1998. Livestock Feeds and Feeding. Fourth edition. Prentice Hall, NJ.
a DE = Digestible energy, ME = Metabolizable energy; NEm = Net energy of maintenance, NEg = Net energy of gain, NElac = Net energy of lactation; TDN = Total
digestible nutrients.
653
654 Cereal Grains
Among sorghums, type III, bird resistant, brown or tannin sorghums have the
worst performance for both monogastrics and ruminants because they contain sig-
nificant levels of condensed tannins. These bitter compounds improve agronomic
performance, resistance to weathering, and grain stability in the panicle. They
impart some bird resistance but bind dietary proteins and digestive enzymes, lower-
ing digestibility. Many studies indicate that growth and feed efficiency of poultry and
swine are decreased when tannin sorghums are fed, compared to their tannin-free
counterparts (Cousins et al. 1981, Featherson and Rogler 1975, Rostagno et al. 1973,
Saba et al. 1972). Chicks fed high-tannin ground kernels grew 66% as rapidly, and
required 33% more feed, than counterparts fed low-tannin grain in ten experiments
(Featherson, and Rogler 1975). Likewise, Noland et al. (1977) studied differences in
energy, protein digestibility, and apparent nitrogen retention values of 25 sorghum
varieties in swine. Cultivars with a yellow seed coat were significantly superior in
nitrogen retention and protein and energy digestibilities, compared with those with
brown seed coats. Cousins et al. (1981) also compared sorghums varying in tan-
nin concentration and maize. Digestibilities were lower for the high-tannins sor-
ghum diets compared to low-tannin sorghum and maize. Protein digestibilities were
approximately 5% to 9% lower in the high-tannin sorghums. Therefore, in practical
animal nutrition, type I (white) or II (yellow or red) sorghums without pigmented
testa, and condensed tannins are considered to have 95% of the nutritional value of
maize, whereas high-tannin sorghums have between 80% and 85%.
Wheat and yellow maize are practically indistinguishable in terms of net energy
gain, whereas sorghum, barley, oats, and rye possess around 90% of the nutritional
value of yellow dent maize (Table 18.10). The lower energy value of these cereals is
due to the starch granules that are smaller and more compact. Oats and barley are not
as popular for poultry and swine because they contain comparatively lower energy
densities and higher fiber contents.
The husked cereals, rough rice, oats, and barley, contain more neutral and acid
detergent fiber compared to the naked cereal caryopses (Table 18.10). The differ-
ence is mainly due to the presence of glumes rich in fiber components. The husks of
oats and barley are more digestible for ruminants compared to the husks of rough
rice. Rice husks are mainly composed of nondigestible lignin and contain silica.
However, brown and white polished rice, although rarely used as animal feed, are
excellent energy sources due to their high starch contents and digestibilities.
The protein composition of cereals is not sufficient to sustain optimum growth
in most domestic animals. Thus, cereals are supplemented with protein meals that
contain high amounts of lysine and tryptophan. The most common protein meals are
soybean, cottonseed, canola, and meat and fish meal. The use of meat and bone meal,
and other animal protein meals such as dried blood, is prohibited in several parts of
the world because its consumption has been associated with mad cow disease.
There are several types of cereals bred to have a better nutritional value compared
to regular counterparts. The main genotypes are the high-lysine cereals such as qual-
ity protein maize (QPM), high-lysine sorghum, and hiproly barley (Chapter 2). QPM
ranks as having the most potential because the CIMMYT extensively worked to
improve agronomic performance, grain traits, and nutritional value. There are many
varieties and hybrids adapted to different ecosystems available in different countries
around the world. Since cereals, and particularly maize, are the basis of poultry and
swine diets, the use of high-lysine and high-tryptophan maize reduces the levels
of high protein feedstuff, such as soybean meal, that is one of the most expensive
components of the diet. Many studies have been conducted comparing regular versus
QPM. Results clearly show that QPM has higher nutritional value due to improved
protein quality. Dry matter, energy, and protein digestibility is comparable, but nitro-
gen retention improves due to the higher levels of lysine and tryptophan. Thus, diets
based on high-lysine cereals require less protein supplementation, which provides an
economic incentive for poultry and swine farmers (Asche et al. 1985, Knabe et al.
1992, Sullivan et al. 1989).
18.4.2 Factors Affecting Starch Digestibility

Starch digestibility in raw kernels is mainly affected by endosperm texture and the
way the starch granules are engulfed by the protein matrix. Among cereals, sorghum
is known to have lower starch availability compared to maize, and therefore it has to
be processed more vigorously. By nature, the starch granules of sorghum are more
tightly bound to the protein matrix, especially in the subaleurone layer and hard
endosperm. The hard, dense, and resistant protein matrix lowers the penetration of
water, digestive enzymes, and ruminal microorganisms. The sorghum prolamins or
kafirins contain more disulfide cross-bonds compared to maize zeins. In order to
compensate the lower protein and energy digestibility, sorghum has to be milled into
finer meals or processed in order to disrupt the protein matrix (Bramel-Cox et al.
1995, Duodu et al. 2003, Rooney and Pflugfelder 1986, Rooney and Serna-Saldivar
2000, Wong et al. 2009).
Cereals differ in their protein digestibility when offered to ruminants or mono-
gastric animals. Independently of the sort of cereal grain, hammer milling is suf-
ficient to achieve good results in monogastrics.
In ruminants, it is important to consider the speed of fermentation of energy
and protein components by the rumen microflora because this affects performance.
Wheat and barley are considered to ferment faster than maize, rice, and oats, whereas
sorghum is the cereal with the lowest fermentation rate. A high rate of fermentation
can produce excess gas resulting in bloating, related health problems, and even death.
Timpany could be prevented by adjusting the fiber of the diet, decreasing the surface
tension of rumen fluids by supplementing mineral oil or rumensin, and reducing the
amount of fast-fermentable carbohydrates.
18.4.3 Cereal By-Products
Most by-products obtained from the various milling industries (Chapters 7, 8, and 9),
the brewing industry, and biorefineries (see Chapter 14) are commonly channeled to
the feed industries. These by-products are divided into fiber, energy, and protein-rich
feedstuffs. Tables 18.9 and 18.10 summarize the nutritional composition and energy
values of the most common cereal by-products for different animal species.
From maize dry milling (Chapter 7) is obtained bran, germ, and a product com-
monly known as hominy feed. The bran is considered as a fiber by-product, and is
656 Cereal Grains
commonly used in ruminant or horse nutrition. The germ is usually further processed
by oil crushers to obtain crude or refined oil, and the defatted germ is routinely used
as a protein feedstuff for poultry and swine. The hominy feed is a mixture of bran,
germ, and part of the endosperm, and usually contains less than 4% fat. It is used as
a grain replacement in the rations of all domestic animal species. This feed contains
starch and fat as the major energy sources.
The primary coproducts from maize wet-milling industries (Chapter 8) are gluten
meal, fiber, germ meal, and concentrated steep-liquor with approximately 50% sol-
ids. The maize germ could be mixed with gluten meal, whereas the bran is blended
with condensed steep liquor and/or germ. The bran is considered as a fiber by-prod-
uct, whereas the germ serves as both protein and energy feedstuff. The germ pro-
tein contains higher amounts of essential amino acids for monogastrics compared
to gluten meal, because the first consists mainly of albumins and globulins, and
the second of prolamins and glutelins (Chapter 3). The gluten meal is generally not
fed to monogastrics because of its bulkiness, poor protein quality, and unpalatabil-
ity. However, it is extensively used for dairy cows and feedlot animals. The gluten
meal has high energy density and approximately 60% protein. Its protein, mainly
composed of zeins and glutelins, is highly digestible but does not contain enough
quantities of the essential amino acids lysine and tryptophan. One of the main vir-
tues of gluten meal is that it is a rich source of carotenes and xanthophylls, highly
desired by poultry farmers. These carotenoids are included in the diet to impart the
typical yellow-orange pigmentation in the egg yolk and skins of broilers. In rumi-
nants, the gluten meal is also demanded because it has high rumen bypass proper-
ties. Approximately 60% of the protein bypasses the rumen, compared to 25% of
the soybean protein (Loy, and Wright 2003). This large difference is attributable to
protein solubility in water.
The germs from dry- and wet-milling operations differ in composition because
the first is usually contaminated with bran and endosperm fractions, whereas the
second lixiviate water soluble compounds into the steep SO2 solution. Germ from
wet millers is higher in fat and protein compared to its counterpart obtained from
dry millers. Most germ is channeled to the oil crushing industry. The maize oil
could be extracted using mechanical expellers or solvent extractors. The mechani-
cal extraction leaves residual oil, whereas the hexane extraction removes practically
all the oil. Therefore, the whole germ is a rich source of energy because it contains
more than 30% oil, whereas the partially, and totally defatted meals provide less
energy because they contain 12% and less than 1% oil, respectively. The protein of
the germ meal is higher for the defatted meal, and lower for the whole germ meal.
The maize germ meal is preferred in ruminant nutrition because the protein bypasses
the rumen, and is well-digested and utilized further down the gastrointestinal tract.
Main by-products from the wheat dry-milling industry are screenings, bran,
shorts, and red dog (Chapter 8). Screenings consist of 70% or more of light and
broken kernels, along with weed seeds and other foreign material that is separated in
the cleaning operation. The mingling of wheat bran, shorts, germ, and tail flour (red
dog) yields a common feed known as wheat middlings. Wheat bran is considered
one of the most popular fiber by-products, whereas germ and shorts are protein-
energy feedstuff. Shorts contain small particles of pericarp, aleurone layer, germ,
and endosperm, therefore they are well-balanced in terms of fiber, protein, and even
carbohydrates (starch). This fraction is especially rich in B-vitamins associated with
the aleurone. The bran is generally fed to ruminants because of its excellent palat-
ability and high quality fiber content. The shorts and middlings are widely used
as grain replacement in rations of both monogastrics and ruminants. When fed to
poultry or swine, these by-products are most efficiently used along with an animal
protein supplement or soybean meal.
The main by-products from the rice milling industry are screenings, rice hulls,
bran, and polishings (Chapter 7). Rice hulls are considered as one of the least nutri-
tious feedstuffs, even for ruminants. This is due to its high lignin content, practically
nil protein content, and very low digestible, metabolizable, and net energy values. It
is known in the industry that the prolonged use of rice hulls or glumes wears down
the teeth of ruminants. The rice bran is really a combination of the pericarp, germ,
and endosperm outer layers, therefore it is a valuable feedstuff. It contains significant
amounts of fiber, protein, fat, and carbohydrates, and is highly palatable. This by-
product is best used as a ruminant feed. Rice polishings are the by-product obtained
after brushing or polishing decorticated white rice. It is rich in carbohydrates, fat
from the germ, and B-vitamins associated with the multilayered aleurone. Thus, rice
polishings are usually incorporated in swine and poultry diets. Both rice bran and
polishings tend to become rancid when stored very long, decreasing palatability.
The main by-product of the brewing industry is the brewers’ spent grains that
could be merchandised wet or dehydrated. The dehydrated brewers spent grains
reduce transportation costs and enhance shelf life or storage stability. Dried brew-
ers spent grains is a combination of the insolubles associated with barley malt and
brewing adjuncts (i.e., maize and/or rice grits) that are filtrated out after mashing
(Chapter 14). The composition varies, but it is considered as a high fiber feedstuff.
The dried brewers grains contain half the protein of soybean meal. The protein is
ranked high as a rumen bypass protein, and therefore is commonly used as cattle
feed. The dried brewers grains contain about 80% of the energy value of barley
grains (Table 18.10). They are usually limited to 25% of cattle finishing rations, and
dairy concentrate mixes. Other less important feed from malting houses are barley
sprouts or culms removed from the malt before beer making. This by-product is rich
in fiber and protein, and provides intermediate energy values for most domestic ani-
mals (Tables 18.9 and 18.10).
The recent boom in the production of fuel ethanol from whole-ground, dry-
milled, or maize starch is increasing the amounts of distilled grain by-products. In
the United States, more than 22 million tons of distillers dried grains were produced
in 2008. This protein-rich product is obtained after fermentation of whole or dry-
fractionated maize. The distillers grains obtained after mashing and fermentation
of fractionated maize are lower in fiber because the bran was previously removed
by other means. Therefore, distillers dried grains obtained from fractionated maize
are more suitable for monogastrics. Basically, the biorefineries are producing either
distilled grains (DG) or DG with solubles (Table 18.9, and 18.10). DG contain most
of the water-insoluble nutrients, except for starch, which is converted to soluble car-
bohydrates and bioethanol earlier in the process (Chapter 14). The dried DG contains
more than 25% protein, 7.5% fat, and 40% detergent fiber (Table 18.9). The feed is
658 Cereal Grains
ideally suited for ruminants that digest more than 85% of its nutrients. These prod-
ucts are high in fiber and protein, and they may constitute up to 25% of the concen-
trate mix for ruminants. The DG protein ranks high as a rumen bypass protein. The
DG with solubles includes solubles of the fermentation, which are mixed with the
insoluble DG before drying. The DG with solubles is used as a protein and B-vitamin
supplement for all classes of animals, especially ruminants. For swine and poultry,
they are usually limited to 5% to 10% of the diet.
18.5 Enhancement of the Nutritional Value

of Cereals through Processing
Feed represents the major cost in any intensive system of animal production.
Therefore, it is imperative to supply a diet adequate in terms of palatability and
nutritional value, and one that prevents feed waste and reduces costs. Feed effi-
ciency can be improved by as much as 10% to 20% by using the right method of
grain processing. There is a wide array of processing methods used to affect these
important variables. By far, milling is the most universal way to process cereals for
animal feeds.
Almost all cereals and coproducts are milled into a meal or flour in order to
enhance its digestion and utilization. In addition, milled fractions mix better with
other diet components such as vitamin and mineral premixes. The cereal most
widely thermal processed is sorghum because, in the raw form, it usually has lower
energy and protein digestibility, and therefore a lower feed:grain ratio. Most process-
ing methods are thermal, and aimed towards the disruption of the protein matrix
that engulfs starch granules and enhance palatability. The selection of the process-
ing technique will depend on type of cereal, domestic animal, and processing cost.
Additionally, it is important to evaluate the effect of the treatment on uniformity
of the final product, especially in terms of particle size, density, and exposed sur-
face area. Some moist thermal treatments increase moisture content and make the
product susceptible to molds, mycotoxin contamination, and spontaneous combus-
tion and fermentation that can cause significant flavor changes. The most important
factors to consider are the investment in the equipment, the improvement in feed
efficiency, and time for the animals to reach market value. The main objectives of
processing are to improve profits; alter particle size; change moisture content and
palatability; control feed density; enhance nutritional value, nutrient availability,
and digestibility; improve storage and keeping qualities; reduce storage; transporta-
tion space, and cost; and improve mechanization (Husted et al. 1968, Hale 1973,
McEllhiney 1985, Ensminger et al. 1990, Kellems and Church 1998, Rooney and
18.5.1 Reconstituted and High-Moisture Grains

There are two major types of feed grains that are offered to animals at a relatively
high moisture content compared to regular grains: early harvested maize and sor-
ghum that contains a moisture content of 25% to 32%. Harvesting at an early stage
may avoid losses to bad weather or, in the case of sorghum, bird damage. From the
animal nutrition viewpoint, early harvested grains have advantages as they require
less energy to mill or roll, and are more palatable and digestible. The major disad-
vantage is that high-moisture grains are prone to spoilage, and if prolonged storage
is needed, they have to be treated with antifungal agents such as propionic acid.
Alternatively, high moisture grains may be successfully stored by ensiling in an oxy-
gen-limiting silo (Kellems and Church 1998, Ensminger et al. 1990).
Reconstituted grains are mature kernels that are harvested at the regular moisture
level (14%), and are moistened before feeding. Normally, they are brought to 25%
to 30% moisture. Sorghum and maize are also the two cereals most benefited from
reconstitution. The use of properly reconstituted sorghum or maize gives similar
results as steam-flaked grains in feedlot steers (Ensminger et al. 1990).
18.5.2 Milling or Mechanical Disruption

18.5.2.1 Dehulling and Decortication
Dehulling and decortication imply the selective removal of the glumes and pericarp,
respectively. The best known outer coverings of cereals are glumes or hulls associ-
ated with barley, oats, and rice. These tissues are rich in fiber and phenolic com-
pounds that generally interfere with the digestion of other nutrients. Among cereal
hulls, rice glumes are considered the worst in terms of nutritional value and available
energy for both monogastrics and ruminants.
Swine and poultry are the species most negatively affected by fiber components
associated with glumes and brans, which greatly reduce digestible and metabolizable
energies. For ruminants, these coproducts are a concentrated source of fiber required
to stimulate the rumen and other parts of the gastrointestinal tract. However, when
diets contain higher fiber or the source of fiber is too abrasive (i.e., rough rice hulls),
animals tend to consume less feed. The amount of fiber also affects the ratio among
acetic, propionic, and butyric acids. Hulls usually contain more fiber and minerals
and less protein and other nutrients in comparison with brans. Therefore, brans are
more valued by feed processors. The most popular hulls are from barley and oats,
whereas the most popular bran sources are from wheat, maize, and rice. Rice bran is
rich in germ, oil, and protein, and is highly valued in both ruminant and monogastric
nutrition (Tables 18.9 and 18.10). In addition, it contains important nutraceuticals
that have health-promoting effects (Chapter 17).
18.5.2.2 Milling
Milling is the mechanical disruption of the grain, and is by far the most applied
method to process feed grains. The final result is the reduction of the particle size
via mechanical forces of impaction, compression, or abrasion. The most widely used
method is hammer milling because it is simple to use, low cost, and efficient. During
hammer milling, kernels are impacted repetitively by the hammers that rotate at a
high velocity, and the resulting particles are forced to pass through a sieve. The sieve
size affects residence time and average particle size distribution. These particles
have a higher exposure area, and nutrients are more prone to enzyme hydrolysis.
660 Cereal Grains
The end result is higher digestibility and faster digestion. One of the main problems
related to hammer milling is the wide range of particle sizes; fine particles also
tend to aggravate the dust problem. Dust usually lowers feed intake and can cause
eye irritation. However, fine grinding may be desirable when pelleting is to follow
(McEllhiney 1985, Ensminger 1990, Kellems and Church 1998, Rooney and Serna-
Saldivar 2000). One of the factors that affects milling performance the most is grain
moisture content. When moisture exceeds 15%, the mill will have trouble in sending
the particles out of the milling chamber, increasing the motor force and energy or
electricity needed. Maize and sorghum kernels are the most popular cereals pro-
cessed under the system described above. Other less frequently used mills are stone
and roller mills. Stone mills disrupt kernels based on abrasion and are seldom used
because they are more expensive than hammer mills and the synthetic or natural
stones have to be refurnished frequently due to progressive wear. However, roller
mills are more frequently used, especially when a finer and more uniform particle-
size distribution is desired. The roller mills consist of a pair of metal rolls (8–10
inches diameter) that counter-rotate, generally at a speed differential, and are similar
to the wheat break rolls described in Chapter 7. These rolls are grooved and could be
adjusted to control the gap between the rolls. The gap is the main factor that controls
particle size. The grains are milled due to the pressure of the rolls and the speed
differential that causes friction. Generally, two or three vertical roller mills are used
in feed mills. The gap between the rolls is gradually closed in order to obtain the
desired particle size distribution. The main advantage of roller mills is that tempered
or high moisture grains can be milled, and the particle size distribution is more uni-
form. This method is used more frequently in maize than sorghum, because sorghum
has a tougher protein matrix that engulfs starch granules, lowering digestibility.
18.5.3 Thermal Treatments
It is well known that cooking grains enhances their nutritional value, especially
when offered to ruminants. Heating is aimed towards starch gelatinization and pro-
tein denaturation, which enhances palatability, digestibility, and feed efficiency. In
general terms, cooking does not improve the feed value of feedstuffs for monogas-
trics. However, thermal treatments are generally practiced in feedlots. The thermal
treatments are divided into two major categories: dry and wet.
18.5.3.1 Extrusion
Extrusion is a process in which the feedstock is screw-conveyed in a continu-
ous reactor or barrel that ends on a die plate. Thermoplastic extrusion cooks the
grains or their fractions at high temperature and pressure in order to achieve
starch gelatinization, protein matrix disruption, and protein denaturation. The
thermal treatment improves energy and protein digestibility, and decreases the
bioavailability of heat-susceptible vitamins. Extruded products or collets have
a lower density due to radial expansion (McEllhiney 1985, Ensminger 1990,
Kellems and Church 1998). Adiabatic or low cost extruders that generate heat
by friction are frequently used by the feed industry to process grains contain-
ing moisture contents lower than 20%. The screw design and the die play an
important role in the expansion rate and the improvement in nutritional value.
The starch gelatinization achieved during extrusion improves energy digestibility
up to 15%, especially in feedlot ruminants, and improves palatability for both
ruminants and monogastric animals.
18.5.3.2 Pelleting
Pelleting of formulated diets is widely practiced in poultry, swine, ruminant, fish,
and horse feeding. A fine milling is required in order to produce good quality pellets.
Pelleting facilitates handling, eliminates dust, and fines, alleviates the separation
or sorting of ingredients, and increases feed density, palatability, and daily weight
gains. The major advantage of pelleting is the consumption of the whole formulated
diet, minimizing sorting of particular feed ingredients such as additives, vitamins,
and minerals (McEllhiney 1985, Ensminger 1990, Kellems and Church 1998).
The process consists of first conditioning the grain in preparation for steam-heat-
ing. The moist thermal treatment is performed in a cooker cylinder of approximately
50 cm diameter (Figure 18.2). The heat applied during the process is not enough to
fully gelatinize the starch but is sufficient to deactivate antinutritional factors asso-
ciated with soybean or other oilseed proteins. The wall of the cylinder has many
uniform perforations. Within the pelleting machine there is a wheel mechanism
that rotates clockwise and presses the feedstuff through the orifices to the exterior.
The hot and preconditioned existing pellets are cut and then dehydrated to remove
excess moisture and yield shelf-stable pellets. Pellets can be made in small chunks or
Figure 18.2 Internal mechanism for pelleting feedstuffs (courtesy of Buhler AG,
Switzerland).
662 Cereal Grains
cylinders of different diameters, lengths, and degrees of hardness. Large pellets used
as pasture or rangeland supplements are commonly called range cubes (McEllhiney
1985, Ensminger 1990, Kellems and Church 1998).
18.5.3.3 Crumbling or Crushed Pellets

Crumbling is the production of feed by crushing pellets. The use of crushed pellets is
widely practiced by poultry farmers. The crumbles retain the pellet density but alle-
viate the disadvantages of pellets such as difficulty to chew, swallow, and digest. As
a result, the feed consumption or palatability is higher (McEllhiney 1985, Ensminger
1990, Kellems and Church 1998).
18.5.3.4 Micronization
This process consists of heating the grain to 135°C with the use of infrared lamps.
The generator burns gas and is less expensive compared to steam flaking. The grain
usually drops its moisture to 7%, and the time-heat cycle is controlled in such a way
that the grain exits the micronizer before popping to avoid the production of low
density feedstuff. After heating, the cooked grain is roll-flaked in order to increase
the surface area, and enhance density. The density of the grain falls in the range
from 24.94 kg/hL (20 lb/bu) to 37.41 kg/hL (30 lb/bu), with the optimum being 31.18
kg/hL (25 lb/bu) (McEllhiney 1985, Ensminger 1990, Kellems and Church 1998,
18.5.3.5 Popping
Popping is a common process in the formulation of feeds for feedlot cattle. The
process is based on the typical process used to manufacture popcorn (Chapter 12).
It is mainly used to improve and enhance the nutritional value of grain sorghum.
The basic principle is to rapidly heat the grain at temperatures of 370°C–425°C for
15–30 s. During the heating cycle, the internal grain pressure greatly increases due
to generation of steam that cannot escape due to the pericarp barrier. Popping occurs
when the increased pressure suddenly breaks the pericarp and the internal pressure
equilibrates with the atmospheric pressure. At this particular point, the superheated
moisture evaporates, causing the expansion of the numerous starch granules. The
violent expansion breaks and disrupts the protein matrix, causing starch gelatiniza-
tion; so, the energy and protein digestibility of the popped grain is higher compared
with ground meal. Other popping methods are carried out at a lower temperature
(260°C) and higher residence time (40 to 120 sec). The optimum moisture for pop-
ping and improvement of the nutritional value varies from 15% to 20%; thus, in
some instances the grain is tempered before popping. Approximately 40% of the
kernels pop during traditional or conventional popping. However, practically all ker-
nels suffer the desired internal changes and starch gelatinization. Immediately after
popping, the popped kernels are flaked in order to increase density. The moisture
content of the popped and flaked kernels drops to 3%–4% due to moisture loss dur-
ing popping. Generally, the density of the finished product varies from 8.73 kg/hL (7
lb/bu) to 18.71 kg/hL (15 lb/bu). In terms of animal performance (weight gains and
feed efficiency), it is considered that popped and steam-flaked kernels are equivalent.
Popped sorghum kernels are ideally suited to formulate diets for starting feedlot
cattle. However, the low-density popped sorghum prolongs feeding time, and in some
instances also lowers feed intake (Husted et al. 1968, Hale 1973, McEllhiney 1985,
Ensminger 1990, Kellems and Church 1998, Rooney and Serna-Saldivar 2000).
18.5.3.6 Toasting
This process is mainly applied to maize, and consists of heating kernels to 135°C for
approximately 20 min. During dry heating, kernels slightly expand and change color
and odor (producing a toasted aroma). The product drops its moisture to 5%–9%, and
density decreases to approximately 50 kg/hL (40 lb/bu). Toasting improves feed effi-
ciency by 10% and daily weight gains by 14%. One of the main advantages of toast-
ing is the improvement in palatability and feed intake (McEllhiney 1985, Ensminger
1990, Kellems and Church 1998).
18.5.3.7 Steam-Flaking
Flaking is considered the most popular way to process grains, mainly sorghum,
before diet formulation for feedlot cattle. There are two major ways to produce
flaked kernels: steam flaking and pressure flaking. Steam flaking consists of
exposing the grain to steam injection at atmospheric pressure for 5–30 min.
During the moist thermal treatment, the starch granules gelatinize, improving
their susceptibility to rumen fermentation. After steam heating, the grain is flaked
through a couple of 45 cm diameter grooved rolls (Figure 18.3). The resulting
flakes contain between 18% and 20% moisture, and a density that ranges from
Whole Grain Moisture
13 to 14%
Boiler
Water +
Conditioner Pressure:
5.6 kg/cm2
Tempering
Bin
(10 hr) Steam Temperature: 105°C
Moisture Cooker
Moisture: 22%
17–20%, 10 hr
Water
Cereal Flaker I Flaker II
Steam
To Storage
Figure 18.3 Schema of the conventional steam-flaking process (diagram, and photo-
graphs courtesy of C. Chuck, ITESM, Mexico).
664 Cereal Grains
27.4 kg/hL (22 lb/bu) to 35 kg/hL (28 lbs/bu). Density is highly related to quality
because it is affected by moisture, degree of starch gelatinization, and particle
size (Buchanon-Smith et al. 1968, Chen et al. 1994, Hale et al. 1966, McEllhiney
1985, Ensminger et al. 1990, McDonough et al. 1998a,b,c, Theurer et al. 1999).
Pressure flaking consist of first applying pressure steam (50 psi) for 1 to 2 min
in cookers equipped with special valves. The grain is heated up to 135°C. The exit-
ing cooked grain is immediately flaked, similarly to steam flaking. The grain with
approximately 20% moisture has to drop its temperature to 85°C before flaking.
Pressure-cooked flakes are less fragile and less prone to breakage compared to their
steam-flaked counterparts (McEllhiney 1985, Ensminger et al. 1990, Kellems and
Church 1998).
18.5.3.8 Puffing
Feed puffing is performed similarly to gun puffing of breakfast cereals (Chapter 11).
Kernels are placed in a puffing gun and heated under pressure. After loading, the
lid of the puffing gun is closed, and then steam is injected to achieve internal pres-
sures of 1722 kPa (250 psi). After achieving the desired and programmed pressure,
the lid automatically opens, and the moisture of the kernels evaporates and escapes,
producing the desired puffing, and internal physical and chemical changes (protein
matrix disruption, starch gelatinization). Whole kernels expand approximately three
to four times their original volume. Puffed kernels are considered to have similar
nutritional value as steam-flaked or popped kernels. The main disadvantage of gun
puffing is that most commercial equipment is batch or noncontinuous (McEllhiney
1985, Ensminger et al. 1990, Kellems and Church 1998).
Self-Evaluation
1. What is the importance of cereals, and their by-products in animal nutri-
tion? Investigate what percentage of the total cereal grain production is
used as livestock feed.
2. During the past 50 years, the consumption of red meats has declined, while that
of chicken and turkey has increased. What forces causes these differences?
3. Draw and compare the digestive systems of a ruminant, swine, equine, and
poultry. Why is a horse capable of deriving energy from forages?
4. Why is the moisture content of grains important when buying feed and
when balancing rations?
5. What is bypass protein? Explain why the bypass protein is important in
feedlots and milking operations.
6. What are the main differences in energy digestion and utilization between
a ruminant and a monogastric?
7. What is the limiting nutritional factor of cereals in the diet of monogastrics?
8. In a modern broiler farm, what is considered the average market weight,
market age, and feed efficiency or conversion?
9. Estimate and compare the total feed required to produce a 100 kg market
pig and the equivalent weight of market broilers (approximately 33 broilers
weighing 3 kg each).
10. What kind of problems would a ruminant have if fed a 100% cereal diet?
11. How does the feeding of lactating cows differ from the feeding of other
livestock animals?
12. Compare the characteristics and feeding of each of the following cereal
grains: maize, barley, oats, and sorghum. Place emphasis on live-
stock use, digestible nutrients, protein content and quality, and risk of
mycotoxicosis.
13. What are the main reasons for grain sorghum having lower digestibility and
feed efficiency compared to maize?
14. What are the potential advantages of using waxy or high-lysine cereals in
monogastric and ruminant nutrition?
15. What are the main disadvantages of using high-tannin sorghums in mono-
gastric and ruminant feeding?
16. Why do waxy sorghum or maize have higher digestibilities compared to
their regular endosperm counterparts?
17. Compare the characteristics and feeding of each of the following cereal by-
products: wheat bran, wheat middlings, wheat shorts, hominy feed, maize
gluten, rice polishing, rice hulls, and dry distilled grains.
18. List the main cereal by-products obtained by dry- and wet-millers, brewers,
and fuel ethanol processors, indicating their main nutritional attributes.
19. Briefly describe each of the following processing methods: popping, steam-
flaking, crumbling, pelleting.
In your opinion, what is the best cereal-processing method for feedlot cattle?
20. List and discuss what you consider to be the five most important reasons for
processing feeds, and the three most important nutritional factors in choos-
ing a given grain processing method.
21. Why do poultry producers use more feed in the form of crumbles than pro-
ducers of other classes of livestock?
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Ensminger, M.E., Oldfield, J.E., and Heineman, W.W. 1990. Feeds and Nutrition. Second edi-
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Anim. Sci. 37:1075.
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and flaking milo and barley on performance and digestion by steers. J. Anim. Sci. 20:569.
Husted, W.T., Mehen, S., Hale, W.H., Little, M., and Theurer, B. 1968. Digestibility of milo
processed by different methods. J. Anim. Sci. 27:531.
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Glossary
Abomasum: The fourth chamber of the ruminant stomach, also called true stomach.
The abomasum secretes digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid.
Absorption: Parameter commonly used to express the property of flour to absorb
and hold water. It is usually expressed as percent based on flour weight.
Acid hydrolysis: A process in which the starch is heated under pressure with dilute
acid solutions and converted into dextrins.
Acidulant: Organic compound used to acidify or lower pH. They are food additives
used to activate chemical leavening agents and act synergistically with preserva-
tives or antimicrobial agents.
Acrospire: The development of shoot or sprout in germinating cereals; also known
as plumule.
Acrylamide: Genotoxic and carcinogenic compound formed from asparagine dur-
ing high-thermal treatments such as frying of snacks.
Activated carbon: A finely divided form of carbon that has a high absorbency. It
is usually used in filters to enhance the removal of foreign and colored organic
compounds that contaminate syrups, sweeteners, and oils. It is used as a bleach-
ing aid.
Aeration: Common operation performed in grain elevators, consisting of moving
air through a bed of stored grain at low airflow rates with the aim of getting
rid of the heat and moisture, and therefore lower respiration and extrinsic grain
deterioration.
Adjunct: Common name of a starchy raw material mixed with diastatic malt dur-
ing mashing processes for beer or alcoholic spirit production. Most adjuncts are
refined fractions or starches obtained from dry- and wet-milling processes. The
most widely used adjuncts are refined maize and rice grits, maize starch, ground
barley, and syrups. Upon hydrolysis, adjuncts provide fermentable carbohydrates
and soluble peptides, the key ingredients for the fermenting yeast.
Aflatoxins: A group of highly toxic mycotoxins produced by the molds Aspergillus
flavus or Aspergillus parasiticus. These compounds fluoresce when exposed to
ultraviolet light and are classed into three groups: B, G (fluoresce green), and M
(found in the milk of lactating mammals that consume B or G aflatoxins). They
are potent liver carcinogens that are not destroyed by thermal treatments.
Air aspiration: Name of the continuous process in which grains or milled fractions
are passed through a controlled countercurrent air stream with the aim of remov-
ing lighter or less dense particles.
Air classification: A way of separating the particles of powdered materials (flours)
in a current of air, on the basis of weight, size, and density. Air-classified wheat
flour with higher and lower protein contents are produced using this technology.
Albumin: Protein fraction that is soluble in water conformed by low-molecular-
weight proteins. In cereals, these proteins are generally found in the germ.
669
670 Glossary
Albumin (egg): A specific type of relatively small proteins that are soluble in water
and coagulate with heat. Ovoalbumin is the main protein of egg white and highly
functional in cake formulations due to the air-trapping capability and viscosity.
Ale beer: Beer traditionally produced using top-fermenting yeast. Ales usually have
an amber color.
Aleurone: The single or multiple layers of large thick-walled cells positioned under
the pericarp and outside the endosperm of cereal grains. The aleurone plays a key
role during germination and malting because it produces important enzymes such
as amylases. It is rich in protein, phytic acid, oil, and B-vitamins and devoid of
starch granules.
All-purpose flour: Also known as family or intermediate flour. Flour produced
from a mixture or combination of hard and soft wheats so as to obtain inter-
mediate dough rheological properties. The refined flour contains approximately
10.0%–10.5% protein and 0.40 % ash. The flour is used for the production of bak-
ery products (doughnuts), wheat flour tortillas, crackers/saltines, and gravies.
Alpha acids: Resins from hops that are the precursors of the bitter compounds
in beer. Considered the main source of bitterness when isomerized by boiling.
Include humulone, cohumulone, and adhumulone.
α-Amylase (α-1,4-glucan-4-glucanohydrolase): Amylolytic endoenzyme that
hydrolyses at random α-1,4-glycosidic bonds of starch or glycogen, yielding dex-
trins or oligomers as the main product. Most commercial α-amylases are produced
by submerged fermentation from selected bacterial or fungal strains. Industrially
it is known as liquefaction enzyme because it lowers viscosity of starch slurries.
It is mainly used for the production of syrups and bioethanol.
Alveograph: Instrument that tests the rheological behavior of a dough piece as it is
being blown into a bubble until it ruptures. During inflation, the dough suffers
biaxial extension or is extended in two directions. The air is injected at a cali-
brated flow rate. The main alveograph parameters are P (maximum overpressure),
I (elasticity index), G (index of swelling), L (rupture measured on the baseline),
P/L (configuration ratio), and W (deformation energy).
Ammonium bicarbonate (NH4HCO3): Chemical leavening agent classified as
slow-acting; it releases gas during baking; commonly used for cookies and crack-
ers. It is used for the preparation of baking powders.
Ammonium carbonate: Chemical leavening and pH control agent commonly used
in baking goods and baking powders.
Ammonium phosphate, monobasic and dibasic: Chemical leavening and pH con-
trol agents commonly used in baking goods and baking powders. They are also
used as yeast food.
Ammonium sulfate: Chemical agent used as a source of nitrogen for yeast
fermentation.
Amyloglucosidase (α-1,4-glucan glucohydrolase): Exoamylolytic enzyme that
hydrolyzes α-1,4- and 1,6-glycosidic bonds of gelatinized starch and/or prefer-
ably dextrins, yielding glucose. It is also called saccharifying enzyme. It works
optimally at 60°C and a pH of 4.5. It is the most important enzyme for the produc-
tion of glucose syrups. Amyloglucosidase is usually produced from submerged
fermentation using fungal strains such as Aspergillus niger.
Glossary 671
Amylograph: See viscoamylograph.

