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M. B. Patil
mbpatil@ee.iitb.ac.in
www.ee.iitb.ac.in/~sequel
R2
Vi
R1
Vo
RL
Vo = AV (V+ − V− ) (1)
R2 R1
V− = Vi + Vo (2)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Feedback: inverting amplifier
R2
Vi
R1
Vo
RL
Vo = AV (V+ − V− ) (1)
R2 R1
V− = Vi + Vo (2)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Vi ↑ → V− ↑ → Vo ↓ → V− ↓
Eq. 2 Eq. 1 Eq. 2
Feedback: inverting amplifier
R2
Vi
R1
Vo
RL
Vo = AV (V+ − V− ) (1)
R2 R1
V− = Vi + Vo (2)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Vi ↑ → V− ↑ → Vo ↓ → V− ↓
Eq. 2 Eq. 1 Eq. 2
The circuit reaches a stable equilibrium.
Feedback: inverting amplifier
R2 R2
Vi Vi
R1 R1
Vo Vo
RL RL
Vo = AV (V+ − V− ) (1)
R2 R1
V− = Vi + Vo (2)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Vi ↑ → V− ↑ → Vo ↓ → V− ↓
Eq. 2 Eq. 1 Eq. 2
The circuit reaches a stable equilibrium.
Feedback: inverting amplifier
R2 R2
Vi Vi
R1 R1
Vo Vo
RL RL
R2 R1
Vo = AV (V+ − V− ) (1) V+ = Vi + Vo (3)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Since the Op Amp has a high input resistance,
iR1 = iR2 , and we get,
R2 R1
V− = Vi + Vo (2)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Vi ↑ → V− ↑ → Vo ↓ → V− ↓
Eq. 2 Eq. 1 Eq. 2
The circuit reaches a stable equilibrium.
Feedback: inverting amplifier
R2 R2
Vi Vi
R1 R1
Vo Vo
RL RL
R2 R1
Vo = AV (V+ − V− ) (1) V+ = Vi + Vo (3)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Since the Op Amp has a high input resistance,
Vi ↑ → V+ ↑ → Vo ↑ → V+ ↑
iR1 = iR2 , and we get,
Eq. 3 Eq. 1 Eq. 3
R2 R1
V− = Vi + Vo (2)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Vi ↑ → V− ↑ → Vo ↓ → V− ↓
Eq. 2 Eq. 1 Eq. 2
The circuit reaches a stable equilibrium.
Feedback: inverting amplifier
R2 R2
Vi Vi
R1 R1
Vo Vo
RL RL
R2 R1
Vo = AV (V+ − V− ) (1) V+ = Vi + Vo (3)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Since the Op Amp has a high input resistance,
Vi ↑ → V+ ↑ → Vo ↑ → V+ ↑
iR1 = iR2 , and we get,
Eq. 3 Eq. 1 Eq. 3
R2 R1
V− = Vi + Vo (2) We now have a positive feedback situation.
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
As a result, Vo rises (or falls) indefinitely,
Vi ↑ → V− ↑ → Vo ↓ → V− ↓ limited finally by saturation.
Eq. 2 Eq. 1 Eq. 2
The circuit reaches a stable equilibrium.
R2
R1
Vo
Vi
RL
Vo = AV (V+ − V− ) (1)
R1
V− = Vo (2)
R1 + R2
Feedback: non-inverting amplifier
R2
R1
Vo
Vi
RL
Vo = AV (V+ − V− ) (1)
R1
V− = Vo (2)
R1 + R2
Vi ↑ → Vo ↑ → V− ↑ → Vo ↓
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 1
Feedback: non-inverting amplifier
R2
R1
Vo
Vi
RL
Vo = AV (V+ − V− ) (1)
R1
V− = Vo (2)
R1 + R2
Vi ↑ → Vo ↑ → V− ↑ → Vo ↓
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 1
The circuit reaches a stable equilibrium.
Feedback: non-inverting amplifier
R2 R2
R1 R1
Vo Vo
Vi Vi
RL RL
Vo = AV (V+ − V− ) (1)
R1
V− = Vo (2)
R1 + R2
Vi ↑ → Vo ↑ → V− ↑ → Vo ↓
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 1
The circuit reaches a stable equilibrium.
Feedback: non-inverting amplifier
R2 R2
R1 R1
Vo Vo
Vi Vi
RL RL
R1
Vo = AV (V+ − V− ) (1) V+ = Vo (3)
R1 + R2
Since the Op Amp has a high input resistance,
iR1 = iR2 , and we get,
R1
V− = Vo (2)
R1 + R2
Vi ↑ → Vo ↑ → V− ↑ → Vo ↓
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 1
The circuit reaches a stable equilibrium.
Feedback: non-inverting amplifier
R2 R2
R1 R1
Vo Vo
Vi Vi
RL RL
R1
Vo = AV (V+ − V− ) (1) V+ = Vo (3)
R1 + R2
Since the Op Amp has a high input resistance,
Vi ↑ → Vo ↓ → V+ ↓ → Vo ↓
iR1 = iR2 , and we get,
Eq. 1 Eq. 3 Eq. 1
R1
V− = Vo (2)
R1 + R2
Vi ↑ → Vo ↑ → V− ↑ → Vo ↓
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 1
The circuit reaches a stable equilibrium.
Feedback: non-inverting amplifier
R2 R2
R1 R1
Vo Vo
Vi Vi
RL RL
R1
Vo = AV (V+ − V− ) (1) V+ = Vo (3)
R1 + R2
Since the Op Amp has a high input resistance,
Vi ↑ → Vo ↓ → V+ ↓ → Vo ↓
iR1 = iR2 , and we get,
Eq. 1 Eq. 3 Eq. 1
R1
V− = Vo (2) We now have a positive feedback situation.
R1 + R2
As a result, Vo rises (or falls) indefinitely,
Vi ↑ → Vo ↑ → V− ↑ → Vo ↓ limited finally by saturation.
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 1
The circuit reaches a stable equilibrium.
R2 R2
Vi
R1 R1
Vo Vo
Vi
RL RL
R2 R2
Vi
R1 R1
Vo Vo
Vi
RL RL
R2 R2
Vi
R1 R1
Vo Vo
Vi
RL RL
R2 R2
Vi
R1 R1
Vo Vo
Vi
RL RL
9k
R2
1k
R1 Vo
Vi
RL
Vsat = 10 V
Because of positive feedback, Vo can only be +Vsat (if V+ > V− ) or −Vsat (if V+ < V− ).
Inverting Schmitt trigger
9k
R2
1k
R1 Vo
Vi
RL
Vsat = 10 V
Because of positive feedback, Vo can only be +Vsat (if V+ > V− ) or −Vsat (if V+ < V− ).
Consider Vi = 5 V .
Inverting Schmitt trigger
9k
R2
1k
R1 Vo
Vi
RL
Vsat = 10 V
Because of positive feedback, Vo can only be +Vsat (if V+ > V− ) or −Vsat (if V+ < V− ).
Consider Vi = 5 V .
R1 1k
Case (i): Vo = +Vsat = +10 V → V+ = Vo = 10 V = 1 V .
R1 + R2 1k + 9k
(V+ − V− ) = (1 − 5) = −4 V → Vo = −Vsat .
Inverting Schmitt trigger
9k
R2
1k
R1 Vo
Vi
RL
Vsat = 10 V
Because of positive feedback, Vo can only be +Vsat (if V+ > V− ) or −Vsat (if V+ < V− ).
Consider Vi = 5 V .
R1 1k
Case (i): Vo = +Vsat = +10 V → V+ = Vo = 10 V = 1 V .
R1 + R2 1k + 9k
(V+ − V− ) = (1 − 5) = −4 V → Vo = −Vsat .
This is inconsistent with our assumption (Vo = +Vsat ).
Inverting Schmitt trigger
9k
R2
1k
R1 Vo
Vi
RL
Vsat = 10 V
Because of positive feedback, Vo can only be +Vsat (if V+ > V− ) or −Vsat (if V+ < V− ).
Consider Vi = 5 V .
R1 1k
Case (i): Vo = +Vsat = +10 V → V+ = Vo = 10 V = 1 V .
R1 + R2 1k + 9k
(V+ − V− ) = (1 − 5) = −4 V → Vo = −Vsat .
This is inconsistent with our assumption (Vo = +Vsat ).
R1 1k
Case (ii): Vo = −Vsat = −10 V → V+ = Vo = × (−10 V) = −1 V .
R1 + R2 1k + 9k
(V+ − V− ) = (−1 − 5) = −6 V → Vo = −Vsat (consistent)
Inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
9k
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
V+
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V Vo
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Because of positive feedback, Vo can only be +Vsat (if V+ > V− ) or −Vsat (if V+ < V− ).
Consider Vi = 5 V .
R1 1k
Case (i): Vo = +Vsat = +10 V → V+ = Vo = 10 V = 1 V .
R1 + R2 1k + 9k
(V+ − V− ) = (1 − 5) = −4 V → Vo = −Vsat .
This is inconsistent with our assumption (Vo = +Vsat ).
R1 1k
Case (ii): Vo = −Vsat = −10 V → V+ = Vo = × (−10 V) = −1 V .
R1 + R2 1k + 9k
(V+ − V− ) = (−1 − 5) = −6 V → Vo = −Vsat (consistent)
Inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
9k
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
V+
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V Vo
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Because of positive feedback, Vo can only be +Vsat (if V+ > V− ) or −Vsat (if V+ < V− ).
Consider Vi = 5 V .
R1 1k
Case (i): Vo = +Vsat = +10 V → V+ = Vo = 10 V = 1 V .
R1 + R2 1k + 9k
(V+ − V− ) = (1 − 5) = −4 V → Vo = −Vsat .
This is inconsistent with our assumption (Vo = +Vsat ).
R1 1k
Case (ii): Vo = −Vsat = −10 V → V+ = Vo = × (−10 V) = −1 V .
R1 + R2 1k + 9k
(V+ − V− ) = (−1 − 5) = −6 V → Vo = −Vsat (consistent)
If we move to the right (increasing Vi ), the same situation applies, i.e., Vo = −Vsat .
Inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
9k
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
V+
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V Vo
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Because of positive feedback, Vo can only be +Vsat (if V+ > V− ) or −Vsat (if V+ < V− ).
Consider Vi = 5 V .
R1 1k
Case (i): Vo = +Vsat = +10 V → V+ = Vo = 10 V = 1 V .
R1 + R2 1k + 9k
(V+ − V− ) = (1 − 5) = −4 V → Vo = −Vsat .
This is inconsistent with our assumption (Vo = +Vsat ).
R1 1k
Case (ii): Vo = −Vsat = −10 V → V+ = Vo = × (−10 V) = −1 V .
R1 + R2 1k + 9k
(V+ − V− ) = (−1 − 5) = −6 V → Vo = −Vsat (consistent)
If we move to the right (increasing Vi ), the same situation applies, i.e., Vo = −Vsat .
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
9k
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
V+
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V Vo
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
9k
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
V+
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V Vo
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
Inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
9k
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
V+
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V Vo
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R1 1k
V+ = Vo = (−Vsat ) = −1 V .
R1 + R2 10 k
Inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
9k
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
V+
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V Vo
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R1 1k
V+ = Vo = (−Vsat ) = −1 V .
R1 + R2 10 k
As long as Vi = V− > V+ = −1 V , Vo remains at −Vsat .
Inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
9k
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
V+
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V Vo
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R1 1k
V+ = Vo = (−Vsat ) = −1 V .
R1 + R2 10 k
As long as Vi = V− > V+ = −1 V , Vo remains at −Vsat .
Inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
9k
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
V+
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V Vo
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R1 1k
V+ = Vo = (−Vsat ) = −1 V .
R1 + R2 10 k
As long as Vi = V− > V+ = −1 V , Vo remains at −Vsat .
When Vi < V+ = −1 V , Vo changes sign, i.e., Vo = +Vsat .
Inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
9k
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
V+
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V Vo
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R1 1k
V+ = Vo = (−Vsat ) = −1 V .
R1 + R2 10 k
As long as Vi = V− > V+ = −1 V , Vo remains at −Vsat .
When Vi < V+ = −1 V , Vo changes sign, i.e., Vo = +Vsat .
Inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
9k
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
V+
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V Vo
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R1 1k
V+ = Vo = (−Vsat ) = −1 V .
R1 + R2 10 k
As long as Vi = V− > V+ = −1 V , Vo remains at −Vsat .
When Vi < V+ = −1 V , Vo changes sign, i.e., Vo = +Vsat .
R1
V+ now becomes (+Vsat ) = +1 V .
R1 + R2
Inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
9k
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
V+
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V Vo
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R1 1k
V+ = Vo = (−Vsat ) = −1 V .
R1 + R2 10 k
As long as Vi = V− > V+ = −1 V , Vo remains at −Vsat .
When Vi < V+ = −1 V , Vo changes sign, i.e., Vo = +Vsat .
R1
V+ now becomes (+Vsat ) = +1 V .
R1 + R2
Decreasing Vi further makes no difference to Vo (since Vi = V− < V+ = +1 V holds).
Inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
9k
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
V+
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V Vo
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R1 1k
V+ = Vo = (−Vsat ) = −1 V .
R1 + R2 10 k
As long as Vi = V− > V+ = −1 V , Vo remains at −Vsat .
When Vi < V+ = −1 V , Vo changes sign, i.e., Vo = +Vsat .
R1
V+ now becomes (+Vsat ) = +1 V .
R1 + R2
Decreasing Vi further makes no difference to Vo (since Vi = V− < V+ = +1 V holds).
Inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
9k
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
V+
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V Vo
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R1 1k
V+ = Vo = (−Vsat ) = −1 V .
R1 + R2 10 k
As long as Vi = V− > V+ = −1 V , Vo remains at −Vsat .
When Vi < V+ = −1 V , Vo changes sign, i.e., Vo = +Vsat .
R1
V+ now becomes (+Vsat ) = +1 V .
R1 + R2
Decreasing Vi further makes no difference to Vo (since Vi = V− < V+ = +1 V holds).
10 Vsat
9k
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
V+
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V Vo
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R1 1k
V+ = Vo = (−Vsat ) = −1 V .
R1 + R2 10 k
As long as Vi = V− > V+ = −1 V , Vo remains at −Vsat .
When Vi < V+ = −1 V , Vo changes sign, i.e., Vo = +Vsat .
R1
V+ now becomes (+Vsat ) = +1 V .
R1 + R2
Decreasing Vi further makes no difference to Vo (since Vi = V− < V+ = +1 V holds).
10 Vsat
9k Vo
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
−10 −5 0 5 10
Vi (V)
10 Vsat
9k Vo
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
−10 −5 0 5 10
Vi (V)
R1
* The threshold values (or “tripping points”), VTH and VTL , are given by ± Vsat .
R1 + R2
10 Vsat
9k Vo
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
−10 −5 0 5 10
Vi (V)
R1
* The threshold values (or “tripping points”), VTH and VTL , are given by ± Vsat .
R1 + R2
* The tripping point (whether VTH or VTL ) depends on where we are on the Vo axis. In that sense, the
circuit has a memory.
10 Vsat
9k Vo
R2 5
1k
R1 0
Vo
Vi
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
−10 −5 0 5 10
Vi (V)
R1
* The threshold values (or “tripping points”), VTH and VTL , are given by ± Vsat .
R1 + R2
* The tripping point (whether VTH or VTL ) depends on where we are on the Vo axis. In that sense, the
circuit has a memory.
* ∆VT = VTH − VTL is called the “hysteresis width.”
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
9k
R2
1k
Vi
R1 Vo
RL
Vsat = 10 V
Because of positive feedback, Vo can only be +Vsat (for V+ > V− ) or −Vsat (for V+ < V− ).
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
9k
R2
1k
Vi
R1 Vo
RL
Vsat = 10 V
Because of positive feedback, Vo can only be +Vsat (for V+ > V− ) or −Vsat (for V+ < V− ).
Consider Vi = 5 V .
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
9k
R2
1k
Vi
R1 Vo
RL
Vsat = 10 V
Because of positive feedback, Vo can only be +Vsat (for V+ > V− ) or −Vsat (for V+ < V− ).
Consider Vi = 5 V .
Case (i): Vo = −Vsat = −10 V
R2 R1 9k 1k
→ V+ = Vi + Vo = ×5+ × (−10) = 4.5 − 1 = 3.5 V .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
(V+ − V− ) = (3.5 − 0) = 3.5 V → Vo = +Vsat .
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
9k
R2
1k
Vi
R1 Vo
RL
Vsat = 10 V
Because of positive feedback, Vo can only be +Vsat (for V+ > V− ) or −Vsat (for V+ < V− ).
Consider Vi = 5 V .
Case (i): Vo = −Vsat = −10 V
R2 R1 9k 1k
→ V+ = Vi + Vo = ×5+ × (−10) = 4.5 − 1 = 3.5 V .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
(V+ − V− ) = (3.5 − 0) = 3.5 V → Vo = +Vsat .