Amylopectin: A glucose polymer comprising up to 75% of native starches based on
α-1,4-linked glucose units with numerous α-1,6-glycosidic bonds. It is generally
known as branched starch.
Amyloplast: Organelles in plant cells that synthesize starch polymers in granules.
Amylose: A glucose polymer comprising up to 25% of native starches based on
α-1,4-linked glucose molecules with chain lengths of 300–1000 units. It is gener-
ally known as linear starch.
Angel cake: A light porous cake made with egg whites, flour, and important amounts
of sugar without shortening. The most important functional ingredient is the egg
albumin because it retains the gases during whipping and baking.
Angiosperm: A subdivision of the Spermatophyta that consists of vascular plants
that forms seeds borne in an ovary. The angiosperms are divided into monocoty-
ledons and dicotyledons.
Anemia: A deficiency in the blood of red cells or hemoglobin due to the lack of iron
or vitamin B12.
Annealing, starch: Physical phenomenon that involves incubation of starch gran-
ules in excess water during a certain period of time at a temperature above glass
transition but below gelatinization. During annealing, starch granule composition
remains unchanged, but melting temperature increases significantly due to the
rearrangement of crystalline domains within granules.
Anther: The part of the microsporophyll that contains the pollen sacs in angio-
sperms and cereals.
Anthesis: Stage in which pollen is first shed from the anthers after flowering.
Anthocyanins: Water-soluble flavonoid pigments that appear red to blue according
to pH. In cereals, the anthocyanins, if present, are mainly associated with the
aleurone layer providing color to finished products. From the nutraceutical view-
point, anthocyanins are potent antioxidants and protect against oxidative stress
and chronic diseases.
Antioxidant: A substance that inhibits or prevents oxidation generally by blocking
free radicals.
Arabic bread: Slightly leavened flat breads that originated in Arab countries, usu-
ally baked in brick ovens. The most popular Arab bread is the pita, round flat or
pocket bread. Most of these breads are baked at high temperatures (up to 370°C)
in order to enhance puffing and formation of the internal pocket suitable for stuff-
ing different dishes and salads.
Arabinoxylans: Heteropolysaccharides consisting predominantly of arabinose and
xylose residues. The d-xylopyranose molecules are generally linked by β-1,4
bonds, while the bonds with l-arabinofuran to carbon 3 or less frequently to car-
bon 2. They are commonly named pentosans because the polysaccharides are
mainly made up of five carbon monosaccharides.
Arepas: National bread of Venezuela and Colombia produced from degermed and
precooked maize flour. Arepas are generally stuffed with meats, cheese, jellies,
and other fillings.
672 Glossary
Arrival time, farinograph: Time required for the farinograph dough to first reach a
consistency of 500 farinograph units. It is related to the water absorption capacity
of the wheat flour and the dough rheological properties.
Ascorbic acid: Vitamin C, which is hydrosoluble and prevents scurvy. The sodium
ascorbate is used with potassium bromate as a dough conditioner to strengthen
and condition yeast-leavened breads.
Avidin: Generic name of the oats prolamins. Avidins are soluble in alcohol, and
together with globulins, comprise most of the proteins found in groats.
Awn: The beardlike projection present in the glume of small cereals such as barley,
wheat, rye, and oats.
Azeotropic distillation: The separation of an azeotropic mixture of two compounds
in the liquid phase by the addition of another liquid called azeotrope. For example,
ethanol with a purity higher than 95% can be dehydrated to produce bioethanol by
the addition of benzene or cyclohexane.
Azodicarbonamide: A dough conditioner, oxidizer, and improver used in refined
wheat flour to promote aging and bleaching. A typical use level is less than 45
ppm.
Bacillus thurigiensis: Naturally occurring bacterium present in soil, which pro-
duces a protein or toxin that interferes with the insect’s digestion and acts as
an insecticide. The genes that encode for this protein (cry) were introduced into
maize to produce Bt maize.
Bagel: A circular Jewish bread roll with a hole in the middle made from wheat flour,
yeast, and egg. The main characteristic is that the fermented and proofed dough
is cooked in boiling water prior to baking.
Baguette: A French bread made from wheat flour, yeast, and salt that upon baking
yields a thin loaf about 60 cm long. The baguettes are usually baked in the pres-
ence of steam and have a crisp crust. They have a short textural shelf life.
Bakers’ yeast: Strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae propagated by pure culture
using vitamins and minerals from sugarcane or molasses as substrate. Yeasts are
harvested by centrifugation and vacuum-filtered to produce compressed yeast or
dehydrated to yield dried or instant yeast.
Baking powder: Name of the product resulting from the mixture of chemical leav-
ening agents, one or several acidulants, and an inert or filling compound (starch).
The baking powder yields carbon dioxide when moistened and heated. The
source of carbon dioxide is generally sodium bicarbonate, whereas the most com-
mon acidulant is the cream of tartar. Fast-acting baking powder liberates carbon
dioxide in the dough stage, whereas slow-acting powder needs high baking tem-
peratures to release carbon dioxide. Most commercial baking powders are double
acting.
Batter: A mixture of flour, starches, and other ingredients with water or other liq-
uids that is homogenized by mixing. It has soft, plastic, and viscous properties.
Batters are used for breading purposes and for the production of cakes, hot cakes,
muffins, wafers, and related products.
Benzoyl peroxide: Chemical compound used for the bleaching of flour.
Beriberi: A disease due to the lack of vitamin B1 or thiamin in the diet. Humans
affected by beriberi show the classic symptoms of lack of appetite, nausea,
Glossary 673
vomiting, constipation, and mainly alterations in the nervous system that result in
ataxia, paralysis, and depression.
β-Amylase (α-1,4-glucan maltohydrolase): Amylolytic enzyme that breaks down
starch into maltose and dextrins. β-Amylase attacks only α-1,4-glycosidic bonds
starting from the nonreducing end of every other glucose unit. Its hydrolyzing
capacity stops when the enzyme encounters an α-1,6-glycosidic bond or branch.
β-Amylases are used to produce maltose-containing syrups.
β-Glucans: A polymer of glucose linked by β-glycosidic bonds that forms part of
the cell walls in the starchy endosperm of cereals. Barley is especially rich in
β-glucans. Linear d-glucans linked by β-1,3 or 1,4 bonds that occur in larger
amounts in barley and oats. The β-glucans composed entirely of glucose units
have affinity for water and are found within soluble dietary fiber. β-glucans read-
ily ferment in the hindgut and are considered hypocholesterolemic.
β-Glucanase : Enzyme that hydrolyses β-glucans.
Beta acids: Resins from hops that are the precursors of aroma and flavor compounds
in beer. Includes lupulone, colupulone, and related compounds.
Biological control: Insect control method in which beneficial insects are used to
control harmful insects. The use of biological control significantly lowers the use
of insecticides.
Biological value: Common term used by protein nutritionists, calculated as the per-
centage of nitrogen retained (nitrogen in food – nitrogen in feces – nitrogen in
urine) divided by the nitrogen absorbed (nitrogen in food – nitrogen in feces).
The biological value is greatly affected by the essential amino acid profile of the
food.
Birefringence: Phenomenon that occurs when polarized light interacts with a highly
ordered crystalline structure such as that present in native or undamaged starch
granules. Birefringence occurs by the rotation of polarized light and manifests
itself as a Maltese cross.
Biscuit: Small round bread made of dough raised with baking powder or chemical
leavening agents.
Bloat (tympany): Dysfunction of the digestive tract of ruminants characterized by
intraruminal pressure buildup due to the accumulation of fermented gases. As a
result, there is a distention of the left side of the abdomen and accumulation of
toxic metabolites that can kill the animal.
Blue maize: Floury or soft-textured maize that contains blue-purple coloration in
the aleurone layer due to the presence of anthocyanins and flavonoids. Thus, it is
considered a nutraceutical food and is generally sold as flour, tortilla chips, and
table tortillas.
Body (beer): A qualitative indicator of the fullness or mouthfeel of beer. Related to
the proportion of unfermentable carbohydrates or dextrins present in beer.
Bolus: A solid mass of ingesta, also known as cud, which in ruminants is regurgi-
tated for remastication during rumination.
Bolting: Process of sifting or sizing milled cereal products through bolting cloths
(woven material from silk, nylon, polyester, iron, copper, bronze, or stainless
steel).
674 Glossary
Bourbon whiskey: Alcoholic spirit produced at no more than 160° proof from a fer-
mented mash of not less than 51% maize and stored at not more than 125° proof
in charred oak barrels.
Bran: Name of the milling fraction composed of pericarp that is rich in fiber and
pigments. Generally, the bran is separated from the endosperm fractions via air
aspiration or sieving.
Break flour: Flour obtained after sifting the milling stock of break rolls. Break
flours usually possess better color and less minerals compared to reduced flours.
Break-roll system: Name of the grooved milling rolls designed to mill grains,
mainly wheat. The rolls generally operate with a speed differential so as to detach
the bran from the rest of the kernel. Most wheat mills have four to five break roll
units.
Brewers spent grains: The extracted residue of barley malt, alone or in mixture
with other cereal grains or adjuncts, resulting from the manufacture of wort or
beer. Brewers spent grains are mainly used to feed ruminants.
Brown rice: Name of the naked caryopsis of rice obtained after dehusking rough or
paddy rice. It consists of pericarp, germ, and endosperm.
Budding: A mechanism of asexual reproduction in yeasts in which a small out-
growth develops into a new cell that has a genetic background identical to the
mother cell.
Bulgur: Cereal-based food made most often from durum or pasta wheat in the
Middle East, Turkey, and neighboring Mediterranean countries. The grain is par-
boiled, solar-dried, and usually decorticated, although whole-grain bulgur also
exists in the market.
Bulk density: Measurement of the apparent density of a given material such as
grains or processed products. It is named bulk because it measures the product
weight contained in a certain volume that includes air spaces.
Bushel: A unit of volume equal to 2140 in.2 or 36.37 L. Most cereal grains are sold
and commercialized based on bushel weight or apparent density determined by
the Winchester Bushel Meter.
C3 plants: Plants that assimilate CO2 (during photosynthesis) fixed directly by
the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase. They are known as C3 plants
because the first stable compound is the three-carbon 3 phosphoglyceric acid.
Photosynthesis in C3 plants is inhibited by oxygen.
C4 plants: Higher plants in which the normal photosynthetic carbon cycle is supple-
mented by another pathway of carbon assimilation. These plants are recognized
as having the highest rates of photosynthesis and more production potential. The
term C4 derives from the fact that the first stable compounds are four-carbon
malic and aspartic acids. C4 plants are more resistant to inhibition by oxygen and
have lower photorespiration compared to C3 plants.
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3): Alkaline salt used as filler in baking powders and for
calcium enrichment.
Calcium phosphate, mono [Ca(H2PO4)2] and di (CaHPO4): Fast-acting chemical
leavening agents used for the production of baking powders, baked goods, cakes,
and related products.
Glossary 675
Calcium propionate (C6H10CaO4 ): A calcium salt of propionic acid widely used as

a preservative. It is especially effective against molds, has limited activity against
bacteria, and practically no activity against yeast. Therefore, it is used in yeast-
leavened breads. The typical usage level is 0.2% based on flour weight.
Caramelization: One of the four main browning reactions due to sugar pyrolysis or
intense heat treatment. Caramelization provides the characteristic color and flavor
in baked products.
Carbonation: The act of adding carbon dioxide to beer and carbonated soft drinks.
Carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC): A synthetic gum manufactured by reacting
monochloroacetate with alkali cellulose. It dissolves both in cold and hot water.
It is used in bakery goods (0.05%–0.5%) to improve texture, retain moisture,
improve freeze-thaw stability, and lower starch retrogradation.
Carotenes: Plant pigments based on tetraterpene structure that are nonsaponifiable,
and impart yellow coloration to the endosperm. Carotenoids are divided into car-
otenes or hydrocarbon tetraterpenes (β-carotene, lycopene) and xanthophylls or
hydroxylated carotenes (lutein, zeaxanthin). β-Carotenes are precursors of retinol
or vitamin A.
Caryopsis: Name of the fruit of cereal grains. The pericarp or fruit coat is firmly
attached to the true seed composed of endosperm and germ.
Celiac disease: See gluten intolerance.
Cellulose: Polysaccharide consisting of up to 10,000 β-1,4-linked glucopyranose
units. Cellulose is the major building block of the plant cell walls.
Chaff: Glumes, husks, or other seed coverings separated from cereal grains during
threshing or cleaning operations.
Chapati: See Roti.
Chemical leavening agent: Acid agents that chemically react with sodium bicarbon-
ate to yield carbon dioxide. This reaction is initiated by moisture and completed
by heat. Different types of chemical leavening agents are used for the manufac-
ture of cookies, cakes, muffins, and related products. The rate of carbon diox-
ide production depends on temperature and pH. Chemical leavening agents are
divided into slow and fast acting. The first releases CO2 at baking temperatures,
whereas the second releases CO2 at ambient temperature or during dough mixing
or batter formation.
Chemical score: Common term used by protein nutritionists, calculated as the per-
centage of the limiting essential amino acid contained in a certain type of protein
divided by the requirement for optimum growth. In regular cereals, the chemical
score is around 50% based on the optimum for child growth. High-lysine cereals
have a significantly higher chemical score compared to regular counterparts.
Chlorinated flour: Wheat flour that has been treated with chlorine for aging and
bleaching purposes. The flours that are most frequently chlorinated are cake
flours. These bleached flours have an acidic pH and weaker gluten due to disrup-
tion of disulfide bonds.
Chromosome: The DNA-bearing structure that carries the inheritable characteris-
tics of a given organism. The number of chromosomes is constant for any given
species. Chromosomes may be present in the haploid, diploid, or polyploidy
number.
676 Glossary
Chylomicrons: Large-sized lipoproteins synthesized by intestinal epithelial cells

that transport dietary triglycerides and cholesterol to the liver.
Classification: Name of the operation of separating grains or milled fractions in
sieves according to size and, in some instances, density.
Clear flour: Name of the low-quality wheat flour obtained in the last stages of the
milling process (last reduction rolls). The flour has lower quality in terms of color,
mechanically damaged starch, and higher amounts of ash and fat. When a patent
flour is fabricated, the clear flour is removed from the straight-grade flour.
Coleoptera: This is the most important and destructive insect order, to which all
beetles belong. Insects undergo a complete metamorphosis and their front wings,
named elytras, are thick due to chitin, whereas the rear wings are used for flying.
The mouth parts of the larvae and adults are hard and move horizontally to grasp,
crush, or cut food.
Collets: Technical name of the extrudates or puffs obtained by direct extrusion.
Compound starch granule: Naturally occurring aggregates of individual starch
granules.
Conditioning: Name of the process in which water is added to grains, so that they
process better during milling operations.
Constipation: Digestive disorder characterized by less frequent defecation and pro-
duction of hard and dry fecal material. Constipation can cause headaches, abdom-
inal discomfort, depression, and sensation of mouth dryness.
Corn chips: Snack food produced from nixtamalized maize. The lime-cooked maize
is ground into a dough that is extruded into chips and deep-fat fried. The resulting
corn chips are usually salted and flavored. Corn chips contain about 36% oil.
Corn dry milling: Process in which maize is milled into refined grits and flours. The
most common process consists of tempering the grain for optimum degermina-
tion. This is followed by the separation of pericarp and germ from the endosperm
pieces, which are further classified into grits of different sizes, corn meal, and
corn flour. The refined products are widely used by the brewing, baking, snack,
and breakfast cereal industries.
Corn grits: Refined particles of the endosperm, free of germ and pericarp, produced
after dry milling. Corn grits are usually classified by sizes as U.S. mesh numbers
6, 40, and 60. They are widely used by the brewing, snack, and breakfast cereal
industries.
Corn wet-milling: Industrial process in which yellow dent corns are steeped in a
solution containing sulfur dioxide and naturally occurring Lactobacillus and then
wet-milled in order to release the starch granules and protein or gluten, which
are separated due to their differences in density. The process yields prime starch,
gluten, germ, pericarp, and solids of the steep liquor.
Cosmopolitan insect: Insect that has a wide range of adaptation and is found
throughout the world.
Couscous: Cereal-based prepared food consisting of spherical refined granules from
wheat semolina or refined sorghum grits. The dish is a primary staple in Arab
countries and West Africa. Couscous is traditionally served under a meat or veg-
etable stew or as a dessert or a side dish.
Glossary 677
Cretinism: Inadequate physical and mental development due to iodine deficiency

and insufficient thyroid secretion.
Crispbread: A flat and dry Nordic type of bread or cracker containing mostly rye and
wheat flours. Crispbread is a staple of Nordic cuisine and has attracted renewed
interest because it is considered as a healthful low-fat and reduced calorie item.
Critical moisture: Maximum amount of water in the grain in which it is stable,
has negligible respiration, and is less susceptible to insect and mold attack. It is
closely associated with water activity. In cereals, the critical moisture is consid-
ered 14% with an Aw of approximately 0.7.
Croissants: Sweet bread that originated in Vienna, Austria, in the Middle Ages
with the typical quarter-crescent moon form. Croissants are manufactured from
sweet and rich doughs that are laminated and folded, cut into triangles, rolled,
and formed into the characteristic form. One of the most critical operations is
the sheeting and folding of the dough before forming, final proofing, and baking.
Sheeted doughs are covered with whipped butter, margarine, and/or shortening,
and then the dough is folded several times so as to form a multilayered bread.
Cross cells: Square-shaped cell located in the inner pericarp or endocarp above the
tube cells. Their main function is to decrease or prevent loss of water conducted
by tube cells. They act as an internal seal to preserve critical water absorbed dur-
ing germination.
Crude oil: Name of oils obtained from oil-bearing materials that have not been
refined. Oils are mainly composed of triglycerides, phospholipids, diglycerides,
monoglycerides, free fatty acids, pigments (carotenes, chlorophyll, gossypol, phe-
nolics), tocopherols, phytosterols, and other compounds.
Crumb: An internal textural characteristic of baked products. Crumb texture is
related to the tenderness or toughness of the bread and the distribution and size
of the loci or air spaces.
Crumbling: Process in which pelleted feeds are reduced to granular form.
Cud: A bolus of previously eaten feed that is regurgitated and rechewed by
ruminants.
Culms: The rootlets and sprouts of germinated barley that are collected after kilning
and decuming, and which are used for animal feed. They represent about 4% of
the malt weight.
Cyclodextrin: Name of different number of oligosaccharides based on glucose units
that are linked to form a ring structure. The three most popular cyclodextrins
contain six, seven, and eight units. They are used as carriers for other molecules
(flavorings, drugs).
Cyclodextrin glycosyltransferase: Enzymes that cleave starch and cyclize linear
dextrins into a cyclodextrin ring.
Danish pastry: A sweet pastry produced from a fermented, rich dough containing
milk, eggs, and butter/margarine/shortening. The fermented dough is laminated,
coated with butter or other fats, and then folded into numerous layers. Many
Danish pastries are filled with jams, jellies, custard, raisins, or pecans and topped
with sugar and chocolate icings.
678 Glossary
Decortication: Milling process consisting of selectively removing the bran or peri-

carp by abrasion. Brown rice and whole sorghum are frequently decorticated
before food preparation.
Degerming: Milling operation aimed at the removal of the germ. It is mainly applied
in dry-milling of maize.
Degree of polymerization (DP): Term used to describe the molecular size of a
polymer such as hydrolyzed starch. In starch chemistry, it refers to the number of
glucose units in a starch or dextrin chain.
Dehulling: Name of the milling operation aimed at the removal of the glumes
(lemma and palea) or hulls. Paddy rice and oats are almost always dehulled dur-
ing milling operations in order to obtain white rice and groats, respectively.
Departure time, farinograph: Time required for the farinograph dough to leave
the 500 farinograph unit line. It is related to the dough rheological properties and
gluten strength. The difference between departure and arrival times is the dough
stability. Hard wheats have longer departure times and are more stable compared
to soft wheats.
Development time, farinograph: Time in minutes required for the farinograph
dough to reach maximum consistency (500 farinograph units). It is affected by
the dough water absorption and especially by its gluten properties. The dough
development time is highly related to optimum dough mixing time.
Dextrin: A short-chain polysaccharide of glucose units linked with α-1,4 (linear
dextrin) and α-1,6-glycosidic bonds (branched dextrins) formed during the break-
down of starch.
Dextrose equivalent (DE): An expression of the extent of hydrolysis of starch to
glucose. It is measured by determining the reducing sugar content of syrup. Pure
dextrose has a DE of 100.
Dextrose: Common name for glucose generally obtained via starch enzymatic
hydrolysis.
Diacetyl: Chemical compound with an intense aroma of butter produced by yeast
during fermentation.
Diastatic activity: Amylolytic or starch-breakdown capacity of malted cereals due
to activity of α- and β-amylases. Diastatic activity is one of the most important
parameters associated with malt.
Die: A plate with one or more perforations or orifices with a certain design located at
the end of the extruder barrel. The main functionalities of the die include restrict-
ing the flow of the extruded material, causing important pressure changes; the
most important functionality, however, is to form extrudates into certain shapes
or configurations.
Digestibility: The percentage of a food or feed or nutrient that is absorbed from
the gastrointestinal tract as indicated by the intake minus the amount excreted
in feces. Apparent digestibility differs from true digestibility in that feces con-
tain substances derived from the body (enzymes, epithelial cell, and mucosa) and
microbial products.
Digestible energy: Amount of energy absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. It is cal-
culated by subtracting the energy excreted in feces from the total or gross energy
consumed.
Glossary 679
Dimethyl sulfide: Sulfur-carrying compound that imparts a significant flavor to

lager beers.
Disk separator: Cleaning or sorting machine specifically designed to perform a
separation by differentiating between the difference in length between the desired
and unwanted products. It consists of a horizontal shaft on which is mounted a
series of vertical disks with indented pockets on both faces. The indentations on
the rotating disks selectively pick up grains, which are lifted and then thrown out
of the pockets by centrifugal force to a collecting hopper running along the entire
length of the machine. The larger particles that do not fit into the pockets are
conveyed down the separator through an outlet at the tail end. It is widely used by
wheat and oat millers.
Distillation: A process used in the purification of volatile compounds (i.e., ethanol).
Heat is applied to a mixture and the vapor condensed in a distillation column. The
separation of two liquids is effective when the liquids have differing volatiliza-
tion points. Distillation is a key process in the production of distilled spirits and
bioethanol.
Distiller grains: The wet or dried distiller grain (DDG) is a residual by-product of
a grain fermentation process. DDGs are high in protein and fiber and are used as
animal feed, mainly as a ruminant supplement. Distiller grains with solubles are
products obtained by mixing with partially dried stillage.
Divider: A machine used to cut dough into uniform pieces in terms of size and/or
weight.
Dockage: Common name of the foreign material in a certain grain sample that is
removed by aspiration, size separators, and gravity separators. The Carter dock-
age tester is used by official inspectors in the United States to determine extrane-
ous materials for grading purposes.
Dormancy: A state of low metabolic activity found in the resting stage of the life
cycle of some seeds that do not germinate even when given optimum conditions.
This is due to inhibitors that are generally lost after a certain period of time.
Double-acting baking powder: Baking powder that contains fast- and slow-acting
salts that produce CO2 upon hydration at ambient and baking temperatures.
Dough conditioner: Chemical additives used mainly in bread making to strengthen
dough texture or machinability and improve the characteristics of bakery prod-
ucts (softness and textural shelf life). Examples include oxidizing agents, ascorbic
acid, and emulsifiers.
Dough stability: Farinograph parameter estimated by subtracting departure time
from arrival time or the time in which the dough has a consistency of 500 FU. The
dough stability is closely related to flour and bread quality. Generally, hard wheat
flours have higher stability compared to all-purpose and soft-wheat flours.
Draft beer: Beer that is usually dispensed from kegs or casks via pipes and pumps.
These beers are usually nonpasteurized and consumed within a few weeks.
Dry beer: A type of beer that contains low residual sugar.
Dry masa flour: Lime-cooked maize kernels that are coarsely ground into dough
and then dehydrated and reground to meet certain particle-size specifications.
The shelf-stable dry masa flour is moistened and further processed into table tor-
tillas, corn chips, tortillas chips, and other related products.
680 Glossary
Dry milling: Milling system aimed at separation of the grain anatomical parts. The
product is the endosperm, which could be whole (white rice) or milled into frac-
tions (grits, semolina, meal, or flour). These milling fractions have a longer shelf
life because they are low in fat and higher in starch. The coproducts of most dry-
milled processes are glumes or hulls, bran or pericarp, and germ.
Dusting, flour: Operation commonly performed during manufacturing of bakery
products in which fine flour is applied on doughs to improve machinability and
handling. Most commercial bakery equipment contain dusting stations integrated
into the equipment.
ELISA: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. A sensitive biotechnology analyti-
cal technique in which an enzyme is complexed to an antigen or antibody. The
analyte is bound and complexed, and then removed for quantification via color
development or other instrumental analysis techniques (i.e., fluorescence). ELISA
is used as a rapid and accurate technique to quantify most mycotoxins.
Embryo: The structure that develops in plants and animals from a zygote through
repeated division of cells that differentiates into tissues and organs. In plants, the
embryo forms part of the seed.
Embryo sac: Part of the ovule that lies within the ovary of the female flower that
encloses the small female cells.
Emulsifier: A chemical compound that has both hydrophilic and lipophilic groups
and, therefore, has an affinity for hydrosoluble and liposoluble compounds, form-
ing emulsions.
Endemic: A disease of low morbidity that persists over a long period of time in a
certain region.
Endosperm: A nutritive tissue found in seeds of cereal grains. It represents a part of
the gametophyte tissue, since it develops from the embryonic sac as a result of the
fertilization of the two polar nuclei and pollen. The endosperm is triploid, and the
genetic information is two-thirds female and one-third male.
Enrichment, nutrient: Mandatory action of adding selected micronutrients to pop-
ular cereal-based products. Most enrichment programs add iron, zinc, thiamin,
riboflavin, niacin, and folic acid at least to the levels originally found in whole
grains.
Extensigraph: Rheological instrument used to measure dough strength and extensi-
bility; it is widely used in the wheat milling and baking industries. An optimally
mixed piece of dough is cramped to the extensigraph arms and then subjected to a
constant displacement until rupture. The dough resistance to stretching is graphed
in the typical extensigraph curve. The instrument records the resistance (R) and
extensibility (E), and the integration of the area under the curve is proportional to
the energy (W) required to bring the dough to the rupture point.
Extract: Soluble constituents from malt including sugars and proteins.
Extraction: Milling term used to express the percentage of flour or the dry-milled
fractions extracted from grains.
Extrinsic deterioration: Type of grain deterioration due to external factors such as
insects, molds, and rodents.
Extruder: Apparatus consisting of five basic parts: feeding system, extruder bar-
rel, screws, die, and cutting system that operates in a continuous mode for the
Glossary 681
production of pasta, pregelatinized flours, breakfast cereals, snacks, and other