This is inconsistent with our assumption (Vo = −Vsat ).
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
Vo
9k
5 V+
R2
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Because of positive feedback, Vo can only be +Vsat (for V+ > V− ) or −Vsat (for V+ < V− ).
Consider Vi = 5 V .
Case (i): Vo = −Vsat = −10 V
R2 R1 9k 1k
→ V+ = Vi + Vo = ×5+ × (−10) = 4.5 − 1 = 3.5 V .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
(V+ − V− ) = (3.5 − 0) = 3.5 V → Vo = +Vsat .
This is inconsistent with our assumption (Vo = −Vsat ).
9k 1k
Case (ii): Vo = +Vsat = +10 V → V+ = ×5+ × 10 = 4.5 + 1 = 5.5 V .
10 k 10 k
(V+ − V− ) = (5.5 − 0) = 5.5 V → Vo = +Vsat (consistent)
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
Vo
9k
5 V+
R2
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Because of positive feedback, Vo can only be +Vsat (for V+ > V− ) or −Vsat (for V+ < V− ).
Consider Vi = 5 V .
Case (i): Vo = −Vsat = −10 V
R2 R1 9k 1k
→ V+ = Vi + Vo = ×5+ × (−10) = 4.5 − 1 = 3.5 V .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
(V+ − V− ) = (3.5 − 0) = 3.5 V → Vo = +Vsat .
This is inconsistent with our assumption (Vo = −Vsat ).
9k 1k
Case (ii): Vo = +Vsat = +10 V → V+ = ×5+ × 10 = 4.5 + 1 = 5.5 V .
10 k 10 k
(V+ − V− ) = (5.5 − 0) = 5.5 V → Vo = +Vsat (consistent)
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
Vo
9k
5 V+
R2
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Because of positive feedback, Vo can only be +Vsat (for V+ > V− ) or −Vsat (for V+ < V− ).
Consider Vi = 5 V .
Case (i): Vo = −Vsat = −10 V
R2 R1 9k 1k
→ V+ = Vi + Vo = ×5+ × (−10) = 4.5 − 1 = 3.5 V .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
(V+ − V− ) = (3.5 − 0) = 3.5 V → Vo = +Vsat .
This is inconsistent with our assumption (Vo = −Vsat ).
9k 1k
Case (ii): Vo = +Vsat = +10 V → V+ = ×5+ × 10 = 4.5 + 1 = 5.5 V .
10 k 10 k
(V+ − V− ) = (5.5 − 0) = 5.5 V → Vo = +Vsat (consistent)
If we move to the right (increasing Vi ), the same situation applies, i.e., Vo = +Vsat .
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
Vo
9k
5 V+
R2
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Because of positive feedback, Vo can only be +Vsat (for V+ > V− ) or −Vsat (for V+ < V− ).
Consider Vi = 5 V .
Case (i): Vo = −Vsat = −10 V
R2 R1 9k 1k
→ V+ = Vi + Vo = ×5+ × (−10) = 4.5 − 1 = 3.5 V .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
(V+ − V− ) = (3.5 − 0) = 3.5 V → Vo = +Vsat .
This is inconsistent with our assumption (Vo = −Vsat ).
9k 1k
Case (ii): Vo = +Vsat = +10 V → V+ = ×5+ × 10 = 4.5 + 1 = 5.5 V .
10 k 10 k
(V+ − V− ) = (5.5 − 0) = 5.5 V → Vo = +Vsat (consistent)
If we move to the right (increasing Vi ), the same situation applies, i.e., Vo = +Vsat .
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
Vo
9k
5 V+
R2
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
Vo
9k
5 V+
R2
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
Vo
9k
5 V+
R2
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R2 R1 9k 1k
V+ = Vi + Vo = Vi + Vo .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
Vo
9k
5 V+
R2
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R2 R1 9k 1k
V+ = Vi + Vo = Vi + Vo .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
As long as V+ > 0 V , Vo remains at +Vsat .
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
Vo
9k
5 V+
R2
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R2 R1 9k 1k
V+ = Vi + Vo = Vi + Vo .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
As long as V+ > 0 V , Vo remains at +Vsat .
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
Vo
9k
5 V+
R2
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R2 R1 9k 1k
V+ = Vi + Vo = Vi + Vo .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
As long as V+ > 0 V , Vo remains at +Vsat .
R1 1k
When V+ = 0 V , i.e., Vi = − Vsat = − 10 V = −1.11 V , Vo changes sign, i.e., Vo becomes −Vsat .
R2 9k
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
Vo
9k
5 V+
R2
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R2 R1 9k 1k
V+ = Vi + Vo = Vi + Vo .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
As long as V+ > 0 V , Vo remains at +Vsat .
R1 1k
When V+ = 0 V , i.e., Vi = − Vsat = − 10 V = −1.11 V , Vo changes sign, i.e., Vo becomes −Vsat .
R2 9k
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
Vo
9k
5 V+
R2
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R2 R1 9k 1k
V+ = Vi + Vo = Vi + Vo .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
As long as V+ > 0 V , Vo remains at +Vsat .
R1 1k
When V+ = 0 V , i.e., Vi = − Vsat = − 10 V = −1.11 V , Vo changes sign, i.e., Vo becomes −Vsat .
R2 9k
R2 R1 9k 1k
V+ now follows the equation, V+ = Vi + Vo = Vi − Vsat .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
Vo
9k
5 V+
R2
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R2 R1 9k 1k
V+ = Vi + Vo = Vi + Vo .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
As long as V+ > 0 V , Vo remains at +Vsat .
R1 1k
When V+ = 0 V , i.e., Vi = − Vsat = − 10 V = −1.11 V , Vo changes sign, i.e., Vo becomes −Vsat .
R2 9k
R2 R1 9k 1k
V+ now follows the equation, V+ = Vi + Vo = Vi − Vsat .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
Decreasing Vi further makes no difference to Vo (since V+ remains negative).
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
Vo
9k
5 V+
R2
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R2 R1 9k 1k
V+ = Vi + Vo = Vi + Vo .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
As long as V+ > 0 V , Vo remains at +Vsat .
R1 1k
When V+ = 0 V , i.e., Vi = − Vsat = − 10 V = −1.11 V , Vo changes sign, i.e., Vo becomes −Vsat .
R2 9k
R2 R1 9k 1k
V+ now follows the equation, V+ = Vi + Vo = Vi − Vsat .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
Decreasing Vi further makes no difference to Vo (since V+ remains negative).
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
Vo
9k
5 V+
R2
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R2 R1 9k 1k
V+ = Vi + Vo = Vi + Vo .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
As long as V+ > 0 V , Vo remains at +Vsat .
R1 1k
When V+ = 0 V , i.e., Vi = − Vsat = − 10 V = −1.11 V , Vo changes sign, i.e., Vo becomes −Vsat .
R2 9k
R2 R1 9k 1k
V+ now follows the equation, V+ = Vi + Vo = Vi − Vsat .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
Decreasing Vi further makes no difference to Vo (since V+ remains negative).
R1
Now, the threshold at which Vo flips is V+ = 0, i.e., Vi = + Vsat = +1.11 V .
R2
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
10 Vsat
Vo
9k
5 V+
R2
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
Vi (V)
−10 −5 0 5 10
Consider decreasing values of Vi .
R2 R1 9k 1k
V+ = Vi + Vo = Vi + Vo .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
As long as V+ > 0 V , Vo remains at +Vsat .
R1 1k
When V+ = 0 V , i.e., Vi = − Vsat = − 10 V = −1.11 V , Vo changes sign, i.e., Vo becomes −Vsat .
R2 9k
R2 R1 9k 1k
V+ now follows the equation, V+ = Vi + Vo = Vi − Vsat .
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 10 k 10 k
Decreasing Vi further makes no difference to Vo (since V+ remains negative).
R1
Now, the threshold at which Vo flips is V+ = 0, i.e., Vi = + Vsat = +1.11 V .
R2
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
VTL VTH
10 Vsat
9k
Vo
R2 5
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
−10 −5 0 5 10
Vi (V)
10 Vsat
9k
Vo
R2 5
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
−10 −5 0 5 10
Vi (V)
R1
* The threshold values VTH and VTL are given by ± Vsat .
R2
10 Vsat
9k
Vo
R2 5
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
−10 −5 0 5 10
Vi (V)
R1
* The threshold values VTH and VTL are given by ± Vsat .
R2
* As in the inverting Schmitt trigger, this circuit has a memory, i.e., the tripping point (whether VTH or
VTL ) depends on where we are on the Vo axis.
10 Vsat
9k
Vo
R2 5
1k
Vi
R1 0
Vo
RL −5
Vsat = 10 V
−10 −Vsat
−10 −5 0 5 10
Vi (V)
R1
* The threshold values VTH and VTL are given by ± Vsat .
R2
* As in the inverting Schmitt trigger, this circuit has a memory, i.e., the tripping point (whether VTH or
VTL ) depends on where we are on the Vo axis.
* ∆VT = VTH − VTL is called the “hysteresis width.”
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Schmitt triggers Vo
Vsat Inverting
R2
R1 Vo Vo
Vi
VTL VTH Vi
Vi
RL
R1
VTH , VTL = ± Vsat
−Vsat R1 + R2
Vo
Vsat Non−inverting
R2
Vi
R1 Vo Vo
Vi
VTL VTH Vi
RL
R1
VTH , VTL = ± Vsat
−Vsat R2
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Comparators
Vo
+Vsat
V+
Vo (V+ − V− )
V−
−Vsat
Vo
+Vsat
V+
Vo (V+ − V− )
V−
−Vsat
Vo
+Vsat
V+
Vo (V+ − V− )
V−
−Vsat
Vo
+Vsat
V+
Vo (V+ − V− )
V−
−Vsat
Vi
Vi
Vo
Vsat
Vo
−Vsat
Vi
Vi
Vo
Vsat
Vo
−Vsat
A comparator can be used to convert an analog signal into a digital (high/low) signal for further processing with
digital circuits.
Vi
Vi
Vo
Vsat
Vo
−Vsat
A comparator can be used to convert an analog signal into a digital (high/low) signal for further processing with
digital circuits.
In practice, the input (analog) signal can have noise or electromagnetic pick-up superimposed on it. As a result,
erroneous operation of the circuit may result.
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Comparators
original
Vi
input
signal
t
Vi
Vo
Vsat
Vo
−Vsat
Comparators
original corrupted
Vi input
input
signal signal
t t
Vi
Vo
Vsat
Vo
t t
−Vsat
Comparators
original corrupted
Vi input
input expand
signal signal
t t
Vi
Vo
Vsat
Vo
t t
−Vsat
Comparators
t t t
Vi
Vo
Vsat
Vo
t t t
−Vsat
Comparators
t t t
Vi
Vo
Vsat
Vo
t t t
−Vsat
The comparator has produced multiple (spurious) transitions or “bounces,” referred to as “comparator chatter.”
Comparators
t t t
Vi
Vo
Vsat
Vo
t t t
−Vsat
The comparator has produced multiple (spurious) transitions or “bounces,” referred to as “comparator chatter.”
A Schmitt trigger can be used to eliminate the chatter.