cereal-based products. The extruder has the capacity to blend, cook, and form in
one unit operation. Extruders are divided into cold and thermoplastic, and accord-
ing to the number of screws into single and twin screw.
Extrusion: Continuous process in which the feed materials, generally refined cereal
grits or flours supplemented with other ingredients, are transformed into foods
such as different types of pasta products, breakfast cereals, and snacks. Cold
extrusion is used for the production of pasta products, whereas thermoplastic
extrusion is used for the production of breakfast cereals, snacks, and pregelati-
nized flours.
Falling number: Apparatus designed to measure diastatic activity or starch dam-
age in flours, especially wheat. The instrument indirectly measures α-amylase or
sprout damage by recording the viscosity of a slurry that has been heat treated.
The falling number is measured by the time it takes for a plunger to travel through-
out the slurry. The lower the viscosity, the higher the diastatic activity or starch
damage.
Farinograph: Apparatus used to measure wheat dough rheological properties and
predict water absorption. The instrument records the resistance of the dough to
mixing at a constant temperature. The farinograph water absorption is the per-
centage of water required to center the curve on the 500 Brabender unit line at
maximum dough consistency. Other important parameters of the farinograph
curve are arrival time, departure time, dough development time, dough stability,
and mixing tolerance index.
Fast-acting baking powder: Baking powder that contains fast-acting salts such as
monohydrated monocalcium phosphate and sodium bicarbonate that produce sig-
nificant amounts of CO2 upon hydration at ambient temperatures or during dough
or batter mixing.
Fat acidity: Degree of acidity of a given fat or oil. When the fat or oil deterio-
rates, fatty acids are freed due to the hydrolysis of the ester bond. The acidity test
is widely used to estimate the degree of deterioration of cereal grains because
lipases develop during the early stages of deterioration, producing fatty acids.
Fermentation: Process in which foods are intentionally modified physically, chemi-
cally, and nutritionally with the use of live microorganisms. Most fermentations
are acidic and alcoholic.
Fermentograph: Apparatus used to measure yeast activity. It measures the pressure
created by carbon dioxide produced by yeast in dough systems.
Fertile Crescent: Region of the world considered the cradle of agriculture and cereal
production, located in southwest Asia or the Near East and currently embraced by
Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Syria, and Turkmenistan.
Fertilization: Combination of mature male and female gametes coming from the
stamen and pistil of the flower.
Flavonoid: Compounds based on two benzene rings linked by a three-carbon chain.
They are important pigments and nutraceuticals due to their antioxidant capacity.
Flavonoids include anthocyanins, chalcones, flavones, flavonols, and isoflavones.
Flight, screw: The helicoid periphery of the extruder’s screw that conveys the feed-
stock. The angle, distance between flights, and flight height play an important
682 Glossary
role in determining how much feedstock is conveyed and the shear force inside
the extruder.
Flour: Refined milled fraction of the endosperm that has particles which pass the
U.S. sieve 100.
Feed efficiency or conversion: The ratio expressing the number of units of feed
required for one unit of production (meat, milk, eggs) by an animal.
Fortification: The action of addition of selected nutrients, generally vitamins and
minerals, to foods. Unlike enrichment, fortification is optional or not regulated.
Free amino nitrogen (FAN): Organic nitrogenous compounds soluble in water gen-
erated by proteases during mashing of beers and alcoholic beverages. The FAN
is an activator of the yeast that transforms the FAN into fusel alcohols. FAN is
usually determined via ninhydrin reaction.
French bread: Yeast-leavened breads produced from hard wheat flour, water, and
salt that are baked into crusty loaves. The authentic French breads or baguettes do
not contain sugar and shortening. Thus, these breads have a short textural shelf
life and are considered dietetic bread.
Fructose (C6H12O6): Monosaccharide or simple sugar naturally occurring in fruits
and honey. Chemically, it is a β-d-fructofuranose molecule. Fructose is a major
sugar in high-fructose corn syrups and is sweeter than glucose.
Fumigant: Insecticide that is very effective in controlling insects in enclosed facili-
ties. It is generally applied in liquid or even solid forms that vaporize when exposed
to the environment. Fumigants are widely used in grain elevators because they
kill all insects even if they are located in unreachable places. They have low
residual value.
Fumigation: A disinfection technique in which a toxic gas is released into a closed
environment. Fumigants such as methyl bromide are used to treat stored grains.
Fumonisin: Mycotoxin mainly produced by Fusarium moniliforme and Fusarium
proliferatum that causes encephalitis and death in equines. In humans, it causes
cancer and interferes with folic acid metabolism. It is believed to increase the
chances of neural tube defects in developing fetuses.
Fusel alcohols: A mixture of higher alcohols formed during yeast-based fermenta-
tions that are congeners of ethanol fermentation. The main fusel alcohols are
propanol, butanol, and amyl alcohols. These are produced by transamination of
amino acids present in the wort. Their presence in alcoholic beverages is known
to be a cause of headaches and hangovers.
Gasograph: Instrument used to measure yeast activity in which yeast ferments a
sugar solution under controlled temperature. The instrument graphs the pressure
generated by CO2 versus time (throughout the time of the assay).
Gay Lussac (GL): The name given to a scale of the concentration of ethanol in
mixtures with water.
Gelatinization: The name of the irreversible process in which native starch granules
lose their internal crystallinity or birefringence mainly due to cooking or the
application of heat in the presence of water. Gelatinized starch becomes a viscous
gel that is more susceptible to enzymatic hydrolysis.
Genetically modified organism (GMO): Modification of the genetic makeup of an
organism by altering its DNA. This involves laboratory techniques to insert, alter,
Glossary 683
or cut out pieces of DNA that contain one or more genes that the new organism
transmits to new generations. In plants, GMOs are produced to increase produc-
tivity, impart insect and herbicide resistance, and modify the storage, nutritional,
and nutraceutical properties of food products.
Germ, cereal: Anatomical part of the cereal conformed by the scutellum or first
reserve tissue and embryonic axis The embryo of the germ will generate a new
plant if the grain is exposed to the proper germination conditions. In cereals, the
germ comprises from 2% to 16% of the total grain weight and is rich in lipids,
proteins, vitamins, and minerals.
Germination: The sprouting of cereal grains to generate a new plant.
Gibberellic acid: A class of plant growth substances or phytohormones. It is chemi-
cally classified as a diterpenoid. The hormone influences seed germination,
amylase synthesis, break of dormancy, and fruit and leaf growth. It is the most
important hormone for germination.
Glaze, Glazing: Action of covering bakery and other cereal-based products with an
icing or glaze. Generally, the glazing imparts a smooth and glossy surface.
Gliadin: Generic name of the prolamins of wheat. They are extracted with alcohol
and located in the endosperm, and they, together with glutelins, form the wheat
gluten.
Globulin: A fraction conformed by globular proteins soluble in salt solutions but
insoluble in water. In cereals, most globulins are found in the germ.
Glossitis: A swollen and reddened tongue generally resulting from vitamin-B
deficiency.
Glucose isomerase: Key microbial enzyme for the production of fructose-contain-
ing syrups. It transforms or converts glucose into fructose. The enzyme is almost
always used immobilized or attached to a support, and optimally works at a tem-
perature of 55°C–60°C and a pH of 7.5–8.5.
Glucose (C6H12O6): Simple sugar or monosaccharide classified as an aldose (α-d-
glucopyranose). It is the most abundant monosaccharide in nature. The treatment
of starch with α-amylase and amyloglucosidase yields almost pure glucose or
dextrose. This sweet and reducing sugar is fermentable and key to the production
of fuel ethanol and alcoholic beverages.
Glumes: Botanical name of the husks or fruit envelopes associated with cereal
grains. The glumes are named lemma and palea and contain high amounts of fiber
and minerals. They protect the grain against biotic agents and weathering.
Glutaminase (transglutaminase): Enzymes used to catalyze acyl transfer reactions
producing crossbonding between glutamine and lysine residues. Glutaminases
are used to strengthen the gluten and to improve the bread volume and
characteristics.
Glutelin: High-molecular-weight protein fraction that is soluble in dilute acids and
bases and insoluble in neutral solvents. They are the main proteins associated
with the protein matrix of cereal grains. Glutelins and prolamins together form
the gluten.
Gluten intolerance: Enteropathy syndrome, also known as celiac disease, caused
by the ingestion of gluten present in wheat, barley, rye, triticale, and possibly, oat
products; it is more common in Caucasians. It may be defined as an inflammatory
684 Glossary
disease of the upper small intestine in genetically susceptible people. The precipi-
tating factors of toxic cereals are the storage proteins of wheat known as gliadin
and glutelin, secalins associated with rye, and hordeins with barley. The clini-
cal feature of celiac disease is characterized by a flat intestinal mucosa with the
absence of normal villi, resulting in a generalized nutrient malabsorption. Some
peptides from gliadin adhere to a specific villi receptor and act as an antigen that
triggers the liberation of immune factors.
Gluten: General name of the cereal endosperm proteins mainly composed of prola-
mins and glutelins. Only in the case of wheat is the gluten functional, exhibiting
viscoelastic and gas-retaining properties after the wheat flour has been hydrated
and mixed. The gluten is rich in glutamic and aspartic acid, and its protein quality
for monogastrics and humans is low.
Glutomatic: Apparatus especially designed to extract gluten from wheat flour. It is
widely used to characterize different wheats in terms of class and gluten content.
The glutomatic first produces a dough, which is then washed to remove nongluten
compounds. The resulting wet gluten is weighed and dried to express results as
fresh and dehydrated gluten yield.
Glycemic index: A numerical index given to a carbohydrate-rich food that is based
on the average increase in blood glucose levels occurring after ingestion. A lower
glycemic index suggests slower rates of digestion and absorption of the foods’
carbohydrates. Whole-grain foods have lower glycemic index compared to refined
foods.
Glycolipid: Lipid that contains two fatty acids and a sugar (i.e., galacturonic, glu-
conic) esterified to the glycerol chain.
Goitrogen: Chemical compounds such as thioamide derived from flavonoid
C‑glucosylflavone, vitexin, glucosylvitexin, and glucosylorientina, which cause
the enlargement of the thyroid gland or goiter. Goitrogens inhibit the conversion
of thyroxine (T4) to tri-iodothyronine (T3).
Grading, grain: Classification of grains according to quality by licensed grain
inspectors. Grading plays an important role in the domestic and international
market value of any given lot of grain. Grain classification and grading ensure
that a particular lot of grain meets preestablished quality control guidelines. Most
federal governments have impartial regulatory agencies in charge of assigning
grain quality.
Graham flour: Finely ground whole-wheat flour.
Grain rotation: Common management practice performed in order to lower grain
respiration via heat dissipation. Grain rotation simply consists of removing and
redepositing the grain in storage facilities in order to break heat spots. The disad-
vantage of grain rotation is that grains suffer mechanical damage due to convey-
ing and management.
Gravity table: Apparatus used to separate grains or milled fractions by density and
aerodynamic properties. Consists of a highly vibrating screen positioned and
calibrated at a certain angle. Gravity tables are used as destoners in most milling
operations and to separate damaged or less dense kernels from sound grains.
Green beer: Freshly fermented beer that has not been conditioned or matured.
Glossary 685
Green revolution: Refers to the adoption of high-yielding varieties of wheat and

rice, and production packages (irrigation, high fertilization, and use of pesticides)
that closed the food gap during the second half of the twentieth century. Dr.
Normal Borlaug was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize because he was the father of
the green revolution.
Grits: Name of the refined endosperm particles obtained after dry-milling processes.
Grits are classified according to average size into flaking (U.S. No. 6), brewing
(U.S. No. 40–60), coarse (U.S. No 35–40), and fine (U.S. No 60). Grits are widely
used to manufacture beer, breakfast cereals, and snack foods.
Groats: Name of the hull-free oats. Consists of the naked caryopses of oats.
Gross energy: Represents the total combustible energy in foods determined in a
calorimetric bomb. It does not differ greatly among foods, except for those high
in fats and oils.
Gruel: A food prepared by mixing ground cereals with hot water.
Half-product: See Pellet.
Hammer mill: A mechanical device used to ground solid materials. The mill con-
sists of a number of blunt blades that rotate at high speed within a chamber. The
macerated material exits the mill after passing a screen that has fixed holes.
Haploid: Cell that possesses a single set of unpaired chromosomes (n). Gametes are
haploid cells that cannot undergo meiosis.
Hearth: The heated baking surface of the floor of an oven.
Heat-damaged kernel: Kernels damaged due to high-temperature drying or faulty
storage. Most heat-damaged kernels are generated when grains are stored at high
moisture and, therefore, have high respiration rates. The high grain temperature
and generation of soluble sugars due to the activation of intrinsic enzymes produce
Maillard reactions and off-colors and, in some instances, loss of seed viability.
Heat-damaged kernels greatly affect functionality and product quality, especially
in the wheat milling and processing industries.
Heat spot: Places within stored grain masses that concentrate more heat or tem-
perature due to grain respiration. The heat spots usually occur in the center of the
stored grain mass because the grain itself acts as an insulator. The heat spots are
monitored in grain elevators and this monitoring is considered one of the most
popular control measurements. Grain ventilation or aeration is used to dissipate
temperature of heat spots.
Hectoliter weight: A measurement of apparent grain density widely used for grading
and commercialization purposes. It is defined as the amount of grain (expressed
in kilograms) that fits in a 100 L container. The conversion factor of lb/bu to kg/
hL is 1.297.
Hemicellulose: Fiber polysaccharides that include xylans, mannans, galactans, and
glucomannans found in the cell walls of cereals. Hemicelluloses contain pentoses
and uronic acid in addition to hexoses.
Hermaphrodite: Descriptive of a plant that has both male and female reproductive
organs.
Heterosis: An increase in size and vigor seen in hybrid organisms compared to the
parents or parental lines.
686 Glossary
High-fructose syrup: A sweetener composed of the hexose sugars glucose and fruc-
tose produced from enzymatically degraded starch.
High-ratio cake: Cake formulated to contain more sugar than flour.
Hilum: The scar tissue located adjacent to the cereal germ, generally black in color.
The hilum is the point of attachment of the funiculus and the place where water
enters the grain during germination. The starch granule hilum is the nucleus or
distinctive dot of starch granules where the necessary nutrients for starch synthe-
sis entered the granule.
Hominy feed: A mixture of bran, germ, and part of the starchy endosperm obtained
as a by-product of the maize dry-milling industry. It is usually used as livestock
feed for both monogastrics and ruminants.
Hops: The female flowers of the vine Humulus lupulus of the Canabineas family
that are used in the production of the bitter flavor of European beers. Hops con-
tributes to the characteristic aroma and bitter taste of beer and contains a mixture
of hydrocarbons, terpenes, resins, humulones (alpha acids), and lupulones.
Hordein: Generic name of the barley prolamins. This protein fraction is extracted
with alcohol and is mainly located in the endosperm.
Humulone: The most prevalent of the three alpha acids present in hops. It is respon-
sible for the bitter flavor of beer.
Hybrid: An organism produced by the crossing of individual or species that are
genetically different. F1 hybrid plants are produced to take advantage of higher
yields associated with hybrid vigor or heterosis.
Hydrocolloid: Chemical compounds also known as gums that have great affinity
for water. Hydrocolloids are intentionally added to foods to retain water, improve
texture, and increase viscosity.
Hydrocyclon: Name of the equipment used to continuously separate milled fractions
suspended in water. The suspended particles are pumped with enough pressure to
create a vortex that separates particles according to density. The hydrocyclon is
widely used by the various wet-milling industries.
Hypercholesterolemia: Metabolic disease in which the patient has increased levels
of blood cholesterol (>200–240 mg/dL). The high levels of cholesterol increase
the risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases due to the formation of
plaques in the walls of arteries. These diseases worsen when the levels of LDL
are increased.
Hypertension: Disease characterized by abnormal blood pressure (systolic and/or
diastolic). The clinical diagnosis is made when the average systolic and diastolic
readings are above 140 and 90, respectively. Hypertension is one of the major
health problems in the industrialized world and is closely related to cardiovascu-
lar and renal diseases.
Hypocotyl: The part of the shoot axis of a higher plant that lies below the
cotyledons.
Hysteresis: The difference in moisture when comparing absorption (starting from
dry state) and desorption (starting from wet stage) isotherm curves.
Injera: Ethiopian-fermented food made from tef, sorghum, or other cereals. Injera
is classified as leavened flat and round bread similar to hotcakes but with a larger
diameter that averages 60 cm. It is produced from a fermented batter of ground
Glossary 687
cereal. The flat bread is commonly used as a vehicle for the consumption of other
foods such as vegetables, meats, or legumes.
Intrinsic deterioration: The type of deterioration that occurs due to respiration or
the metabolic activity of the grain. It is called intrinsic because the grain self-
destructs and promotes extrinsic deterioration.
Isotherm: Name of the curve which relates the equilibrium grain moisture and air rel-
ative humidity at a given fixed temperature. The curve is very useful in managing
stored grains. The isotherm curves could be either absorption or desorption. The
first and second curves are built when dried and wet or moist grains are exposed
(until reaching equilibrium) to different relative humidities, respectively.
Jet cooker: An apparatus used for the continuous cooking of starch slurries or grain
mashes in which the product is pumped past a jet of steam, which instantly gela-
tinizes the starch.
Kafirins: Generic name of the sorghum prolamins. The sorghum kafirins are mainly
located in the protein bodies of the endosperm and have different degrees of
crosslinking and solubilization. Kafirins are the main storage proteins and have
low levels of the essential amino acid lysine.
Keratinization: Reduction in the production of mucus of epithelial cells, particularly
in the conjunctiva and cornea of the eye due to vitamin A or retinol deficiency.
Keratomalacia: Irreversible drying and degeneration of the cornea that can produce
blindness due to vitamin A deficiency. The cells of the lacrimal gland become
keratinized and stop secreting tears as a result of a decreased ability to synthesize
mucopolysaccharides.
Kilning: The final stage in the malting of barley. Kilning reduces the moisture of the
green malt to less than 8% and also develops color and flavor.
Koji: Name of the extract obtained from culturing the mold Aspergillus oryzae in the
presence of cereals, generally rice. Koji contains high proteolytic and amylolytic
activities and is key to production of soy sauce, sake, and other oriental alcoholic
beverages.
Kwashiorkor: Syndrome produced by a severe protein deficiency and an inadequate
consumption of carbohydrates that mainly occurs in weaned and preschool chil-
dren. Kwashiorkor is characterized by changes in skin and hair pigmentation, a
bulging belly, edema, and apathy.
Lager beer: A type of beer made using a bottom-fermenting yeast and produced in
a relatively slow process that includes lengthy cold storage or lagering.
Lautering: The act of separating sweet wort from spent grains after mashing.
Lecithin: One of the main phospholipids found in nature with important implica-
tions in metabolism and cell membranes. Lecithin is considered an important
nutraceutical compound because it lowers blood cholesterol and is key to the
synthesis of choline. Chemically, lecithin is the emulsifier phosphatidyl choline,
and commercial lecithin consists of a mixture of different phospholipids such
as phosphatidyl ethanol amine, phosphatidyl inositol, and phosphatidyl serine.
Most commercial lecithin is obtained during the refining process of soybean oil.
The egg yolk is also a rich source of lecithin. Lecithin is widely used in the bak-
ing, cookie, and wheat flour tortilla industries to improve dough machinability,
improve texture, and retard staling. It is generally used from 0.1%–1%.
688 Glossary
Lemma: Name of the dorsal glume that protects the kernel during development. In
most small cereals, it terminates apically in a long awn.
Lepidoptera: Second most abundant insect order characterized by a covering of
bright scales over the wings and bodies, and well-characterized legs. The name
means scaly wings. The larvae are worms that have a potent mouth capable of
damaging sound grains and are considered one of the most important insect pests
in grain elevators. Worms pupate in a sac produced by their salivary excretions.
During the pupae stage, the worms transform into a butterfly with large wings,
which emerges from the sac.
Lignin: Complex molecules that constitute part of the insoluble dietary fiber. It is
formed from cinnamyl alcohols that form the phenylpropane units by a com-
plex polymerization process. Lignin is viewed as a three-dimensional molecule
formed by the aromatic hydroxyphenyl, guaiacyl, and springyl moieties. It is the
main structural component of plant tissues. It is highly resistant to enzymes and
chemical degradation.
Light beer: Beer that contains one-third less calories compared to regular beers.
Light beers also have lower dextrins and viscosity compared to regular beers.
Lime: A white alkaline powder composed of calcium oxide or hydroxide used for
the production of nixtamalized tortillas and related snacks.
Limiting amino acid: Essential amino acid of a protein that shows the greatest per-
centage deficit in comparison with the amino acids of a standard protein (casein)
or in comparison with the requirement.
Lipoxygenase: Enzyme that oxidizes lipids and lipophilic pigments, carotenes and
xanthophylls, by incorporating oxygen in double bonds yielding hydroperoxides
and peroxides that later on decompose into many chemical compounds (organic
acids, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols). These enzymes, generally supplemented
with full-fat soybean meals, are still used to bleach wheat flours.
Liquefaction, starch: Name of the enzymatic process in which a starch slurry is
treated with α-amylase. During the reactions, the viscosity of the gelatinized
starch slurry significantly decreases due to the conversion of large starch mol-
ecules into dextrins. Starch liquefaction is critically important in the production
of syrups, sweeteners, and fuel ethanol.
Loci: Gas cells trapped by the gluten network that, upon baking, generate the typical
bread crumb texture.
Low-alcohol beer: Beers that contain less than 2% alcohol.
Low-density lipoprotein (LDL): Lipoprotein that transports cholesterol, which is
mainly responsible for accumulating in the arterial walls producing atherosclero-
sis. LDL lipoproteins enter into cells via a receptor (B-100 receptor). When this
mechanism is compromised, the patient suffers from abnormal LDL cholesterol
levels and is more prone to atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases.
Low-ratio cake: Cake formulated to contain more flour than sugar.
Lutein: A xanthophyll or hydroxylated liposoluble carotenoid (C40H56O2) found
in cereal grains with proven antioxidant and nutraceutical properties. Lutein is
one of the two carotenoids contained within the retina of the eye, specifically
associated with the macula. Therefore, it is used with zeaxanthin to prevent age-
related macular degeneration (AMD), especially in geriatric people. Lutein has
Glossary 689
been traditionally used in poultry feed to provide the yellow color of broiler skin
and stronger yellow-pigmented egg yolks. The major commercial source is maize
gluten.
Lyophilization: Freeze-drying. Method used to dehydrate foods and microbial cul-
tures. The frozen material is placed in a chamber in which the water is removed
by sublimation under vacuum.
Lysine: Basic amino acid that contains two amino groups and is considered the most
important in human nutrition. The epsilon amino group is highly reactive and
usually donated for the synthesis of other amino acids.
Maillard reaction: Also known as nonenzymatic browning. It is the reaction that
generally occurs between reducing sugars and free amino groups of proteins in
the presence of heat. It negatively affects the bioavailability of lysine.
Malathion: Organophosphate insecticide that has high residual value; widely used
to treat surfaces for insect control.
Malting: Process in which barley or other cereal is germinated under controlled
conditions with the main objective of producing enzymes. Most malting processes
include grain soaking, germination, and kilning. The malt is key to the production
of beer and alcoholic beverages.
Maltodextrins: Sugars obtained after acid or partial enzymatic hydrolysis of starch.
Maltodextrins usually contain about 20 dextrose equivalents and are used as
thickeners, texturizers, carriers, and inhibitors of crystallization. They are neither
sweet nor fermentable.
Maltose: A disaccharide comprising two molecules of glucose linked by an α-1,4-
glycosidic bond. Maltose from starch or dextrins is generally produced via
β-amylase. It occurs in high concentrations in germinated cereals or malt.
Marasmus: Name of the nutrition syndrome that mainly occurs in infants due to
the lack of both energy and protein in the diet. It is characterized by a progres-
sive wasting and emaciation and greater susceptibility of the affected patients to
infectious diseases.
Masa: Name of the ground nixtamal or lime-cooked maize that has cohesive prop-
erties. The nixtamalized masa is the backbone for the production of table tortillas,
corn chips, tortilla chips, and other traditional food items widely consumed in
Mexico and other Latin American countries.
Mash: A mixture of water, malt, and breakdown materials produced in the early
stage of brewing or whiskey production.
Mashing: Key process used by the brewing industry in which malt/enzymes are
blended with the brewing adjuncts in the presence of water so as to optimize
starch hydrolysis into dextrins, and fermentable carbohydrates and proteins into
simpler soluble compounds. The process is usually performed at a controlled tem-
perature profile to optimize starch conversion.
Melanoides: Color-producing compounds produced during Maillard reactions that
start with the combination of reducing sugars and amino acids.
Meringue: A white frothy mass of beaten or whipped egg whites and sugar, widely
used for the preparation of cakes.
Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE): A colorless, flammable, oxygenated hydro-
carbon used as an octane enhancer in gasoline.
690 Glossary
Meiosis: Cell division associated with the formation of gametes. The cell nucleus
divides into four daughter nuclei, each containing half the parent chromosome
number.
Metabolizable energy: Represents the portion of the gross energy that is not lost in
feces, urine, and gas. Although metabolizable energy more accurately describes
the useful energy, it does not take into account the energy lost as heat.
Metamorphosis: The transformation from a larval to an adult form through the
rapid rearrangement of tissues.
Methionine: Sulfur-containing amino acid (hydrophobic and nonpolar) essential to
humans. Its main metabolic function is to donate methyl groups.
Methyl bromide: Fumigant (CH3Br) widely used to control insects of stored grains.
In some parts of the world, methyl bromide is not allowed to be used.
Micropyle: A small pore in the outer coat of the seed that remains open as a result of
the incomplete closure of the integuments around the ovule. It is the site of entry
of the pollen tube during pollination and fertilization, and is the main route of
water entry during germination.
Middlings or midds: Granular endosperm particles obtained during wheat milling
that are further ground into flour. Particles of wheat endosperm that have not
yet been reduced to flour. Most middlings become flour after they pass through
reduction rolls. In animal feeding, middlings consist of fine particles of wheat
bran, shorts, germ, and tail flour that contain about 9.5% protein.
Mixing time, dough: Common term used to express the optimum time necessary to
develop the dough during mixing. Generally, the optimum mixing time is when
the gluten acquires maximum consistency. The optimum mixing time is consid-
ered to be the factor of major control during dough mixing, and is affected by
water absorption and dough temperature.
Mixing tolerance index: Farinograph parameter measured by the drop in dough
viscosity 5 min after achieving optimum mixing time or dough development.
The mixing tolerance index is closely related to flour quality, especially for the
production of yeast-leavened products. Flours with high protein and strong gluten
usually have lower mixing tolerance index values compared to soft wheat flours.
Mixograph: Instrument utilized for the quick determination of the rheological prop-
erties of wheat dough. The instrument records and graphs the resistance of the
dough to mixing, generally during an 8 min mixing schedule.
Modified starch: Starch that has intentionally been physically or chemically modi-
fied to impart special functionalities. Most modified starches are water soluble
and have different pasting and setback properties.
Molecular sieve: A microporus substance composed of materials such as aluminum
silicates and zeolites that is used to separate molecules by size. Molecular sieves
are used to dehydrate ethanol for fuel ethanol.
Molder: Machine that shapes to form dough pieces in preparation for final
proofing.
Monogastric: Animals that only have one simple stomach such as humans, swine,
poultry, and equines.
Mycotoxins: Name of secondary metabolites produced by some molds that are toxic
for domestic animals and humans.
Glossary 691
Near-infrared analyzer: A widely used nondestructive and analytical method of

detecting moisture, protein, oil, and other chemicals associated with grains or
milled fractions. It is based on the principle that different chemical compounds
reflect at different wavelengths in the infrared band of the light spectrum.
Nejayote: Ordinary name of the cooking liquor discarded after cooking maize in
lime for tortilla production. The nejayote has a strong alkaline pH and is rich in
insoluble and soluble solids from maize (mainly pericarp, gums, albumin, starch,
and other solubles that leach into the cooking solution). The nejayote has a high
value of biological oxygen demand or BOD and causes environmental problems.
Net energy: Represents the energy fraction in a food or feed that is left after the fecal,
urine, gas, and heat losses are subtracted from the gross energy. It is the most
accurate and precise measurement of energy, but very difficult to determine.
Net protein utilization: Nutritional procedure or test used to determine protein
quality. It is defined as the amount of the ingested nitrogen that is retained by the
body. In other words, it is calculated after subtracting nitrogen losses in feces and
urine from nitrogen intake. The net protein utilization value is highly correlated
with the protein efficiency ratio and the essential amino acid balance.
Neural tube defect: Birth defects that involve an incomplete development of the
brain and spinal cord, and their protective coverings. There are three types of
neural tube defects: anencephaly (underdeveloped brain), encephalocele (hole in
the skull through which brain tissues protrude), and spina bifida (spinal column
remains open). The supplementation of folic acid to women prior to conception
and during the first month of pregnancy reduces the risk of neural tube defects.
Neutralization value: An important characteristic of chemical leavening agents
defined as the parts of sodium bicarbonate that neutralize 100 parts of the chem-
ical-leavening agent under controlled baking conditions. For example, monocal-
cium phosphate has a neutralization value of 80, whereas dicalcium phosphate
has a neutralization value of 33. The sodium aluminum salts (phosphate and sul-
fate) have values of 100.
Nixtamal: Aztec name (nixtli = ashes and tamalli = masa or dough) of lime-cooked
maize used for the preparation of nixtamalized foods such as tortillas, tamales,
corn chips, and tortilla chips.
Nixtamalization: Process developed by early Mesoamerican civilizations in which
whole corn is cooked in water containing wood ashes or lime (calcium hydrox-
ide). The grain is cooked to partially gelatinize the starch and stone ground to
produce a dough, which is further processed into dry masa flour, table tortillas,
tortilla chips, or corn chips.
Node: Plant part of the axis in which leaves are attached.
Nonalcohol beer: Beers that contain less than 0.05% alcohol, from which the alco-
hol is removed by reverse osmosis or vacuum distillation.
Nutraceuticals: Naturally occurring compounds associated with foods or plants that
prevent diseases, mainly chronic diseases and cancer.
Nymph: The immature form of an insect.
Ochratoxins: Mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus ochraceus or Penicullum verbi-
cosum. The mold usually attacks field or stored maize and produced the Balkans
692 Glossary
syndrome, which is characterized by nephropathy, renal dysfunction, and death.