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
corrupted
input Vi
signal
Vi Vo
Vsat
Vo
−Vsat
corrupted
input Vi
signal expand
Vi Vo
Vsat
Vo
−Vsat
corrupted expanded
input Vi view
signal expand
VTH
t t
VTL
Vi Vo
Vsat
Vo
t t
−Vsat
corrupted expanded
input Vi view
signal expand
VTH
t t
VTL
Vi Vo
Vsat
Vo
t t
−Vsat
* While going from positive to negative values, Vi needs to cross VTL (and not 0 V ) to cause a change in Vo .
Vi
corrupted expanded
input Vi view
signal expand
VTH
Vo
t t
VTL
Vsat
Vi Vo
−Vsat
Vsat
Vo
t t
−Vsat
* While going from positive to negative values, Vi needs to cross VTL (and not 0 V ) to cause a change in Vo .
Vo
t t
VTL
Vsat
Vi Vo
−Vsat
Vsat
Vo
t t
−Vsat
* While going from positive to negative values, Vi needs to cross VTL (and not 0 V ) to cause a change in Vo .
* In the reverse direction (negative to positive), Vi needs to cross VTH .
Vo
t t
VTL
Vsat
Vi Vo
−Vsat
Vsat
Vo
t t
−Vsat
* While going from positive to negative values, Vi needs to cross VTL (and not 0 V ) to cause a change in Vo .
* In the reverse direction (negative to positive), Vi needs to cross VTH .
* The circuit gets rid of spurious transitions, a major advantage over the simple comparator.
Vo
t t
VTL
Vsat
Vi Vo
−Vsat
Vsat
Vo
t t
−Vsat
* While going from positive to negative values, Vi needs to cross VTL (and not 0 V ) to cause a change in Vo .
* In the reverse direction (negative to positive), Vi needs to cross VTH .
* The circuit gets rid of spurious transitions, a major advantage over the simple comparator.
* The hysteresis width (VTH − VTL ) should be designed to be larger than the spurious excursions riding on Vi .
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Waveform generation using Schmitt triggers
Vo Vo
Non−inverting Schmitt trigger L+ Inverting Schmitt trigger L+
Vi Vo Vi Vo
VTL VTH Vi VTL VTH Vi
L− L−
Vo Vo
Non−inverting Schmitt trigger L+ Inverting Schmitt trigger L+
Vi Vo Vi Vo
VTL VTH Vi VTL VTH Vi
L− L−
Vo Vo
Non−inverting Schmitt trigger L+ Inverting Schmitt trigger L+
Vi Vo Vi Vo
VTL VTH Vi VTL VTH Vi
L− L−
Vo Vo
Non−inverting Schmitt trigger L+ Inverting Schmitt trigger L+
Vi Vo Vi Vo
VTL VTH Vi VTL VTH Vi
L− L−
Vo Vo
Non−inverting Schmitt trigger L+ Inverting Schmitt trigger L+
Vi Vo Vi Vo
VTL VTH Vi VTL VTH Vi
L− L−
6 Vo
Vo L+
Vi 4
RL 2
R
0
Vc C VTL VTH Vi
L+ = +5 V −2
L− = −5 V
−4
R = 2k VTH = +1 V
L−
C = 1 µF VTL = −1 V −6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t (msec)
Waveform generation using a Schmitt trigger
6 Vo
Vo L+
Vi 4
RL 2
R
0
Vc C VTL VTH Vi
L+ = +5 V −2
L− = −5 V
−4
R = 2k VTH = +1 V
L−
C = 1 µF VTL = −1 V −6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t (msec)
At t = 0, let Vo = L+ , and Vc = 0 V .
Waveform generation using a Schmitt trigger
6 Vo
Vo L+
Vi 4
RL 2
R
0
Vc C VTL VTH Vi
L+ = +5 V −2
L− = −5 V
−4
R = 2k VTH = +1 V
L−
C = 1 µF VTL = −1 V −6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t (msec)
At t = 0, let Vo = L+ , and Vc = 0 V .
Waveform generation using a Schmitt trigger
6 Vo
Vo L+
Vi 4
RL 2
R
0
Vc C VTL VTH Vi
L+ = +5 V −2
L− = −5 V
−4
R = 2k VTH = +1 V
L−
C = 1 µF VTL = −1 V −6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t (msec)
At t = 0, let Vo = L+ , and Vc = 0 V .
The capacitor starts charging toward L+ .
Waveform generation using a Schmitt trigger
6 Vo
Vo L+
Vi 4
RL 2
R
0
Vc C VTL VTH Vi
L+ = +5 V −2
L− = −5 V
−4
R = 2k VTH = +1 V
L−
C = 1 µF VTL = −1 V −6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t (msec)
At t = 0, let Vo = L+ , and Vc = 0 V .
The capacitor starts charging toward L+ .
Waveform generation using a Schmitt trigger
6 Vo
Vo L+
Vi 4
RL 2
R
0
Vc C VTL VTH Vi
L+ = +5 V −2
L− = −5 V
−4
R = 2k VTH = +1 V
L−
C = 1 µF VTL = −1 V −6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t (msec)
At t = 0, let Vo = L+ , and Vc = 0 V .
The capacitor starts charging toward L+ .
When Vc crosses VTH , the output flips. Now, the capacitor starts discharging toward L− .
Waveform generation using a Schmitt trigger
6 Vo
Vo L+
Vi 4
RL 2
R
0
Vc C VTL VTH Vi
L+ = +5 V −2
L− = −5 V
−4
R = 2k VTH = +1 V
L−
C = 1 µF VTL = −1 V −6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t (msec)
At t = 0, let Vo = L+ , and Vc = 0 V .
The capacitor starts charging toward L+ .
When Vc crosses VTH , the output flips. Now, the capacitor starts discharging toward L− .
Waveform generation using a Schmitt trigger
6 Vo
Vo L+
Vi 4
RL 2
R
0
Vc C VTL VTH Vi
L+ = +5 V −2
L− = −5 V
−4
R = 2k VTH = +1 V
L−
C = 1 µF VTL = −1 V −6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t (msec)
At t = 0, let Vo = L+ , and Vc = 0 V .
The capacitor starts charging toward L+ .
When Vc crosses VTH , the output flips. Now, the capacitor starts discharging toward L− .
When Vc crosses VTL , the output flips again → oscillations.
Waveform generation using a Schmitt trigger
6 Vo
Vo L+
Vi 4
RL 2
R
0
Vc C VTL VTH Vi
L+ = +5 V −2
L− = −5 V
−4
R = 2k VTH = +1 V
L−
C = 1 µF VTL = −1 V −6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t (msec)
At t = 0, let Vo = L+ , and Vc = 0 V .
The capacitor starts charging toward L+ .
When Vc crosses VTH , the output flips. Now, the capacitor starts discharging toward L− .
When Vc crosses VTL , the output flips again → oscillations.
Waveform generation using a Schmitt trigger
6 Vo
Vo L+
Vi 4
RL 2
R
0
Vc C VTL VTH Vi
L+ = +5 V −2
L− = −5 V
−4
R = 2k VTH = +1 V
L−
C = 1 µF VTL = −1 V −6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t (msec)
At t = 0, let Vo = L+ , and Vc = 0 V .
The capacitor starts charging toward L+ .
When Vc crosses VTH , the output flips. Now, the capacitor starts discharging toward L− .
When Vc crosses VTL , the output flips again → oscillations.
Note that the circuit oscillates on its own, i.e., without any input.
Q: Where is the energy coming from?
L+
T Vo
Vo
Vi
VTH Vc
RL
VTL t
R
Vc C
L−
0 t1 t2
L+
T Vo
Vo
Vi
VTH Vc
RL
VTL t
R
Vc C
L−
0 t1 t2
L+
T Vo
Vo
Vi
VTH Vc
RL
VTL t
R
Vc C
L−
0 t1 t2
L+
T Vo
Vo
Vi
VTH Vc
RL
VTL t
R
Vc C
L−
0 t1 t2
5
Vc Vc
0
−5
−10
−15
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
t (msec) t (msec)
Vo
Vi
RL
R
Vc C
5
Vc Vc
0
−5
−10
−15
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
t (msec) t (msec)
Vo
Vi
Note that Op-Amp 411 (slew rate: 10 V /µs) gives sharper waveforms as
RL compared to Op-Amp 741 (slew rate: 0.5 V /µs).
R
Vc C
5
Vc Vc
0
−5
−10
−15
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
t (msec) t (msec)
Vo
Vi
Note that Op-Amp 411 (slew rate: 10 V /µs) gives sharper waveforms as
RL compared to Op-Amp 741 (slew rate: 0.5 V /µs).
SEQUEL files: schmitt osc 741.sqproj, schmitt osc 411.sqproj
R
Vc C (Ref: J. M. Fiore, “Op-Amps and linear ICs”)
L− L−
L− L−
1 1
Z Z
For the integrator, Vo1 = − Vo2 dt ≡ − Vo2 dt
RC τ
L− L−
1 1
Z Z
For the integrator, Vo1 = − Vo2 dt ≡ − Vo2 dt
RC τ
+ −
Vo2 = L → Vo2 decreases linearly, Vo2 = L → Vo2 increases linearly.
L− L−
1 1
Z Z
For the integrator, Vo1 = − Vo2 dt ≡ − Vo2 dt
RC τ
+ −
Vo2 = L → Vo2 decreases linearly, Vo2 = L → Vo2 increases linearly.
∆Vo1
dVo1 Vo2 = |Vo2 | → ∆t = τ ∆Vo1
=− . If Vo2 is constant,
dt τ ∆t τ Vo2
L− L−
1 1
Z Z
For the integrator, Vo1 = − Vo2 dt ≡ − Vo2 dt
RC τ
+ −
Vo2 = L → Vo2 decreases linearly, Vo2 = L → Vo2 increases linearly.
∆Vo1
dVo1 Vo2 = |Vo2 | → ∆t = τ ∆Vo1
=− . If Vo2 is constant,
dt τ ∆t τ Vo2
VTH − VTL
T1 = τ .
L+
L− L−
1 1
Z Z
For the integrator, Vo1 = − Vo2 dt ≡ − Vo2 dt
RC τ
+ −
Vo2 = L → Vo2 decreases linearly, Vo2 = L → Vo2 increases linearly.
∆Vo1
dVo1 Vo2 = |Vo2 | → ∆t = τ ∆Vo1
=− . If Vo2 is constant,
dt τ ∆t τ Vo2
VTH − VTL
T1 = τ .
L+
VTH − VTL
T2 = τ .
−L−
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Limiting the output voltage
20
Vo2
C 10
R2 Vo3
R
Vo1 R3 0
R1 Vo3
OA1
Vo2
OA2 D1
−10
D2
−20
0 0.1
t (msec)
Integrator Schmitt trigger Limiter
20
Vo2
C 10
R2 Vo3
R
Vo1 R3 0
R1 Vo3
OA1
Vo2
OA2 D1
−10
D2
−20
0 0.1
t (msec)
Integrator Schmitt trigger Limiter
* When Vo2 = +Vsat , D1 is forward-biased (with a voltage drop of Von ), and D2 is reverse-biased. The
Zener breakdown voltage (VZ ) is chosen so that D2 operates under breakdown condition.
→ Vo3 = Von + VZ .
20
Vo2
C 10
R2 Vo3
R
Vo1 R3 0
R1 Vo3
OA1
Vo2
OA2 D1
−10
D2
−20
0 0.1
t (msec)
Integrator Schmitt trigger Limiter
* When Vo2 = +Vsat , D1 is forward-biased (with a voltage drop of Von ), and D2 is reverse-biased. The
Zener breakdown voltage (VZ ) is chosen so that D2 operates under breakdown condition.