These mycotoxins are isocoumarin derivatives.
Omasum: The third compartment of the ruminant stomach consisting of a spheri-
cal organ containing various sized leaves that prevent undigested materials from
leaving the rumen and entering the abomasum. It absorbs electrolytes from the
bolus.
Opaque beer: Traditional alcoholic and sour beverages generally produced from
malted sorghum and adjuncts from sorghum, maize, or millet. In contrast with
lager beers, opaque beers are not flavored with hops and are produced after two
mashing and two fermentation steps (lactic acid followed by yeast). They have
an acidic pH and contain 2%–4% alcohol, 0.3%–0.6% lactic acid, and a color
that varies from yellow to brown. They are consumed while fermenting and at
an ambient temperature. Opaque beers from Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya, and South
Africa are known as pito, talla, busas/urwaga, and chibuko, respectively.
Oryzin: Generic name of rice prolamins. This protein fraction is extracted with
alcohol, and it is mainly associated with the endosperm.
Ovary: The basal portion of a carpel that contains one or more ovules carried on a
placenta.
Oven spring: Term used by bakers that denotes the difference between the bread
height and proofed dough height. The difference in height and bread volume is
related to gluten strength and gas formation and retention during baking. Good-
quality flours produce higher oven springs compared to low-quality flours.
Overs: Name of the particles retained by a certain sieve.
Oviposition: Deposition of eggs inside a grain or on the grain surface. The eggs will
hatch and produce larvae that eventually experience metamorphosis into adults.
Ovule: A structure found in higher plants in which the female gamete develops.
After fertilization, the ovule matures to form the seed.
Ovum: Female gamete produced in the ovary
Oxidative rancidity: Chemical reaction in which the double bonds of fatty acids are
oxidized to form peroxides, which eventually decompose into aldehydes, ketones,
and alcohols. These decomposition products cause off-flavors, odors, and rancid-
ity. Two types of rancidities are known: enzyme-mediated and autooxidation.
Oxidizing agent: Chemical compounds or additives (i.e., potassium bromate, azodi-
carbonamide) generally added to wheat flours that oxidize thiol groups of sulfur-
containing amino acids forming disulfide bonds. These bonds form a stronger
gluten, enhance bread volume, and improve crumb texture.
Paddy rice: Name of the husked or covered caryopsis of rice. The glumes or husks
represent about 20% of the kernel weight. After harvesting and threshing, the
paddy rice is stored and commercialized as a husked caryopsis.
Paddy table: A machine that separates by specific gravity or density and, by bounc-
ing differences, rough and brown rice. It consists of a rectangular oscillating deck
supported by rocking legs. The table is divided into zigzag compartments by light
metal strips about 7.5 cm deep. The inclination of the table and oscillation speed
are adjusted to achieve better separation.
Palea: Name of the ventral glume that protects the kernel during development. It is
usually overlapped by the dorsal glume or lemma.
Glossary 693
Pan bread: Popular type of bread that is proofed and baked in a vessel or pan (gen-
erally metallic). As a result, the bread has more uniform size and dimensions.
Panicle: Type of inflorescence composed of irregularly branched flower cluster.
Rice, sorghum, oats, and all millets produce panicles.
Parboiled rice: Rice obtained after parboiling and milling rough rice. The white
parboiled kernels are harder and, upon cooking, produce less stickiness.
Parboilization: Hydrothermal process followed by drying usually applied in rice
before milling to achieve higher milling yields. The hydrothermal process seals
stress cracks or fissures due to partial starch gelatinization, and increases the
nutritional value of white rice due to migration of key minerals and hydrosoluble
vitamins into the starchy endosperm. Parboiled kernels lose viability or germina-
tion capacity.
Pasteurization: Name of the thermal process applied to foods that ensures the inac-
tivation of pathogenic bacteria. There are different types of pasteurization pro-
cesses. The minimum temperature of pasteurizations is generally 68°C–70°C.
Pasting: Refers to the increase in viscosity of starch slurries subjected to heating due
to starch gelatinization.
Patent flour: Obtained by selecting a combination of flour streams from the front
end of the mill (approximately 40% to 80% of the best flours in terms of color, ash
content, and damaged starch). Patent flours are mainly demanded by the baking
industry to produce yeast-fermented breads in highly mechanized systems.
Peak viscosity: The point at which, during heating in water, the gelatinized starch
reaches its maximum viscosity.
Peat: Partially decomposed vegetable material from bogs that is burnt for the pro-
duction of peat-smoked malts, widely used for Scotch whiskey.
Pellagra: Disease caused by the deficiency of niacin in the diet and characterized by
gastrointestinal disturbances (diarrhea), dermatitis, and mental derangement.
Pellet: In cereal and extrusion processes, pellets are also known as intermediates or
half-products, and are obtained after cooking and forming in one or two thermo-
plastic extruders. Pellets have high bulk density and are used for the production
of many breakfast cereals and snacks. In these industries, the pellets are further
processed by frying, flaking, and oven or gun puffing. In animal nutrition, a pel-
let is defined as a ground feed compacted by steaming and forcing the material
through dye openings of the pelleting machine.
Pentosans: See Arabinoxylans.
Perennial: A plant that continues to grow from year to year.
Pericarp: The cereal fruit coat that is formed from the ovary wall. It is divided into
three layers: exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp.
Phenology: The branch of entomology that studies how the life cycle of insects is
affected by the environment.
Phenotype: The observed characteristics of an organism that are the result of the
interaction of genotype and environment.
Pheromones: Hormones produced by external glands of insects to attract insects of
the same species. Commercially, they are used to attract insects for population
quantification and control purposes.
694 Glossary
Phospholipid: Polar lipids containing a diglyceride and a phosphate group bound to

different organic compounds such as choline, ethanolamine, serine, and inositol.
Phospholipids play a major role in cell membranes and act as emulsifiers in the
food industry. Lecithin (phosphatidyl choline) is the most common phospholipid.
Phototropism: The response of plants to the stimulus of light. Stems are positively
phototropic, whereas roots are negatively phototropic.
Phytase: A group of enzymes that attack phytates, releasing phosphorus and increas-
ing mineral bioavailability.
Phytic acid, phytates: Phytic acid is a hexaphosphate ester of inositol, whereas
phytates are phytic acid salts. Both store phosphorus for the critical event of ger-
mination. Phytates lower the bioavailability of minerals to monogastrics. Most
phytates occur in the outer layers of cereal grains.
Phytic bodies: Organelles that store phytic acids. In cereals, most phytic bodies are
in the aluerone cells.
Pilsner beer: A type of beer produced with top-fermenting yeast and fermented at a
relatively high temperature.
Pin mill: A grinder equipped with pin breakers positioned on plates or discs. These
may be two rotors operating in opposite directions or one stator plate with pins
between circular rows on the rotor disc. Pin mills are widely used by the dry- and
wet-milled industries.
Pitching: The introduction of yeast into wort prior to fermentation.
Plansifter: A gyrating bolting machine consisting of a set of sieves positioned one
on top of the other widely used to classify dry-milled fractions by size. Flights
on the sieves arrest the circular movement of mill stocks and forward them to the
next sieve.
Plato degree: Commercial brewers’ standard for the measurement of the density of
mashes that gives an indication of the amount of sugars (grams of sucrose per 100
g solution).
Plumule: The development shoot or sprout in germinating cereals, also known as
acrospire.
Pneumatic conveying: A system designed to convey grain, milled stocks, and flours
by using moving air.
Polar nuclei: Botanical name of the two female sexual cells that contain half of the
chromosomes of the species. One of the male microspores fuses with the polar
nuclei to form triploid endosperm cells.
Policosanol: High-molecular-weight molecules of aliphatic alcohols with a hydroxyl
group positioned at one of the terminal ends. The most common are octacosanol
(28 carbons) and triacontanol (30 carbons). The policosanols are synthesized from
short-chain or volatile fatty acids that are first reduced to aldehydes and then to
alcohols. The maize germ and related coproducts obtained from dry- and wet-
milling processes are the main source. The policosanols exert health benefits that
include lowering blood cholesterol and preventing arteriosclerotic lesions.
Polyphagus insect: Insect that consumes grains of different genera and species.
Pollen tube: A filamentous tube that grows out from a pollen grain after it lands
on the stigma. The pollen tube usually contains three nuclei: a vegetative
nucleus and two generative nuclei. One nucleus fuses with the ovum to produce
Glossary 695
a zygote, whereas the other two nuclei fuse with the two polar nuclei to form the
endosperm.
Pollen: The mature microspores produced and stored in the pollen sac.
Pollination: The transfer of pollen from the anthers to the stigma. If it occurs within
the same flower, it is called self-pollination; if it occurs between two different
flowers, it is called cross-pollination.
Popcorn: Special type of flint corn used since pre-Hispanic times for popping.
Today, it is one of the most popular and preferred snack foods throughout the
world. Current hybrids have 30-fold to 40-fold expansion.
Potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3): An alkali and leavening agent that, upon heat-
ing, liberates carbon dioxide.
Potassium bromate (KBrO3): Oxidizing agent used to improve the baking prop-
erties of flour. It enhances the formation of disulfide bonds and improves bread
volume and crumb texture.
Potassium sorbate (C6H7KO2): An antimycotic chemical agent that is the potas-
sium salt of sorbic acid. It is widely used as a preservative in chemical-leavened
bakery products. In yeast-leavened products, it is not used because it inhibits yeast
activity.
Pot still: A simple batch distillation unit used for the production of potable alcoholic
beverages. It consists of a vessel that is heated by an internal steam coil or by an
external fire, and an overhead vapor pipe leading to a condenser.
Poult: Common name of a young turkey of either sex from a day to a few weeks
old.
Pressurometer: Apparatus used to measure yeast activity in which yeast ferments a
sugar solution under controlled temperature. The instrument graphs the pressure
generated by CO2 versus time (throughout the time of the assay).
Pretzels: A glazed salted bakery or snack product generally baked in the form of a
loose knot or bow tie. Pretzels are divided into soft and hard, and the fermented
dough is generally dipped in sodium bicarbonate or lye solutions prior to baking.
Hard pretzels are one of the most popular snack foods.
Primary insect: Kind of insect that has the capability of damaging sound or healthy
grains. They possess a strong mouth system capable of perforating or boring into
sound grains for feeding or reproduction purposes.
Probe: Hand or mechanical device used to obtain a representative grain sample.
Prolamins: Protein fraction that is soluble in alcohol and is mainly found in protein
bodies of the endosperm. The prolamins and glutelins form the gluten. The pro-
lamins of maize, wheat, rice, barley, rye, and sorghum are named zein, gliadin,
oryzin, hordein, secalin, and kafirin, respectively.
Proof: A measurement of the absolute ethanol content of a distillate containing etha-
nol and water. Each degree proof is equal to 0.5% of ethanol by volume.
Proofing: Common term used by bakers related to dough fermentation. Final proof-
ing is the time required for the formed dough to optimally rise before baking or
frying.
Proof height: Refers to the height of the proofed piece of dough before baking.
Generally, the proof height is measured in the center of the piece of fermented
dough.
696 Glossary
Protein bodies: Round-shaped organelles located within endosperm cells that store
proteins, mainly prolamins. Protein bodies are tightly packaged against the starch
granules, sometimes forming indentations on the surface of starch granules. In
mature wheat, the protein bodies fuse with the protein matrix and are no longer
discernible. Proteins from the matrix and bodies comprise the gluten.
Protein efficiency ratio (PER): Test widely used to evaluate protein quality. The
assay is performed with weanling rats that are housed individually and fed ad
libitum a diet containing 10% protein. The rats are weighed every week for four
consecutive weeks, and the amount of protein ingested is calculated. The protein
efficiency ratio is calculated by dividing the weight gain by the protein consumed.
Casein is used as the standard. It usually has a PER of 2.5, whereas most cereal
PERs range from 0.7 to 1.3.
Protein matrix: Type of protein present in the endosperm of cereals that envelops
starch granules. It is constituted of high-molecular-weight glutelins that forms
the continuous matrix which glues and imparts the structure of endosperm cells.
Both proteins from the matrix and protein bodies form the gluten.
Puffing gun: Apparatus used for puffing or expansion of breakfast cereals and other
foods. It consists of a hermetically sealed chamber in which heat is applied and
pressure built up. The puffing gun is programmed to open after reaching a certain
pressure (i.e., 150 psi). The sudden pressure release causes the supervaporization
of the water and puffing of the cereal grain, pellet, or cereal milled fraction. By
using this technology, some cereals or pellets expand up to 17 times their original
volume.
Pullulanase: Also known as debranching enzyme. An enzyme that catalyzes the
hydrolysis of α-1,6-glycosidic bonds of amylopectin and branched dextrins.
Pupa: A nonfeeding, nonmotile metamorphosis stage in the life cycle of insects.
Purifier: Machine used for the removal of bran from middlings while at the same
time grading milling stocks into several fractions by size and density. The purifier
consists of angle-positioned sieves with different mesh sizes that move longitudi-
nally, and in which controlled air separates fractions with same size but different
density.
Pycnometer: Instrument that measures the real density of cereal grains. It measures
the grain volume by air or gas displacement.
Pyrethrins: Natural insecticide originally extracted from chrysanthemums and used
for insect control in households and storage facilities. Among insecticides, pyre-
thrins are known to have the least toxic effects for humans. There are synthetic
pyrethrins with a similar structure to natural pyrethrins.
Quality protein maize: Genotypes that contain almost twice as much lysine and
tryptophan than regular maizes and have better nutritional value. Quality pro-
tein maize has the opaque-2 gene that is combined with modifier genes that sig-
nificantly improved the endosperm hardness and agronomic performance of the
crop.
Radicle: The embryonic root of the seedling that develops during germination.
Rancidity: See Oxidative rancidity.
Glossary 697
Rectification: The process of concentrating and purifying ethanol in a column. In

production of distilled spirits, the rectification process may involve concentration
of fusel alcohols, esters, and heads.
Red dog: A low-grade flour rich in bran and retained by the U.S. No 100 sieve, which
is obtained from the tail of the mill. Compared to other flours, the flour is richer in
protein, ash, and oil and has more damaged starch and darker coloration.
Reducing agent: Chemical compounds (i.e., sodium bisulfite, cysteine) intention-
ally added to wheat flour in order to break disulfide bonds and weaken the gluten
structure. They are mainly used in cookies, cakes, and wheat flour tortillas.
Reducing sugar: A mono-, di-, or oligosaccharide capable of reducing an oxidizing
ion.
Reduction flour: Flour obtained after classification of wheat particles milled through
reduction rolls.
Reduction system: Name of the milling rolls used after break rolls in wheat mill-
ing operations. The reduction rolls are smooth and usually rotate at a differential
speed of 1.5:1 or less. These rolls gradually reduce the particle size of middlings
into flour, minimizing starch damage. Most mills contain from 8 to 12 reduction
roll units.
Resistant starch: Defined as the sum of starch and products of starch degrada-
tion not absorbed in the small intestine by healthy individuals. Resistant starches
not digested in the small intestine reach the colon, where they are readily fer-
mented by naturally occurring microflora. One of the main acids produced by
these microorganisms is butyric acid, which is believed to play a positive role in
promoting colon health. Resistant starch is classified into four categories.
Respiration: Oxidative metabolic process that yields metabolic energy necessary for
germination. During respiration, the grain’s chemical components are gradually
broken down into simpler compounds. Respiration generates CO2, heat (energy),
and water. It is responsible for intrinsic grain deterioration and production of heat-
damaged kernels.
Reticulum: First compartment of the ruminant stomach, with an appearance similar
to honeycomb, that returns rumen contents to the mouth for further mastication
or rumination.
Retinol: Active form of vitamin A found in animal tissues. The human system is
capable of transforming β-carotenes into two retinol molecules.
Retrogradation: Course of action during which starch chains begin to reassociate in
an ordered structure. Two or more gelatinized starch chains initially form a simple
juncture point that, under favorable conditions, forms a crystalline order. During
retrogradation, the water in the interphase is liberated. The rate of retrogradation
is highly dependent on temperature and time. Amylose chains are more prone to
retrogradation compared to branched amylopectin chains. Retrogradation is the
main phenomenon related to staling.
Rheology: Science that studies deformation and flow of matter.
Roller mill: A mill used to grind grain or its fractions by passing it between two
steel rolls. The rolls may be corrugated or smooth, and they may turn at different
speeds. Roller mills are key in the production of wheat flour.
698 Glossary
Rootlets: The development roots of germinating cereals that will form the root sys-
tem of the plant. The rootlets of barley malt are usually removed before beer
making.
Roti: Flat bread considered the most popular food in India. It is classified as nonleav-
ened flat bread. The preferred rotis are prepared from wheat semolina or flour,
and alternatively from meals of sorghum, pearl millet, or even maize. Wheat rotis
are easier to manufacture due to the gluten functionality of the flour. In order to
produce rotis from other non-gluten forming cereals, it is necessary to start with
good-quality refined flour. Kernels are generally stoned-milled and then bolted
with the aim of removing pericarp pieces and coarse particles. The refined flour
is hydrated with hot water to form cohesive dough. The dough pieces are hand-
molded or rolled into 30 cm diameter and 2-mm-thick rounds. The preformed
dough disk is baked on a hot griddle for 30–40 s on one side and one additional
minute on the opposite side. Rotis are usually consumed with other foods such as
processed meats, vegetables, legumes, and sour dairy products.
Rumen: The second and most important part of the ruminant stomach. It is a large
fermentation chamber populated by bacteria, protozoa, and yeast that degrades or
digests most of the fiber associated with forages and grains.
Ruminant: A mammal that possesses four compartments in the stomach (rumen,
reticulum, omasum, abomasum) and is capable of digesting fiber-rich foods. The
rumen contains a wide range of anaerobic microorganisms capable of converting
cellulose and other fibers—except lignin—into volatile fatty acids that are used
as a source of energy.
Saccharification, starch: Name of the enzymatic process in which pregelatinized
and dextrinized starch is treated with amyloglucosidase. During the enzyme reac-
tion, most dextrins are converted to glucose or dextrose. This enzymatic reaction
is critically important for the production of sweeteners and fuel ethanol.
Sake: Also known as rice wine; it is a noncarbonated alcoholic beverage widely
produced and consumed in Asia, mainly Japan. The alcoholic spirit contains
from 14% to 16% ethanol. For sake production, four basic raw materials are used:
refined polished white rice; water; an Aspergillus oryzae culture, commonly
known as koji; and yeast.
Scalping: The mechanical removal of larger material and grain contaminants by
screening.
Screen: A surface made out of woven wire, silk, or plastic, or a perforated plate,
widely used to separate a mixture of grains into two portions.
Screenings: Undesirable nonmillable materials such as dockage (stones, pieces of
stalks), hulls, extraneous grains and seeds, and broken kernels removed from the
grain in separators.
Screw conveyor: A grain conveyor consisting of a screw mounted inside a pipe.
Scutellum: A part of the cereal germ that is appressed to the endosperm. It is formed
from the cotyledon.
Secalins: Generic name of the rye prolamins. This protein fraction is extracted with
alcohol and is mainly located in the endosperm. The secalins and glutelins form
the rye gluten.
Glossary 699
Secondary insect: Kind of insect that attacks damaged kernels or milled and pro-
cessed products but is not capable of damaging sound grains.
Second-generation snacks: These are the most important snack category. Second-
generation snacks are simple shaped products such as corn and tortilla chips,
puffed curls, and all directly expanded snacks generally produced via thermo-
plastic extrusion.
Secondary metabolite: A chemical compound produced by microorganisms, mainly
molds, that perform a wide range of protective functions that are not essential for
growth.
Secretin: Gastrointestinal hormone produced in the duodenum that stimulates the
secretion of pancreatic juices rich in digestive enzymes and buffer salts.
Semolina: Name of the refined milled fraction that has a coarser particle size com-
pared to flour. Wheat semolina is usually obtained from durum wheats and has a
range of particle size distribution of U.S. + 60 to + 100.
Setback: Name of the viscoamylograph stage in which solubilized starch reassoci-
ates during cooling.
Shorts: Name of the wheat milled fractions rich in germ, aleurone, and leftover
starch obtained at the end of the roll milling process. Shorts contain more protein
and fat than bran and are usually retained by the U.S. No. 60 sieve.
Sieve: Perforated metallic or plastic mesh used to separate or classify grains and
particles according to size. The U.S. sieve number indicates the number of holes
or perforations in one square inch.
Sifter: Universal machine equipped with interchangeable sieves used to separate
incoming milling stocks into different streams of particles with a certain size.
Sizings: Name of the coarsest wheat endosperm milling fraction generally obtained
after classification of break roll stocks. Sizings are further reduced into flour in
reduction rolls.
Slow-acting baking powder: Baking powder that contains slow-acting salts, such
as anhydrous monocalcium phosphate, sodium acid pyrophosphate, and sodium
aluminum phosphate or sulfate, that produce significant amounts of CO2 during
baking.
Soda: Common name of sodium bicarbonate; it produces CO2 as a leavening agent
when hydrated in the presence of an acid. It is widely used as a key ingredient for
the production of baking powders.
Sodium acid pyrophosphate, SAPP, (Na2H2P2O7): A chemical leavening agent
that is mildly acidic, with a pH of 4.1. It is used in baking powders and as an addi-
tive for the production of chemically leavened baked goods. It is widely used for
its variable gas production during mixing, bench action, and baking.
Sodium aluminum phosphate NaH14Al3(PO4)8. 4H2O: A chemical leavening
agent that is acidic, with a pH of 2.8. It is considered a slow-acting chemical leav-
ening agent because it releases most of the gas during baking. It is used in bak-
ing powders and as an additive for the production of chemically leavened baked
goods and cakes.
Sodium aluminum sulfate: A slow-acting leavening agent that releases most of the
gas during baking. It is mixed with other leavening agents to produce double-
acting baking powders.
700 Glossary
Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3): A chemical-leavening agent, commonly known as

baking soda, with a pH of approximately 8.5 in a 1% solution. It functions with
food-grade phosphates and other acidic leavening agents to release carbon diox-
ide necessary for the production of leavened bakery products.
Sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate: An emulsifier and dough conditioner widely used in
the baking industry. It is used to improve the tolerance of bread dough to process-
ing, to improve gas retention, and maintain crumb softness. It reduces the rate of
starch retrogradation or staling.
Sourdough bread: The term sourdough bread refers to a product made with wheat
and/or rye flours or other composite flours, and other baking ingredients, which
are primarily fermented with bacteria that produce a more acidic pH compared to
regular yeast breads. Most sour doughs are inoculated with active Lactobacillus
plantarum, L. San francisco, L. fermentum, L. brevis, Leuconostoc mesenteroi-
des, and/or Streptococcus thermophilus bacteria and have been traditionally used
for the production of variety breads, especially rye products. Compared to regular
yeast doughs, sour doughs are easier to handle and produce breads with unique
organoleptic properties and crumb texture. These breads have higher nutritional
value, longer shelf life, and properties not seen in other breads.
Sparging: Action of spraying the spent grains in the mash with hot water to retrieve
the remaining associated solubles.
Spent grains: The solids that remain after filtering the mash from brewing or dis-
tilled alcohol processes. Spent grains are usually high in protein and fiber and are
mainly used in ruminant nutrition.
Spherosomes: Name of the fat-containing spherical organelles found in endosperm
cells, mainly aleurone.
Spike: Cereal inflorescence consisting of a flower cluster in which the developing
kernels are attached to the unique central rachis or axis. Wheat, barley, rye, and
triticale produce their kernels in a spike.
Sponge: Name of the baking process in which part of the flour is mixed with yeast,
water, and yeast food in order to obtain a prefermented dough that later on is
mixed with the rest of the flour and other ingredients. The advantages of the
sponge bread system are that breads have better flavor and crumb texture, and that
the process significantly reduces “in-plant” dough mixing time and fermentation.
Most commercial pan breads are produced by the sponge dough procedure.
Spread factor, cookie: Quality test widely used to evaluate soft wheat flours. The
test measures the ratio (W/T) of cookies produced from a standardized formula-
tion and making procedure.
Sprouted kernels: Kernels that germinate in the field due to rains during the har-
vesting season. These damaged kernels have high starch damage and high dia-
static and α-amylase activities. The use of sprouted kernels usually results in
low-quality products.
Staling: A complex process that occurs during storage of baked products. It is a pro-
gressive phenomenon that mainly affects texture. The mechanism is still unclear,
but most scientists agree that both amylose and amylopectin retrogradation and
the loss of moisture are the main contributors. Temperature greatly affects stal-
ing, and some additives (emulsifiers, gums) are used to retard staling.
Glossary 701
Starch: A high-molecular-weight storage polysaccharide consisting of glucose units

linked mainly through α-1,4-glycosidic bonds (amylose), and less frequently by
α-1,6-glycosidic bonds (branched amylopectin). The starch is stored in granules.
Starch is the major source of calories for humankind and is transformed into
sweeteners, bioethanol, bioplastics, and other important industrial products.
Stigma: The receptive surface of the gynoecium to which pollen grains adhere and
start fertilization.
Stillage: A mixture of nonfermented solids and water, which is the residue after the
removal of ethanol in distillation columns. The stillage may be used as livestock
feed, especially for cattle.
Stomatitis: Inflammation of the oral mucosa commonly observed in patients with
severe B-vitamin deficiency.
Strychnine: Alkaloid extracted from Strychnos nux-vomica, widely used as rodent
poison. Strychnine causes excitation of all portions of the nervous system by
blocking synaptic inhibition of neural impulses.
Straight grade flour: Name of the refined wheat flour obtained after mixing all
flours produced by break and reduction rolls. The yield of straight grade flour is
generally 74%–76%.
Stress cracks: Term used to designate fractures formed mainly in the hard
endosperm of cereal grains (rice and maize), expecially during artificial drying.
Grains with high incidence of stress cracks are more prone to break during han-
dling and milling.
Style: An elongation of the carpel that bears the stigma.
Sulfur dioxide: Reducing gas produced by direct combustion of elemental sulfur
used to steep maize in wet-milling operations. The reducing agent breaks disul-
fide bonds of glutelins and prolamins, freeing starch granules. The sulfur dioxide
also impedes germination and acts as an antimicrobial agent.
Sweet corn: Type of maize that contains high levels of soluble sugars and lower lev-
els of starch due to recessive genes (sugary 1 or su1 and/or sugary 2 or su2). It is
usually consumed on the cob or processed by the canning industry.
Syneresis: The separation of a liquid from a gel due to reassociation of gelatinized
starch chains. It is also know as weeping.
Tails: Name of the coarsely ground maize that exits the degerminator.
Tannins: Astringent condensed polyphenolic compounds present in some cereals
such as bird-resistant sorghums that are antinutritional because they bind diges-
tive enzymes and dietary proteins lowering feed efficiency. Tannins are also anti-
microbial and prevent grain from sprouting in the field. Today, tannins are viewed
as potent antioxidants and nutraceuticals. The tannins associated with hops bind
proteins, decreasing beer haze and, upon oxidation, form colored compounds
necessary in beer.
TDN (total digestible nutrients): A term widely used in animal nutrition that indi-
cates the energy value of feeds. TDN = % digestible protein + % digestible nitro-
gen-free extract (carbohydrates) + % digestible fiber + (% digestible fat × 2.25).
Tempering: The process of adding water to grains for a given time before milling in
order to modify their physical properties (toughen the bran, soften the endosperm,
impart more plasticity to germ, etc.).
702 Glossary
Tensoactive agent: Chemical agents or additives intentionally used to change the

water surface tension; mainly used in cake making.
Test weight: A test used to determine the volumetric weight of grains (apparent
density of grains). It is widely used for grain grading and as a quality index of lots
of grains in storage and milling facilities.
Testa: Seed coat.
Thermoplastic extrusion: Name of the continuous extrusion process in which raw
materials, generally refined milled fractions, are cooked and plasticized due to
heat and pressure occurring inside the extruder barrel. The starch is gelatinized,
and the exiting extrudate is usually formed into predetermined shapes. This pro-
cess is widely used to produce direct-expanded-products and pellets or intermedi-
ate products used for production of many breakfast cereals and snacks.
Thin stillage: A liquid portion of stillage that is separated by screening and/or cen-
trifugation. It contains suspended fine particles and dissolved material.
Third-generation snacks: Snack food category also known as half-products or pel-
lets. This includes all intermediate or half-products made via thermoplastic extru-
sion that need further processing to reach consumers. The resulting pellets are
usually fried or baked and flavored before packaging.
Thousand (1000-) kernel weight: A measurement test applied to cereal grains. A
certain amount of randomly selected kernels is counted manually or by machine
and weighed, and the value reported as 1000-kernel weight. This value is related
to grain size, grain density, soundness, and milling potential.
Tip cap: Terminal part of the maize caryopsis, also known as pedicel, where the
grain was attached to the cob. The removal of the fiber-rich tip cap exposes a dark
circular layer referred to as hilar, hilum, or chalazal black tissue.
Tô: African thick porridge prepared from milled sorghum or millet, considered one
of the major staple foods in the sub-Sahara region. There are several types of tôs,
the acidic and neutral being the most relevant ones. Tô is usually consumed with
other dishes.
Tortillas: Food product widely consumed in Mexico and Central America. Tortillas
are classified as flat nonleavened bread. Tortillas are produced from lime-cooked
corn that is stone-ground into a dough or masa, which is formed into thin circles
and baked to yield the soft and flexible tortillas. Tortillas are used for the prepara-
tion of many dishes.
Tortilla chips: One of the most popular snack foods in the world. Tortillas are usu-
ally cut into triangles and then fried for about 1 min. The crisp tortilla chips are
usually salted and flavored. Tortilla chips contain about 24% oil.
Trans fat or fatty acids: The form of fatty acids in hydrogenated shortenings widely
used in bakery products and frying processes. Trans fatty acids have negative
health implications such as increasing LDL cholesterol and triglycerides, and
the risk of cardiovascular disease. In most countries, the labeling of trans fats is
mandatory.
Transgenic plant: Refers to a plant that has at least one transgene that was intro-
duced by genetic engineering.
Trichothecenes: Mycotoxins produced by species of Fusarium or Trichoderma.
These toxins cause the fatal syndrome called alimentary toxemia, characterized
Glossary 703
by leucopenia (lower concentration of white blood cells), hemorrhages, loss of

bone narrow, and esophagus cancer in humans. In domestic animals, mainly
swine, the tricothecenes lower feed intake and efficiency. In poultry, they cause
the hemorrhagic syndrome and lower efficiency of feed conversion.
Trub: Precipitated flocks of haze-forming protein and polyphenols produced during
hops addition and beer filtration.
Tryptophan: Essential amino acid that possesses two aromatic rings in its structure.
After lysine, tryptophan is considered the most limiting amino acid in maize.
Tryptophan can be converted to the B-vitamin niacin in the body.
Tube cells: Name of the cells located in the inner part of the endocarp that conduct
water during the critical stage of grain germination. Tube cells are rectangular
and have an elongated axis that is parallel and transverse to the kernel.
Viscoamylograph: Instrument that measures and records viscosity of starch or flour
slurries that are subjected to controlled heating and cooling cycles. It is the most
widely used instrument to measure starch properties and functionalities. There
are basically two types of instruments available in the market: the traditional
Brabender viscoamylograph and the new rapid viscoamylograph, or RVA. The
complete viscoamylogram consists of four sequential steps: (1) heating the starch
suspension from 50°C to 95°C at the rate of 1.5°C/min; (2) maintaining the heat
for 30 additional minutes; (3) gradual cooling at the rate of 1.5°C/min; and (4)
maintaining the cool temperature for 30 min. The most important parameters to
study retrogradation are temperature at viscosity increase, peak viscosity, setback
viscosity, shear thinning, and viscosity at start and end of cooling.
Vital gluten: Name of the gluten meal obtained after wet-milling of wheat that,
upon rehydration and mixing, retains viscoelastic properties. Vital gluten is used
as an additive in the manufacture of whole wheat breads and composite yeast-
fermented breads.
Vodka: Neutral alcoholic beverage obtained after distillation of fermented mash
from barley malt, rye, potato, and other adjuncts rich in starch or sugars. The dis-
tilled alcohol is treated with charcoal or other materials to produce a neutral spirit
without distinctive character, aroma, taste, and color. The charcoal treatment is
optional nowadays.
Volatile fatty acid: An aliphatic acid containing two to five carbon atoms produced
in the rumen by fermenting microorganisms. These volatile fatty acids are the
main source of energy for ruminants. The main volatile fatty acids are acetic,
propionic, and butyric.
Vomitoxin: Mycotoxins produced by several species of the genus Fusarium. It is
a derivative of deoxinivalenol that occurs mainly in maize wheat and barley. It
lowers feed efficiency and weight of grains, and causes gastrointestinal problems
including vomiting.
Water absorption: Term widely used by bakers to refer to the water that is neces-
sary to add to flour in order to obtain optimum doughs. In the case of wheat flour,
the water absorption varies according to the amount of protein or gluten, pento-
sans, and damaged starch. In pregelatinized flours such as dry masa flours, water
absorption varies according to the amount or degree of starch gelatinization.
704 Glossary
Water activity (Aw): Measurement of the amount or proportion of free water in a

food. It affects microbial growth and chemical and enzymatic reactions. It is cal-
culated by partial vapor pressure in the food divided by the partial vapor pressure
of free water. The scale of Aw ranges from 0 to 1.
Waxy grain: Grains that posses starch granules containing more than 95% amylo-
pectin. Most of the commercial waxy starch is obtained from waxy maize.
Waxy maize: Mutant type of corn that contains more than 95% amylopectin in the
starch. It is wet-milled to obtain waxy starch, which has special uses. Waxy starch
has a higher hot paste viscosity and produces softer and clearer gels than regular
starch.
Waxy starch: Starch composed of more than 95% amylopectin or branched starch
molecules. The high amylopectin content results in a starch that, upon heating,
forms a clear and cohesive paste that does not form a true gel upon cooling.
Gelatinized waxy starches are less prone to retrogradation compared to regular
starches.
Weathering: Process in which maturing grains in the field are damaged by prevail-
ing environmental conditions. Weathered kernels usually acquire a darker color-
ation and are less functional compared to sound grains. Weathered kernels are
usually penalized by grain inspection agencies.
Wet milling: Mill operation that extracts refined starch. It is called wet milling
because most of the operations are performed with water. Wet milling differs
from dry milling because in this operation the chemical constituents of the grain
are separated. The coproducts of these operations are oil, gluten, fiber, and solids
from the steep liquor.
Whiskey: A distilled spirit derived from a fermented mash of grain. A number of
variants are produced. The most common are Scotch, bourbon, and rye.
White rice: Rice obtained after dry milling of rough rice. The paddy rice is first
dehulled, and the resulting brown rice is next decorticated and polished. White
rice is free of glumes, pericarp, germ, and the aleurone layer. It basically consists
of starchy endosperm.
Whole wheat flour: Fiber-rich flour produced by milling of whole wheat or by add-
ing background bran to refined flour. These flours rich in dietary fiber are used
to produce bakery products lower in calories and with enhanced nutraceutical
properties.
Widget (beer): A floating, hollow device placed in a container of beer to manage
the characteristics of the beer’s head (foam). The original widget was patented
in Ireland by Guinness. Liquid nitrogen is added to pressurized beer contain-
ers. The nitrogen vaporizes and expands in volume after the container is sealed,
forcing gas and beer into the widget’s hollow interior through a tiny hole. When
the container is opened, the nitrogen dissolves in the beer and contributes to the
generation of foam along with the carbon dioxide.
Wort: Hydrosoluble material derived from the mashing of barley malt and brew-
ing adjuncts rich in fermentable carbohydrates, dextrins, and other soluble com-
pounds (amino acids, peptides, B vitamins, etc.). The beer wort also contains
soluble compounds extracted from hops including polyphenols, humulones, lupu-
lones, resins, and tannins. The wort, upon fermentation, yields beer.
Glossary 705
Xanthophyll: Plant pigments, such as lutein and zeaxanthin, based on a tetraterpene

that contains at least one or more hydroxyl groups borne on the cyclic ends of the
molecule.
Xerophthalmia: See Keratomalacia.
Xylanases: Highly functional enzymes used to improve bread systems because of
their capacity to hydrolyze the xylan backbone of arabinoxylans present in cell
walls. They are widely used to improve bread properties via the modification
of dough rheological properties and viscosity. Most commercial xylanases are
obtained from microorganisms.
Yeast: Any fungus that exists generally in the form of single cells and that repro-
duces by budding. Important genera include Saccharomyces and Candida. Yeasts
are used in bread baking, and for the production of alcoholic beverages and bio-
ethanol, and as a single-cell protein. Yeast is usually merchandized as fresh-com-
pressed or dried. Three units of compressed yeast is equivalent to one unit of
dehydrated yeast.
Yeast food: A mixture of calcium salts, sulfates, phosphates, nitrogenous compounds
(ammonium salts), vitamins, selected minerals, and a filler used to promote opti-
mum yeast activity. Yeast food mixes are widely used in baking, beer, alcoholic
spirits, and fuel ethanol production.
Zeaxanthin: A xanthophyll or hydroxylated carotenoid (C40H56O2) found in cereal
grains with proven antioxidant and nutraceutical properties. Zeaxanthin is one
of the two carotenoids present in the retina of the eye, specifically, the central
macula. Therefore, it is used with lutein to prevent macular degeneration, espe-
cially in geriatric people.
Zein: Name of the prolamin (alcohol-soluble) protein fraction of maize. Zeins are
associated with protein bodies considered as reserved protein. Zein is very low in
lysine and has poor protein quality.
Zeralenone: Mycotoxin produced by Fusarium graminearum that is highly toxic to
humans and domestic animals, especially swine. It produces the swine estrogenic
syndrome characterized by swelling of the mammary gland, vulvovaginitis, and
prolapsed uterus in females and testicle swelling in males. In addition, zeralenone
lowers fertility and reproduction and causes economic losses in swine farms.
Index
A Altbier beer, 430
Aluminum phosphide, 142, 160
AACC method 76-30A, 465 Alveograph, 262, 494–495, 496
Abrasive disc decorticator, 219 Alzheimer’s disease, 612, 613
Acetic acid, 641 Ambali, 548
Achromobacter pozolis, 557 Amino acid(s). See also Protein(s)
Acid(s) in animal feed, 649, 650
alpha, 433, 434 requirements, 579–580
beta, 433, 434 according to age and body weight, 581
tocopherols and, 364 based on food protein composition, 582
Acid (SO2) process, 234 essential, 579
Acidulants, 243 Aminopeptidases, 124
Acrospires, 424 Ammonium persulfate, 400
Acute timpany, 642 Amylase(s), 124, 405, 425, 524, 586
Adhesiveness index, 515 activity
Adhesiveness test, 513 during fermentation, 451
Adipic/acetic acid, 401 pH range for, 405
Aeration, 142–143 aleurone synthesis, 124
Aflatest, 465 alpha, 405
Aflatoxins, 136, 163 bacterial, 405
Agrobacterium azotophilum, 557 beta, 405
Agtron Color meter, 481 in diastatic malt, 266
Air aspiration, 201 fungal, 269, 405
in production of dry masa flour, 251 heat stable, 407
Air aspirators, 137, 179, 180 for koji production, 562
Air classification, 207 optimum pH and temperature, 409
Air impingement ovens, 381 pancreatic, 574
Alanine, 95, 96 thermostable, 404
Albumin(s), 92, 93, 579 in whiskey production, 449
Alcohol(s), 270, 451 Amyloglucosidase, 404, 406, 409, 524
aliphatic, 102 in whiskey production, 449
dehydrogenase enzyme, 604 Amylolytic enzymes, 124, 395, 402
ethylene vinyl, 319 Amylopectin, 84, 235, 641
lignin from cinnamyl, 90 amylose and, 482
production, 409 chemical structure, 85, 113
Alcoholic spirits, 1, 31 crystallization, staling and, 290
quality control parameters, 526–527 hydrolysis, 124
Ale beers, 429, 430–431 ratio between amylose and, 482
flowchart for production of, 436 retrograded, 291
Aleurone layer, 112, 114, 119, 120 storage, 395
cereal grains in, 115 Amyloplasts, 112
composition and structure, 118 Amylose, 84, 88, 235, 641
enzyme synthesis, 116, 118, 121 amylopectin and, 482
microstructure, 117 chemical structure, 85, 113
Alfa laval raiso system, 234 high, 396
Alimentary toxemia, 165, 169 hydrolysis, 124
Alkali noodles, 597 ratio between amylopectin and, 482
Alkaline hypochlorite, 400 retrogradation, 606
Alkylene oxide, 402 staling and, 290
All Bran™, 601 storage, 395
Allis Chalmers, 473 Anarshe, 547
Alpha Bits, 346 Anemia, 4
707
708 Index
Angel cake, 211, 303, 305, 306 zinc in, 649, 650, 651
nutritional value and chemical composition, monogastric, 630–638
595 Animal crackers, 593
Angoumois grain moth, 150, 154 Antimold agents, 268
Animal(s) Anthesis, 110
digestive system, 629 Anthocyanidins, 607, 610
feed, 5, 6, 136, 211 Anthocyanins, 253, 373, 566
amino acid in, 649, 650 Antimicrobial agents, 243
barley for, 61, 630, 649, 654 Antioxidants, 364, 584
brewers spent grains for, 648, 650, 657 Antipodal cells, 110, 111
calcium in, 649, 650, 651 Appa, 550
for cattle, 652, 653 Arabic bread, 276–277
crude fiber in, 649, 650, 651 Arabinofuranosidases, 125
crude protein in, 649, 650, 651 Arabinoxylans, 90, 112, 122
detergent fiber in, 649, 650, 651 chemical structure, 91
dried brewers grains for, 650, 652 Arepa flour, 189, 191–193
dried distillers grains for, 652 flowchart of precooked process, 192
dry matter in, 649, 650, 651 Arepas, 544–545, 546
for equines, 652, 653 Arginine, 95, 96
fat in, 649, 650, 651 Armenian cracker bread, 277
maize for, 630, 654 Arsenic trioxide, 173
germ, 655, 656 Artificial drying, 138
gluten, 651, 653 Ascorbates, 290
high moisture, 648, 649, 652 Ascorbic acid, 268, 364
yellow, 649, 652, 654 Aseeda, 549
malt sprouts for, 652 Ash content, 475, 481
methionine in, 634 Aspartic acid, 95, 96
methionine plus cysteine in, 637, 649, Aspergillus spp., 162, 163, 268, 548
650, 651 Aspergillus flavus, 166
millets for, 630 Aspergillus ochraceus, 167
foxtail, 652 Aspergillus oryzae, 445, 560
pearl, 649 Asure, 536
Proso, 649, 652 Atole, 552, 553, 555, 556
minerals in, 649, 650 Atomic absorption spectroscopy, 516
niacin in, 649, 650, 651 for mineral analysis, 527
oats for, 630, 649, 652, 654 Aureobasidium pulluland, 557
hulls, 651 Automatic seed counters, 464, 468, 517
phosphorus in, 649, 650, 651 Avenasterol, 607, 613
rice for Avenathramide, 607
bran, with germ, 651, 653, 654 Awamori, 453
hulls, 651, 653 Awns, 110, 119, 120
paddy, 630 Azeotropic distillation, 457
polished white, 649 Azodicarbonamide, 207, 208, 268
rye for, 630, 649, 652, 654
sorghum for, 630, 649, 654 B
steam-flaked, 649, 652
for swine, 652, 653 Bacillus cereus, 557
triticale for, 630, 649, 652 Bacillus thuringiensis, 37
tryptophan in, 649, 650, 651 Bagels, 275, 276, 551–552
vitamins in, 649, 650, 651 nutritional and chemical composition, 592
wheat for Baguettes, 210, 273, 274, 276, 551
bran, 638, 651, 653 Bake puffs, 374
hard, 649, 652 Bakery products
middlings, 651, 653, 656 chemical-leavened, 591–594
mill run, 653 fermented, 589, 591
red dog, 651, 656 Baking formulations, 409
shorts, 651, 653, 656 Baking oven, three-tier tortilla, 247
Index 709
Baking powder, 292 scientific name, 10

double-acting, 304 six-rowed, 22, 61, 64
Baladi, 551 specialty, 75–76
Balkan endemic nephropathy, 167 sprouts, 657
Band slicers, 272 two-rowed, 22, 61, 64
Barbari, 551 U. S. grade assignation system, 64
Barley, 7, 22 U. S. grades and grade requirements, 63
amino acid content, 95, 649 vitamin content, 103
for animal feed, 61, 630 waxy genotypes, 113
amino acids in, 649 Barnyard millet, 25
crude fiber in, 649 amino acid content, 96
crude protein in, 649 carbohydrate content, 89
detergent fiber in, 649, 654 caryopsis
dry matter in, 649 aleurone layer, 120
energy values for, 652, 654 naked, 120
fat in, 649 protein bodies in, 120
minerals in, 649 starch granule, 120
nutrient composition of, 649 characteristics and adaptation, 11
vitamins in, 649 chromosome number, 11
blue malting, 64 crude fiber in, 83
caloric intake, 35 cytogenetic origin, 11
carbohydrate content, 88 dietary fiber, 89
caryopsis, 47 fat content, 83
aleurone layer, 119 inflorescence, 19
awns, 119 minerals in, 83
husked, 119 NFE, 83
starch granule, 119 protein content, 83
ventral crease, 119 protein fractions, 93
characteristics and adaptation, 10 scientific name, 11
chemical composition, 420 Batch dryers, 138
chromosome number, 10 Batters, 314–316, 401
classification and grading system, 61, 63–64 Baume measurement, 522
consumption, 35 Beall degerminator, 186
crude fiber in, 82 Beer(s), 417, 557–562, 604
culms, 657 bitter, 430
cytogenetic origin, 10 bock, 430
diastatic activity, 419 brewing operations, 435–441
dietary fiber, 88 addition of hops in, 438–439
fat content, 82 carbonation in, 440–441
fatty acid content, 99 clarification in, 441
food uses, 30 fermentation in, 439–440
flowchart of, 31 lautering in, 438
high-amylose, 76 mashing in, 435–438
high-lysine, 61, 95, 573 pasteurization in, 441
hiproly, 61, 75, 93, 654 chemical composition
hull-less, 61, 75 regular vs. light, 442
hull-less waxy, 396 classes, 441–443
inflorescence, 14 dark, 442
malt, 61, 64, 405, 418 Dopplebock, 430
chemical composition, 420 European, 429, 433–443
minerals in, 82, 103 hops in, 433–435
miso, 542 ingredients of, 429, 433–435
NFE, 82 water in, 435
production statistics, 2 yeast in, 435
protein content, 82 foam, 441
protein fractions, 93 functionality tests, 522
protein intake, 36 instruments for, 525
710 Index
parameters for Bividiki, 557

bitterness, 526 Black specks, 189
calories in regular and light beer, Blast freezers, 290
525–526 Bleaching earth, diatomaceous, 412
carbon dioxide, 526 Blindness, 565, 569
color, 526 Bloat, 642
dead cells, 525 Blue maize, 28
dissolved oxygen, 526 Bock beer, 430
drinkability tests, 526 Body mass index, 567
foam stability, 526 Boerner divider, 134, 467
gushing, 526 Bogobe, 541
haze, 526 Bowl-life test, 516
head retention, 526 Bran, 189, 190, 203, 209, 230
lacing properties, 526 maize, 653, 655
pH, 526 removal, 190
quantification of yeast cells, 525 rice, 195, 197, 200, 657, 659
specific gravity, 525 with germ, 651, 653, 654
gluten-free, 432 wheat
head retention, 441 for animal feed, 638, 651
light, 409, 605 amino acids in, 651
chemical composition of, 442 crude fiber in, 651
low-alcohol, 443 crude protein in, 651
nonalcoholic, 443 detergent fiber in, 651
nutritional and chemical composition, 605 dry matter in, 651
opaque, 418, 419, 560 energy values for, 653
production of, 443–444 equine, 638
lactic-acid-producing bacteria in, 443 fat in, 651
sorghum malt in, 443 minerals in, 651
wort fermentation in, 444 nutrient composition of, 651
regular, 605 vitamins in, 651
sensory analysis, 526 Bread(s), 535
turbidity, 441 Arabic, 276–277
types of, 430–432 Armenian cracker, 277
Weizenbier, 421 baking, 271–272
wheat-based, 443 Central Asian, 550
Belt-type flavor depositor, 373, 381 Chinese steamed, 210, 273, 274, 552
Bending techniques, 515 cooling, 272
Benzene, 457 crumb texture, 504
Benzoic acid, 609, 610 crust color, 272
Benzoyl peroxidase, 208 density, apparent, 505
BEPT. See Birefringence end-point temperature dough texture, 505
test (BEPT) flat, 23, 30, 276–277, 542–544 (See also Pita
Beriberi, 570, 584 bread)
BHA, 364 Arabic, 551
BHT, 364 double layered, 551
Bioethanol, 38, 457–459 single layered, 551
Biotechnology, 37 French, 210, 273, 276, 551
Biotin, recommended daily allowance, 583 formulation, 273
Birefringence, 84, 235, 476, 482, 484, 512 hard crusted, 273, 275
Maltese cross and, 86 nutritional and chemical composition, 592
Birefringence end-point temperature test (BEPT), soft crusted, 275
482 functionality tests, 500–505
Biscuits, 210, 306, 307 straight dough baking test, 500
compressed flaked, 335 sequential steps for, 501–504
nutritional value and chemical composition, gluten-free, 284
595 height, 504
Bitter beer, 430 multigrain, 282
Index 711
oat, 283 ready-to-eat, 329

optimum mix time, 505 sensory properties, 516
optimum water absorption, 505 sweetness, 516
packaging, 272 texture, 516
pan hearth, 210 traditional flaked products, 331–335
pumpernickel, 283, 285 viscoamylograph assay, 516
raisin oatmeal, 283 vitamins, 516
reduced sodium, 265 Brewers grits, 197
rye, 283 Brewers spent grains, 648, 650, 657
slicing, 272 Brewing adjuncts, 417, 429, 433
sourdough, 283, 284–285 functionality tests
sticks, nutritional and chemical composition, instruments for, 524
603 amylograph, 524
sweet, 285–288 DSC, 524
types, 273–289 parameters for, 523–524
volume, 504, 505 adjunct color, 523
wheat, 282, 283 fat content, 524
whole wheat, 282, 283 gelatinization temperatures, 524
yeast-leavened, 210 particle-size distribution, 523
flour quality and characteristics of, 262 starch content, 524
yield, 505 Brown rice, 45
Breadings, 314–316, 401 amino acid content, 95
Break flour, 203 carbohydrate content, 88
Break roller mill, 203 crude fiber in, 82
Breakfast cereal(s), 597–598, 600 dietary fiber, 88
bowl-life test, 516 fat content, 82
bulk density, 516 fatty acid content, 99
classification, 331 minerals in, 82, 104
color, 516 NFE, 82
enrichment, 330, 352 protein content, 82
extrusion forming, 345–351 protein fractions, 93
collet structure and, 346 vitamin content, 104
direct expansion, 345–346 Brownies, nutritional and chemical composition,
gelatinizing and, 346 593
melting and, 346 Bt maize, 3, 6
process of, 345 Buhler decorticator-degerminator, 186
radial expansion and, 346 Bulgur, 259, 537
rotary tumbler and, 346 stone milling, 261
fortification, 352 Bumping, 335, 336
functionality tests, 515–516 Bur mills, 177
parameters for, 515–516 Busas/Urwaga, 560
ash, 516 Butyric acid, 641
color, 516
moisture, 516 C
particle-size distribution, 516
starch damage, 516 C3 plants, 8
half-products, 347 C4 plants, 8
hot, 329 Cadelle, 152, 156
industry, 329 Cake(s), 303–308
mineral content, 516 angel, 211, 303, 304, 306
nutritional and chemical composition, baking, 303
601–602 batter, 303
packaging, 330–331, 352–353 chocolate, 595
products cooling, 303
direct expanded, 330 flour, 211
pellets, 330 foam, 303, 508
radial expansion rate, 516 formulas for different types of, 306–307
712 Index
fruit, 595 Carotenoids, 97, 98, 99, 242, 293, 566, 607, 614
functionality tests, 508 chemical structure, 100
height index, 508 pasta, 316
high-moist, 304 Caryopsis(es), 8, 110
low-ratio, 211, 595 covered, 47, 48
molding, 303 development, 111
nutritional value, 594, 595 husked, 119
pound, 595 naked, 47, 109, 119, 120
shortened, 303 properties and traits, 119, 120
high ratio, 304, 306 Casks, aging of alcoholic beverages in, 451
low ratio, 304, 306 Cattle, feed for, 652, 653
sponge, 303, 305, 595 Celiac disease, 618
standardized high ratio test, 508 Cell division, 573
symmetry index, 508 Cell wall, 121
trans fats in, 594 Cellulases, 125
uniformity index, 508 Cellulose, 90, 114, 122, 575
volume determination, 508 chemical structure, 91
white, 595 films, 303
Calcium, 104, 105, 242, 580 Central Asian breads, 550
in animal feed, 649, 650, 651 Cereal(s), 33
for equine feed, 639 animal feed, 630
lime-cooking and, 594 enhancement of nutritional value,
RDI values, 591 658–664
recommended daily allowance, 583 decortication for, 659
for swine feed, 637 dehulling for, 659
Calcium cyanide, 173 extrusion for, 660–661
Calcium hydroxide, 102, 239 micronization for, 662
Calcium propionate, 268, 589 milling for, 659
Caloric intake, recommended daily, 577 pelleting for, 661–662
Campesterol, 607, 613 popping for, 662–663
Cancer, 566, 589 puffing for, 664
Candida spp., 548 steam-flaking for, 663–664
Canjica, 538 thermal treatments for, 660–662
Canning industry, 401 toasting for, 663
Cantonese noodles, 320, 509 nutrient composition of, 649–650
Cap’n Crunch™, 345, 601 amino acids, 649, 650
Caramelization, 272 crude fiber, 649, 650
Carbohydrate(s), 84–92 crude protein, 649, 650
fermentable, 439 detergent fiber, 649, 650
metabolism, yeast and, 439 dry matter, 649, 650
nonfibrous, 88, 89 fat, 649, 650
RDI values, 590 minerals, 649, 650
soluble, 574 vitamins, 649, 650
Carbon, active, 413 antinutritional factors, 616–618
Carbon dioxide, 290, 451 baked, 340
Carbon disulfide, 161 bioethanol from, 457–459
Carbon resins, 409 breakfast (See Breakfast cereal(s))
Carbon tetrachloride, 161 for brewing industry
Carbonic anhydrase, 572 adjuncts, 417, 429
Carboxy-methyl-cellulose (CMC), 243 malt, 417
Carboxypeptidases, 124, 125, 572 by-products, 655–658
Cardiovascular disease, 566, 571, 589 caloric intake, 33
groats and, 31 β-carotene varieties, 34
Carotenes, 104, 607 digestible energy, 574
diooxygenase hydrolysis, 570 extrinsic deterioration, 132
in gluten meal, 656 extruded shredded, 350–351
β-Carotenes, 3, 99, 565, 570 food intake, 33
Index 713
food uses, flowchart for, 26 Chiang, 542

fruit, 8 Chibuko, 560
grading, 135–136 Chica, 558–559
grain cleaning, 137–138 Chickpeas, 546
grain drying, 138–139 Chilaquiles, 555
heterowaxy, 641 Childhood obesity, 567
high-lysine, 573 Chinese steamed bread, 210, 273, 274, 552
hybrids, 573 ingredients, 275
intrinsic deterioration, 131–132 Chips, fabricated, 356
legumes and, 580 Chloride, recommended daily allowance, 583
major characteristics and adaptation range of Chlorinated gas, 208
commercial, 10–11 Chloropicrin, 161
nutraceutical properties, 606–616 Chocolate cake with chocolate frosting,
oven-puffed, 335–337 nutritional value and chemical
physical properties, 44 composition, 595
plant breeding, 573 Chocolate chip cookies, nutritional and chemical
production statistics, 2 composition, 593
protein intake, 33 Chocolate sandwich cookies, nutritional and
protein quality, 578 chemical composition, 593
sampling, 133–135 Cholesterol, 293–294, 566
stored, 133–139 (See also Storage) RDI values, 590
carbohydrates changes in, 145 Cholesterol, groats and, 31
lipids changes in, 145–146 Choline, 608, 613
management of, 133–139 Chopin Experimental Mill, 473
grading in, 135–136 Chorote, 557
grain cleaning in, 137–138 Chronic diseases, 4, 566
grain drying in, 138–139 Chylomicron, 570
sampling in, 133–135 Cinnamic acid, 609, 610
unloading in, 136–137 Cinnamon rolls
weighing in, 136 nutritional and chemical composition, 592
nitrogenous changes in, 145 Citases, 425
sugars in, 87 Citric acid, 364
traditional foods based on, 535 Cladosporium cladosporioides, 557
unloading, 136–137 Class, 43
vitamin A deficiency and diets based solely Cleaning, 137
on, 34 instruments, 202
waxy, 85, 641 in maize wet milling, 226
weighing, 136 in millet milling, 219
yellow endosperm, 584 in oat milling, 212
CGTase. See Cyclodextrin glycosil transferase in rice milling, 194
(CGTase) in sorghum milling, 219
Chalaza, 113 in wheat milling, 201–202
Chalupas, 554 Clear flour, 207
Champurrado, 553 CMC. See Carboxy-methyl-cellulose (CMC)
Chapati, 542 Coarse grits, 189, 191, 196
Cheerios™, 346, 602 Coarse meal, 189
Chelating agents, 364 Cobalt, 104, 105
Chemically leavened products, 291–311 Coextrusion, 356, 382
agents for, 292–293 Cold storage, 161
acids as, 293 Coleoptiles, 424
double acting, 292, 293 Collets, 375
fast acting, 292 Colon cancer, 575
neutralization value of, 293 Colon cancer, groats and, 31
slow acting, 292 Color meter, 475, 481, 512, 514, 519
eggs for, 293–294 Color score, 475
ingredients, 291–294 Color sorters, 138, 182, 183
Chex, 345 Colorimetry, 475, 481, 512, 514, 519, 527
714 Index
Commercial sheet forming device, 247 worldwide, 263

Commercial stone grinder, 246 partially defatted, 370
Common millet. See Proso millet regular flavored, 369
Complementary effect, nutritional concept of, Corn curls, 356
580 Corn flakes, 333–334, 601
Concurrent flow, 138 manufacture of, 333
Cones, 191 typical formulation for manufacture of, 334
nacho flavor, 603 Corn Nuts™, 240, 363, 365–366, 603
Confused beetle, 151, 155 Corn Pops™, 345, 601
Congo red dye test, 483 Corn puffs, 356
Consistometers, 510 Corneal degeneration, 570
Continuous centrifuges, 229 Cottonseed oil, 364
Continuous dryers, 138 Coumarin, 173
Cookies, 210 Counter flow, 138
alkaline water retention test, 505 Couscous, 538
diameter, 505, 507 preparation, 539
formulas for different types, 295–296 steaming, 538
functionality tests, 505 Crackers, 210, 311–314, 382, 597
height, 505, 507 cheese, 312, 313, 598
manufacturing process, 294–303 formulas for, 312
baking and cooling, 302–303, 507 functionality tests, 505
checking during, 303 graham, 312, 598
cooling device, 303 industrial manufacturing process, 314
creaming in, 294, 506 lactic acid bacteria in, 313
cutting, 507 layering in, 313
dough mixing, 506 oil spraying in, 313
doughs used, 294 rotary cut for, 313
extruding and depositing, 295, 296, sheet-cutting forming equipment for, 313
298–299, 301 spindle mixer in, 312
flow chart, 297 nutritional and chemical composition of yeast
ovens, 302 and chemical-leavened, 598
rotary mold, 294, 295, 297 Ritz™, 598
sheeting and forming, 295, 297–301, 506 saltines, 598
wirecut, 296, 300–302 wheat, 598
nutritional and chemical composition, 593 Crepes, 305, 307
packaging, 303 Crispbreads, 382
spread factor functionality test, 505 production of, 383–385
sequential steps for, 506–507 extrusion cooking for production of, 383,
wafer, 296, 301, 302 384
Cooking, nutritional value and, 585 Critical moisture, 130
Cooking extruder, 342 Croissants, 285, 287, 551
Cooling conveyors, two-tier, 303 formulas, 286
Cooling rack, 247 nutritional and chemical composition, 592
Copper, 102, 104, 105 Cross flow, 138
recommended daily allowance, 583 Cross-pollination, 8, 110
Corn bread, 305, 307, 308 Crude fiber, 481
Corn Chex™, 602 in animal feed, 649, 650, 651
Corn chip(s), 28, 239, 356, 603 proximate composition, 82, 83
extruded, 368–370 Crude protein, in animal feed, 649, 650, 651
frying in production of, 369 Cryogenic systems, 290
lower fat, 369 Cryptoxanthin, 584, 607
manufacture, 366–368 Crystallized dextrose, 409
draining and washing in, 367 Culms, 426
flow chart of industrial processes for, 240 Cupric sulfate, 268
grinding in, 367–368 Curls
lime-cooking and steeping in, 366–367 corn, 356
quenching in, 367 flavored baked, 375
Index 715
flavored fried, 375 Diacetyl, 440

Cutters, 371 Diacetyl tartaric acid ester of monoglyceride
Cyanocobalamin, 570 (DATEM), 267
Cyanogenic glucosides, 617, 618 Diastatic malt, for yeast-leavened products, 266
Cyclodextrin(s), 406 Diatomaceous bleaching earth, 412
production, 407 Dicalcium phosphate, 292
Cyclodextrin glycosil transferase (CGTase), 406 Dietary fiber, 88, 89, 211, 574–575
Cyclohexane, 457 components, 575
Cylindrical decortication system, 195 prebiotics in, 575
Cylindrical rotary ovens, 334 RDI values, 590
Cylindrical rotating cylinder, 373 soluble, 575
Cysteine, 94, 95, 96, 580 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), 485,
for poultry feed, 634 488
Digestible energy, 576
D Dimethylsulfide, 440
Diploid cells, 110
Daiginjo-shu saki, 447 Disc-attrition mill, 228
Damaged kernels, 50–52, 58 Disc huller, 195, 198
Danish pastries, 286, 287 Disc impact degerminator, 186
Dark beer, 432 Disk separators, 137, 181, 183, 196, 201, 202
Dark mealworm, 153 Distillation towers, 451
DATEM. See Diacetyl tartaric acid ester of Distilled alcohol spirits, functionality tests, 522
monoglyceride (DATEM) Distilled alcoholic beverages, 604
Debranching enzyme, 406 Distilled grain by-products, 657
Decortication, 659 Distilled grains, 648
abrasive, 218 Distillers dried grains, 459
in millet milling, 218–219 with solubles, 650, 652, 657
nutritional value and, 585 Disulfide bonds, 267
in rice milling, 195–196 Diverter mechanical sampler, 134
in sorghum milling, 218, 219 DNA synthesis, 573
Decorticators, 186, 480 Docatriacontanol, 616
Deculmed malt, 426 Dockage, 50
Degermination, nutritional value and, 585 Dockage test meter, 464, 466, 468
Degerming, 185–186 Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), 575, 608, 612
flowchart, 184 DON. See Deoxynivalenol (DON)
Dehulling, 659 Doppelbock beer, 430
machines, 212, 214 Dormant seeds, 123
in oat milling, 212–213 Dosai, 546, 547
in rice milling, 195 Dotriacontanol, 609
Dehydration, artificial, 193 Dough
Dent, 82 conditioners/emulsifiers, 267
Dental caries, 589 cookie, 294
Deoxynivalenol (DON), 165, 168, 169 degassing, 271, 502
Detergent fiber, 92 development, 269
acid and neutral analyses, 92 dividing and rounding, 270
in animal feed, 649, 650, 651 forming, 502
Dextrin(s), 449 frozen, 289–290
branched, chemical structure of, 87 thawing of, 290
degradation to glucose, 124, 456 mixing, 269–270
linear, chemical structure of, 87 time, 262, 481
Dextrinase, limit, 125 molding, 271
Dextrose, crystallized, 409 optimum mixing time, 262
DHA. See Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) panning, 502
Dhokla, 546 pizza, 288–289
Dhurrin, 617 proof height, 271, 501, 503
Diabetes, 575 punching, 271, 502
Diabetes, type II, 567 short, 294
716 Index
stability, 481 reconstituted, 254

stickiness, 266 for snacks, 368
temperature, 269–270 types of, 251–253
water absorption, 262 Dry matter, in animal feed, 649, 650, 651
optimum, 481 Dry milling, 26, 177, 183–213
Donut(s), 211, 274 laboratory, 473, 477, 480
chemically leavened, 306, 307 oats, 212–216
nutritional and chemical composition, 592 products, 472
nutritional value and chemical composition, ash content of, 472, 475
595 color of, 472, 475
yeast-leavened, 287–288 dough rheological properties of, 472
Draft beer, 431 fat content of, 472, 476
Dried brewers grain(s) fiber content of, 472
amino acids in, 650 gluten content of, 477
for animal feed instruments for controlling quality of,
crude fiber in, 650 475, 476
crude protein in, 650 moisture in, 475
detergent fiber in, 650 particle size of, 472, 475
dry matter in, 650 protein content of, 472, 476
energy values for, 652 quality control of, 472, 474, 475, 476, 477
fat in, 650 starch content of, 472, 476
minerals in, 650 starch gelatinization of, 476
nutrient composition of, 650 tests for quality of, 472, 475, 476, 477
vitamins in, 650 Drying, 138–139
bypass protein, 657 in rice milling, 193–194, 196, 231
Dried distillers grains, 459, 650, 652, 657 sun, 193
amino acids in, 650 Dunkel beer, 430
animal feed Durum semolina, 211, 260, 316–320
energy values for, 652 Durum wheat, 21, 29, 57
crude fiber in, 650 amber, 316
crude protein in, 650 amino acid content, 95
detergent fiber in, 650 Australian, 62
dry matter in, 650 Canadian western amber, 60
fat in, 650 chemical composition, 209
minerals in, 650 classification, 57, 59
nutrient composition of, 650 composition of, 82
vitamins in, 650 couscous, 538
Dried milk, for yeast-leavened products, 266 food uses, 211, 260
Drum drying, 396| in Italy, 536
Drum washer, 367 milling, 211
Dry distillers grains, energy values for, 652 minerals in, 104
Dry masa flour, 239, 241, 370 protein fractions, 93
blue, 252 tempering, 203
granulation, 515 in Turkey and Arab countries, 536
hydrated, 254 vitamin content, 104
industrial production, 250–254 Dusted meals, 189
classification in, 251 Dwarfism, 572
drying in, 251
extrusion cooking in, 254 E
flow chart for, 240
lime cooking in, 250 EDTA, 364
milling in, 251, 252 Egg
nixtamal washing and grinding in, albumin, 304
250–251 products, 293–294
mixing, 368 dried, 293
particle-size distribution, 252 egg whites, 293
purple-red, 252 frozen whole eggs, 293
Index 717
in pasta, 316 meat, 637

solids, 315, 508 nutrient requirements, 638
yolks, 293 for growing horses, 639
phospholipids in, 293–294 calcium, 639
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), 575, 608, 612 crude protein, 639
Einkorn wheat, 21, 75 lysine, 639
Electronic moisture meter, 135 magnesium, 639
ELISA, 136, 170 phosphorus, 639
Embryo, 8 potassium, 639
Embryo sac, 110, 111 vitamin A, 639
Embryonic axis, 112, 116, 122 for mature horses
Emer wheat, 21, 75 crude protein for, 639
Empanadas, 554 lysine, 639
Emulsifiers, 243, 304 oats for, 638
Encephalomalacia, 169 pregnant mares, 639
Enchiladas, 554 stallions, 639
Endocarp, 116, 117 weanling, 639
Endopeptidases, 124, 125 working horses, 639
Endoproteases, 269 yearling, 639
Endosperm, 8 Ergot, 23, 66
chemical components, 116 Ergot alkaloids, 165
floury, 122 Ergotamine, 165, 168, 170
function, 116 Ergotine, 165, 170
peripheral, 117, 121 Ergotism, 165, 166, 170
starchy, 116 Estrogenic syndrome, 164, 169
structures, 118, 121 Ethanol, 642
vitreous, 121, 360 fuel
Energy, improvement in, 660 production of (See also Fuel ethanol,
Energy partition, 576 production of)
Energy requirements, 576–577 from cereals, 453–458
English muffins, nutritional value and chemical from starchy grains, 418
composition, 595 production, 439
Enjera, 26, 548, 549 purification, 456–457
Enteropathy syndrome, 618 Ethylene vinyl acetate, 352
Entoleter, 186, 229 Exoproteases, 269
Enzymatic system, 113 Extensibility techniques, 515
Enzyme(s) Extensigraph, 492, 493
activity, measurement of, 524 Extensograph, 262
for yeast-leavened products, 269 Extraction rate, 207
Enzyme linked immune assay. See ELISA Extruded flakes, 349–350
Eosin-Y, 475, 511 Extruded products
EPA. See Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) high-shear, 374
Epicarp, 100, 117 pasta, 316, 318
cross cells, 117 as snacks, 374–382
tube cells, 117 Extruder(s)
Epichlorohydrin, 401 adiabatic, 660
Epsilon amino groups, 580 balls, 376
Equines, 636–638 components, 343
animal feed, 652, 653 cut assembly, 343
digestible energy, 639 die, 343, 344
digestive system and digestion, 637–638 extruder barrel, 343
cecum, 638 feeding system, 343
large colon, 638 motor, 343
short-chain fatty acids, 638 screw, 343
growing horses, 639 compression ratio, 344
lactating, 639 configurations, 344
mature horses, 639 flight, 344
718 Index
length-to-diameter, 344, 379 insoluble vs., 85, 90

modular element, 344 Fiber-degrading enzymes, 226
pitch, 344 Fibrolytic enzymes, 124
cooking, 342, 380 Filth tests, 466
curls, 376 Fine grits, 191
die, 376 Finger millet, 25
design and configuration of, 379 amino acid content, 96
expansion rates and, 375 carbohydrate content, 89
forming, 342, 380 caryopsis, 48 (See also Caryopsis)
high-shear, 375 aleurone layer, 120
adiabatic, 375 naked, 120
thermoplastic, 375 protein bodies in, 120
low cost, 660 starch granule, 120
rings, 376 characteristics and adaptation, 11
single screw, 342 chromosome number, 11
thermoplastic, 374 crude fiber in, 83
twin screw, 342 cytogenetic origin, 11
Extruding forming tortilla head, 247 dietary fiber, 89
Extrusion, 254, 397, 660 fat content, 83
fatty acid content, 99
F in flat bread, 548
inflorescence, 18
Falling number, 476, 486 minerals in, 83, 105
Farinograph, 262, 491, 492 NFE, 83
Fat(s), 82, 83 protein content, 83
in animal feed, 649, 650, 651 protein fractions, 93
RDI values, 590 scientific name, 11
Fatty acids, 98, 99 vitamin content, 105
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 566 Firik, 261
saturated, 364 Flaking grits, 184, 189, 334
trans, 266, 364 food uses, 191
Feces, 466 Flaking unit, 332
Fermentation, 584 Flanders brown, 431
nutritional value and, 586–587 Flat-band oven, 330
stages, 270–271 Flat breads, 23, 30, 276–277, 542–544. See also
in straight dough baking test, 502 Pita bread
yeast-leavened products and, 270–271 Arabic, 551
Fermented bakery products, nutritional value, double layered, 551
589, 591 single layered, 551
Fermentograph, 497, 498 Flat grain beetle, 152, 156
Ferric chloride, 572 Flautas, 553
Ferric citrate, 572 Flavan-3-ols, 607
Ferrous citrate, 572 Flavanones, 607
Ferrous sulfate, 268, 572 Flavols, 607
Fertile Crescent, 1, 3, 22, 550 Flavonoids, 566, 607
Fertilization, 110–114 Flavoproteins, 571
Ferulic acid, 31, 112, 208, 607, 610 Flavorings, 364
Fesca process, 233 Flint, 82
Fiber(s), 656 Floor malting, 423
crude, 82, 83 Flotation test, 470
detergent, 527 Flour(s), 189
dietary, 88, 89, 527 aging, 207
insoluble air classification, 207
composition of, 90 all-purpose, 208, 209, 210
soluble vs., 85, 90 bleaching, 207
soluble bleaching agents, 208
composition of, 90 bread, 210
Index 719
cake, 211 scientific name, 11

characteristics, 262 vitamin content, 105
chlorinated-soft, 208, 211 Food allergies, 527
clear, 210 Foreign material, 50
cookie, 211 Formic acid, 407
diastatic activity, 263 Forming extruder, 342
dough development time, 262 Foxtail millet, 25
enrichment, 207 amino acid content, 96
enzyme supplementation, 207 animal feed, energy values for, 652
family, 210 carbohydrate content, 89
food uses, 191 caryopsis, 48 (See also Caryopsis)
hard, 208, 209, 210 aleurone layer, 119
maturing, 207 naked, 119
mixing time, 262 protein bodies in, 119
mixing tolerance, 262 starch granule, 119
patent, 210 characteristics and adaptation, 11
protein content, 262 chromosome number, 11
nitrogen fertilization and, 262 crude fiber in, 83
quality, 262 cytogenetic origin, 11
red-dog, 208 dietary fiber, 89
refined straight grade, 210, 585 fat content, 83
soft, 208, 209 fatty acid content, 99
soft and chlorinated, 292, 304 inflorescence, 17
soft cookie, 209 minerals in, 83, 105
stability, 262 NFE, 83
starch damage, 263 protein content, 83
straight grade, 207, 210, 260 protein fractions, 93
protein and lysine in, 585 scientific name, 11
refined, 210, 585 vitamin content, 105
types, 208 Fractionation, 227, 231
water absorption, 262 Free fatty acids, 51, 98, 146
whole wheat, 210, 263 production during storage, 145
for yeast-leavened products, 262–263 release, 99, 124
Flower, 111 in snacks, 521
Fluoroacetamide, 173 Freeze-thaw stability, 243, 402
Folacin, 105 Frekeh, 537–538
recommended daily allowance, 583 French bread, 210, 273, 276, 551
susceptibility to light, oxygen, heat and trace formulation, 273
metals, 587 hard crusted, 273, 275
for swine feed, 637 nutritional and chemical composition, 592
Folic acid, 104, 570, 582, 609 soft crusted, 275
chemical structure, 103 Fresh masa, 241
Fonio millet, 26 industrial production, 244–250
caryopsis, 49 (See also Caryopsis) cooling and packaging in, 250
aleurone layer, 120 flow chart for, 240
naked, 120 forming and baking in, 249
protein bodies in, 120 lime-cooking and steeping in, 244–245,
starch granule, 120 248
characteristics and adaptation, 11 nixtamal washing in, 248
chromosome number, 11 stone grinding in, 248–249
crude fiber in, 83 lime-cooked products, 244–248
cytogenetic origin, 11 quality control parameters for, 511–513
fat content, 83 color value, 512
inflorescence, 20 hardness, 512
minerals in, 83, 105 moisture, 511
NFE, 83 particle-size distribution, 511
protein content, 83 solubility indexes, 512
720 Index
starch gelatinization, 512 enzyme synthesis during, 125

starch properties, 512 sorghum and, 423
texture, 512 Geuze beer, 431
water absorption, 512 Gibberellic acid, 425
Fried puffs, 374 synthesis, 424
Frost damage, 51 Gibberellins, 123
Frosted Flakes™, 601 Ginjo-shu saki, 447
Fructose, 87 Gliadin, 94, 262, 267, 618
Fruit cake, 595 Globulin(s), 92, 93, 579
Fruit loops™, 602 Glucanases, 124, 525
Fuel ethanol β-Glucans, 31, 90, 112, 575
production of, 453–459 cereal content of, 88, 89
distillation and purification in, 456–457 chemical structure, 91
flowchart of, 458 β-D Glucans, 122
gelatinization in, 455 Gluco-delta-lactone, 293
grinding in, 455 Glucoamylase method, 512
liquefaction in, 456 Glucose
saccharification and fermentation in, 456 chemical structure, 87
quality control parameters, 526–527 dextrin degradation to, 124
Fumaric acid, 243 syrup, 408, 409
Fumigants, 159, 160 as brewing adjuncts, 429
Fumonisin, 164, 169 production of, 409, 411
Fumonitest, 465 uses of, 409
Fusarium spp., 162, 268 Glucose isomerase, 403, 404
Fusarium moniliforme, 169 immobilized, 410
Fusarium proliferatum, 169 immobilized form, 406
Fusel alcohols, 439, 456, 526–527 α-Glucosidase, 125
Futsu-shu saki, 447 Glume(s), 8, 109, 115, 117, 659
chemical components, 116
G function, 116
structures, 115
Garnachas, 554 Glutamic acid, 95, 96
Gas chromatography, 519 Glutathione, 265
Gasograph, 499–500 Glutelins, 93, 94, 360, 618
Gelatinization, 84, 376 Gluten, 22, 230, 267
for assessment of starch quality, 484, 486 content, 477, 490
enthalpy of crystal fusion, 488 intolerance, 527, 618–619
in fuel ethanol production, 455 maize, 650
starch, 660 amino acids in, 650
temperature, 524 for animal feed, 651
onset, 488 amino acids in, 651
transition, 488 crude fiber in, 651
Generative cells, 111 crude protein in, 651
Generative nuclei, 111 detergent fiber in, 651
Genetically modified organisms (GMO), 3 dry matter in, 651
Geothricum candidum, 557 energy values for, 653
Germ, 8, 122–123, 189, 208, 230 fat in, 651
chemical components, 116 minerals in, 651
constituents, 123 nutrient composition of, 651
damage, 50 vitamins in, 651
fat content, 656 crude fiber in, 650
function, 116 crude protein in, 650
meal, 656 detergent fiber in, 650
Protein content, 656 dry matter in, 650
Germinated kernels, 51 energy values for, 653
Germination, 110, 123–126, 424–426, 584 fat in, 650
barley malting and, 422 minerals in, 650
Index 721
nutrient composition of, 650 flaking, 189, 191, 334

vitamins in, 650 maize, 375
meal, 229, 656 medium, 191
strength, 488 refined, 337, 517
vital, 232 regular, 189
Gluten-free beer, 432 rice, 429
Gluten-free bread, 284 waxy sorghum, 443
Glutenins, 267 in whiskey production, 449
Glutomatic, 489, 490 Groat(s), 24, 27, 30, 31, 212
Glycine, 95, 96 amino acid content, 96
Glycolipid, 98 for breakfast cereals, 331
α-1,6-Glycosidic bonds, 113 carbohydrate content, 89
GMO. See Genetically modified organisms chemical composition, 217
(GMO) cholesterol and, 31
Goiters, 573, 618 colon cancer and, 31
Goitrogens, 618 crude fiber in, 82
Golden rice, 3, 38, 74, 565 dietary fiber, 89
Goldfisch apparatus, 476 fat content, 82
Goldfisch extractor, 518 fatty acid content, 99
Grade, 43 minerals in, 82, 105
Grading, 135–136 NFE, 82
Grain(s) protein content, 82
cleaning, 179–183 protein fractions, 93
dust, 144 vitamin content, 105
fuel ethanol from starchy, 418 Gruel(s), 535
genetically modified, 472 fermented, 540–542
malting, 419–421 nonfermented, 540
moisture, high, 659 Gums, 243
reconstituted, 658–659 for yeast-leavened products, 268
roll-flaked, 662 Gun puffing, 337, 338, 664
rotation, 142
steam-flaked, 459, 649, 659 H
trier, 134
Grain cleaner, 468 Half kernels, 197
Grain moisture tester, 467 Half-products. See Snacks, third generation
Grain viewer, 465 Hamburger buns, 281
Graminae, 3, 7–8 Hamilton steam-jacketed kettles, 366
Granary weevil, 151, 155 Hammer milling, 251, 261
Grano, 536 Hanchi, 538
Granola(s), 340–341 Hand pounding, 216
with almonds, 602 Haploid megaspore, 110
couscous, 538 Head retention, 441
whole-wheat fermented-baked, 341 Heat damage, 50
Grape Nuts™, 340, 602 Heavy metals, 242, 527
Gravies, 210 Hedonic preference test, 520
Gravity separator, 181, 182, 201 Helles beer, 430
Gravity tables, 137 Heme-iron, 572
Green Revolution, 3 Hemicellulose, 90, 91, 575
Grinding, 367–368 Herbicides, 527
equipment, 367 Herish, 536
function, 367–368 Heteroxylans, 122
in maize wet milling, 227 Hexacosanol, 609, 616
in rice wet milling, 231 HFCS. See High fructose corn syrup (HFCS)
Grits High-density polyethylene, 352
brewer, 197 High-fiber flakes, 349
coarse, 189, 191, 196 High fructose corn syrup (HFCS), 28, 395, 403,
fine, 191 408, 410–411
722 Index
High-ratio cakes, 211 nutrient composition of, 651

Hilum, 111, 112, 114, 189 vitamins in, 651
Histidine, 95, 96, 97, 579 rice, 200, 657
HMG CoA reductase, 90, 608 for animal feed, 651
Hokkien noodles, 320 amino acids in, 651
Hominy crude fiber in, 651
block, 179 crude protein in, 651
maize, 189 detergent fiber in, 651
for animal feed, 651 dry matter in, 651
amino acids in, 651 fat in, 651
composition of, 656 minerals in, 651
crude fiber in, 651 nutrient composition of, 651
crude protein in, 651 vitamins in, 651
detergent fiber in, 651 Hullers
dry matter in, 651 disc, 195, 198
energy values for, 653 rubber roll, 195, 198
fat in, 651 Humita, 538
minerals in, 651 Humulones, 433, 434
nutrient composition of, 651 Humulus lupulus, 433
vitamins in, 651 Hunter Lab colorimeter, 481
Homocysteine, 571, 609 Husked grains, 109, 119
Honjozo-shu saki, 447 Hydraulic press, 518
Hop(s), 433–435 Hydrocolloids, 316
bitter flavor, 433 Hydrocyanic acid, 617
chemical composition, 434 Hydrocyclone, 228, 229
classification, 434 Hydrogen cyanide, 173
extracts, 434 Hydrogen peroxide, 400
functionality tests Hydrogen sulfide, 440
instruments for Hydrogenated oil, 364
gas chromatography, 524 Hydrometer, 525
HPLC, 524 Hydroxypropylation, 402
NIRA, 524 Hyperkeratinization, 570
spectrophotometry, 524 Hypertension, 589
parameters for, 524 Hypogonadism, 572
acids, 524 Hysteresis, 132
essential oils, 524
polyphenols/flavonoids, 524 I
quantification of resins, 524
high alpha, 434 Idli, 546, 547
midrange alpha, 434 Impact, 186
plantation, 433 Impact dehulling machines, 213, 214
super alpha, 434 Impact mill, 229
Hordein, 94 Impingement ovens, 336, 373
Hot spots, 142 Indian meal moth, 150, 154
Hotcakes, 211, 306, 307 Indica rice, 21
Hotdog buns, 281 Induced coupled plasma analyzers, 527
House mice, 171 Infant mortality rate, 565
HPLC systems, 516, 527 Infrared oven, 384
Hull(s) Initiation, 364
oat, 217 Injera, 26, 548, 549
for animal feed Inositol, 582, 608, 613
amino acids in, 651 Inositol hexakisphosphate, 608
crude fiber in, 651 Insect(s), 149–162
crude protein in, 651 control, 159–162
dry matter in, 651 atmospheric, 161
fat in, 651 biological, 162
minerals in, 651 chemical, 159–161
Index 723
cold storage, 161 Kjeldahl method, 476, 481

irradiation, 161–162 Kodo millet, 25
sonification, 161–162 amino acid content, 96
damage, 50 carbohydrate content, 89
prevention, 159 caryopsis
primary pests, 149 aleurone layer, 120
secondary pests, 149 naked, 120
Insect fragments, 466 protein bodies in, 120
Insecticides, 159, 527 starch granule, 120
Instron compression test, 512 characteristics and adaptation, 11
Instron texture analysis, 513 chromosome number, 11
Instron texurometer, 519 crude fiber in, 83
Intrinsic castle, 571 cytogenetic origin, 11
Iodine, 573 dietary fiber, 89
colorimetric assay, 482 fat content, 83
recommended daily allowance, 583 fatty acid content, 99
Iodized salt, 573 inflorescence, 19
Ion-exchange systems, 403, 413 minerals in, 83, 105
Ionic resins, 409 NFE, 83
Iron, 102, 104, 105, 571–572 protein content, 83
in animal feed, 649, 650, 651 protein fractions, 93
elemental, 572 scientific name, 11
intestinal parasites and, 572 vitamin content, 105
RDI values, 591 Koji, 453, 542
recommended daily allowance, 583 Koji-kin, 445, 560
requirements, 572 Kolsh beer, 430
supplementation, 572 Kulmbacker beer, 430
for swine feed, 637 Kwashiorkor, 34, 565, 567–569
vitamin C and, 572 blood albumin levels and, 569
Irradiation, 161–162 cerebral DNA and, 569
Isoleucine, 94, 95, 96, 579 IQ and, 569
chemical structure, 97 susceptibility to infection and, 569
Isotherm curve, 132, 133 symptoms, 569
abdominal edema, 569
J apathy, 569
fluid retention, 569
Japonica rice, 21 kinky and discolored hair, 569
Jasmine, 73 skin ulcers, 569
Javanica rice, 21
Joroch, 554 L
Junmai-shu saki, 447
Lactic acid bacteria, 548
K Lactobacillus spp., 226
Lactobacillus brevis, 284
Kaffir beers. See Opaque beer(s) Lactobacillus fermentum, 284
Kafirin, 77, 94, 655 Lactobacillus plantarum, 284
Kellogg, John H., 329 Lactobacillus San francisco, 284
Kenkey, 541 Lactose intolerance, 527
Kent Jones meter, 481 Lager beer(s), 429, 430, 435
Keratomalacia, 570 production
Keskek, 536 fermentation in, 439
Khapra beetle, 152, 156 flowchart for, 436
Kilning, 418, 426, 428–429 sorghum, 443
barley malting and, 422 Lambic beer, 431
sorghum and, 423 Larger grain borer, 151, 155
Kisra, 549 Lauter tun, 437
Kix™, 346, 602 Lava stones, 367
724 Index
Lavash, 277, 551 Lipases A1, 123, 125, 146

LDL receptors, 575 Lipases A2, 123, 125, 146
Lecithin, 243, 267, 293, 608, 613 Lipid(s), 97–100, 575
in egg yolk, 315 chemical structure, 98
Legumes, cereals, 580 nonpolar, 84
Lemma, 109, 115 polar, 84
Lesser grain borer, 151, 155 saponifiable, 97
Leucine, 94, 95, 96, 579 unsaponifiable, 97
chemical structure, 97 Lipid oxidation, 352
Leuconostoc mesenteroides, 284 Lipolytic enzymes, 124
Leukoencephalomalacia, 164 Lipoxygenase, 123, 125, 331
Leukopenia, 169 Liquid nitrogen, 290
Light beer, 432 Low-alcohol beer, 432
Lignin, 90, 575 Low-ratio cakes, 211
chemical structure, 91 Lump-breaking, 334, 335
Lime, for nixtalmalization, 242 Lupulins, 433
Lime-cooked products, 239 Lupulones, 433, 434
corn chips, 366–367 Lutein, 100, 584, 607, 614
fresh masa, 244–248 Lye cooking, 387
quality control parameters, 511–513 Lysine, 94, 95, 96, 565, 579
color value, 512 availability, 579
hardness, 512 bioavailability, 585
moisture, 511 chemical structure, 97
particle-size distribution, 511 in equine feed, 639, 649, 650, 651
solubility indexes, 512 metabolic role, 580
starch gelatinization, 512 for poultry feed, 634
starch properties, 512 for swine feed, 637
texture, 512 synthesis, 579
water absorption, 512 Lysinoalanine, 580
functionality tests
adhesiveness, 513, 515 M
mini-cooking trial, 511
mixograph, 510 Macrocytic anemia, 571
parameters for, 510, 514–515 Macular degeneration, 615
color, 510 Magadi alkali, 617
dry matter losses, 510, 511 Magnesium, 102, 104, 105
moisture, 511 for equine feed, 639
optimum cooking, 510, 511 recommended daily allowance, 583
particle-size distribution, 510, 511 Magnets, 201
pericarp removal, 510 Magou, 541
pH, 510, 511 Mahewu, 541
solubility index, 514 Maillard reactions, 272, 334, 372
stickiness, 515 Maize, 9, 12
water absorption, 510, 514 aflatoxins in, lowering, 137
pericarp removal test, 511 alkaline-cooked products, 363–374
texture analysis, 513 antioxidants and chelating agents for, 364
viscosity, 510 oil for, 364
grain, 511 raw materials, 363–364
tortilla chips, 366–367 salt and flavoring for, 364
tortillas, 244–248 snacks produced from, 363
quality control parameters, 513–514 amino acid content, 95
color, 513 ancestor, 9
moisture, 513 for animal feed, 630, 654
texture, 513 baby, 71
Linoleic acid, 98, 99, 608, 612 blue, 28, 71
Linolenic acid, 98, 99, 608 bran, 653, 655
Lipases, 331 caloric intake, 35
Index 725
carbohydrate content, 88 1000-weight, 44

caryopsis, 47, 119 (See also Caryopsis) damaged, 50–52, 358
aleurone layer, 119 half, 197
naked, 119 mold-infested, 51
protein bodies in, 119 for nixtamalization, 241–242
starch granule, 119 for popcorn, 357, 358
characteristics and adaptation, 10 shriveled, 51–52
chromosome number, 10 shrunken, 51–52
classification and grading system, 52 sprouted, 51
consumption, 35 stress cracks, 358
crude fiber in, 82 weathered, 51
Cuzco/Cacahuacintle, 72 malt, 558
cytogenetic origin, 10 milling, 26, 27
debranned, 544 dry, 183–193
degermed, 544 by-products form, 655–656
degerminators, 187–188 cleaning, 185
dietary fiber, 88 drying and sizing, 186, 189
early harvested, 658 laboratory, 473, 474
fat content, 82 products, chemical composition of,
fatty acid content, 99 190
food uses, 27–28 tempering and degerming, 185–186
fractionated, 657 whole-meal processes, 183–185
genetic modification (See Bt maize) wet, 226–230, 656
genetically modified, 3, 6 by-products form, 656
germ, 655, 656 equipment used, 228
gluten feed, 638, 650 flowchart of, 227
grits, 333, 375 laboratory, 474
high-amylose, 72 primary coproducts from, 656
high-lysine, 93, 95 minerals in, 82, 103
high lysine tryptophan quality protein, 565 multivitamin transgenic, 72
high moisture, 163 NFE, 82
for animal feed, 648, 649 nixtamalization
amino acids in, 649 kernels for, 241–242
crude fiber in, 649 products from, 552–557
crude protein in, 649 major uses of, 553–555
detergent fiber in, 649 opaque-2, 573, 594
dry matter in, 649 physical properties, 45
energy values for, 652 popping (See also Popcorn)
fat in, 649 dry, 360–362
minerals in, 649 methods, 359–363
nutrient composition of, 649 microwave, 362–363
vitamins in, 649 volume, 358
hominy, 189 wet, 360
for animal feed, 651 production, 2, 6
amino acids in, 651 protein, high lysine tryptophan quality, 565
composition of, 656 protein content, 82
crude fiber in, 651 protein fractions, 93
crude protein in, 651 protein intake, 36
detergent fiber in, 651 quality protein, 573, 594, 654
dry matter in, 651 refined, 429
energy values for, 653 regular, 88
fat in, 651 scientific name, 10
minerals in, 651 specialty, 67, 71–72
nutrient composition of, 651 starch, 230, 400
vitamins in, 651 acetylated, 400
inflorescence, 13 availability, 655
kernels granule, 119
726 Index
native, 86 Munich, 428

steam-flaked, 459 nondiastatic, 426, 428, 429
sweet, 71, 88 diastatic vs., 30
syrup, 28, 409 peat smoked, 427, 429, 447
U. S. grades and grade requirements, 53 Providence, 427
waxy, 28, 72 sorghum, 427
starch, 400 sprouts
waxy genotypes, 113 amino acids in, 650
yellow, 99 for animal feed, 650
for animal feed, 654 crude fiber in, 650
amino acids in, 649 crude protein in, 650
crude fiber in, 649 detergent fiber in, 650
crude protein in, 649 dry matter in, 650
detergent fiber in, 649 energy values for, 652
dry matter in, 649 fat in, 650
energy values for, 652, 654 minerals in, 650
fat in, 649 nutrient composition of, 650
minerals in, 649 vitamins in, 650
nutrient composition of, 649 types of, 427–428
vitamins in, 649 Vienna, 427
Arepa flour from, 189 Malt liquor, 430
carotenoid contentment, 483, 614 Maltese cross, 86, 482
grits from, 333 Malting, 422–426, 428–429
net energy gain, 654 barley, 422
for tortillas, 241, 372 beds, 424, 425
Maize millers, 177 defined, 418
Maize weevil, 151 grains, 419–421
Malathion, 159 nutritional value and, 586
Malnutrition sorghum, 423
kwashiorkor and, 565, 567–569 systems, 423–424
mineral deficiencies, 571–573 technologies, 423
iodine, 573 drum, 423
iron, 571–572 floor, 423
zinc, 572–573 rectangular, 423
moderate, 568 Saladin, 423
severe, 568 tower, 423
slight, 568 Maltodextrin(s), 404
vitamin deficiencies and, 569–571 production, 409
world, 567–573 resistant, 605
Malt(s), 427 Maltose, 87, 405, 449
air-dried, 427 Maltotriose, 87, 449
ale, 427 Manganese, 104, 105
amber, 428 Mantou, 552
American, 427 Marasmus, 565, 567–568
black, 428 Martin process, 232, 233
chocolate, 428 Masa, 27. See also Fresh masa
classes, 429 cohesive properties, 367
crystal-caramel, 428 Mashing, 435–438
deculmed, 426 double procedure, 437
diastatic, 266, 419, 425, 427, 429 infusion, 437
nondiastatic vs., 30 temperature-programmed, 437
functionality tests, 522 Mass exchange, 372
parameters for, 523 Maturograph, 497, 498, 499
diastatic activity, 523 May-Grunwald dye test, 475, 510, 511
grist particle-sized distribution, 523 Meal(s)
percentage of germinated grains, 523 coarse, 189
green, 427, 449 dusted, 189
Index 727
food uses, 191 flowchart of, 32

Mechanical stickiness device, 515 parboiled, 537
Mediterranean flour moth, 150, 154 production statistics, 2
Medium grits, 191 protein intake, 36
Melanoidins, 426 roti, 543
Melting, 376 waxy genotypes, 113
Merchant grain beetle, 152, 156 Milling
Mesocarp, 116, 117 defined, 659
Metabolic syndrome, 4 hammer, 659
Metabolizable energy, 576 nutritional value and, 585, 659–660
Methane, 642 Milling separator, 201
Methanol, 642 Mineral(s), 82, 83, 104, 105, 580, 582
Methionine, 94, 95, 96, 579, 580 analysis, 527
in animal feed, 634 in animal feed, 649, 650
chemical structure, 97 enrichment, 244
cysteine and for poultry feed, 634
in animal feed, 637, 649, 650, 651 recommended daily allowances, 583
Methyl bromide, 160 Miso, 542, 544
Methyl cyanide, 173 Mitosis, 110
Methylene blue, 475, 511 Mixograph, 262, 493–494, 495, 510
Methylfurfural, 407 Mixolab, 495, 497
Metric weight volume testers, 517 Moisture, 44, 49, 475
Microbiological assay, 527 Moisture meter, 513
Microwave bags, 362 Mold-infested kernels, 51
Microwave popping, 362–363 Molds, 162–170, 527
susceptor plate, 362–363 field, 162
Microwaveable packaging, 389 storage, 162
PE-coated paperboard, 389 Monocotyledon, 8, 109
susceptor, 389 Monogastrics, 630–638
Middlings, 203, 638 Monoglycerides, 243, 267
Milk, dried, 266 Monosodium glutamate intolerance, 527
Milk proteins, 600 Moromi, 445, 453
Milled product(s) Mosokwane, 541
ash, 481 Moto, 445
chemical composition, 481 Moving-bed chromatography technologies, 404
color, 481–482 Muesli products, 341
fat, 481 Mueslix™, 602
fiber, 481 Muffins, 211, 306, 307
flour ash content, 473 nutritional value and chemical composition,
particle-size distribution, 477 595
protein, 481 Muffle furnace, 475
quality control parameters of, 474–477 Mung bean, 546
Millet(s), 7, 11, 24–26. See also specific types Munguaça, 538
amino acid content, 96 Mycotoxins, 163–170, 475, 527
for animal feed, 630 as secondary metabolites, 166
caloric intake, 35 Myristic acid, 99
consumption, 35
couscous, 538 N
dry
milling, 216–220 Nachos, 363
classification in, 220 NAD, 571
cleaning in, 217 NADP, 571
decortication in, 218–219 Naked wheat, 21
flow chart of, 217 Namazake, 445
fractions from, 220 Near-infrared analyzer (NIRA), 135, 464, 465,
fatty acid content, 99 467, 481, 513
food uses, 32 Nejayote, 242, 366
728 Index
Neural tube defects, 571, 589, 609 Ramen, 320

Newrex, 73 smoothness, 509
NFE. See Nitrogen-free extract (NFE) softness, 509
Niacin, 104, 105, 570, 580, 582, 584 surface appearance, 509
in animal feed, 649, 650, 651 taste, 509
bioavailability, 584, 585 texture, 509
bound vs. free, 102 wonton, 320, 597
chemical structure, 103 yakisoba, 320
recommended daily allowance, 583 yield, 509
susceptibility to light, oxygen, heat and trace Nordic rats, 171
metals, 587 Norway rat, 171
Niacin bioavailability, 242 Nutraceuticals, 606–616
Niacinogen, 586 in blue maize, 28
Niacitin, 586 carotenoids, 607, 614–615
Night blindness, 565 choline, 608
NIRA, 475, 476. See Near-infrared analyzer flavonoids, 607
(NIRA) inositol, 608
Nitrogen, free amino, 439 insoluble, 608
Nitrogen fertilization, 579 lecithin, 608
Nitrogen-free extract (NFE), 81, 82, 83 phenolics, 607
Nitrosamines, 426 physterols, 607
Nixtamal, 239, 511 phytic acid, 608
in production of corn and tortilla chips, 367 policosanols, 616
Nixtamal washer, 246 soluble, 608
Nixtamalization, 27, 239 tocopherols, 615–616
calcium of lime and, 585 in wheat, 21
key ingredients for, 241 xanthophylls, 607, 614–615
process, 552 Nutritional labeling, 527, 588–589
products of, 552–557 Nutritional quality control, 527
Nonalcoholic beer, 432
Noncalcium phosphate, 292 O
Noodles
alkali, 509, 597 Oat(s), 7, 24, 66–67
Cantonese, 320, 509 amino acid content, 96
color, 509 for animal feed, 630
elasticity, 509 amino acids in, 649
functionality tests, 509 crude fiber in, 649
Hokkien, 509 crude protein in, 649
instant, 509 detergent fiber in, 649, 654
nutritional and chemical composition, 599 dry matter in, 649
oriental, 210, 597 energy values for, 652, 654
functionality tests, 509 fat in, 649
rice, 320 minerals in, 649
wheat, 210, 320–321 nutrient composition of, 649
Cantonese, 320 vitamins in, 649
egg solids in, 320 black, 70
flowchart of industrial processes for caryopsis, 48 (See also Caryopsis)
production of, 321 aleurone layer, 119
Hokkien, 320 awns, 119
instant, 321 husked, 119
Ramen, 320 protein bodies in, 119
sheeting and cutting, 320 starch granule, 119
waxy, 320 ventral crease, 119
white salted, 320 characteristics and adaptation, 11
Wonton, 320 chemical composition, 217
Yakisoba, 320 chromosome number, 11
yellow alkaline, 320 commercial classification in U. S., 70
Index 729
crude fiber in, 82 prevention, 284

cytogenetic origin, 11 Ochratest, 465
dry-milled fraction, chemical composition Ochratoxin, 163, 167
of, 217 Octacosanol, 609, 616
for equines, 638 Ogi, 540–541
fat content, 82 Oils, 364
fatty acid content, 99 Oleic acid, 98, 99, 575
flaked, 215–217, 331–333 Opaque beers, 418, 419, 560
manufacture of regular and quick maize, 560
cooking, 332 millet, 560
food uses, 30–31 production of, 443–444
gray, 70 lactic-acid-producing bacteria in, 443
hulls sorghum malt in, 443
for animal feed, 651 wort fermentation in, 444
amino acids in, 651 sorghum, 560, 561
crude fiber in, 651 Open cooking vessel, 246
crude protein in, 651 Open vats, 244, 366
detergent fiber in, 651 OPP. See Oriented polypropylene (OPP)
dry matter in, 651 Oriental noodles, 210, 597
energy values for, 653 functionality tests, 509
fat in, 651 rice, 322
minerals in, 651 wheat, 210, 320–321
nutrient composition of, 651 Cantonese, 320
vitamins in, 651
egg solids in, 320
chemical composition of, 217
flowchart of industrial processes for
inflorescence, 16
production of, 321
milling
Hokkien, 320
dry, 212–216
instant, 321
cleaning in, 212
Ramen, 320
dehulling in, 212–213
sheeting and cutting, 320
equipment used in, 214, 215, 216
waxy, 320
flaking in, 213, 215
white salted, 320
flowchart of, 213
thermal treatments in, 212 Wonton, 320
minerals in, 82, 105 Yakisoba, 320
mixed, 70 yellow alkaline, 320
NFE, 82 Oriented polypropylene (OPP), 303
production statistics, 2 coextruded heat-sealable, 389
protein content, 82 metallized, 389
red, 70 PVdC-coated, 389
rolled, 213, 331–333, 340 Oryzanol, 613
manufacture of regular and quick Oryzin, 94
cooking, 332 Osteoporosis, 589
in muesli products, 341 Oud bruin, 431
scientific name, 11 Ovary structure, 111
starch granule, 8 Ovary wall, 110
U. S. grades and grade requirements for, 70 Oven(s)
vitamin content, 105 for baking cookies, 302
white, 70 flat-band, 330
Oat bran muffins, nutritional value and chemical rotary toasting, 330
composition, 595 three-tier gas-fired, 371
Oat dehuller rotary granulator, 215 for tortillas, 371
Oat flaking mill, 216 Oven spring, 271
Oatmeal cookies, nutritional and chemical Overweight, 567
composition, 593 Ovule, 110
Obesity, 4, 575, 589 Oxidative rancidity, 146
childhood, 567 Oxidative stress, 566, 609
730 Index
P functionality tests, 508–509

laminated, 316–318
Packaging long, 316
bread, 272 nutritional and chemical composition, 599
breakfast cereal, 330–331, 352–353 packaging, 319
cookies, 330–331, 352–353 precooked microwaveable, 319
fresh masa, 250 production, 317
microwaveable, 389 from semolina, 316–320
pasta, 319 sheeted-formed, 316
popcorn, 389 short, 316
snack, 388–389 specks, 509
tortilla, 250 strength and flexibility, 509
Packaging, for cookies, 303 texture, 509
Paddy rice, 7, 45 water uptake, 509
for animal feed, 630 Pasteurization, flash, 441
caryopsis, 47 (See also Caryopsis) Patent flour, 207
crude fiber in, 82 Pathogenic bacteria, 527
fat content, 82 PCB. See Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)
minerals in, 82 PCR. See Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
NFE, 82 PE-coated paperboard, 389
protein content, 82 Pearl millet, 25
Pale beer, 430, 431 amino acid content, 96
Palea, 109, 115 for animal feed, 649
Palm oil, 364 amino acids in, 649
Palmitic acid, 98, 99, 575 crude fiber in, 649
Palmitoleic acid, 99 crude protein in, 649
Pan bread, 210, 278–281 detergent fiber in, 649
baking systems, 278 dry matter in, 649
continuous, 278 fat in, 649
liquid fermentation, 280 minerals in, 649
sponge-dough, 278, 280, 281 nutrient composition of, 649
straight-dough, 278, 279–280 vitamins in, 649
Pancakes, nutritional value and chemical carbohydrate content, 89
composition, 595 caryopsis, 48 (See also Caryopsis)
Pancreatic amylases, 574 aleurone layer, 119
Panicles, 8, 110 naked, 119
Pantothenic acid, 104, 105 protein bodies in, 119
Panuchos, 554 starch granule, 119
Paper coating, 401 characteristics and adaptation, 11
Papusas, 554 chromosome number, 11
Parboiling, 586 crude fiber in, 83
in rice milling, 200–201 cytogenetic origin, 11
Particle size, 475 dietary fiber, 89
Pasta(s), 316–320, 597 fat content, 83
cold extrusion, 318 fatty acid content, 99
color, 509 in flat bread, 549
cooking characteristics, 509 goiters and, 618
drying, 318–319 inflorescence, 17
equilibration phase of, 319 minerals in, 83, 105
high-temperature regime, 319 NFE, 83
egg products in, 316 protein content, 83
extruded, 316, 318 protein fractions, 93
flowchart of industrial processes for scientific name, 11
production, 317 vitamin content, 105
fresh, 316 Pectins, 90, 575
precooked and, 319–320 Pellagra, 571, 584
shelf-life of, 319 Pellet(s), 348
Index 731
bulk density, 381 for swine feed, 637

crumbling, 662 Phosphorus oxychloride, 401
crushed, 662 Photosynthesis, 113
drying process, 348 Physterols, 607
equilibration, 349 Phytases, 124, 125, 586
extruded, 379–382 Phytates, 616
flat, 379 Phytic acid, 104, 105, 124, 580, 608
gun-puffed, 347, 348 bodies, 113, 124
oat-based, 347 chemical structure, 106
production, 379–382 physiological function, 102
baking in, 381 Phytin, 102
drying process in, 381 Phytosterols, 97, 98, 100, 566, 575
frying in, 381 Pide, 277
ring, 379 Piki, 553, 557
screw, 379 Pilsner beer, 439
shapes, 379 Pilsner beer(s), 430, 435
shell, 379 Pimes, 554
tube, 379 Pinole, 553
wheel, 379 Pita bread, 274, 276–277, 551
Pelleting, 661–662 ingredients, 275
machine, 661 nutritional and chemical composition, 592
Pelshenke test, 488, 489, 490 Pitiki, 536
Pemoles, 554 Pito, 560
Penetrometer, 512 Pizza crusts, 210
Penicillum spp., 162, 268, 548 Pizza dough, 288–289
Penicillum verrucosum, 167 bake to rise crust, 288
Pentosans, 88, 89, 90, 575 formulas, 289
Peptide hydrolases, 124 frozen, 288
Peracetic acid, 400 take and bake, 289
Perforated floors, 426 Plansifter, 189, 203
Pericarp, 8, 117–118, 230, 659 Plant breeding, 573
chemical components, 116 Plasma analyses, 516
function, 116 Platelet aggregation, 616
microstructure, 117 Poison baits, 173
Pericarp removal test, 511 Polar nuclei, 110
Pernicious anemia, 571 Polarized filters, 482
pH, 585 Polenta, 539
Phenolic(s), 242, 566, 607, 609–612 Policosanols, 97, 100, 566, 609, 616
chemical structure, 610 Polishing, in rice milling, 195–197
Phenology, 158 Pollen grain, 111
Phenylalanine, 94, 95, 96, 579 Pollen tube, 111
chemical structure, 97 Pollination, 110–114
Pheromones, 162 Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), 527
Phosphatydil choline, 608 Polyethylene, 303
Phosphatydil ethanolamine, 608 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 464, 469, 472
Phosphatydil inositol, 608 Polypropylene (PP)
Phosphatydil serine, 608 metallized, 389
Phosphine gas, 160 oriented, 303, 389
Phospholipases A1, 123, 146 PVdC-coated, 389
Phospholipases A2, 123, 146 Polyvinyl dichloroethylene, 303
Phospholipids, 98, 566, 575, 597, 612 Pononha, 538
in egg yolks, 293–294 Popcorn, 28, 71, 82, 357–363, 536
Phosphoric acid, 364 air popped, 603
Phosphorus, 102, 104, 105, 124, 580 batch coating, 361
in animal feed, 649, 650, 651 butterfly configuration, 71, 360
for equine feed, 639 caramel-coated, 362
recommended daily allowance, 583 carbohydrate content, 88
732 Index
cheese flavored, 362 Post, C. W., 329

configurations, 71, 360 Postharvest losses, 4, 6
continuous coating, 361 Pot stills, 451, 453
dietary fiber, 88 Potassium, 104, 105, 582
endosperm texture, 357 for equine feed, 639
fatty acid content, 99 recommended daily allowance, 583
flavored, 361 Potassium bromate, 207, 267, 290
functionality tests, 516–517 Potassium chloride, 265
parameters for, 516–517 Potassium permanganate, 400
damaged kernels, 517 Potassium sorbate, 268
dockage, 516–517 Potato starch, 400
expansion volume, 517 Poultry, 630, 632–634
foreign material, 516–517 broilers, 633
moisture, 516–517 finisher, 633
test weight, 516–517 grower, 633
thousand kernel weight, 517 nutrient requirements for, 634
unpopped kernels, 517 starter, 633
kernel, 536 digestive system and digestion, 630, 632–633
color, 358 ceca, 632
damage, 358 cloacae, 630
density, 357 crop, 630
large yellow, 358 duodenum, 633
length, 357 foregut, 630
small yellow, 358 gizzard, 630
sphericity, 357 proventriculus, 630
thickness, 357 small intestine, 632
unpopped, 358, 363 eggs, 630
volume, 357 layers, 633
white, 358 nutrient requirements for, 634
width, 357 meat, 630
microwavable, 362–363 nutrient requirements, 633–634
expansion volume of, 362 cysteine, 634
packaging of, 389 lysine, 634
percentage of unpopped kernels in, 363 methionine, 634
mushroom configuration, 71, 360 minerals, 634
nutritional and chemical composition, 603 protein, 634
oil popped, 603 tryptophan, 634
pericarp thickness, 357 vitamins, 634
physical properties, 357 per capita consumption, 630
post-harvest management of corn for, Pound cake, nutritional value and chemical
358–359 composition, 595
snack classification, 356 Pozol, 553, 557
sugar-coated, 362 Pozole, 553
test weight, 357 PP. See Polypropylene (PP)
thousand kernel weight, 357 Preservatives, 243
Popper(s), 360 for yeast-leavened products, 268
dry, 360 Pressure flaking, 664
rotary wire drum, 360 Pressurometer, 500
steel auger, 360 Pretzels, 356, 382
Popping, 662–663 hard, 385–388
Popsorghum, 536 coarse salted, 388
Population growth, 4 flake salted, 388
Pork rinds, 356 manufacturing process for production
Pork skins, 379 of, 386
Porridges, 540–542 baking in, 388
fermented, 557 formulations commonly used for, 387
Porter beer, 431 lye cooking in, 387
Index 733
parameters for quality control biological value, 578

falling number, 517 bypass, 657
moisture, 517 classification, 92
protein, 517 denaturation, 660
starch damage, 517 digestibility, 578, 579, 660
wet or dry gluten, 517 for equine food, 639
sodium hydroxide bath for, 517 malnutrition, 34
laboratory procedure, 520 net utilization values, 578
soft, 277–278 for poultry feed, 634
ingredients, 275 quality, 565, 578
nutritional and chemical composition, 592 RDI values, 590
wheat-based, nutritional and chemical for swine feed, 637
composition, 603 Protein bodies, 112, 113, 116, 119, 120, 358
Prime starch, 229 Protein matrix, 113, 121, 358
Prolamin, 94 Protein matrix disruption, 664
Proline, 95, 96 Proteolytic enzymes, 124, 162, 226, 437
Proofing, 265 Provitamin A, 3, 67, 565, 584
Propionate, 243 Proximate composition, 81–84
Propionic acid, 641 Prussic acid, 617
Proplastids, 113 Puffed wheat, 602
Propylene glycol, 304 Puffing, 664
Proso millet, 25 Puffing gun, 337
amino acid content, 96 Puffs, cheese flavor, 603
for animal feed, 649 Puffs, wheel-shaped, 356
amino acids in, 649 Pullulanase, 124, 404, 406, 524
crude fiber in, 649 bacterial, 406
crude protein in, 649 fungal, 406
detergent fiber in, 649 syrup, 409
dry matter in, 649 Purifier, 203, 206, 207
energy values for, 652 Purifiers, 189
fat in, 649 Puto, 548
minerals in, 649 Pycnometer, 464, 469, 470, 520, 524
nutrient composition of, 649 Pyrethrins, 159
vitamins in, 649 Pyridoxine, 103, 104, 105
carbohydrate content, 89 Pyrolic gases, 144
caryopsis, 48 (See also Caryopsis)
aleurone layer, 120 Q
naked, 120
protein bodies in, 120 QPM. See Quality protein maize (QPM)
starch granule, 120 Quadrumat Jr., 473
characteristics and adaptation, 11 Quadrumat Sr., 473, 479
chromosome number, 11 Quality protein maize (QPM), 28, 71
crude fiber in, 83 advantage, 34
cytogenetic origin, 11 breeding programs, 34
dietary fiber, 89 products with high-yielding, 253
fat content, 83 Quern stone mills, 178
fatty acid content, 99 Quesadillas, 553
inflorescence, 18
minerals in, 83, 105 R
NFE, 83
protein content, 83 Ragi millet. See Finger millet
protein fractions, 93 Raisin Bran™, 601
scientific name, 11 Ramen noodles, 320
vitamin content, 105 Rapid visco analyzer (RVA), 486, 510, 514
Protease(s), 266, 586 Rauchbier, 431
for koji production, 562 Reciprocating slicers, 272
Protein(s), 82, 83, 92–97, 578–579 Red flour beetle, 156, 158
734 Index
Red flour weevil, 151 flowchart for, 29

Reductases, 570 functionality tests, 509–510
Reduction roller mill, 203 genetically modified, 74
Regular grits, 189 golden, 3, 38, 74, 565
Retinene reductase, 572 grain elongation, 510
Retinoaldehyde, 570 grits, 429
Retinol, 100, 570 gun-puffing, 337
Retinol binding protein, 570 hulls, 200, 657
Retrogradation, 81, 243, 266, 396, 403 for animal feed, 651
Revolving tumbler, 381 amino acids in, 651
Rheofermentomenter, 499 crude fiber in, 651
Riboflavin, 103, 104, 105, 582 crude protein in, 651
Rice, 12, 21. See also Brown rice; White rice detergent fiber in, 651
alkaline spreading ratio, 510 dry matter in, 651
alkaline value, 510 energy values for, 653
amylograph test, 510 fat in, 651
amylose content, 510 minerals in, 651
analogs, 536–537 nutrient composition of, 651
for animal feed vitamins in, 651
energy values for, 652, 654 husks, 654
black, 74 Indica, 21
bran, 195, 197, 200, 657 inflorescence, 13
nutritional value, 659 Japonica, 21
bran, with germ Javanica, 21
for animal feed, 651 long, 28, 54, 55, 56
amino acids in, 651 medium, 28, 54, 55, 56
crude fiber in, 651 milling, 26, 177
crude protein in, 651 by-products of, 657
detergent fiber in, 651, 654 dry, 193–201
dry matter in, 651 flowchart of, 196
energy values for, 651, 653 laboratory, 473, 474
fat in, 651 wet, 230–231
minerals in, 651 flowchart of, 231
nutrient composition of, 651 minerals in, 82
vitamins in, 651 miso, 542
broken, 334 NFE, 82
caloric intake, 35 noodle, 322
carbohydrate content, 88 oven-puffed, 336
caryopsis, 119 (See also Caryopsis) paddy, 2, 7
aleurone layer, 119 paella, 74
husked, 119 physical properties, 45
protein bodies in, 119 polished white, 560
starch granule, 119 for animal feed, 649
characteristics and adaptation, 10 amino acids in, 649
chromosome number, 10 crude fiber in, 649
classification and grading system, 52–57 crude protein in, 649
consumption, 35 detergent fiber in, 649
cooking in excess water, 510 dry matter in, 649
crude fiber in, 82 fat in, 649
cytogenetic origin, 10 minerals in, 649
drying, 193–194 nutrient composition of, 649
fat content, 82 vitamins in, 649
fixed amount of water, 510 properties and functionalities of regular and
flakes, 334–335 specialty, 73–74
manufacture of, 333 protein fractions, 93
in flat breads, 548 protein intake, 36
food uses, 28–29 purple, 74
Index 735
red, 74 calcium, 643, 645

for sake, 445 net energy of maintenance, 643
scientific name, 10 phosphorus, 643, 645
screenings, 657 protein, 643, 645
second head, 334 rumensin supplementation, 642
short, 28, 54, 56 bypass protein, 641
starch, 8, 400 carbohydrate digestion and energy utilization,
granule, 8, 119 641–642
sun drying, 193 dairy cattle, 645, 648
U. S. grades and grade requirements, 54, 55, growing females
56 nutrient requirements for, 646
water absorption index, 510 growing males
waxy, 396 nutrient requirements for, 646
waxy genotypes, 113 male breeding bulls
white belly, 53 nutrient requirements for, 646
Rice dryers, 194 nutrient requirements for, 645, 646, 648
Rice flour, 550 digestive system and digestion, 640–642
Rice Krispies™, 601 abomasum, 640
Rice milling. See Rice, milling omasum, 640
Rice oil, 197 reticulum, 640
Rice polishing, 196, 199 rumen, 640
Rice weevil, 151, 155 bacterial protein generated in, 641
Rodent(s), 170–173 fermentation in, 642
control, 172 nutrient requirements, 642–648
Rodent contamination, 527 for beef cattle, 642–645
Rodent excreta, 475 protein digestion and utilization, 641
Rodent hairs, 466, 475 rumen, 638, 640
Rodent-proof storage facilities, 172 volatile fatty acids as energy source, 640, 641
Rodenticide, 173 Rusty grain beetle, 152
Roll-flaked grain, 662 RVA. See Rapid visco analyzer (RVA)
Roll milling, 203, 207, 251 Rye, 7, 23
Rollability techniques, 515 amino acid content, 96
Rollability test, 514 for animal feed, 630, 649
Rolled oats, 215 amino acids in, 649
Roller mills, 436, 660 crude fiber in, 649
Roof rat, 171 crude protein in, 649
Rootlets, 424 detergent fiber in, 649
Rotap, 475, 515 dry matter in, 649
Rotary cutters, 297 energy values for, 652, 654
Rotary drums, 426 fat in, 649
Rotary granulators, 213, 331 minerals in, 649
Rotary oven, continuous, 336 nutrient composition of, 649
Rotary toasting oven, 330 vitamins in, 649
Rotating drums, 425 Canadian grades and grade requirements for,
Rotating grading cylinder, 197 68–69
Rotating pressure cookers, 334 carbohydrate content, 89
Rotating puffing gun, 349 caryopsis, 47 (See also Caryopsis)
Roti, 542, 545 aleurone layer, 119
Rubber roll huller, 195, 198 awns, 119
Ruminants, 638, 640–648 naked, 119
abomasums, 640 starch granule, 119
beef cattle ventral crease, 119
feedlot, 642 characteristics and adaptation, 11
finishing diet, 642 chromosome number, 11
growing diet, 642 classification and grading, 66
monensin supplementation, 644 crude fiber in, 82
nutrient requirements for, 642–645 cytogenetic origin, 11
736 Index
dietary fiber, 89 Sheet forming device, commercial, 247

fat content, 82 Shelf lives, 243
fatty acid content, 99 Shellers, 473, 478
food uses, 29 Shochu, 453
flowchart of, 30 Shortening/lard, 266
inflorescence, 15 Shorts, 208
milling, 211 Shredded wheat miniatures™, 602
minerals in, 82, 105 Shredding operation, 339
NFE, 82 Shredding rolls, 339
physical properties, 46 Shriveled kernels, 51–52
production statistics, 2 Shrunken kernels, 51–52
protein content, 82 Shubo, 445
protein fractions, 93 Sieves separators, 179, 180
scientific name, 11 Sifters, 137
U. S. grades and grade requirements for, 66 Sincronizadas, 553
vitamin content, 105 Sitosterol, 607
Rye bread, 592 β-Sitosterol, 99, 100, 613
Size separators, 179, 180
S Sizing(s), 203
Sizing and classification, in rice milling, 197,
Saccharomyces cereviceae, 450, 452 199–200
Saddle stones, 178 Slicers, 272
Saint Anthony’s fire, 23 Slow-rotating cylindrical screen, 426
Sake, 445–447, 560–562 Snack(s), 600, 604
production, 445, 446 coextruded, 356
flow chart for, 446 direct expanded, 374
raw materials for, 445 extruded, 374–382, 603
starter mash for, 445 instruments for quality control
types of, 447 amylograph, 517
Salbutes, 555 parameters for quality control, 517, 521
Saliva, as source of starch degrading enzymes, acidity, 517
558 ash, 517
Salt, 265, 364 color, 517
Saltines, 311–314. See also Crackers density, 520
Saturated fat, RDI values, 590 fatty acid composition, 517
Sauces, 542 moisture, 517, 518
Sawtoothed grain beetle, 152, 156 oil content, 517
Schwarzbier beer, 430 particle-size distribution, 517
Scourer, 202, 204 stability, 517
Scurvy, 590 starch damage, 517
Scutellum, 8, 116, 122 refined grits, 517
Secalin, 94 first-generation, 355, 356
Second heads, 197 functionality tests, 520
Seed coat, 113, 117, 118 instruments for
Self-pollination, 8, 110 color meter, 519
Semiautomatic Experimental Buhler, 473 gas chromatography, 519
Semolina(s), 597 Goldfisch extractor, 518
drying, 317 hedonic preference test, 520
hydration, 317 hydraulic press, 518
mixing-forming, 317 Instron texturometer, 519
pastas, 316–320 NIRA, 518
Serine, 95, 96 Soxhlet extractor, 518
Sesame sticks, nutritional and chemical TAXT2 texturometer, 519
composition, 603 triangular tests, 519
Shallu, 536 Volhard method, 519
Shalu, 77 water activity meter, 519
Shawaya, 77 parameters for, 516–521
Index 737
active oxygen method, 519 detergent fiber in, 649

blistering or pillowing, 518 dry matter in, 649
color, 516, 519 energy values for, 654
flavor, 516 fat in, 649
flavorings, 516 minerals in, 649
hardness, 519 nutrient composition of, 649
hexanal content, 519 vitamins in, 649
moisture, 518 bird resistant, 654
oil content, 518 black, 77
salt content, 519 brown, 654
sensory evaluation, 519 caloric intake, 35
water activity, 519 carbohydrate content, 88
residual moisture, 516 caryopsis, 47, 114 (See also Caryopsis)
salt, 516 aleurone layer, 119
lime-cooked naked, 119
instruments for quality control protein bodies in, 119, 121
active oxygen stability, 521 starch granule, 119, 121
gas chromatography, 521 characteristics and adaptation, 10
hexanal, 521 chemical composition, 420
parameters for quality control chromosome number, 10
color, 521 classification and grading system, 64–66
crispness, 521 consumption, 35
moisture, 521 couscous, 538
oil, 521 crude fiber in, 82
peroxide value, 521 cytogenetic origin, 10
salt content, 521 dietary fiber, 88
texture, 521 dry
nutritional and chemical composition, 603 milling, 216–220
packaging, 388–389 classification in, 220
second-generation, 355, 356 cleaning in, 217
third-generation, 356, 374 decortication in, 218–219
flavored, 380 flow chart of, 217
production of, 379–382 fractions from, 220
wheat-based, 382–388, 603 dry-milled fractions, chemical composition
Sodium, 104, 105 of, 220
RDI values, 590 drying, 421
recommended daily allowance, 583 early harvested, 658
Sodium acid pyrophosphate, 292 endosperm, 77, 121
Sodium aluminum phosphate, 292 ethanol from, 457
Sodium aluminum sulfate, 292 fat content, 82
Sodium benzoate, 268 fatty acid content, 99
Sodium bicarbonate, 292 in flat breads, 547, 549
Sodium hydroxide wash, 385 food uses, 31, 32
Sodium-stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL), 243 germination, 421
Soft drinks, 409 grits, waxy, 443
Solar drying, 138 high-lysine, 77, 93, 95, 573, 654
Someviki, 557 high-tannin, 585
Sonification, 161–162 inflorescence, 15
Sopes, 554 lager beer, 443
Sorbates, 243 lemon, 77
Sorghum, 7, 22–23 malt, 419, 421
amino acid content, 95 chemical composition, 420
β-amylase activity, 421 production of, 421
for animal feed, 630 malt, in production of opaque beer, 444
amino acids in, 649 milling, 421
crude fiber in, 649 dry
crude protein in, 649 laboratory, 474, 477, 480
738 Index
wet, 234–235 Sponge baking procedures, 505

laboratory, 474 Sponge cake, 211, 303, 305, 306
minerals in, 82, 104 nutritional value and chemical composition,
NFE, 82 595
nutraceutical potential, 611 Spray cooking, 396, 397
parboiled, 537 Sprouted kernels, 51
pericarp, 77, 117 Sprouting, 584
physical properties, 46 nutritional value and, 586
popping, 77 SSL. See Sodium-stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL)
production statistics, 2 St. Anthony’s Fire, 170
protein content, 82 Staling, 243, 290–291
protein fractions, 93 amylose and, 290
protein intake, 36 starch retrogradation and, 290
roti, 543 Starch(es), 81, 88, 395, 429, 574
scientific name, 10 acetate derivative, 399
specialty, 76–77 acetylated, 401
starch availability, 655 acid-treated, 397, 400
steam-flaked, 459 as confectionary items, 397
for animal feed as fillings, 397
amino acids in, 649 properties of, 398
crude fiber in, 649 birefringence, loss of, 510
crude protein in, 649 bleached, 398, 400–401
detergent fiber in, 649 chemical properties, 482–486
dry matter in, 649 cross-bonded, 400, 401
energy values for, 652 as thickeners in canning industry, 401
fat in, 649 damage, 263, 482
minerals in, 649 derivatized and substituted, 401–402
nutrient composition of, 649 dextrinized, 397, 398, 400
vitamins in, 649 digestibility, 655
steeping, 421 distarch adipate, 399
tannin, 23, 654 distarch phosphate, 399
Type I, 77 enzyme resistant, 574
Type II, 77 enzyme-susceptible, 510
Type III, 77 esterified, 401
type III, 648 gelatinization, 660, 664
U. S. grades and grade requirements for, 65 granule, 117, 119, 120, 358
vitamin content, 104 compound, 8, 113
waxy, 77, 396, 648 enzyme degradation of, 124
yellow, 77 simple, 8
Sour bread, fermented, 545–550 high-amylose, 230, 315
Sourdough bread, 284–285 hydroxyethyl, 399
ingredients, 283 hydroxypropylated, 399
Soxhlet apparatus, 476 maize, 230, 400
Soxhlet extractor, 518 acetylated, 400
Soy sauce, process for making, 543 waxy, 400
Soybean, miso, 542 modification
Soybean oil, 364 chemical, 397, 400–402
Sparging, 438 properties associated with, 398, 399
Special K™, 601 ester forming, 397
Specks, 475 ether forming, 397
Spelt wheat, 21, 75 hydrolytic, 397
Spent grains, 438, 449, 451, 457 oxidative, 397
brewers, 648, 650, 657 physical, 396–397
Spent hops, 438 properties associated with, 398, 399
Spherosomes, 112, 118, 124 modified, 315, 396–402
Spikes, 8, 110, 261, 537 orthophosphate and, 402
Spindle mixer, 312 oxidative, 398
Index 739
oxidized, 315, 400–401 in production of corn and tortilla chips,

pasting, 400, 516 366–367
phosphate ester substitution, 402 in production of fresh mesa and tortillas,
phosphated, 398 244–248
physical properties, 482–486 in rice wet milling, 230–231
polarimetric quantification, 482 sorghum and, 423
potato, 400 Sticks, fabricated, 356
pregelatinized, 398 Stigmasterol, 99, 607, 613
pregelatinzed, 315, 396 Stone grinder, commercial, 246
properties, 235–236 Stone milling, bulgur, 261
viscoamylograph for, 236, 397 Stone mills, 177, 660
quality Storage, 358
chemical tests for, 483–484 changes during
functionality tests for, 484–485 in carbohydrates, 145
parameters for assessing, 483–485 in lipids, 145–146
amylose and amylopectin content, 483 in nitrogenous compounds, 145
ash content, 483 cold, 161
color, 483 controlled atmosphere, 140, 142
gel rigidity and strength, 485 dry matter losses, 145
gelatinization, 484, 486 facilities, 143–144
moisture, 483 flat or horizontal, 140
protein content, 483 grain elevators, 140
resistant starch, 484 ground piling, 139–140, 141
shear thinning, 484 management, 133–139
grading in, 135–136
starch content, 483
grain cleaning in, 137
starch damage, 484
grain drying in, 138–139
sulfite content, 483
sampling in, 133–135
sulfur dioxide, 483
unloading in, 136–137
thermal analysis, 485
weighing in, 136
viscosity, 484
types of, 139–142
regular, 230
underground, 140
resistant, 402–403, 594, 604–606, 635
upright silos for, 140
classification of, 606
Stouts, 429, 431
defined, 605 Straight-grade flour, 207
type I, 402 Streptococcus thermophilus, 284
type II, 402 Stress cracks, 194, 201, 358, 465, 471
type III, 403 Stricnin, 173
retrogradation, 266, 403, 516 Style, 111
staling and, 290 Sucrose, 87
rice, 400 Sugar(s)
succinated, 399, 402 RDI values, 590
as thickeners, 396 soluble, 88
waxy, 230, 396, 400 Sugar wafers, nutritional and chemical
wheat, 232, 400 composition, 593
Starch synthase, 114 Sulfite, 527
Steam-flaking, 663–664 Sulfur dioxide, 226
Steam-jacketed kettles, 245 Sun drying, 193
Steaming, 332, 538 Sunflower oil, 364
Stearic acid, 99, 575 Sweet breads, 285–288
Stearoyl-2 sodium lactylate, 267 croissants, 285, 287
Steatorrhea, 619 Danish pastries, 286, 287
Steel columns, 453 donuts, 287–288
Steep liquor, 226, 230, 656 sweet rolls, 286, 287
Steeping, 226, 424 Sweet stout, 431
in barley malting, 422 Sweet wort, 438
gibberellic acid synthesis in, 424 Sweet yeast-fermented goods, 210
740 Index
Sweetener(s), 395, 404. See also Syrup(s) high-fructose maize, 28, 395, 403, 408,
functionality tests, 522 410–411
for yeast-leavened products, 265 production of, 412
Swine, 634–636 ion-exchange technologies, 403
animal feed, 652, 653 low-DE, 407
digestible energy, 637 maltodextrins, 407, 408
digestive system and digestion, 635–636 maltose, 407, 408, 409
bile acids, 635 as brewing adjuncts, 429
cholecystokinin, 636 production of, 409, 410
chylomicrons, 636 production, 403–407, 409, 410, 411, 412
enzymes in acid-enzyme hydrolysis in, 403, 404
amylases, 635 enzyme conversion in, 404–407
chymotrypsin, 635 pullulanase, 409
endopeptidases, 635 refining and evaporation, 412–413
lipases, 635, 636 as thickening agents, 407
lipoprotein lipases, 636 types, 407–412
pepsin, 635
phospholipases, 636 T
trypsin, 635
zymogens, 635 T-2 toxin, 169
secretin, 636 Table tortillas, 239
finisher, 636 manufacture of
grower, 636 equipment used for, 246–247
commercial stone grinder, 246
metabolize energy, 637
cooling rack, 247
nutrient requirements, 636
extruding forming tortilla head, 247
calcium, 637
nixtamal washer, 246
folacin, 637
open cooking vessel, 246
iron, 637
sheet forming device, 247
lysine, 637
three-tier tortilla baking oven, 247
methionine and cysteine, 637
flow chart of industrial processes for,
niacin, 637
240, 245
phosphorus, 637
Taco(s), 553
protein, 637 Taco baskets, 366, 370
thiamin, 637 Taco shells, 240, 363, 366, 370, 554
vitamin A, 637 TADD. See Tangential abrasive dehulling device
vitamin B6, 637 (TADD)
vitamin B12, 637 Talla, 560
zinc, 637 Tamales, 553, 557
starter, 635–636 from blue maize, 557
Syneresis, 396 Tandoor oven, 277
Synthetic stones, 367 Tandyr, 551
Syrup(s), 395 Tangential abrasive dehulling device (TADD),
composition and properties, 408 219, 464, 469, 471
functionality tests Tannins, 609, 617
instruments for, 522 condensed, 23, 607, 610
parameters for, 522 Tanoor, 551
Baume measurement, 522 Tartaric acid, 293
color, 522 TAXT2 compression test, 512
dextrose equivalent, 522 TAXT2 texturometer, 519
pH, 522 Tef millet, 25
refractive index, 522 amino acid content, 96
viscosity, 522 caryopsis, 49 (See also Caryopsis)
glucose, 408, 409 aleurone layer, 120
as brewing adjuncts, 429 naked, 120
production of, 409, 411 protein bodies in, 120
uses of, 409 starch granule, 120
Index 741
characteristics and adaptation, 11 Tocotrienol(s), 98, 100, 613

chromosome number, 11 α-Tocotrienol, 615
crude fiber in, 83 Tokutei meisho-shu saki, 447
cytogenetic origin, 11 Tortilla(s), 28, 552, 553, 555–556
fat content, 83 baskets, 372
in flat bread, 548 conically shaped, 372
inflorescence, 20 industrial production, 244–250
minerals in, 83, 105 cooling and packaging in, 250
NFE, 83 flow chart for, 240
protein content, 83 forming and baking in, 249
scientific name, 11 lime-cooking and steeping in, 244–245,
vitamin content, 105 248
Tempering, 184 nixtamal washing in, 248
flowchart, 184 stone grinding in, 248–249
in wheat milling, 202–203 lap-folded, 372
Teosinte, 9, 12, 110 maize, 594, 596–597
Tesguino, 559–560 nutritional value and chemical
Test weight, 44, 49 composition, 596
Test weight meters, 135 protein quality of, 578, 594
Testa, 113, 116, 117, 118 nutritional value and chemical composition,
Tetrazolium test, 472 596
Texture analyzer, 513, 515 traditional preparation, 557
Texture profile analysis (TPA), 513, 515 triticale flour, 311
Texture tests, 513 wheat flour, 308–311
Texturometer, 508 appearance of, 508
Thermal treatments, in oat milling, 212–213 diameter of, 508
Thermoplastic extruder, 374 dietary fiber, 597
Thermoplastic extrusion, 342 firmness of, 508
direct expanded, 342 formulas for elaboration of regular and,
half-products, 342 310
pellets, 342 functionality tests for, 508
Thiamine, 104, 105, 570, 582 manufacture of, 308
chemical structure, 103 flow chart of, 309
Thioamide, 618 hand-stretch, 308
Three-tier tortilla baking oven, 247 hot-press, 308
Threonine, 95, 96, 579 nutritional value and chemical
chemical structure, 97 composition, 596
Thymidine kinase, 572 protein digestibility, 597
Thyroid hormones, 573 rollability of, 508
Thyroxine, 573, 618 texture of, 508
Ting, 541 thickness of, 508
Tip cap, 113 weight of, 508
Tlacoyos, 554 Tortilla chip(s), 28, 239, 356
Tô, 539 baked, 373
acidic, 539 blue maize, 373
alkaline, 539 fried, 373
decorticated, 539 low-fat, 373–374
neutral, 539 nutritional and chemical composition, 603
Toasted Oatmeal™, 601 production, 366, 370–374
Toasting, 663 baking in, 371
Tobi Holoch, 554 cooling-equilibration in, 371–372
Tocols, 613 draining and washing in, 367
Tocopherol(s), 97, 98, 100, 104, 105, 584, 609, flow chart of industrial processes for,
615–616 240, 370
in alkaline-cooked maize products, 364 frying in, 372
α-Tocopherol, 615 grinding in, 367–368
β-Tocopherol, 615 kneading-mixing in, 371
742 Index
lime-cooking and steeping in, 366–367 NFE, 83

quenching in, 367 physical properties, 46
seasoning in, 373 production statistics, 2
sheeting-forming in, 371 protein content, 83
worldwide, 363 protein fractions, 93
restaurant-styled, 370–371 scientific name, 11
toasted, 373 for tortillas, 311
Tortilla soup, 555 vitamin content, 105
Tostadas, 240, 363, 366, 370, 372, 554 Trix™, 602
TPA. See Texture profile analysis (TPA) Trub, 438
Traditional food from milled fractions, 537–539 Tryptophan, 94, 95, 96, 565, 579, 580
Traditional milling, 178–179 in animal feed, 649, 650, 651
Trans fat, 591 chemical structure, 97
RDI values, 590 in poultry feed, 634
Transaminases, 269 Tube nucleus, 111
Traps, 173 Turbidity, 441
Tri-iodothyronine, 618 Turning, 142
Triacontanol, 616 Tyrosine, 94, 95, 96
Triangular tests, 519
Trichosporum cutaneum, 557 U
Trichothecenes, 165
Tricontanol, 609 Uji, 541
Tricotecenes, 169 Universal Dockage test meter, 135
Trieur, 197
Triglycerides, 98, 575 V
Trimetaphosphate, 401
Triticale, 24 Vacuum evaporators, 413
amino acid content, 96 Valine, 94, 95, 96, 579
for animal feed, 630, 649 chemical structure, 97
amino acids in, 649 Ventilation, 142–143
crude fiber in, 649 Vertical closed cooker, 366
crude protein in, 649 Vertical conical stone, 195
detergent fiber in, 649 Vertical cookers, 245, 246
dry matter in, 649 Vertical dryers, 426
energy values for, 652 Viscoamylograph, 476, 484, 487, 510, 512, 516
fat in, 649 stages of measurement, 486
minerals in, 649 cold temperature hold, 486
nutrient composition of, 649 hot temperature hold, 486
vitamins in, 649 temperature decrease, 486
carbohydrate content, 89 temperature increase, 486
caryopsis, 48 (See also Caryopsis) for starch properties, 236, 397
aleurone layer, 119 Viscosimeter, 484
awns, 119 Viscosity, 484
naked, 119 Vital gluten, 290, 472
starch granule, 119 meal, 232
ventral crease, 119 for yeast-leavened products, 266–267
characteristics and adaptation, 11 Vitamin(s), 104, 105, 582, 583, 584
chromosome number, 11 in animal feed, 649, 650
crude fiber in, 83 deficiencies, 569–571
cytogenetic origin, 11 enrichment, 244
dietary fiber, 89 for poultry feed, 634
fat content, 83 recommended daily allowances, 583
food uses, 29 Vitamin A, 99
flowchart of, 30 deficiency, 569
inflorescence, 16 blindness and, 569, 570
milling, 211 corneal degeneration and, 570
minerals in, 83, 105 diets based solely on cereals and, 34
Index 743
hyperkeratinization and, 570 Volhard method, 519

keratomalacia and, 570 Vomitoxin, 165, 169
xerophthalmia and, 569
for equine feed, 639 W
RDI values, 590
recommended daily allowance, 583 Wafers, 211
susceptibility to light, oxygen, heat and trace Waffles, nutritional value and chemical
metals, 587 composition, 595
Vitamin B, 242, 566, 570–571 Washing
Vitamin B1, 570 in commercial processes, 367
in animal feed, 649, 650, 651 equipment, 367
recommended daily allowance, 583 lowboy system, 367
susceptibility to light, oxygen, heat and trace Water
metals, 587 dough absorption of, 262
Vitamin B2 in European beer, 435
in animal feed, 649, 650, 651 for nixtalmalization, 242
recommended daily allowance, 583 for yeast-leavened products, 263
susceptibility to light, oxygen, heat and trace Water activity meter, 519
metals, 587 Water mills, 179
Vitamin B3, 570 Waxed glassine, 352
Vitamin B6 Waxes, 97
recommended daily allowance, 583 Waxy cereals, 84
susceptibility to light, oxygen, heat and trace Waxy genotypes, 113, 396
metals, 587 Waxy maize, 28
for swine feed, 637 Waxy starches, 113, 396
Vitamin B12, 570 Weathered kernels, 51
recommended daily allowance, 583 Weizenbier beers, 421, 431, 443
susceptibility to light, oxygen, heat and trace Wet masa, particle-size distribution of, 515
metals, 587 Wet milling, 27
for swine feed, 637 laboratory, 480, 484
Vitamin C SO2, 480
RDI values, 590 products
recommended daily allowance, 583 ash content of, 475
susceptibility to light, oxygen, heat and trace color of, 475
metals, 587 fat content of, 476
Vitamin D gluten content of, 477
recommended daily allowance, 583 instruments for controlling quality of,
susceptibility to light, oxygen, heat and trace 475, 476
metals, 587 moisture in, 475
Vitamin E particle size of, 475
in animal feed, 649, 650, 651 pasting properties of, 472
recommended daily allowance, 583 protein content of, 476
susceptibility to light, oxygen, heat and trace quality control of, 472, 474, 475, 476, 477
metals, 587 starch content of, 476
Vitamin K tests for quality of, 472, 475, 476, 477,
recommended daily allowance, 583 480, 484
susceptibility to light, oxygen, heat and trace Wheat, 7, 21–22
metals, 587 all purpose, food uses for, 260
Vodka, 448 amino acid content, 95
clear, 452 animal feed, 630
flavored, 452 Australian classification according to
production of, 452–453 properties and gluten function, 62
distillation in, 453 bran
fermentation in, 452 for animal feed, 638, 651
malting in, 452 amino acids in, 651
mashing in, 452 crude fiber in, 651
rectification in, 453 crude protein in, 651
744 Index
detergent fiber in, 651 detergent fiber in, 649

dry matter in, 651 dry matter in, 649
energy values for, 653 energy values for, 652
fat in, 651 fat in, 649
minerals in, 651 minerals in, 649
nutrient composition of, 651 nutrient composition of, 649
vitamins in, 651 vitamins in, 649
for equines, 638 fatty acid content, 99
bread, nutritional and chemical composition, food uses for, 260
592 minerals in, 104
caloric intake, 35 protein fractions, 93
Canada prairie spring red, 60 tempering of, 203
Canada western hard white spring, 60 vitamin content, 104
Canada western red spring, 60 hard red spring, 57, 58, 209
Canada western red winter, 60 hard red winter, 57, 58, 209
Canadian classification according to inflorescence, 14
properties and gluten function, 60 malt, 421
carbohydrate content, 88 chemical composition, 420
caryopsis, 47, 119 (See also Caryopsis) middlings
aleurone layer, 119 for animal feed, 651, 656
awns, 119 amino acids in, 651
naked, 119 crude fiber in, 651
starch granule, 119 crude protein in, 651
ventral crease, 119 detergent fiber in, 651
characteristics and adaptation, 10 dry matter in, 651
chemical composition, 420 energy values for, 653
chemical composition of different classes fat in, 651
of, 209 minerals in, 651
chlorinated, 260 nutrient composition of, 651
chromosome number, 10 vitamins in, 651
classification, 29 shorts, 651
grading system and, 57–61 mill run, 653
in Australia, 61 milling, 26
in Canada, 60–61 dry, 201–211
in United States, 57–60 by-products from, 656
club, 57, 338 cleaning in, 201–202
consumption, 35 equipment commonly used in,
crude fiber in, 82 204–206
cytogenetic origin, 10 flowchart of, 202
decorticated, 259 laboratory, 473, 474, 477
dietary fiber, 88 tempering in, 202–203
durum (See Durum wheat) wet, 30, 232–234
early-harvested, 261 acid (SO2) process in, 234
einkorn, 21, 75 alfa laval raiso system in, 234
Emmer, 21, 75, 537 Fesca process in, 233
ethanol from, 457 Martin process in, 232, 233
fat content, 82 minerals in, 82
fatty acid content, 99 naked, 21
flakes, 333, 335 NFE, 82
food uses, flowchart of, 30 noodle, 62, 320–321
general purpose, 62 nutraceuticals in, 21
gun-puffing, 337 patent, 260
hard, 57, 62, 82 physical properties, 45
for animal feed, 649 pounded, 259, 535–536
amino acids in, 649 premium white, 62
crude fiber in, 649 prime hard, 62
crude protein in, 649 production statistics, 2
Index 745
protein content, 82 Wheat dough

protein intake, 36 rheological properties
puffed, 340 dough development time, 494
red, 57 dough extensibility, 490
red dog dough stability, 490
for animal feed, 656 elasticity, 490
amino acids in, 651 functionality tests for, 490–496
crude fiber in, 651 gluten strength, 490
crude protein in, 651 mixing time, 490
detergent fiber in, 651 water absorption, 490, 492
dry matter in, 651 Wheat flour(s), 550. See also Flour(s)
fat in, 651 functionality tests, 488–500
minerals in, 651 rheological properties
nutrient composition of, 651 functionality tests for
vitamins in, 651 alveograph, 494–495, 496
scientific name, 10 extensigraph, 492, 493
screenings, 656 farinograph, 491, 492
shorts mixograph, 493–494, 495
for animal feed, 656 mixolab, 495, 497
amino acids in, 651 Pelshenke, 488, 489
crude fiber in, 651 Zeleny, 488, 489, 490
crude protein in, 651 tortillas, 210
detergent fiber in, 651 Wheat scourer, 204
dry matter in, 651 Wheaties™, 601
energy values for, 653 Whiskey, 447–452
fat in, 651 Bourbon, 448
minerals in, 651 green, 451
nutrient composition of, 651 Irish, 448
vitamins in, 651 nutritional and chemical composition, 605
shredded, 338–340 production of, 447
manufacture of, 338, 339 aging in, 451–452
extruded, 338 carbohydrates in, 449
traditional, 338 dextrins in, 449
sugar frosted, 339 distillation and aging in, 451–452
soft, 57, 82 distillation in, 451
fatty acid content, 99 enzymes in, 449
food uses for, 260 fermentation in, 450–451
protein fractions, 93 flowchart for, 450
tempering of, 203 grits in, 449
soft red winter, 57, 58, 209 kilning in, 449
specialty, 74–75 malting in, 447–448
spelt, 21, 75 mashing in, 449
spring, 57 pot stills in, 447
standard white, 62 pressure cooking in, 449
starch, 400 transformation of raw materials in, 451
granule, 119 rye, 448
straight grade, 260 Scotch grain, 448
U. S. classification according to properties Scotch malt, 48, 447
and gluten function, 59 Tennessee, 448
U. S. grades and grade requirements, 58 wheat, 448
vitamin content, 103 White belly, 53
waxy, 74, 75, 396 White cake, nutritional value and chemical
waxy genotypes, 113 composition, 595
white, 57 White pan breads, 589
white-soft, 338 White rice, 45
winter, 57 amino acid content, 95
Wheat- milling, 177 carbohydrate content, 88
746 Index
crude fiber in, 82 crackers, 210

dietary fiber, 88 uses, 259–261
fat content, 82 Widgets, 441
fatty acid content, 99 Wild oats, 67
minerals in, 82, 103 Winchester bushel meter, 49, 135, 464, 469
NFE, 82 Windmills, 179
protein content, 82 Wines, low, 451
protein fractions, 93 Winnowing, 178
vitamin content, 103 Wire cutters, 301
Whiteners, 196, 199, 473, 478 Wonton noodles, 320, 597
Whole breads, 589 World malnutrition, 567–573
Whole grain(s), 34, 566, 575 Wort
density, 464, 470 carbohydrate composition, 439
apparent, 470 fermentable sugars in, 439
true, 470 nonfermentable sugars in, 439
extruded, 378–379 density, 440
quality functionality tests
instruments for controlling, 464–465 instruments for
AACC method 76-30A, 465 attenuation limit, 525
aflatest, 465 Bittering Unit analysis, 525
automatic seed counter, 464, 468 colorimetry, 525
black light test, 465 HPLC-RI, 525
Boerner divider, 467 pycnometer, 524
dockage test meter, 464, 466, 468 parameters for, 524–525
Fumonitest, 465 alpha amino oxygen, 524
grain cleaner, 468 color, 524
grain moisture tester, 467 density, 524
grain viewer, 464, 465 extract yield, 524
NIRA, 464, 465, 467 fermentable sugars, 524
Ochratest, 465 filtration time, 525
PCR, 464, 469 free amino oxygen, 524
pycnometer, 464, 469, 470, 520, 524 pH, 524
TADD, 464, 469, 471 ratio between dextrins and
Winchester bushel meter, 465, 469 carbohydrates, 525
parameters for assessing, 463–472 soluble solids, 524
breakage susceptibility, 471 turbidity, 525
broken kernels, 464 viscosity, 524
density, 464, 470 pitching, 439
endosperm texture, 464 in whiskey production, 449
floaters, 464
flotation test, 470 X
foreign material, 464, 466, 470
genetically modified, 472 Xanthophylls, 98, 100, 293, 566, 607, 614
germ viability, 471–472 in gluten meal, 656
GMO maize, 464 in pasta, 316
grain hardness, 471 Xerophthalmia, 569
hardness, 464 Xylanases, 125, 127, 269
heat-damaged kernels, 465
insect and mold damage, 465 Y
moisture, 463, 464, 466
mycotoxins, 465 Yakisoba noodles, 320
protein content, 465 Yeast, 263–265
starch damage, 465 biomass, 456
stress cracks, 465, 471 bottom, 435, 439
test weight, 464 budding, 263, 439, 451, 456
thousand kernel weight, 464, 470 chemical composition of compressed,
Whole wheat, 210, 266, 537 263–264
Index 747
chemical composition of fresh compressed, preservatives for, 268

263 salt for, 265
compressed-fresh, 264 shortening/lard for, 266
dehydrated, 264 sweeteners for, 265
dry, 270 vital gluten for, 266–267
in European beer, 435 water for, 263
fermentation, 265 wheat breads, 550–552
optimum proofing conditions, 499 whole breads, 210
tests, 496–500 yeast food for, 268–269
fermentograph, 497, 498 yeast for, 263–265
gasograph, 499–500 Yellow cornmeal, 315
maturograph, 497, 498, 499 Yellow mealworm, 153, 156
pressurometer, 500 Yufka, 277
rheofermentometer, 499
fresh, 264 Z
industrial production of, 264
for saki, 445 Zeaxanthin, 100, 584, 607, 614
top, 435, 439 Zeins, 94, 360
for yeast-leavened products, 263–265 Zeleny test, 488, 489, 490
Yeast food, 268–269 Zeralenol, 164
Yeast-leavened products, 261–291 Zeralenone, 164, 169
antimold agents for, 268 Zinc, 102, 104, 105
diastatic malt for, 266 in animal feed, 649, 650, 651
dough for (See Dough) enzymes and, 572–573
dried milk for, 266 recommended daily allowance, 583
enzymes for, 269 supplementation, 573
fermentation and, 270–271 for swine feed, 637
flour for, 262–263 (See also Flour) wound healing and, 572
gums for, 268 Zinc oxide, 573
oxidizing agents for, 267–268

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Cereal Grains

Cereal Grains: Properties, Processing, and Nutritional Attributes

Water Properties of Food, Pharmaceutical, and Biological Materials

Food Science and Food Biotechnology

Transport Phenomena in Food Processing

Unit Operations in Food Engineering

Engineering and Food for the 21st Century

Osmotic Dehydration and Vacuum Impregnation: Applications

Pulsed Electric Fields in Food Processing: Fundamental Aspects

Trends in Food Engineering

Innovations in Food Processing

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

© 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-8209-2 (eBook - PDF)

and the CRC Press Web site at

Chapter 1 Cereal Grains: The Staff of Life...........................................................1

Chapter 2 Physical Properties, Grading, and Specialty Grains........................... 43

Chapter 3 Chemical Composition of Cereal Grains............................................ 81

Chapter 4 Grain Development, Morphology, and Structure.............................. 109

4.3 Morphology and Structure of the Mature Grain.................... 114

Chapter 5 Storage of Cereal Grains................................................................... 129

Chapter 6 Grain Storage Pests........................................................................... 149

Chapter 7 Dry-Milling Operations.................................................................... 177

7.6.1 Cleaning.................................................................... 201

Chapter 8 Wet-Milling Operations.................................................................... 225

Chapter 9 Milling of Maize into Lime-Cooked Products................................. 239

9.2.1 Maize Kernels........................................................... 241

Chapter 10 Manufacturing of Bakery Products................................................... 259

10.3.2 Dough Mixing........................................................... 269

10.7.3.4 Muffins and Biscuits................................306

Chapter 11 Manufacturing of Breakfast Cereals................................................. 329

Chapter 12 Manufacturing of Cereal-Based Snacks............................................ 355

Chapter 13 Industrial Production of Modified Starches and Syrups................... 395

14.3.2 Steeping..................................................................... 424

Chapter 15 Quality Control of Cereal Grains and Their Products...................... 463

15.2 Quality of Whole Grains........................................................ 463

15.6.4 Cakes......................................................................... 508

Chapter 16 Production of Cereal-Based Traditional Foods................................. 535

16.4.2 Fermented Sour Gruels and Porridges......................540

Chapter 17 Role of Cereals in Human Nutrition and Health............................... 565

17.2.3 Mineral Deficiencies................................................. 571

17.11.3 Cyanogenic Glycosides............................................. 617

Chapter 18 Cereals as Feedstuffs for Animal Nutrition...................................... 629

• History, domestication, and general food uses of cereal grains

Consequently, this book is of special interest for students interested in obtaining a

Dr. Norman E. Borlaug

Dr. Sergio O. Serna-Saldivar

Table 2.21 Properties and Functionalities of Regular and Specialty

Table 10.1 Typical Formulas for the Elaboration of Chinese Steamed,

Table 14.7 Types of Cereal-Based Distilled Alcoholic Beverages...................448

Table 17.12 Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Selected Yeast and

Figure 3.7 Chemical structure of B-vitamins found in cereal grains.............. 103

Figure 7.9 Equipment commonly used in wheat-milling operations...............204

Figure 10.8 General flowchart of the hot-press, hand-stretch, or die-cut

Figure 12.5 Flowchart of the manufacturing process of regular tortilla

Figure 15.4 Experimental assays commonly employed to assess gluten

Figure 17.1 Progressive clinical manifestations of children affected by

1.2 Cereal Production versus Population Growth

Direct Feed Uses Direct Feed Uses Industrial Processing

lanceolated leaves, and an inflorescence that could be a spike or panicle (Stoskopf

1. C3 plants that form three-carbon compounds via the Calvin–Benson meta-

Wheat _ Rye _