→ Vo3 = Von + VZ .
* When Vo2 = −Vsat , D2 is forward-biased (with a voltage drop of Von ), and D1 is reverse-biased.
→ Vo3 = −Von − VZ .
20
Vo2
C 10
R2 Vo3
R
Vo1 R3 0
R1 Vo3
OA1
Vo2
OA2 D1
−10
D2
−20
0 0.1
t (msec)
Integrator Schmitt trigger Limiter
* When Vo2 = +Vsat , D1 is forward-biased (with a voltage drop of Von ), and D2 is reverse-biased. The
Zener breakdown voltage (VZ ) is chosen so that D2 operates under breakdown condition.
→ Vo3 = Von + VZ .
* When Vo2 = −Vsat , D2 is forward-biased (with a voltage drop of Von ), and D1 is reverse-biased.
→ Vo3 = −Von − VZ .
* R3 serves to limit the output current for OA2.
20
Vo2
C 10
R2 Vo3
R
Vo1 R3 0
R1 Vo3
OA1
Vo2
OA2 D1
−10
D2
−20
0 0.1
t (msec)
Integrator Schmitt trigger Limiter
* When Vo2 = +Vsat , D1 is forward-biased (with a voltage drop of Von ), and D2 is reverse-biased. The
Zener breakdown voltage (VZ ) is chosen so that D2 operates under breakdown condition.
→ Vo3 = Von + VZ .
* When Vo2 = −Vsat , D2 is forward-biased (with a voltage drop of Von ), and D1 is reverse-biased.
→ Vo3 = −Von − VZ .
* R3 serves to limit the output current for OA2.
SEQUEL file: opamp osc 1.sqproj
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Schmitt trigger
Vo
Vm
Vi
Vo
R1 R3
VR VTL VTH Vi
R2
−Vm
V0
A Schmitt trigger circuit is shown in the figure along with its Vo -Vi relationship. Assume that Vsat ≈ 14 V for
the op-amp. The reference voltage VR can be adjusted using a pot (not shown in the figure).
Vo
Vm
Vi
Vo
R1 R3
VR VTL VTH Vi
R2
−Vm
V0
A Schmitt trigger circuit is shown in the figure along with its Vo -Vi relationship. Assume that Vsat ≈ 14 V for
the op-amp. The reference voltage VR can be adjusted using a pot (not shown in the figure).
* Design the circuit to obtain V0 = 2.5 V and ∆VT = VTH − VTL = 0.4 V.
Vo
Vm
Vi
Vo
R1 R3
VR VTL VTH Vi
R2
−Vm
V0
A Schmitt trigger circuit is shown in the figure along with its Vo -Vi relationship. Assume that Vsat ≈ 14 V for
the op-amp. The reference voltage VR can be adjusted using a pot (not shown in the figure).
* Design the circuit to obtain V0 = 2.5 V and ∆VT = VTH − VTL = 0.4 V.
* Verify your design with simulation (and in the lab).
Vo
Vm
Vi
Vo
R1 R3
VR VTL VTH Vi
R2
−Vm
V0
(R2 k R3 ) (R1 k R2 )
V+ = VR ± Vm .
(R2 k R3 ) + R1 (R1 k R2 ) + R3
Vo
Vm
Vi
Vo
R1 R3
VR VTL VTH Vi
R2
−Vm
V0
(R2 k R3 ) (R1 k R2 )
V+ = VR ± Vm .
(R2 k R3 ) + R1 (R1 k R2 ) + R3
(R1 k R2 )
∆VT = 0.4 V → 2Vm = 0.4 V.
(R1 k R2 ) + R3
Vo
Vm
Vi
Vo
R1 R3
VR VTL VTH Vi
R2
−Vm
V0
(R2 k R3 ) (R1 k R2 )
V+ = VR ± Vm .
(R2 k R3 ) + R1 (R1 k R2 ) + R3
(R1 k R2 )
∆VT = 0.4 V → 2Vm = 0.4 V.
(R1 k R2 ) + R3
(R2 k R3 )
V0 = 2.5 V → VR = 2.5 V.
(R2 k R3 ) + R1
R1 R3
VR VTL VTH Vi
R2
−Vm
V0
(R1 k R2 )
∆VT = 0.4 V → 2Vm = 0.4 V.
(R1 k R2 ) + R3
R1 R3
VR VTL VTH Vi
R2
−Vm
V0
(R1 k R2 )
∆VT = 0.4 V → 2Vm = 0.4 V.
(R1 k R2 ) + R3
(R/2)
Let R1 = R2 = 5 k → 2Vsat = 0.4 V → R3 = 172.5 k.
(R/2) + R3
R1 R3
VR VTL VTH Vi
R2
−Vm
V0
(R1 k R2 )
∆VT = 0.4 V → 2Vm = 0.4 V.
(R1 k R2 ) + R3
(R/2)
Let R1 = R2 = 5 k → 2Vsat = 0.4 V → R3 = 172.5 k.
(R/2) + R3
(R2 k R3 )
V0 = 2.5 V → VR = 2.5 V → VR = 5.07 V.
(R2 k R3 ) + R1
R1 R3
VR VTL VTH Vi
R2
−Vm
V0
(R1 k R2 )
∆VT = 0.4 V → 2Vm = 0.4 V.
(R1 k R2 ) + R3
(R/2)
Let R1 = R2 = 5 k → 2Vsat = 0.4 V → R3 = 172.5 k.
(R/2) + R3
(R2 k R3 )
V0 = 2.5 V → VR = 2.5 V → VR = 5.07 V.
(R2 k R3 ) + R1
(SEQUEL file: schmitt 1.sqproj)
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay