Physics 1 For Senior High School PDF

INTRODUCTION
Learning Competencies:
At the end of the discussion, the students are expected to:

1. Define Physics and differentiate its subdivisions
2. Identify and enumerate fundamental and derived quantities
3. Show appreciation to the various applications of physics in day-to-day activities
Physics has played a vital role in human development and has laid the
foundation of most natural sciences. The works done by physicists contributed to the
modern lifestyle that people of the 21st century are enjoying – from the simple gas stove
to the most advanced communications equipment and gadgets which make today’s
living as fast as a snap of the fingers. Highly technical and automated medical apparatus
are now used in most hospitals to save life and at the same time provide more
convenience to medical practitioners.
Like all sciences, physics is based on experimental observations and quantitative
measurements. Historically, until nineteenth century, physics was called natural
philosophy. Physics is a branch of science concerning the study of natural
phenomena, that is, properties of matter and energy, together with their interactions.
The fields of study in physics can be divided into classical physics and modern
physics. Classical physics deals with questions regarding motion and energy. It includes
five important areas: mechanics (forces and motion), heat, sound, electricity and
magnetism, and light. Modern physics concentrates on scientific beliefs about the basic
structure of the material world. Its major fields include atomic, molecular and electron
physics, nuclear physics, particle physics, relativity, origin of the universe, and
astrophysics.
1. Mechanics is considered as the oldest and most basic branch of physics. It deals
with force, motion, inertia and energy, and includes the properties and laws for
both solids and liquids.
2. Heat involves the principles of temperature measurement, the effect of
temperature in different materials, heat flow, and thermodynamics – the study
of transformations involving heat and work.
3. Sound is concerned with vibrations as waves as well as their recording,
transmission, and perception as in music and speech.
4. Optics is the science which treats of the nature and properties of light and vision,
optical instruments, and nature of spectra, as well as the wave aspects of light
such as diffraction, interference, and polarization. It also includes the principles
of reflection and refraction that occurs when light passes through prisms and
lenses.
5. Electricity and Magnetism are all about other aspects of matter and space with
charged particles and current as key concepts.
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6. Nuclear or Atomic Physics deals with radioactivity and the production of nuclear
energy as an alternative to fuel and their uses in various fields
7. Astrophysics explains celestial phenomena, ranging from the sun and the other
objects in the solar system to the universe as a whole.
8. Relativity is a theory that take place in a frame of reference that is in motion
with respect to the observer
9. Particle Physics studies the elementary constituents of matter and radiation, and
the interactions between them.
FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED QUANTITIES
Physical quantities are quantities that can be measured. A physical quantity can
be represented by a symbol of the quantity, a numerical value for the magnitude of the
quantity and the unit of measurement of the quantity.
Length, l = 1.67 m
l – symbol 1.67 is the value m - unit
Fundamental Quantities
Mechanics deals with numerous physical quantities, but it proves to be true that
if only three of them are chosen as fundamental, all other quantities can be expressed in
terms of them, or we may say, derived from the fundamental ones. Hence, fundamental
quantities are those that can be determined by means of specified instruments.
Base quantities are physical quantities that cannot be defined in terms of other
quantities. They are the following:
1. Length - physical quantity for measuring linear distance between two points
2. Mass - measure of the amount of matter an object contains
3. Time - interval between two successive events
Other Fundamental Quantities…

1. Temperature -the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It reflects the
average kinetic energy of the molecules in the body
2. Electric current - the measure of electric flow from a negatively charged body to
a positively charged one
3. Luminous intensity - the brightness of light in its source
4. Amount of substance - the number of atoms or molecules that make up the
substance
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Derived Quantities
These are quantities that result from the combination of two or more
fundamental quantities, or one simple derived quantity and a fundamental quantity by
applying mathematical operations. Among them are:
1. Area – the product of two measures of length
2. Volume – in solids, product of three measures of length, all properties of a body
3. Speed – rate at which a body moves
4. Acceleration – rate of change in the velocity of a moving body
5. Density – ratio of the mass of the body to the space that it occupies
6. Pressure – the force exerted by a material on a unit area. For fluids, this
corresponds to the product of height of the fluid in the closed container, the
density of the fluid and the constant acceleration due to gravity.
Volumes of some common solids
SOLID VOLUME
1. Sphere with diameter d

( radius =d/2)
V = 4/3 πr3 or
V = πd3/6
D
2. Cube of side s
s
V = s3
S s
3. Solid Cylinder
diameter= d, Height = h
V = π/4 (d2 •h)

h
3
4. Hollow Cylinder
Height =h
Inner diameter = di
Outer diameter = do
di
V = π/4 ( do2 – di2 )•h
do
5. Cones
Height = h
Base diameter = d
V = 1/3 (area of base )•h
= 1/3 (πr2)•h , r = d/2 or

h
V = π/12 ( d2•h )
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6. Rectangular Solid
Length = L
Width = W
Thickness = t
V=LxWxt
L t
W
W
7. Pyramid with Square Base

Height = h
Base side = s
V = 1/3 (area of base )•h where

h
Area of base = s2
V = 1/3 (s2)•h
s
s
8. Irregular solid
( water displacement method )
Volume = ΔV
V = V2 – V1
V2
V1
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Name _____________________________ Date Performed ______________
Section ___________Group No. ________ Date Submitted ______________
Laboratory Activity No. 1
Common Laboratory Apparatuses Used in Physics
Discussion
Physics as an applied science can be best understood when concepts and

theories are verified through experiments or laboratory works. These activities help
increase the knowledge, demonstrate the ability, and develop the skills of the students
with the proper guidance and assistance of the instructor.
In doing laboratory experiments, a student must be able to distinguish the

appropriate tools or apparatus and be familiar with their uses.
Objectives:
To be familiar with the common laboratory apparatuses used in Physics.
Procedure:
The following is a list of the common laboratory apparatus or equipment used in

Physics. Make a tabulation of their specific uses and identify the concept or theory they
are applied.
Vernier Caliper Micrometer caliper
Meter stick Platform balance
Spring balance Graduated cylinder
Pipette Iron stand and clamp
Mechanical watch Protractor
Angle finder Force frame
Force table Demonstration balance
Linear Air Tract Free-fall Apparatus
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Ballistic Pendulum Atwood’s Machine
Inclined plane Centripetal Force Apparatus
Hall’s carriage Moment of Inertia Apparatus
Calorimeter Ripple Tank Apparatus
Tuning Fork Hook’s Law Apparatus
Sample Tabulation
Apparatus Use Field of Application
Generalization
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Module 1
MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Learning Competencies:
At the end of this module, the students are expected to:
1. Differentiate accuracy from precision
2. Solve measurement problems involving conversion of units
Sir William Thomson (1824-1907), more commonly known as Lord Kelvin, an

eminent English physicist, indicated the significance of quantitative measurement when
he said, “If you can measure what you are talking about and express it in numbers, you
know what you are talking about; but if you cannot, your knowledge is of a meager and
unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge but you have scarcely, in your
thoughts, advanced to the stage of Science.” This indicated that physics is the science of
measurement and is physically concerned with the measurement of physical quantities.
Measurement is a process of determining how large or small something is as

compared to a certain standard. It always consists of a numerical value and a unit (e.g.
2m; 2 is the numerical value and m, meter, is the unit). Measurement without unit is
meaningless. The unit indicates the standard against which the measured quantity is
compared.
A complete set of fundamental and derived units that is used to represent all
quantities is called a system of units. Generally, the set of units is chosen so that many
significant equations of Physics are simplified. Any system of units is named in terms of
the three fundamental units upon which it was based. Here, we shall employ the
following:
1. Metric System of Measurement – a system of measurement based on the meter

unit. It is a decimal system wherein several multiples and submultiples of a
measured property may be expressed and differ from one another by powers of
10.
2. English System of Measurement – a system which uses the standard units of

pound (for mass), feet (for length), and second (for time).
3. SI Units (System Internationale d’ Unites) – formerly the MKS units of the metric
system
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The following is a table showing comparison of the systems of measurement of
fundamental quantities.
Quantity Metric System SI Units English System

Length Centimeter (cm) Meter (m) Foot (ft)
Mass Gram (g) Kilogram (kg) Pound mass (lbm)
Time Second (s) Second (s) Second (s)
Temperature °Celsius (°C) Kelvin (K) °Farenheit (°F)
Electric Current Ampere (A) Ampere (A) -
Luminous Intensity Candela (cd) Candela (cd) -
Amount of Mole (mol) Mole (mol) -
Substance
In the metric system, the multiples and submultiples of the units are specified by
Greek prefixes. The following is a list of the most commonly used prefixes and their
equivalent values.
Prefix Symbol Value Prefix Symbol Value

Yotta Y x 1024 Deci D x 10-1
Zeta Z x 1021 Centi C x 10-2
Exa E x 1018 Milli M x 10-3
Peta P x 1015 Micro µ x 10-6
Tera T x 1012 Nano N x 10-9
Giga G x 109 Pico P x 10-12
Mega M x 106 Femto F x 10-15
Kilo K x 103 Atto A x 10-18
Hecto H x 102 Zepto Z x 10-21
Deca Da x 101 Yocto Y x 10-24
Based on the table presented, mega means one million times the base unit, centi
means one hundredth of the base unit, micro means one millionth, and so on. Thus,
1kilometer means 1000m; 1centimeter is 1/100 of 1m; and 1millimeter is 1/1000 of 1m.
Conversion of Units
In everyday life, different units of measurement are used. It is sometimes
necessary to change one unit to another in order to make a comparison on which
measurement will prove to be more economical or appropriate to the needs of the
individual. Conversion of units may be done either within the same system or between
two different systems of measurement. Suitable conversion tables are needed.
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The following factors are commonly applied:
Mass Length Time Volume

1gram=1000milligrams 1kilometer=1000meters 1minute=60seconds 1liter=1000millilit
1kilogram=1000grams 1meter=1000millimeters 1hour=60minutes ers
1pound=453.6grams 1meter=39.37inches 1day=24hours 1liter=1.06quarts
1kilogram=2.2pounds 1meter=3.28feet 1week=7days 1cubic
1pound=16ounces 1meter=1.09yard 1year=365days foot=7.48gallons
1inch=2.54centimeter 1milliliter=1cubic
1yard=3feet cm
1foot=12inches
1mile=5280feet
1mile=1.61kilometer
A number of calculations of beginning physics involve conversion of measured

quantities from one system of units to another using appropriate conversion factors. It
should be noted that in using a conversion factor, the numerator and denominator must
represent equivalent quantities.
Along with the process of conversion is dimensional analysis – the process of
inspecting the units involved and performing the right mathematical operation to
eliminate common units and obtain the unit of measurement being sought. It is also an
essential tool in problem solving.
To convert within the same system:

Examples:
1. 2.5km = ________m
103
2.5km x 1𝑘𝑚 = 2500m
2. 5mg = ________kg
10−3 1𝑘𝑔
5mg x 1𝑚𝑔 x 103𝑔 = 0.000005kg
3. 540in = ________yd
1𝑦𝑑
540in x 36𝑖𝑛 = 15yd
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To convert from one system to another:
Examples:
1. 12in = ___cm
2.54𝑐𝑚
12in x 1𝑖𝑛 = 30.48cm
2. 22.5m = ___ft
39.37𝑖𝑛 1𝑓𝑡
22.5m x 1𝑚 x 12𝑖𝑛 = 73.82ft
3. 3.75mi = ___m
1.61𝑘𝑚 1000𝑚
3.75mi x 1𝑚𝑖 x 1𝑘𝑚 = 6037.5m
To convert units of desired quantities:

Examples:
1. Area: 5cm2 = ___in2

1𝑖𝑛 2
5cm2 x (2.54𝑐𝑚) = 0.775in2
2. Volume: 3ft3 = ___cm3

12𝑖𝑛 3 2.54𝑐𝑚 3
3ft3 x ( 1𝑓𝑡 ) x ( ) = 84,950.54cm3
1𝑖𝑛
2𝑚 𝑓𝑡
3. Speed: = ___
𝑠 𝑠
2𝑚 39.37𝑖𝑛 1𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
x x 12𝑖𝑛 = 6.56 𝑠
𝑠 1𝑚
𝑔 𝑙𝑏
4. Density: 1𝑐𝑚3 = ___𝑓𝑡 3
𝑔 1𝑙𝑏 2.54𝑐𝑚 3 12𝑖𝑛 3 𝑙𝑏
1𝑐𝑚3 x 453.6𝑔 x ( ) x ( 1𝑓𝑡 ) = 62.43𝑓𝑡 3
1𝑖𝑛
To convert temperature, the following relationships are applied:

5
1. °C = 9 (°F − 32)
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2. °F = 5 °C + 32
3. °K = °C + 273
4. °R = °F + 460
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TRY THESE!
1. The average normal body temperature of humans is 37°C. What is the equivalent
of the temperature in the Fahrenheit scale? In the Kelvin scale?
2. Three thermometers are immersed in a liquid. The Celcius scale registered 27.6 o.
What could be the Fahrenheit and Kelvin scale readings?
3. Which is colder, water at 32.3°C or milk at 85°F
4. What is the equivalent density ( in lb/ft3) of the value 8.93g/mL?
5. The specific heat capacity of a substance is 0.033 cal/g-oC. Calculate the value
using the unit BTU/lb-oF.
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Exercise 1A
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

COURSE/YR/SECTION __________________ RATING ___________
Applying the methods of dimensional analysis, perform the following conversions to

obtain the measurement in the desired unit. Show your solutions.
1. 36.75457 kg = ___________ g = __________ mg
2. 47.89 km/h = ___________cm/min = __________ ft/s
3. 75.2hm = ________ yd = __________ mi
4. 138.57 kg/m3 = ____________ lb/ft3
5. 43.875 lb/in2 = ____________ g/cm2
6. - 17.235 oF = _________ oK
7. 522 oR = ___________ oC
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Exercise 1B
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. A solid cylinder weighing 325 g has a diameter of 40mm and an altitude of 6.5
cm. What is the density of the solid ( expressed in lb/in 3 )?
2. A hypothetical thermometer measures the freezing temperature of water at

20oJ. The same thermometer registers the boiling point of water at 125oJ.
Derive the relationship of this thermometer with the Celcius thermometer
commonly used in the laboratory.
3. The water pressure in a certain pipeline is 17.4 lb/in2. If the inside diameter of
the pipe is 6.75 cm, what is the weight of water that runs through the pipe?
4. The thickness of a single page in a book is 0.25 mm. how many pages are there
in a book 5.85 cm thick?
5. Convert your weight from kilograms to decigrams, and your exact age into
milliseconds.
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Measurement of Physical Quantities
Objectives:
To measure physical quantities of length, mass and weight using precision

instruments.
To derive other physical quantities of volume, area, and density from the
measured length and mass.
Materials/Apparatus:
Platform balance or triple beam balance
Vernier caliper
Micrometer caliper
Graduated cylinder
Spring balance
Meter stick
Metal block
Rectangular wooden block
Set of weights
Plastic cylinder
Copper rod
Lead pellet
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Procedures:
1. Using the meter stick or ruler , measure the length, width and thickness of the
rectangular wooden block. Make three trials of each dimension.
2. Determine the average measurements
3. Compute for the area and volume of the solid using these average values.
Table 1: Measurement of length using a meter stick
Trial Length (cm) Width (cm) Thickness (cm)
Average
Area of block ______________ cm2
Volume of block _____________cm3
Computations:
4. Measure the length, inside diameter, and outside diameter of the plastic cylinder
using the Vernier caliper. Record the measurements to correct significant figures
in the appropriate units.
5. Obtain the average values of the measurements and compute for the volume of
the solid using these average values. The volume of the cylinder can be
calculated by applying the formula
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l
V=π ( do2 – di2 ) , where do – outside diameter
4
di – inside diameter
l
- ¼ length
4
Table 2: Measurement of length using Vernier Caliper
Trial Length Outside diameter Inside diameter
Average
Volume of plastic cylinder __________________cm3
Computations:
6. Using the platform balance, measure the mass ( in grams ) of each sample in the
table. Convert this mass to weight (in Newtons).
7. With the use of the spring balance, determine the weight of the samples
(in Newtons). Convert this weight into grams
8. Compare the mass and the weight obtained in steps 6 and 7.
9. Calculate the percentage difference from the values of mass using the two
instruments.
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Table 3: Measurement of Mass and Weight
Sample Using platform balance Using spring balance Percent
Mass (g) Weight (N) Mass (g) Weight (N) Difference
Wooden
block
Metal block
Lead Pellet
Computations:
10. With the use of the platform balance, get the mass ( in grams ) of the copper
rod. Record this mass in Table 4.
11. Measure the diameter of the rod by using the micrometer caliper and compute
for the radius. Convert the radius in centimeter and record in Table 4.
12. Find the length of the rod ( in cm ) using the Vernier caliper
13. Calculate the volume of the wire using the formula for a cylinder.
V = πR2h where h = length of the rod
14. Solve for the density of copper from these data.

15. The theoretical value of the density of copper is 8.93g/cm3. Compare the density
obtained in the experiment with this value and compute for the percentage of
error.
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Table 4: Measurement of volume and density
Trials Mass (g) Radius Length Volume Density Percent

(cm) (cm) (cm3) (g/cm3) Error
Average
Computations:
16. Fill the graduated cylinder with 20 mL of water. Record this as V 1.Drop the lead
pellet into the water and record the new volume as V 2. Obtain the volume of the
lead pellet by difference and record this as V3 in Table 5. Repeat the procedure
three times and get the average volume
17. Using the average mass of the lead pellet from the data in Table 3, compute for
the density of the object. Record this density as D1 in Table 5.
18. Measure the diameter of the pellet using the micrometer caliper. Convert this
diameter in centimeter and compute for the volume of the solid applying the
formula for the volume of a sphere
V = 1/6 πd3
Record this volume as V4 in Table 5.
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19. Calculate the density of the lead pellet using the average mass from Table 3 and
V4. Record the density as D2 in table 5.
20. Compare the values of D1 and D2. Account for the difference, if any.
NOTE The average mass of the lead pellet from table 3 is, ½ of the sum of the masses
using the platform balance and the spring balance
Table 5 : Density of Lead Pellet
Trials V3 (mL) V4 (mL) Mass (g) D1 (g/mL) D2 (g/mL)
Average
Computations:
Generalization
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Module 2
MATHEMATICS IN MEASUREMENT
Learning Competencies
At the end of the discussion, the students must be able to:

1. Express measurements in scientific notation
2. Differentiate accuracy from precision and estimate errors associated with
single measurement.
3. Estimate the uncertainty of derived quantity from the estimated values and
uncertainties of directly measured quantities.
Mathematics is a basic tool in the study of physics where we are always

concerned with measured quantities. Any kind of measurement entails some
uncertainty which may be due to the limitations inherent in the measuring instrument
or to the error that attend to the personal observation. We shall be constantly using
numbers and performing operations. Knowledge in geometry and trigonometry is
needed in the solution of some problems.
In expressing the result of the measurement, we must not write more digits than
are probably correct. The number of figures that are used in expressing a numerical
result indicates the accuracy of the measurement made. A recorded number should be
stated in such a way as to indicate clearly the number of figures that are significant.
Significant Figures
In our study, we will come across numbers which are called physical constants –
numbers that we derived with considerable accuracy. On the other hand, we will also be
using numbers gained from our own measurements, made with little accuracy of the
measuring devices and our own observations. However, we can make several
measurements of the same object and find the best value.
We have little confidence in a single measurement. The best value we obtain can
have our full confidence by considering each of the digits as a significant figure. In any
number, significant figures refer to digits which are considered to give correct or
sufficient information on its accuracy. They are read from the first non - zero digit on the
left to the last non – zero digit on the right , unless a final zero expresses greater known
accuracy. For example, in the number 10.36, the number of significant digits is four.. In
determining the number of significant digits, the following rules must be applied:
1. All nonzero digits are significant.
2. Zeros placed between nonzero digits are significant.
3. If a number is greater than 1, then all zeros to the right of the decimal point are
significant
4. If a number is less than 1, only the zeros that are at the end and in the middle of
the number are significant
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5. Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are NOT significant.
6. Zeros to the right of a nonzero digit but to the left of an understood decimal
point are NOT significant, UNLESS specifically indicated as significant by a bar
placed above the rightmost zero which is significant.
Examples:
Number of significant digits
1. 127.39 5
2. 127.003 6
3. 107,000 3
4. 0.00406 3
5. 2070.00 4
During an arithmetic operation, the precision and accuracy of the measurement

is neither lost nor gained. The requirement is generally met by simple rules by
multiplication and division, as well as addition and subtraction. In multiplication and
division, the result may carry no more significant figures than the least precisely known
quantity involved in the calculation. In addition and subtraction, however, the
uncertainty of the sum and difference is the same as that of the least precisely known
quantity. The following example illustrates these rules:
14.8 x 12.10 x 5.05 = 904.354 = 904

115.016 + 12.0 + 3.5182 = 130.5342 = 130.5
Scientific Notation
Physicists use very large and very small numbers which are hard to write and
even harder to read. Calculations are made simpler by using mathematical laws of
exponents in writing such numbers. The use of powers of ten in expressing a large or
small number is called scientific notation. Here, a number takes the form of M x 10n,
where M is a nonzero digit between 1.0 and 9.99 and n is either a positive or a negative
integer (depending on whether the number is very large or very small, respectively)
indicating the number of decimal places needed to be dropped in order to shorten it.
The following are the steps in expressing a number in scientific notation:
1. To determine M, move the decimal point to the right of the first nonzero digit
from the left or to the right of the last nonzero digit from the right.
2. Count the number of decimal places the decimal point was moved. This number
becomes n. it is POSITIVE if the movement is to the LEFT, and NEGATIVE if the
movement is to the RIGHT.
Example:
V of light in air = 300,000,000.00m/s
→ 3.00,000,000.00 (8 decimal places to the left)
= 3.0 x 108 m/s
Mass of e- = 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 911g
→0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 9.11 (28 decimal places to the
right) = 9.11 x 10-28g
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Operations using Scientific Notation
To multiply numbers in scientific notation, multiply the main numbers (M) and
add the exponents. For example:
(5.0 x 104) x (3.2 x 106) = 16 x 1010 or 1.6 x 1011
To divide, divide the main numbers and subtract the exponent of the divisor
from the exponent of its dividend. For example:
9.0 ×1010
= 4.5 x 106
2.0 ×104
To add or subtract, convert all numbers to the same exponent first. Perform the
necessary operation, and then affix the common exponent. For example:
(3.25 x 103) + (1.57 x 102) – (2.43 x 102)

= (32.5 x 102) + (1.57 x 102) – (2.43 x 102)
= 31.64 x 102 or 3.164 x 103
Rounding off Numbers

When we reduce the number of significant figures, the process is called rounding off.
For any number AB.CDE to be reduced to AB:
1. If .CDE is equal to or greater than ½, add 1 to B.
2. If .CDE is less than ½, B remains B.
Examples:
1. 17.528 ≈ 18
2. 17.165 ≈ 17
3. 17.500 ≈ 18
TRY THESE!
Follow the rules in rounding off numbers and express your answers to the nearest
hundredths. Do the necessary conversion of units to arrive at a single unit of
measurement.
1. A block of wood having the dimensions 300mm x 4.2cm x 23dm, weighs 8.675kg.
What is the density of the piece of wood expressed in grams per cubic
centimeter?
2. An English unit of mass used in pharmaceutical work is the grain (gr). In this unit,
15gr = 1g. A standard aspirin tablet contains 15gr. How many milligrams of
aspirin does a 165-lb patient take?
Exercise 2A
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NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________
1. Express the following numbers in scientific notation.
a. 587530.76 _________________
b. 0.007107 _________________
c. 265.8793 _________________
d. 97.3085 _________________
e. 0.000002048 _________________
f. 3769054.23 _________________
g. 0.000045397 _________________
h. 567000000 _________________
2. Give the decimal equivalent
i. 8.23 x 10 -3 _________________
j. 9.047 x 10 4 _________________
k. 6.23 X 108 _________________
l. 300 X 106 _________________
m. 3.97 nm _________________
n. 4.03 Mm _________________
o. 5.307 x 10-5 _________________
3. Find the sum of 34 x 10 5, 6.78 x 10 -2, 8.23 x 10 -4, and 12.87 x 105. Express
the answer in scientific notation.
4. A spherical solid has a radius of 2.37 mm. Compute for the volume of the
solid and round off the value to the nearest thousandths.
5. The speed of light in air, c = 300 000 000 m/s. How many ft/s does light
travel in air? (express your answer in scientific notation).
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Module 3
VECTORS AND FORCES
1. Define and differentiate vectors from scalars
2. Add vectors using graphical and analytical methods ; rewrite vectors in
component forms
3. Define force and state its unit of measurement
4. Enumerate the types of forces and the manner they act on a body
5. Evaluate forces that maintain a body’s equilibrium
In the study of physics, we will always be concerned with physical quantities such
as displacement, velocity, speed, acceleration, force, mass, weight, energy, torque, and
many others. We shall see that each quantity is a member of one or two of the general
classes of quantities: either it is categorized as a scalar or its nature is such that it must
be classified as vector.
Let us consider what must be stated in giving a complete specification of some
quantities. Every quantity requires a statement of at least two things: firs, a numerical
specification or magnitude and the appropriate unit. A quantity that involves, other
than a statement of unit, only a magnitude is called a scalar, while a quantity that needs
for its complete specification a direction as well as a magnitude is called a vector.
Quantities such as displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, weight and torque are
vectors; each of them involves the idea of direction. Quantities like speed, mass and
energy are scalars; none of them are associated with a direction.
We are all familiar with the way scalars are handled. In this module, we take up
the distinction between scalars and vectors, but emphasize on the methods of handling
vector quantities.
Vector Representation
A vector quantity is represented by a directed straight line segment equipped
with an arrowhead. The length of the vector is scaled to be proportional to its
magnitude, and the direction is specified by giving the arrow the appropriate
orientation.
θ θ
®
25
Vector Addition
Scalar quantities may be added arithmetically; that is, when we add 7kg and 3kg
masses, the result will always be 10kg. Vectors cannot be added that way.
We can show how vectors are added through this example: suppose you walked
40m east and then 20m north. Graphically,
C
N
20m
θ
® E
A 40m B
The sum of the displacements covered would depend on the directions or the
angle included between the vectors. From the example above, the combined effect of
going from A to B then from B to C is the same as going directly from A to C, which when
evaluated would have a value of 44.72m directed at an angle Ѳ from the horizontal axis.
The line AC represents the resultant of the two displacements AB and BC. A resultant is
a single vector which would have the same effect as all of the vectors taken together. If
the same vector resultant is acting in the opposite direction, a vector called the
equilibrant, the effect of the resultant would be balanced, thus establishing equilibrium.
Generally,
• The resultant of vectors in the same direction is equal to the sum of their
magnitudes.
• The resultant of vectors in opposite directions on a straight line is equal to the
difference in their magnitude acting in the direction of the greater vector.
• The resultant of vectors from different directions may be evaluated by means of
other techniques such as the graphical, analytical and component method.
GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS:
Polygon Method
This method is graphical in nature where the vectors are drawn according to a
convenient scale in a head-to-tail sequence. The line joining the first tail and the last
head of the vectors drawn closes the polygon and represents the resultant of the
vectors being added. The angle made by the resultant with the x-axis is the overall
direction of the original vectors. This can be conveniently obtained by the use of a
protractor.
26
Consider the following steps in adding vectors through polygon method:
1. Construct a reference frame.
2. Choose a suitable scale to represent the given vectors. Example: 1cm=1N,
1in=10lb
3. Using your chosen scale, designate the length of the vector arrows that would
represent the vector quantities in the diagram.
For example, using a scale of 10N ≈ 1cm
Vector Arrow Length

A = 30N due East 3cm
B = 20N, NE 2cm
C = 40N, 60° N of W 4cm
a. From the origin of the reference frame, draw the arrow of the first vector
you are to add.
4. At the tip of the first arrow (A), construct an imaginary reference frame, and
from its origin, draw the second vector (B).
5. Repeat step 4 until all of the vectors have been accounted for.
B
α
27
6. Close the polygon by joining the tail of the first vector (origin of the first
reference frame) and the head of the last vector drawn. Measure the length of
this line, and using your scale, convert it to the vector unit. Using a protractor,
measure the angle it makes with the x-axis; this angle will determine the
direction of the vector.
NOTE:
The accuracy of the resultant obtained from this method depend on how
precisely the lines and angles were measured and drawn in the diagram.
Parallelogram Method
This is another graphical method of vector addition done by drawing a
parallelogram using two vectors as sides. The diagonal of the parallelogram from the
same point of origin represents the resultant of the vectors added.
These are the steps to be followed when adding vectors using the parallelogram
method:
1. Similar to the polygon method, each vector is represented by an arrow according
to a chosen scale.
2. Draw the two vectors to be added, both from the origin of the reference frame.
3. From the tip of each vector, draw the “free vectors” parallel and equal to them
in order to form a parallelogram.
4. To get the resultant R, draw the diagonal from the origin of the reference frame
to the intersection of the “free vectors”. Measure the angle that R makes with
the x-axis.
R
α
B A
28
5. If a third vector will be added, it is paired with the resultant of the first two
added earlier, following the same procedure.
NOTE:
To get the resultant of more than two vectors, by this method, take two vectors
at a time in a successive manner until all vectors are accounted for. The total
resultant is the resultant obtained after the construction of the parallelogram using
the preceding resultant and the last vector as sides.
TRY THIS!
Following the steps for polygon and parallelogram methods, determine the
resultant of the displacements using the scale 1cm=5m: 40m East, 50m South, 10m
West, 25m North , and 15m N 30° E. Compare your answers.
29
ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS:
Right Triangle Method

If a right triangle is formed by the components of the resultant, the Pythagorean
Theorem 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 can be used to determine any of the sides. To find any or all of
the sides or angles of the right triangle, use the following relationships:
b = c cos A
a = c sin A
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
tan 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
Example:
An ambulance is driven 60km West and then 30km North from one hospital to
another.
How far apart are the two hospitals?
Hospital B
•
30km c between A and B
θ
60km •Hospital A
Using the Pythagorean theorem 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 where a=30km, b=60km and c=R;

𝑅2 = 602 + 302
= 4500
R = 67.08km
30
tan 𝜃 = 60 = 0.5, which gives the value 𝜃 = 27° above the –x axis.
Any Triangle
In any triangle, the sides obey two basic laws governing the relationships
between them and the angles :
a. Cosine Law: 𝑐 2 = 𝑎 2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
b. Sine Law: = =
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
Example:
1. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant with respect to the first vector.
Given:
a = 50N E
b = 30N, 70° N of E
C = 110°
30
NOTE:
It is important to sketch the given parts of the triangle (correctly) so that
the kind of angle formed will be identified. The solution for the magnitude of the
resultant would follow the laws applicable for the kind of triangle formed, and
the angle showing the direction could be given the correct orientation.
Required c
110o b=30N
Resultant (c), B C
a=50N
Solution:
a. To get R (c):
𝑅2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶
= 502 + 302 − 2(50)(30) cos 110°
= 4426.06N2
R = 66.53N
b. To evaluate B:
𝑏 𝑐
= sin 𝐶
sin 𝐵
𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶 30 𝑠𝑖𝑛110°
sin 𝐵 = =
𝑐 66.53
sin 𝐵 = 0.424
𝑩 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟗°, N of E
2. If you walk 200ft East and then 400ft headed 60° North of East, what could have
been the shorter way you have walked? To what direction should you head?
Given:
a=200ft East
b=400ft, 60° N of E
C=120°
Required: c b =400ft
Resultant (c), B
120o
B C
Solution: a=200ft
a. To get R (c):
𝑅2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶
31
=2002 + 4002 − 2(200)(400) cos 120°
=280 000ft2
R = 529.15ft
b. To get β (the direction you must head):

𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶 400 𝑠𝑖𝑛120°
sin 𝐵 = =
𝑐 529.15
sin 𝐵 = 0.655
β = 40.92° N of E
TRY THESE!
1. Two vectors of 9N and 12N act simultaneously at a point. If the magnitude of

their resultant is 20N, find the angle between them.
2. A vector of 30 units is directed towards the East and another of 40 units is

directed 35° West of South. What should be the magnitude and direction of the
third vector if the system must have a zero resultant?
32
COMPONENT METHOD
Also referred to as the rectangular resolution of vectors, this method is based on
the system of rectangular coordinates. It is done by resolving the vectors into their
horizontal and vertical components with reference to the x and y axes.
Review: Rectangular coordinate system
II I
-x, +y +x, +y
III IV
-x, -y +x, -y
Right Triangles
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
sin 𝐴 = ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
cos 𝐵 =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
tan 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
Vectors x-component y-component
φ Acos𝜃 or AsinФ Asin𝜃 or AcosФ

θ
-Acos𝜃 or -AsinФ Asin𝜃 or AcosФ

φ
θ
-Acos𝜃 or –AsinФ -Asin𝜃 or –AcosФ

θ
φ
33
Acos𝜃 or AsinФ -Asin𝜃 or –AcosФ
θ
φ
Example:
1. Two forces, 90N and 60N acting at an angle of 60° with each other pull on an
object symmetrically as shown. What single pull would replace the given forces?
90N
60o 60N
Vector x-component y-component

90N -90cos60° = -45 90sin60° = 77.94
60N 60cos60° = 30 60sin60° = 51.96
Total Rx = -15 Ry = 129.9
From the components of the resultant, Rx and Ry, compute for the total resultant
R.
𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2
𝑅 = √(−15)2 + (129.9)2
= 130.76N
To compute for the direction of the resultant:

𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑅𝑦
tan 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑅𝑥
129.9
= −15 = -8.66
𝜽 = -83° or N 70 W
34
2. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the force system as
shown and its angle with respect to the x-axis.
NORTH
50N
65o 80N
WEST EAST
30o
70o
75N
110N
SOUTH
Resolving the vectors into x and y components:
Vector x-component y-component

110N, 70° S of E 110cos70° = 37.62 -110sin70° = -103.37
75N, 30° S of W -75cos30° = -64.95 -75sin30° = -37.5
80N, 65° E of N 80sin65° = 72.50 80cos65° = 33.81
50N, N 0 50
Total Rx = 45.17 Ry = -57.06
Computing for the resultant using the Pythagorean theorem:

𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2
𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2
= √(45.15)2 + (−57.06)2
= 72.76N
The angle with respect to the x-axis:
Ry
tan  =
Rx
−57.06
 = tan− ( 45.17 )
= tan− (−1.263)
= - 51.63o or S of E
35
TRY THESE!
1. A motorboat is headed North at 15kph. An easterly wind with a speed of 2.3kph
makes the boat move sideways. At the same time, the water current is plowing
southwest at a speed of 8.5kph. What is the resultant velocity of the motorboat?
2. A barge is being pulled by two motorboats using ropes that make angles of 30 o
and 42o, respectively with the horizontal. If the tensions in the ropes are 39N and
57N, what single pull can replace them in pulling the barge?
36
FORCE VECTORS
• Any influence that causes a body to be accelerated
• A push or a pull on a body
• A vector quantity that is defined by magnitude and direction
Units:
System Force Notation Mass Acceleration
SI Units Newton N kg 𝑚/𝑠 2
Metric Dyne Dyne g 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 2
English Poundal Lb lb mass 32.2 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2
English Poundal Lb slug 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2
Types of Force:
1. Gravitational Force (Fg or Wt)
• Magnitude is known as the weight – the product of an object’s mass and
the acceleration due to gravity (𝑊𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔)
• Directed vertically down (towards the center of the earth)
• Dependent on the location
• Independent of the state of motion
• Acting on the center of gravity (assumed to be the geometric center of a
body, where the mass is concentrated)
Wt Wt Wt
2. Molecular Forces
a. Elastic Force (Fe)
• Exerted of the elastic materials on objects attached to them
• Directed parallel to the orientation of the elastic material towards the
normal or equilibrium position
• Classified as:
A. Compressive Elastic Force (the effect shortens the material)
B. Tensile Elastic Force (the effect elongates the elastic material)
37
b. Tension (T)
• Exerted by connecting materials such as string, cord, rope, chain, etc.
on the object it is attached to
• Directed along the length of the material, away from the body being
pulled
T
T
Wt
C. Contact Forces
a. Normal Force (Fn)
• Also called “support or load force”
• Directed perpendicular to the surfaces in contact, towards the body
in consideration W
W
Fn Fn
b. Frictional Force (f)

• Directed parallel or tangent to the surfaces in contact
• Opposes the most probable direction of motion
• Classified as:
1. Static (when it acts on bodies at rest relative to each other)
2. Kinetic (when it acts on bodies in relative motion)
Direction of motion
fk
Weight (W)
38
Classification of Forces:
1. Internal Force is force done by the body under consideration. It holds the
components of the rigid body together.
2. External Force is force exerted by the environment or by the outside agent on
the body under consideration.
Types :
a. Based on Point of Application
1. Concurrent Forces have the tendency to translate the body on which
they are acting upon. Their lines of action meet at a common point.
F1
F2
F2 F3 F1
2. Parallel Forces are forces whose lines of action do not meet. They have
the tendency to rotate the body about an axis.
F1
F2 F3
3. Coplanar Forces are forces that act on the same plane. They may be
parallel or concurrent and have the tendency to rotate or translate the
body.
F6 F5
F1 β F4
α
F2
b. Based on the Resultant F3

1. Unbalanced Force: The resultant is not equal to zero and would have an
overall effect on the body – either translational or rotational motion.
2. Balanced Force: The resultant is equal to zero, giving the body a state of
equilibrium in which it is either at rest or at constant motion.
39
EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
Equilibrium is the term used when the body acted upon by several forces in
different directions has a zero resultant. It is a condition characterized by being at rest
or in constant motion – where the velocity of the object is the same throughout the
straight-line path.
Conditions for Equilibrium:

1. The summations of forces along the horizontal and vertical axes of the
rectangular system are both equal to zero. (static equilibrium)
𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0
2. The summation of the turning effects of the forces (moment of force) about a
chosen axis of rotation is equal to zero. That is, the total clockwise moments and
the total counterclockwise moments are equal.
𝛴𝑀↻ = 𝛴𝑀↺
𝛴𝑀@ 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0
Examples:
1. A cable supports a horizontal beam whose end A is pivoted as shown in the
figure. A 100-lb weight is suspended at end B. The weight of the beam, acting
from its center, is 30lbs. Find the tension in the cable and the force exerted by
the wall on the beam at A.
A B A B
ℓ̸ 2 ℓ̸ 2
30lb
100lb
Solution: 100lb
𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝐹 cos 𝜃 − 𝑇 cos 45° = 0 equation 1
𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝐹 sin 𝜃 + 𝑇 sin 45° − 30 − 100 = 0 equation 2
The moments about an axis are taken through A as the best choice, since
this eliminates both F and 𝜃 from the equation
𝛴𝑀 = 0
ℓ
(𝑇 sin 45°)ℓ − 100ℓ − 30 (2) = 0, where ℓ is the length of the beam.
40
The length ℓ is eliminated from the equation, giving:
𝑇(0.707) − 100 − 15 = 0
𝑇 = 115/0.707
𝑇 = 162.66𝑙𝑏
From eq.1,
𝐹 cos 𝜃 = 115𝑙𝑏
and from eq.2,

𝐹 sin 𝜃 = 15𝑙𝑏
These two are the components of the reaction at A. The resultant force at A is:
𝐹 = √(𝐹 sin 𝜃 )2 + (𝐹 sin 𝜃 )2
= √1152 + 152
= 116𝑙𝑏
𝐹 sin 𝜃
tan 𝜃 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃
15
= 115 = 0.1304
𝜃 = 7.43°
2. Determine the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the beam, and its line
of action from A so that it will be in constant rotation about A.
F2 = 50N
F4 = 15N
5m 8m
A B
3m 6m
F1=25N F3=10N
13m
Note that the forces acting on the beam are parallel. The resultant is expressed
as:
𝑅 = 𝛴𝐹𝑦
= 25 + 10 – 50 – 15 = -30N (downward )
Solving for the turning effects of the forces about A:
Counterclockwise moments Clockwise moments
𝐹1 𝑑1 = 25 × 3 = 75𝑁𝑚 𝐹2 𝑑2 = 50 × 5 = 250𝑁𝑚
𝐹3 𝑑3 = 10 × 9 = 90𝑁𝑚 𝐹4 𝑑4 = 15 × 13 = 195𝑁𝑚
Total= 165Nm Total= 445Nm
41
𝛴𝑀@ 𝐴 = 445 − 165
= 280Nm (clockwise)
To maintain kinetic equilibrium, the sum of the moments about A must

be equal to the moment of the resultant.
𝛴𝑀@ 𝐴 = 𝑀𝑅 = 𝑅 × 𝑑𝑅
280𝑁𝑚 = 30𝑁 × 𝑑𝑅
𝑑𝑅 = 9.33𝑚 (right of A)
TRY THIS!
Find the line of action of the resultant in order to be in kinetic
equilibrium about A.
F1 = 45N FB =40N
A 45O B
7m
10m 6m 4m
FA = 50N F2 = 60N F3 = 15N
42
Exercise 3A
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. Draw each vector and evaluate the horizontal ( x ) and vertical (y )

components.
A. 375 km, N 47o E x-component y-component
B. 450 N 325o
C. 200 kph, S 27 o W
D. 120 mi, 62o S of E
2. The vertical component of a vector displacement directed 62o N of E, is 45.913

km. What is the magnitude of the original vector? What is the value of its
horizontal component?
43
Exercise 3B
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. An airplane flies NE for 250 miles and then West for 150 miles. Find the
resultant displacement by component method.
2. Two force vectors, F1 = 18N at 60o above the +x-axis, and F2 = 6.5N at 45o below
the +x – axis, are applied to a particle at the origin. What third force F 3 would
make the net force on the particle equal to zero?
3. A picture frame weighing 3.0 kg is hung vertically against the wall by means of
wires that make angles of 27o and 45o, respectively with the horizontal. Find
the tension in each wire. ( The wires are attached to the upper corners of the
frame ).
4. A ship left the port due South for 55 km and then 70km in a direction 700 West
of South. Determine the location of the ship relative to the port
44
Exercise 3C
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. A patient in the orthopedic ward must have his legs raised 2 ft higher than his
hips while lying flat on his bed. If the leg is 1.42 m long and weighs 23 kg
( including plaster cast ) concentrated 0.7m from his hips, what would be the
tension in the horizontal rope supporting his foot, tied to the post at his
bedside opposite the hips?
2. A uniform pole 20 ft long and weighing 50 lbs is used to carry a load of 180 lbs.
Two men, one supporting twice as much as the other support the pole to keep
it in a horizontal position. How far from the center of the pole should the load
be hung?
3. Consider the horizontal boom weighing 40N shown in the figure. Find the
tension in the support cable that will keep the boom horizontal.
25o
4m 6m
W 50N
45
Vectors: Graphical and Analytical Solutions
Objectives:
To apply and compare the methods of analyzing vector quantities
Apparatus/Materials
Ruler
Protractor
Pencil
Graphing paper
Force table and accessories
Procedures:
1. Obtain a set of force vectors from your instructor.

2. Using a suitable scale, represent each vector by arrows whose length denote
the magnitude and the angle associated with it as direction.
3. Following the procedures for closed polygon method of graphical solution,
determine the resultant vector.
4. Calculate the resultant vector by component method of vector addition.
5. Verify the resultant using the force table. The resultant is equal in magnitude
as the resultant but is acting in the opposite direction
a. Choose the line that will represent the N-S and W-E axes.
b. Mount the forces based on the direction associated with them. Secure the
strings that hung them, such that they are directly along the lines of
action.
c. Using the fourth string, hung an approximate force that will balance the
three given forces. This fourth force is called the equilibrant. Test for
balance by releasing the equilibrant at a particular angle opposite those of
the three given forces. Balance is attained when the ring of the force
table lies at the center of the spool without touching it.
46
Data Tabulation and Results
GRAPHICAL COMPONENT BY EXPERIMENT

SOLUTION METHOD
RESULTANT
DIRECTION
COMPUTATIONS
Component Method
Forces x-component y-component
F1
F2
F3
Summations
Computations
Generalization
47
Equilibrium of Concurrent Forces
Objectives
To apply the triangle method of vector addition in determining the equilibrant

force that will establish equilibrium in a system of concurrent forces.
Materials/Apparatus
2 iron stand with clamp
200 – gram mass
Weight hanger
String ( 1.0 m long )
Protractor
2 spring balances
Procedures:
1. Attach the ends of the string to each of the hangers of the spring balance.
2. Fix the handle of the spring balance at the same level of the iron clamps that
are connected to the iron stands.
3. Tie the center of the string such that there is a pivot point for concurrency.
Suspend a 200-gram mass at the center of the string.
4. Adjust the positions of the iron stands so that there is an angle of 30 0
between the segments of the string. Assign a member to check the angle
using a protractor.
5. Record the reading of the spring balance ( in grams ) as F1 and F2.
6. Draw the force vector arrows and the included angle for the set-up.
7. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the forces
graphically. ( Choose a suitable scale for each set-up ).
8. Calculate the resultant by component method. Compare this resultant with
the 200 g force.
9. Repeat steps 3 to 8 for set – ups of 600, 900, and 1200 measuring angles.
10. Tabulate your results.
48
Data Tabulation and Results:
Measuring Reading on the Spring Balance Resultant Magnitude

angle
F1 F2 Graphical Component
Method Method
(grams) (grams)
300
600
900
1200
Computations:
Generalization
49
Equilibrium of Parallel Forces: Torque or Moment of Force
Objectives
To recognize the effect of parallel forces to a body in a state of equilibrium.
Materials / Apparatus:
Demonstration Balance
2 Scale pans
Platform balance
Set of weights
Procedures:
1. Weigh the scale pans labeled P1 and P2 using the platform balance.
2. Set up the demonstration balance. Arrange the metal frame such that the
fixed knife edge is about 2.0 cm below the adjustable knife edges, and the
sliding collar is near the bottom.
3. Determine the center of gravity of the beam by sliding it through the frame
until it achieves a horizontal position . adjust the frame so that the center of
gravity of the beam is at the position of the fixed knife edges. Record the
location of the center of gravity from the left and right end of the beam.
4. Add 20 grams ( load ) on P1, hung 10cm from the left end of the beam. This
added mass will disrupt the horizontal position of the beam which will have a
tendency to rotate counterclockwise about the fulcrum.
5. To regain equilibrium, place P2 on the right side then add weights less than
or greater than the load on P1. Adjust the location of P2 until the beam
balances horizontally. Record the distance of P2 from the fulcrum along with
the added mass.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 using other loads on P1 and added masses on P2 to
obtain moments of force or torque of different forces. Record these data in
Table II.
50
7. Convert the masses into force and calculate the torques of each force.
Compute for the deviation based on the values of torques. Record the
summary in Table III.
Table I.
Mass of the Scale Pans P1 = ________ g
P2 = ________ g
From left end : ___________ cm
Location of the center of gravity of the From right end : __________ cm

beam
Table II.
Distance of load Distance of

from C.G. added mass
Trials Load Added Mass from C.G.
51
Table III.
Moments of Force or Torque about the

fulcrum
Trial F1 (N) F2 (N)
M1 M2 ΣM
Computations
Generalization
52
Module 4
RECTILINEAR MOTION
At the end of this module, the students shall be able to:
1. Convert a verbal description of a physical situation involving uniform
acceleration in one dimension into a mathematical description
2. Differentiate rectilinear and curvilinear motion
3. Recognize whether or not a physical situation involves constant velocity or
constant acceleration.
4. Appreciate the effect of gravity on motion
5. Solve for unknown quantities in equations involving one – dimensional uniformly
accelerated motion
6. Perform experiments involving rectilinear motion and free-falling bodies
Now that we know how to deal with any system of vectors, we are ready to
study the various phases of mechanics, which is divided into kinematics and dynamics.
Kinematics is the branch of physics that deals with the description of the motion of
bodies without regard to the forces acting and causing motion. Dynamics, on the other
hand, includes the treatment of the causes of the changes in motion.
Relative Motion is a change in position in relation to some fixed object. It may
be said by its definition that an object is moving by comparing its position to that of
another object. Relative motion depends on a frame of reference, the reference point
which is not moving in relation to an observer and things moving with the observer.
A body in motion continuously changes its position. In kinematics, we describe
the position of an arbitrary point on the body as a function of time.
Types of Motion (based on the path traveled)

1. Translational/Rectilinear Motion is linear motion in which any line in a body
moves so that it remains at all times parallel to itself, i.e, motion that is non-
rotatory.
2. Curvilinear Motion is motion in two dimensions.
In order to describe the position of an arbitrary point on the body as a function

of time, it is necessary to differentiate speed, displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
Displacement is a vector quantity for distance (length along a path between two
points) directed from the starting point to its ending point.
•
A B
Speed is the rate at which a body moves without a particular direction of

motion.
Examples: 120 revolutions per minute (rpm), 16 gal/sec, 30 drops per min
53
Velocity is the time rate of change in displacement of a body associated with a
direction of motion.
Examples: 30 km/, East
27 m/s , NE
12 ft/s , S 40° W
Acceleration is the time rate of change in velocity.

Examples: 4 m/s2
2 ft/s2
5 cm/s2
Types of Rectilinear Motion

1. Uniform Motion
A B
1 2 3
From A to B: if a body moves equal distances for every interval of time, it

is said to have a constant velocity and in uniform motion. The velocity of the
body is expressed as:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
s
v=
t
2. Accelerated Motion
•
A 1 2 B
From A to B: if a body covers unequal distances for every interval of time,

it is said to be in accelerated motion, where the velocity changes with respect to
time. The total distance, however, is covered with the average velocity.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑
If there are several speeds (experienced when motion is affected by

external conditions), the average speed is determined through:
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑠
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑠
Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity with respect to time.
54
In equation:
𝛥 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑓 −𝑣𝑖
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = ; where: vf = final velocity
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
vi = initial velocity
t = time between vf and vi
NOTE:
When the final velocity is greater than the initial velocity (𝑣𝑓 > 𝑣𝑖 ),
acceleration is positive.
When the final velocity is less than the initial velocity (𝑣𝑓 < 𝑣𝑖 ),
acceleration is negative, and the body being observed is said to be decelerating.
3. Uniformly Accelerated Motion

Not all accelerations are constant. But, motion can be best understood in
terms of constant acceleration. Uniformly accelerated motion has the following
features:
• Distances traveled after each interval of time are NOT equal.
• Distance is directly proportional to the square of the time, i.e, 𝑑 ∝ 𝑡 2 ..
• Acceleration is constant.
Equations of Motion:
v f = vi  at
1
𝑠 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 ± 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑣𝑓 = √𝑣𝑖2 ± 2𝑎𝑠
Examples:
1. A runner runs a 200-m dash 1 min and 2 seconds. What is his average speed in
m/s?
Given:
s = 200m
t = 1min and 2 seconds = 62 seconds
Required:
average speed
Solution:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
200 𝑚
= 62 𝑠
= 3.226 m/s
2. A bus traveling at 15 m/s stops in 5.0 seconds. Find: (a) its negative acceleration,
(b) average speed after it stops, and (c) the distance traveled after it stopped.
Given:
vi = 15 m/s
t = 5.0 s vf = o (because the bus stopped)
Required:
55
a. Acceleration (a)
b. Average speed
c. Distance traveled (s)
Solution:
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
a. 𝑎 =
𝑡
(0−15)𝑚/𝑠
= 5.0 𝑠
= 3.0 m/s2
(𝑣𝑓 +𝑣𝑖 )
b. 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
2
0+15 𝑚/𝑠
= 2
= 7.5 m/s
1
c. 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑚 1 3𝑚
= (15 𝑠 × 5.0𝑠) − 2 [ 𝑠 2 × (5.0𝑠)2 ]
= 75m – 37.5m
= 37.5 m
3. An object moving at the rate of 100 cm/s. It is then accelerated 3 cm/s 2 for 5
seconds. Find: (a) the final velocity and (b) the total distance it traveled.
Given:
vi = 100 cm/s
a = 3 cm/s2
t=5s
Required:
a. vf
b. s
Solution:
a. 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚
= 100 𝑠 + (3.0 × 5.0𝑠)
𝑠2
= 115 cm/s
𝑎𝑡 2
b. 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 +
2
3𝑐𝑚
𝑐𝑚 [ 2 ×(5𝑠)2]
𝑠
= (100 𝑠 × 5𝑠) + 2
= 537.5 cm
56
Rectilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration ( by Calculus )
Particle moving along a straight line is said to be in rectilinear motion
Position coordinate of a particle is defined by positive or negative distance of particle

from a fixed origin on the line
The motion of a particle is known if the position coordinate for particle is known
for every value of time t. Motion of the particle may be expressed in the form of
a function, e.g.,
x = 6t 2 − t 3
or in the form of a graph x vs. t.
57
58
Consider a particle with velocity v at time t and v’ at t + Dt,
Instantaneous acceleration
or decreasing negative velocity
59
Consider a particle with motion given by x = 6t − t
2 3
x = 6t 2 − t 3
dx
v= = 12t − 3t 2
dt
dv d 2x
a= = 2
= 12 − 6t
dt dt
at t = 0, x = 0, v = 0, a = 12 m/s2
at
60
t = 2 s, x = 16 m, v = vmax = 12 m/s, a = 0
at t = 4 s, x = xmax = 32 m, v = 0, a = -12 m/s2
at t = 6 s, x = 0, v = -36 m/s, a = 24 m/s2
Exercise 4A
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. A bus can go from rest to 55 kph in a period of 40s. What is the average
acceleration? How far has it gone in 40s?
2. Just as a bus start from rest, a car passed the same point with a speed of 50
kph. If the bus accelerated at 3m/s2, how long did it take them to be side-by-
side? How far were they from the common point?
3. The speed of an automobile changes from 20 kph to 70 kph through a distance

of 300m. What is the acceleration? How much time did it take the automobile
to cover the distance?
61
4. The position of a particle is given by X = ( 2t3 – 4t2 -12 )m. What is the position
when t=2s? What is the instantaneous velocity at t=3s? Compute for the
instantaneous acceleration at t=2s.
Rectilinear Motion: Velocity and Acceleration
Objectives :
To show the relationship between displacement and time for an object in motion.
To calculate velocity and acceleration of an object in linear motion.
Materials/ Apparatus
Linear Air Tract apparatus with accessories
Stop watch
Protractor
Procedures:
1. Familiarize yourself with the use of the linear air tract by doing a test run with
the apparatus on a level position.
62
2. If the glider does not slide smoothly, raise the end of the apparatus at an
angle of 5 – 10 degrees and try again.
3. Mark a starting point on the metered distance of the air tract. Measure
successive distances of 30, 50, 70, 90, and 110 cm, and mark these points
from the elevated end .
4. Using the stop watch, determine the time it will take the glider to cover the
distances from the same starting point. Make three trials for each distance.
5. Get the average value of time. Calculate the velocity and acceleration of the
glider applying the definitions
Ave. velocity = distance / ave. time
Acceleration = Ave velocity/ ave. time.
6. Repeat procedures 1 to 5, at an inclination of 300.
Data Tabulation and Results:
A. For 5-100 inclination
Distance ( cm )
Trials 30 50 70 90 110
Time ( seconds )
Average time
Velocity
Acceleration
63
B. For 300 inclination
Distance ( cm )
Trials 30 50 70 90 110
Time ( seconds )
Average time
Velocity
Acceleration
7. Construct a graph of time ( x-axis ) against distance ( y-axis ) using the data
in tables A and B. Use different colors of ink to distinguish the graphs.
64
Computations:
Generalization
Free Falling Bodies
When a falling body is free of all restraints – no friction, air, or otherwise, and
falls under the influence of gravity alone – it is said to be in a state of free fall. A free-
falling body is a body in a rectilinear motion wherein the acceleration is constant and is
equal to the acceleration due to gravity of the earth (g). the value of g varies slightly on
the earth’s surface depending upon how far the object is from the earth’s center. The
average value of g is 9.8 m/s2.
Considered as a body in uniformly accelerated motion, the equations for motion
of free-falling bodies are:
𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 ± 𝒈𝒕
𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝒔 = 𝒗𝒊 𝒕 ± 𝟐
𝒗𝒇 = √𝒗𝟐𝒊 ± 𝟐𝒈𝒔
NOTE:
The value of g assumes a negative sign if the object is rising (moving away from
the earth’s center) and assumes a positive sign if the object is falling (moving towards
the center of the earth).
65
Examples:
1. A ball was dropped from a cliff 40m high. Disregarding air resistance, (a) how
long did it take the ball to reach the ground? (b) What was its velocity upon
hitting the ground?
Given:
s = 40m
vi = 0 m/s (the ball was dropped)
Required:
a. Time of fall (t)
b. Final velocity (vf)
Solution:
𝑔𝑡 2 𝒈𝒕𝟐 2𝑠 2𝑠
a. 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 ± 𝒔 = 𝒗𝒊 𝒕 ± →𝑡 2 = →𝑡 = √
2 𝟐 𝑔 𝑔
9.8𝑡 2 2×40
40 = 0 + =√
2 9.8
2
80 = 9.8 𝑡 = 2.86 s
80
𝑡 = √9.8
= 2.86 s
b. 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 ± 𝑔𝑡
= 0 + (9.8 × 2.86)
= 28.03 m/s
2. A stone was thrown vertically upward with a speed, as it leaves the hand of
45m/s. Find: (a) the maximum height reached, (b) the time of ascend, and (c) the
total time in air.
Given:
•
Smax
•
•
Vi =45m/s
a. In going up the maximum height, the stone acquires a zero velocity at the
highest point. Thus,
𝑣𝑖
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑔𝑡 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑔𝑡 →𝑔𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 →𝑡 = 𝑔
45
0 = 45 − 9.8𝑡 = 9.8
45
= 9.8 = 4.59 s
66
= 4.59 s
𝑔𝑡 2
𝑠 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 − 2
9.8×4.592
= (45 × 4.59) − 2
= 206.55 − 103.23
= 103.32 m
b. The time of ascend is the time needed to reach the maximum height.
𝑡 = 4.59 𝑠
c. 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑑 + 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙
**𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑑 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 (air resistance is neglected)

𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 4.59 + 4.59
𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 9.18 𝑠
3. A ball was thrown vertically upward with an initial speed of 96 m/s. How high did
it rise? What was the velocity one second after it was thrown? Where the ball 2s
after it was thrown? ( measured above the ground)
Given: vf = 0
t
Vi = 96m/s
Required:
a. Maximum height attained
b. Velocity after 1s
c. Distance above the ground after 2s
Solution:
a. At max. H, vf = 0
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑔𝑡
𝑣
𝑡= 𝑖
𝑔
96
= 9.8
67
= 9.80 s
𝑔𝑡 2
𝑠 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 − 2
9.8×9.802
= (96 × 9.80) − 2
= 940.8 − 470.60
= 470.2 m
b. After 1s,
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑔𝑡
= 96 − (9.8 × 1)
= 86.2 m/s
c. After 2s
𝑔𝑡 2
𝑠 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 −
2
= 96 (2) – (9.8 x 22)/2
= 192 – 19.6
= 172.4m ( above the ground )
68
Exercise 4B
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. The maximum height attained by a marble thrown upward was experimentally

measured as 12.75ft. With what velocity was it thrown? How long did it stay in
air?
2. Two seconds after a stone was thrown upward, the speed was measured as 25
m/s. What was the velocity of projection? How far was the stone away from
the maximum attainable height?
3. A ball was dropped from a tower 50 m high. A second later, a marble was
thrown downward and was side-by-side with the ball when they were 3.75m
above the ground. With what speed was the marble thrown?
4. An object was thrown upward with an initial speed of 78m/s. How high did it
rise? What was the velocity when it was halfway up to maximum attainable
height?
69
Rectilinear Motion: Free – falling Bodies
Objectives
To experimentally determine the value of acceleration due to gravity through the

motion of a free falling body.
Materials
Metal ball
Stop watch
Meter stick
Procedures
1. Measure a height of 200 cm from the floor and mark this as the starting point.
2. Determine the time of fall of the ball from this height. Make three trials and
calculate the average value. Compute for the time interval
tave
t=
3
3. With the computed time interval, determine the position of the metal ball.
Repeat the procedure to collect three values. Record these positions as D 1.
4. From the same starting point, determine the position of the ball within twice
the time interval. Make three trials. Record the distances as D 2.
5. Using the average values of D1 and D2, compute for the experimental value of
the acceleration due to gravity, applying the formula
2( D2 − D1 )
g=
t2
where t = time interval
6. Compare the experimental value of g with the true value of 980m/s2 by

calculating the percentage of error.
70
A. Time of Fall of the Ball
Trial Distance Time of fall
Average
Time interval , t = _________s
B. Determination of g ( acceleration due to gravity )
Trial t1 = s t2 = s
D1 D2
Average
g ( experimental value) = _______________
g ( True Value ) = 980 m/s2
Percentage of error = _________
Computations
Generalization
71
Module 5
MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS
1. Describe motion using the concept of relative velocities in 1D and 2D.
2. Extend the definition of position, velocity and acceleration to 2D and 3D using
vector representations
3. Calculate range, time of flight, and maximum heights of projectiles
4. Differentiate uniform and non-uniform circular motions and infer quantities
associated with circular motion
5. Perform an experiment involving projectile motion
Our previous discussion dealt with motion along a straight line or rectilinear
motion. In this module, we shall consider the motion of a body in a curved path,
specifically that of a projectile and those in circular motion. Some examples of this type
of motion are those of a batted baseball, a bullet shot from a gun, the rotation of the
earth around the sun, a ball whirled at the end of a string, etc.
PROJECTILE MOTION
It is the motion of an object that is given an initial velocity and then allowed to
move under the influence of gravity.
Properties of a Projectile
1. Trajectory is the curved path followed by the projectile.

2. Time of Flight is the total time at which the projectile stays in air.
3. Range is the horizontal displacement covered by the projectile.
4. Height is the vertical displacement of the projectile.
Types of Projectile Motion

1. Object thrown horizontally from a certain height
Vo
s
y
x vx
H θ
vy V
T Vx
R θ
V
Vy
72
By virtue of its free-fall properties,
𝑔𝑡 2
𝐻= height
2
2𝐻
𝑡=√𝑔 time of flight
𝑅 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 range
At any time t:
The horizontal component of the velocity 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜 (there is no
acceleration along the horizontal because the motion is under the influence of
gravity).
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑔𝑡
The actual velocity tangent to the path is:
𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2
The body covers the displacements:
𝒙 = 𝒗𝒙 𝒕 (R)
𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝒚= (H)
𝟐
The actual displacement which is the resultant of the x and y components
is:
𝒔 = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐
2. Object thrown at an angle above the horizontal
Vx
Vo
Vyo
Height (H)
θ Vxo Vx
θ
Range (R)
Vy
The velocity given to the projectile can be resolved into the x and y
components :
𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒗𝒚 = 𝒗 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
73
The vertical component vy causes the body to travel upward and stop
then the projectile reaches the maximum height as the object starts to fall. The
equations for a projectile at an angle are:
(𝒗𝒐 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽)
𝑯=
𝟐𝒈
𝟐𝒗𝒚 (𝟐 𝒗𝒐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽)
𝒕= ; 𝒕=
𝒈 𝒈
𝑹 = 𝒗𝒙 𝒕
𝟐 𝒗 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
= 𝒗𝒐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 × 𝒐𝒈 , but 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = sin 2𝜃
𝒗𝟐𝒐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽
→𝑹 = 𝒈
Examples:
1. A cannon was fired with a muzzle velocity of 200 m/s, mounted at an angle of
30° above the ground. Calculate the (a) maximum height reached, (b) time of
flight, and (c)range of the projectile.
Given: Vo=200m/s
H
30o
Range
Solution:
(𝑣𝑜 2 sin2 𝜃)
a. 𝐻 = 2𝑔
2002×(sin 30°)2
= 2×9.8
10000
= 19.6
= 510.20 m
(2 𝑣𝑜 sin 𝜃)
b. 𝑡 = 𝑔
2×200×sin 30°
= 9.8
200
= 9.8
= 20.41 s
𝑣𝑜2 sin 2𝜃
c. 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑡
𝑔
2002 ×sin(2×30)°
= = 200 cos 30° × 20.41
9.8
34641.02
= 9.8 = 173.21 × 20.41
= 3534.80 m ≈ 3535.22
Exercise 5A
74
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________
1. A marble rolls off the edge of a table with a speed of 25 ft/s. If the table is
1.75m high, how far from its foot will the marble fall? With what velocity will it
hit the floor?
2. A ditch 2.5m wide crosses a trail bike path. An upward incline of 15 o was built
up on the approach so that the incline is level with the top of the other side of
the ditch. If the bike is 1.4m from the front to rear wheel, with what minimum
speed should the trail bike move to clear the ditch?
3. In a movie, a monster climbed to the top of a building 150m above the ground
and hurled a big rock with a speed of 35m/s at an angle of 25o below the
horizontal. How fast must Super Flash run towards the point of impact to catch
the rock, if he is 100 m away from the building?
75
4. The vertical component of the velocity of projection of a ball was 30m/s while
its horizontal component was 24m/s. What was the velocity of projection?
How high did the ball rise? How far away did it go? How long was the ball in
air?
5. William Tell is said to have shot an apple off his son’s head with an arrow. If
the arrow was shot with an initial speed of 55m/s and the boy was 10m away
from him, at what launch angle was the arrow aimed? ( Assume that the arrow
and the apple were on the same level above the ground )
6. A firefighter holds the nozzle of a hose a horizontal distance of 25m from a

flaming building. If the speed of the water coming from the hose is 20m/s ,
show that the stream will not reach a 3rd storey window 11m above the nozzle
level when the hose was aimed at 45o. At what angle should the hose be
aimed to put off the fire?
76
Projectile Motion: Motion in Two Dimensions
Objectives
Deduce the consequences of the independence of vertical and horizontal
components of velocities of projectile motion.
Determine the horizontal velocity of a projectile fired from a known height.
Materials/Apparatus
Ballistic Pendulum
Meter stick
Stop watch
Procedures
1. Set up the ballistic pendulum horizontally on edge of the table or platform.

2. Pull the trigger to release the metal ball at the same instant that the timer
starts. Mark the point where the ball lands on the floor and record the time it
hits the floor.
3. Compute for the horizontal velocity ( V x ) of the ball for each trial and the
corresponding vertical displacement ( dy ).
4. Measure the height where the projectile was fired. Compare this height with
the average value of dy in the experiment.
77
Height of projectile ___________ m
Trial Dx ( m ) T (s ) Vx ( m/s) dy ( m )
Average
Computations
Generalization
78
CIRCULAR MOTION
Circular motion is practically everywhere – from atoms to galaxies, from flagella
of bacteria to Ferris wheels, the hands of a clock, satellites going around the planets,
and the planets revolving around the sun.
Circular Motion is motion in two dimensions which can be described by
rectangular components. There are two terms frequently used to describe such motion:
the object rotates when the axis of rotation lies within the body, and the object
revolves when the axis of rotation is outside the body.
Whenever a body is in circular motion, it is usually more convenient to describe
its motion in terms of angular quantities and relate them with linear quantities.
Consider a particle P that moves from one point to another in a circle of radius r
(shown below).
P (x,y ) or (r,θ)
S
θ 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
rrRr (0,0) 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
Note that r is the same for any point on a given circle, and as the particle moves
around the circle, only 𝜃 changes.
Analogous to linear displacement is angular displacement designated as Ѳ and in

radian unit. A radian is an angle subtending an arc length (s) that is equal to the radius r.
Thus,
𝑠
𝜃=𝑟
𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃
𝑠
One full circle has an arc length equal to its circumference. Since 𝜃 = 𝑟 ,
therefore,
2𝜋𝑟
𝜃= = 2𝝅rad = 360°
𝑟
As the particle moves from one point to another, it gains angular velocity (𝜔),
the change in angular displacement with respect to time which is expressed in terms of
𝜃
rad/s. 𝜔= 𝑡
𝑠 𝑠
Since 𝜃 = 𝑟, 𝜔 = 𝑟𝑡
𝑠 𝑣
But 𝑣 = 𝑡 , 𝜔=𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 → linear velocity
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If the particle has a different angular velocity from the initial position to the final
position, it is said to be accelerated. The angular acceleration (α) expressed in rad/s2 is
defined as:
𝝎𝒇 −𝝎𝒊
𝜶= 𝒕
𝒗
With 𝝎=𝒓 , the linear acceleration is:
𝒂
𝑎 = 𝑟𝛼 and 𝜶= → angular acceleration
𝒓
Centripetal Acceleration
The term, originating from the words centre and petere meaning center and
towards respectively, refers to acceleration that is always directed to the center of a
circular path. This is not in the same direction as the linear velocity tangent to the
circular path.
The centripetal acceleration of the body moving in the circle depends on the
tangential velocity (v) and radius (r).
𝒗𝟐
𝒂𝒄 = 𝒓
In terms of angular speed:
(𝒓𝝎)𝟐
𝒂𝒄 = 𝒓
Simplifying:
𝒂𝒄 = 𝒓𝝎𝟐 → centripetal acceleration
Centripetal Force
The body in circular motion remains in its path by means of a center-seeking
force called the centripetal force. To provide a value for acceleration, a net inward force
is required. From Newton’s Second Law (𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎).
𝑭𝒄 = 𝒎𝒂𝒄
𝒎𝒗𝟐
→ 𝑭𝒄 = m = mass
𝒓
V = velocity
r = radius of path
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Example:
The minute hand of a clock is 12 cm long. What is the displacement in ten
minutes? What is the speed of the tip?
Given: 12
1 θ
Θ 2
9 3
6
Required:
a. 𝜃 after 10 min (600 s)
b. V of the tip
Solution:
a. After 10 min,
1 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 360° 2𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜃 = 10𝑚𝑖𝑛 × 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 × 1 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 360°
= 1.047 rad
b. The velocity of the tip

𝜃
𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔, and 𝜔 = 𝑡
𝒓𝜽
→𝑣 =
𝒕
12𝑐𝑚×1.047𝑟𝑎𝑑
= 600𝑠
= 0.021 rad/s
TRY THIS!
A particle at the rim of a flywheel makes 30 revolutions in 10 s. What is the
particle’s angular speed? If the diameter of the flywheel is 7.5 cm, what length of arc did
it cover in 10 s? What is the angular acceleration of the particle?
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Exercise 5B
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. A 3200 lb car is to round a curve whose radius of curvature is 150m. If it runs

at a speed of 100 kph, how much force is required to remain on the track?
2. A compact disc ( CD ) accelerates uniformly from rest until its operational

speed of 500 rpm in 3.5s. What is the angular acceleration of the CD (a) during
this time? (b) after this time? ( c ) If the CD comes uniformly to a stop in 4.5s,
what is the angular acceleration?
3. A wheel with a diameter of 14 inches carries a 0.35-lb particle at its rim. If the
particle makes 30 revs in 2min, what is the angular speed in rad/s? (b) calculate
the angular acceleration and the centripetal force.
4. At sunset, the Sun has an angular width of 0.50o. From the time the lower edge
of the Sun touches the horizon, in about how many minutes would it
disappear? ( use the distance of earth from sun as radius of the path)
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5. A wheel makes 40 revolutions in 10s. It covers a linear distance of 500 ft in
1.0min. What is the diameter of the wheel?
6. The minute hand of a clock is 6.0 in long. How far does the tip move in a 50-min
class period? If the hour hand is 4.0 in, how many degrees was it displaced
within this period?
7. A stone weighing 75 grams was tied at the end of a string 40cm long, then
whirled in a vertical circle with a speed of 16 rpm. What was the angular
acceleration of the stone? How much force was applied to keep the stone in
circular motion ?
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Module 6
FORCE AND NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
1. Define inertial frames of reference, distinguish mass from weight, and
differentiate contact and non contact forces.
2. Draw free body diagrams in applying Newton’s second law of motion and solve
problems involving concepts of Newton’s Laws of motion
3. Show appreciation to the applications of gravitation
4. Differentiate the properties of static and kinetic friction and explain their
advantages and disadvantages to bodies in motion
5. Define Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation; differentiate impulse from
momentum
6. Plan and execute an experiment about Newton’s Second Law of Motion
The previous modules pointed out that dynamics deals with the effects of forces
on the motion of bodies. In this module, we shall confine our study to the kinetics of
translation.
The complex science of mechanics has been simplified by three natural laws
which are principally based on the observations of the great English physicist and
mathematician Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). It was Newton who first formulated the
laws most completely and accurately, which is why they were called Newton’s Laws of
Motion.
Newton’s laws are not valid in an accelerating frame such as when the
observation is made while riding in a rocket ship that is accelerating past the earth.
However, it is valid for non-accelerating frame or any other frame h which moves with
constant velocity with respect to the first frame – the initial frame.
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW

Otherwise known as the Law of Inertia, it states: “A body at rest remains at rest,
and a body in motion continues to move with constant velocity in a straight line, unless,
in either case, it is acted upon by an unbalanced force or a nonzero resultant force.”
Any body at rest certainly has forces acting on it but analysis will reveal that the
resultant of these forces is zero. For example, a book lying on a table is at rest because
the forces acting on it – its weight due to gravity and the upward force of the table
equal in magnitude with the weight but acting upward – are balanced. Also, a car
traveling at constant velocity maintains its motion unless it is accelerated by some
external force that produces a nonzero resultant force on it.
Implications:
1. It is necessary to exert force to maintain the motion of a body, but a force is
required to set or stop its motion.
2. Zero resultant force means NO force at all on a body (𝑅 = 0).
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3. Equilibrium is a physical state or condition in which the resultant force is zero
and the body has no acceleration. (𝛴𝐹 = 0, 𝑎 = 0)
4. Inertia is a measure of the tendency of the body to stay at rest, or of an object in
motion to maintain its original velocity.
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW: The Law of Acceleration
“The change in motion of the body is proportional to the motive force acting
upon it, and is made in the direction of the straight line in which the force acts.”
Consider a block of mass m, acted upon by the external unbalanced force F as

shown in the figure.
a
F
The applied force F imparts acceleration to the block which varies inversely to
the mass and is directed to the line of action of the force.
𝐹
𝑎∝𝑚
𝑘𝐹
Since the mass of the body is constant, 𝑎 = , where k is the characteristic of
𝑚
the space. If 𝑘 = 1, then:
𝑭
𝒂=𝒎
or simply, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 where: a = acceleration
𝐹 = unbalanced force
m = mass
Units of Force
System Force (F) Mass (m) Acceleration (a)

MKS (SI Units) Newton (N) kilogram (kg) m/s2
CGS Dyne (dyn) gram (g) cm/s2
English Pound (lb) Slugs ft/s2
NOTE:
The unbalanced force is taken as the summation of all forces acting in the
direction of motion.
Implications:
1. The law shows a quantitative relationship between the resultant force, mass,
and acceleration of the body.
2. It is valid for conditions where mass is constant and velocity is low compared to
the velocity of light.
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3. Acceleration is proportional to the unbalanced force and is in the same direction
in a straight line.
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW: The Law of Interaction

“To every action, there is an equal but opposite reaction.” Or, “the mutual
actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal and directed towards contrary
parts.”
Forces always occur in pairs. They are equal I magnitude and have the same line
of action but act in opposite directions. Either force may be considered action or
reaction. Cause and effect is not implied, but a mutual simultaneous reaction.
1 2
𝐹12 = −𝐹21
where: 𝐹12 is the force exerted by particle 1 on particle 2
𝐹21 is the force exerted by particle 2 on particle 1
Examples:
1. A force of 10N is applied to a 4-kg block which is at rest on a level surface. If the
force set the block to motion, find (a) the acceleration imparted, (b) the velocity
of the block after 3 seconds, and (c) the distance it has gone after 5 seconds
Given:
a=?
F=10N vi =0
vf
t=0 t = 3.0s t=6.0s
Solution: S
𝐹
a. 𝑎 = 𝑚
10 𝑁
= 4 𝑘𝑔
= 2.5 m/s2
b. 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
= 0 + (2.5 × 3)
= 7.5 m/s
𝑎𝑡 2
c. 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 2
2.5×52
= = 31.25m
2
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2. An elevator and its load weigh 300N. Compute for the tension on the cable
supporting the elevator if it is going up at 2 m/s2. What is the tension when the
elevator is going down at the same rate?
Given:
(a) T (b) T
a=2m/s2
a=2m/s2
W= 300N W = 300N
Solution:
a. 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (upward)
𝑇 − 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑊
𝑚= 𝑔
𝑊
𝑇−𝑊 = ×𝑎
𝑔
300
𝑇 − 300 = 9.8 × 2
𝑇 = 61.22 + 300
= 361.22 N
b. 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (downward)
𝑊 − 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑎
300
300 − 𝑇 = 9.8 × 2
300 − 61.22 = 𝑇
= 238.78 N
NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Gravitational force is of primary importance in the interactions of large objects.
It binds us to the earth and holds the earth and other planets together in the solar
system. It also plays an important role in the evolution of stars and in the behavior of
different galaxies.
Newton’s Law of Gravitation states that: “Every particle of matter in the universe
attracts every particle with a force that acts along the line joining the centers of the
particles.
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R12
F1 F2
m1 m2
The force is proportional to the product of the masses of the particles, but
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
In equation:
𝑮𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐𝟏𝟐
where: 𝐺= universal gravitation constant

= 6.672 × 10−11N-m2/kg2
𝑅12 = center to center distance between two particles (m)
𝑚1 , 𝑚2 = gravitational masses of particles 1 & 2 respectively (kg)
IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

When fast-moving vehicles crash into each other, they exchange more than just
energy. They seem to exchange some quantity of motion associated with a particular
direction. Momentum is the measure of a body’s translational motion – its tendency to
continue moving in a particular direction.
According to Newton’s second law,

𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
𝜟𝒗
However, acceleration is defined as: 𝒂 = . Therefore,
𝒕
𝜟𝒗
𝑭=𝒎 𝒕
Rearranging the equation will give
𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚𝛥𝑣 →Impulse-Momentum Theorem
𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )
The product of the force and the time through which it acts is called impulse (I),
and the product of the mass and the velocity at which the body moves is its momentum
(P, progress). Impulse produces a change in the momentum of the body as the velocity
changes due to an acceleration that may be acquired from varying magnitudes of force
applied to it.
Momentum is transferred to a body in motion by giving it an impulse. This
impulse is the force exerted on it for a certain amount of time.
Thus, 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 (𝑰) = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

And in terms of momentum,
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 (𝑃) = 𝑚(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )
88
Momentum is a vector quantity which obeys the direction of the velocity.
Impulse is also a vector quantity directed in the same way as the force applied to it.
Both are expressed in units of mass and velocity such as kg-m/s, g-cm/s, and slug-ft/s.
“The harder and longer you push a sled forward at the start of a race, the more
momentum it will have when it starts down the hill”
FRICTION
We saw that it is necessary, in order to ascertain the state of motion of a body,
to consider the combined effects of all the forces that act upon the body. Next to
gravity, another important force to be considered is friction. Whenever an object moves
or tends to move while in contact with another object or medium, there is a force
always present which opposes motion or tendency of motion. This force is called
friction.
There are three kinds of friction: sliding (static or kinetic) friction, rolling friction,
and viscous friction. Sliding and rolling friction apply to the relative motion, or the
tendency of motion, of one solid body to another solid body. Viscous friction comes into
play when a body moves through a fluid (i.e., a liquid or a gas).
The effects of friction are at times desirable and at other times undesirable. If
not for friction, we would not be able to stand on the floor. Ceiling fans will not hold if
not for friction between the ceiling and the screw. Friction causes wear between contact
surfaces and it generates much heat. It also causes loss of work.
Empirical Laws of Frictional Force

1. Frictional force is independent of the areas in contact.
2. Frictional force is directly proportional to normal force.
3. Static friction is greater than kinetic friction.
4. Frictional force is independent of the relative velocity of the sliding surfaces.
Coefficient of Friction (μ)

• A dimensionless constant relating the magnitude of the frictional force and the
normal force.
• Range: 0.01 – 1.5
• Depends on many variables: nature of the surfaces in contact, surface finish,
surface films, and temperature.
Coefficients of Static and Kinetic Friction
Consider a block on a table top under the action of an applied force as shown in
the figure.
a
F
f
W FN
89
𝑓𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 𝐹𝑁
𝑓
𝜇𝑠 = 𝐹𝑠
𝑁
where: 𝑓𝑠 = maximum friction necessary to maintain static condition
𝜇𝑠 = coefficient of static friction
𝐹𝑁 = perpendicular force pressing the surfaces together (normal force)
When the value of the frictional force is exceeded by the applied force F, the
block will be set to motion but friction still exists between the surfaces. The force of
friction is called kinetic frictional force (𝑓𝑘 ). The coefficient of kinetic friction is defined
as:
𝒇
𝝁𝒌 = 𝑭 𝒌
𝑵
The relationship of the frictional force to the applied force is illustrated in the
following graph:
Kinetic friction
Static friction
Applied force F
Example:
How much force applied parallel to the horizontal plane will cause a box with a mass
of 20kg in contact with the plane, to be in impending motion? The coefficient of static
friction is 0.250.
Given: a
F=?
fs
FN W=mg
Solution:
To impend motion of the box, 𝛴𝐹 = 0.
𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝐹𝑁 − 𝑊 = 0
𝐹𝑁 = 𝑊
𝐹𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔
= 20 × 9.8
90
= 196 N
𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝐹 − 𝑓𝑠 = 0
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑠
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑠 𝐹𝑁 = 0.250 × 196
= 49 N
TRY THESE:
1. A metal ball weighing 10N rolls along a rough floor and covers a distance of 1.5m
after a period of 20s starting from rest. Find the coefficient of friction between
the floor and the ball when a force of 5N was applied parallel to it. (B) If the ball
is made to roll down a 30o surface with the same coefficient of friction and
starting force, what acceleration will it attain?
2. What must be the inclination of a plane so that a 15-kg body will slide freely with
a speed of 0.86 m/s2 against friction whose coefficient is 0.15?
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Exercise 6A
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. A girl pushes a 20-kg lawn mower with a force of 40N applied at an angle of 40 o
to the ground. (a) what is the acceleration of the mower? 9(b) What is the
normal force exerted by the lawn on the mower? Ignore friction.
2. A frictionless ramp 150m long is to be built for a ski jump. If a skier starting
from the top is to have a speed no faster than 25m/s at the bottom, what must
be the maximum angle of inclination of the ramp?
3. Consider the forces acting on the 5-kg block shown below. If friction is
neglected, find the acceleration caused by the forces. (B) what third force will
keep the block in place?
F1=30N F2=10N
20o 45o
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Exercise 6B
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. Three blocks with masses of 1kg, 2kg, and 3kg are connected to each other by
light strings with equal distances from each other. The system is pulled by a
horizontal force of 18N at the 3kg block ( last in the system ). If the coefficient
of friction between surfaces in contact is 0.12, find the acceleration of the
system and the tension in each section of the string.
2. A 9.0-kg object lies on a surface whose coefficient of friction is 0.35. Would a

horizontal force of 30N cause the object to move from rest? If so, what will be
its acceleration?
3. A fruit crate weighing 10N is placed on top of a 30o plane. If the coefficient of
friction between the crate and the plane is 0.65, will the crate slide down the
plane?
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4. We commonly say that friction opposes motion. Yet, when we walk, the force
of friction is in the direction of our motion. Is this consistent with Newton’s
second law? Justify your answer.
5. An object weighs 300N while on Earth. What will happen to the inertia of the
same object when it is brought to the moon?
6. For the given system below, calculate the acceleration of the masses given a
coefficient of friction of 0.3 for all contact surfaces.
M1=20kg
M2=12kg
W2
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Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Objectives
To demonstrate and verify the relationship between force, mass and acceleration
of a body in motion.
Atwood’s Machine Apparatus
2 Weight hangers of the same size and weight
Slotted set of weights
Stop watch
Meter stick
String ( 1.5m long )
Procedures
1. Set up the Atwood’s machine such that the two weight hangers having equal
masses of 100g are at the same level. Mark this as the starting point.
2. Add a small mass ( about 5g ) to one of the hangers and check if the system
will start to move. If not, gradually increase the added mass until the system
is set to uniform motion. This added mass is called the accelerating force.
3. Determine the total time of ascend / descend of the system. Make three trials
and compute for the average value of the time.
4. Divide the average value of time into three to get the time interval, t.
5. With the time interval t, find the position of the ascending mass, referred to
the level position of the pans before they are released. Record this position
as D1. Make three trials.
6. Repeat procedure 5, this time after twice as the time interval t. Record the
positions as D2.
7. Calculate the experimental acceleration of the system using the average
values of D1 and D2 in the formula
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2( D2 − D1 )
a=
t2
where t = time interval ( from table I )
8. Perform procedures 1 to 6 using another accelerating force.

9. Compare the experimental acceleration with the theoretical acceleration for
the system.
Table I. Total Time of Descend/Ascend
Trial Accelerating force ( AF1) Accelerating force (AF2)
Average
Time interval
Table II. Determination of Acceleration
Trial Accelerating force (AF1) Accelerating force (AF2)
D1 D2 D1 D2
Average
a (experimental)
a (theoretical)
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Computations
(980 )( AF )
Theoretical acceleration =
m1 + m2 + AF
Generalization:
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Module 7
WORK AND POWER
1. Define the work done by a force acting on a system and interpret work in one
dimension as an area under a force versus position curve
2. Relate power to work, force and velocity
3. Solve daily-life situation problems about work and power
In popular language, the word work is used to denote any form of physical or
mental effort. It may suggest activities that we do, but not necessarily enjoy. Your father
going to office every day, your mother doing the household chores, you doing
homework – all suggest work to be done.
In Physics, the term work is employed in a technical sense only. If physical
translational work is to be accomplished, two things are necessary:
1. A force must be done on a body, and
2. The body must move in such a way that its displacement has a component
parallel to the direction in which the force is acting
As an example, consider work done on an object which a man lifts through a

vertical height and then carries it as he walks horizontally, keeping it at the same height.
Technically, work is done only in the lifting process. The lifting force acts vertically and
displaces the object upward. During the walking process, the force necessary to support
the object is vertical but the direction of motion is horizontal. No work is accomplished
by the force supporting the object.
Mathematically,
a. a
F
b. F
The work (W) done by the force (F) is defined as the product of the displacement
(s) and the component of F parallel to the direction of the displacement.
98
In equation form,
𝑖𝑛 𝑎 , 𝑊 = 𝐹 × 𝑠
𝑖𝑛 𝑏, 𝑊 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 × 𝑠
Although work is a product of two vector quantities, it is a scalar quantity. Being

the product of force and displacement, work has the following units in the three basic
units of measurement:
System Work Force Displacement

SI Joule (J) Newton (N) Meter (m)
Metric (cgs) Erg Dyne (dyn) Centimeter (cm)
English Foot-pound (ft-lb) Pound (lb) Foot (ft)
Conversion:
1 Joule = 1 x 107 ergs
1 ft-lb = 1.356 Joules
1 calorie = 4.186 Joules
Work done by Macroscopic Forces

1. Work done by gravitational force (𝑊𝑔 )
a. On the particle moving along the horizontal surface/direction
S
𝑊𝑔 = 0
Weight (W)
b. Upward motion along an incline

S
𝑊𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 cos(90 + 𝜙) × 𝑠
φ weight (W)
c. Downward motion along an incline

S
φ
𝑊𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 cos(90 − 𝜙) × 𝑠 weight (W)
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d. Vertical motion upwards
𝑊𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 × 𝑠 × cos 180° S
𝑊𝑔 = −(𝑚𝑔 × 𝑠)
Weight (W)
e. Vertical motion downwards
𝑊𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 × 𝑠 × cos 0°
𝑊𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 × 𝑠 S
f. Against gravity Weight (W)
Wg = - Wg
2. Work done by the Normal Force (𝑊𝑁 )

Normal force is perpendicular to the surface on which the body slides.
Therefore,
𝑊𝑁 = 0 Weight (W)
FN
3. Work done by frictional force (𝑊𝑓 )
a. Static friction : no motion (body is at rest)
b. Kinetic friction : opposite the motion of the body

𝑊𝑓 = −𝑓 × 𝑠
c. Against friction
𝑊𝑓 = 𝑓 × 𝑠
100
NOTE:
Since work is a scalar quantity, the total work done by several forces on
the body is the arithmetic sum of the individual works done by each force. It is
equal to the work done by the resultant force.
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑊𝑔 + 𝑊𝑁 + 𝑊𝑓 … … = 𝑊𝑅
Examples:
1. How much work is done when a 4-kg package is pushed by a horizontal force of
10N to a distance of 5m along a level floor, friction being negligible?
Given:
W = mg
F = 10N
5m
Since there is no resistance t the motion of the body,

𝑊 =𝐹×𝑠
= 10𝑁 × 5𝑚
= 50 N-m or 50 J
2. A constant pull of 60N is applied at an angle of 45° with the horizontal, on a crate
weighing 100N. If the coefficient of friction between the crate and the floor is
0.2, how much work is done by the force after moving through a distance of 15
meters? What amount of work was wasted due to friction?
Given:
W=100N F=60N
45o
μ=0.2
Solution:
Since friction affects the motion of the crate, the total force that do work
is:
𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹 cos 45° − 𝑓
= 60 cos 45° − 𝜇𝐹𝑁
From 𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0,
𝐹𝑁 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐹 sin 45°
= 100 − 42.43
= 57.57
= 60 cos 45° − (0.2 × 57.57)
= 42.43 − 11.51
𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 30.92 N
101
a. 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 × 𝑠
= 30.92 × 15
= 463.8 J
b. 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑓 × 𝑠

= 11.51 × 15
= 172.65 J
POWER
Very often, we are interested not only with the amount of work that an agent
can perform but also in the speed the certain amount of work is accomplished. As an
example, suppose two men of the same body build and mass are to transfer 50 sacks of
cement to a different location by lifting. If man A finishes his work ahead of B, we say
that A develops more power than B, though both men did the same amount of work.
The word power is employed to represent the time rate of doing work. When a
quantity of work (𝑊) is performed in a time interval (𝑡), the average power is defined by
the relation
𝑊
𝑃=
𝑡
But 𝑊 = 𝐹 × 𝑠, and 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡. Therefore,
𝐹×𝑣𝑡
𝑃=
𝑡
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣, where 𝑣 is the average velocity of the body on which work is
done.
NOTE:
Power is constant if the work is performed at a uniform rate. However, if the
work done varies during succeeding time intervals, the power fluctuates.
Units of Power
1 Watt = 107 ergs/s = 1 J/s
1 horsepower = 550 ft-lb/s
= 33000ft-lb/min
= 746 Watts
1 kW = 1000 Watts
= 1.34 Hp
1 ft-lb/s = 1.356 Watts
1 Hp-h = 1.98 x 106 ft-lb
1 kW-h = 3.6 x 106 Joules
102
Example:
1. A 60-kg boy walks up a flight of stairs 10 meters high in 30 seconds. How much
power did he spend?
Solution:
𝑊 𝐹 × 𝑠 𝑊𝑡 × 𝑠
𝑃= = →
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑊𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔
= 60 × 9.8
= 588 N
588𝑁×10𝑚
𝑃= 30𝑠
= 196 Watts
2. How much power is expended in dragging a 100-kg log down a 30o hill, by a force
of 700N which give the log a constant speed of 1m/s. ( Neglect friction )
V=1m/s
F = 700N
30o Wsin30o = 490N
Solution
W=mg =100 x 9.8 = 980N
P = Work / time = F x v
F = 700N + Wsin30o = 1190N
P = 1190N x 1m/s = 1190 J/s = 1190 Watts
103
Exercise 7A
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. What is the work done by your carrying force on a backpack as you walk across
the campus? Explain your answer.
2. A 10-kg log is pulled along a rough floor by means of a rope that makes an
angle of 45o with the floor. The coefficient of friction between the log and the
floor is 0.28. If the rope can sustain a maximum tension of 40N applied for a
period of 5s, how much work is done? (B) what amount of work is done against
friction?
3. A 5.0-kg box slides down an incline 1.5m long, offering friction with a surface
coefficient of 0.36. What is the angle of inclination of the surface? (B) what is
the net work done, and by what force?
104
Exercise 7B
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. A constant horizontal force of 20N is required to move a box with uniform

speed along a rough floor. If the force does work at a rate of 55W, how fast is
the box moving? (B) How much work is done in 2.5s?
2. A 25-kg child slides down a playground slide 20 ft long, from a height of 4m

above the bottom. If her speed at the bottom is 2.7m/s, how much energy is
lost to friction?
3. A motor rated at 1.0Hp is used to lift water out of a well 32m deep. If the
motor efficiency is 90%, how many kg of water can be lifted in one minute?
4. In order to maintain his weight, Deejay consumes 7.5 x 106 joules of energy
per day. What is the average power that he produce in one day.
105
Work and Potential Energy
Objectives
To evaluate the work done by a single force on a system.
To calculate the potential energy of the body acted upon by a single force.
Materials/Apparatus
Meter stick wooden block with hook
Spring balance inclined plane
Set of weights string
Procedure
1.Measure the weight of the wooden block. Attach one end of the string to the
hook and place an additional weight of 100g. Connect the other end of the string to the
spring balance . With the plane on a horizontal position, let the block to travel a distance
of 100 cm by hanging masses in the spring balance. Record the spring balance reading
while the block is in motion.
2. For the second trial, use the same weight on the block, incline the plane at
150, then hang another mass in the balance. Let the block to cover the same distance.
Record the reading of the spring scale.
3. Repeat procedure 2, at inclinations of 300 and 450.
4. solve for the work and potential energy of the body in all configurations
106
Trial Force (N) Distance Work Weight Height Potential

(m) (Joule) (N) (m) Energy(J)
Computations
Work = force x distance
Potential Energy = weight x height
Generalization
107
Module 8
ENERGY
1. Relate the work done by a constant force to change in kinetic energy of a system
2. Represent the work – energy theorem graphically and apply it to obtain
qualitative and quantitative conclusion regarding the work done, initial and final
velocity, mass, and kinetic energy of a system
3. Explain the Law of Conservation of Energy verbally and mathematically
4. Relate gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy to
configuration of the body or the system.
5. Plan and execute an experiment about work and potential energy.
Have you ever felt as if you don’t have enough “energy” to get up in the
morning? Just as work has a slightly different meaning in science from its meaning in
everyday speech, so does the word energy. In physics and engineering, the word energy
is used in a strictly technical sense
Energy is defined as a measure of the capacity or the ability to perform work.
Energy and work are closely related. For example, a wound catch string possesses
energy because it is able to do work by moving the watch mechanism, steam within the
cylinder of an engine can move the piston within the cylinder, a moving bullet, a
rotating flywheel, and a moving motorcycle give evidence to the energy they posses
through the fact that they do work during the process of being brought to rest. The units
in which energy is expressed are the same as the units of work.
Energy has become an extremely important commodity. We consume and use
energy everyday – from the food that we eat, the gasoline which makes our
automobiles move, and the electrical energy that give us heat and light.
Energy can come in many forms, but here, we shall focus our discussion more on
mechanical energy.
FORMS OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

The mechanical energy that a body or a system of bodies possesses may appear
in either or both of two forms: potential or kinetic energy. Potential energy is the
energy due to the relative motion of the interacting bodies, while kinetic energy us due
to their motion.
Potential Energy
Potential energy is the capacity of the body to do work as a result of its position
or configuration. Two most commonly encountered types of mechanical potential
energy are the gravitational potential energy and the elastic potential energy.
1. Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE) is acquired by a body by virtue of the fact
that it has been lifted vertically against the gravitational force of the earth’s
attraction. It can do work because of its position
108
Quantitatively, GPE is proportional to the height ( ) above some datum plane.
GPE
W = mg
datum plane
From the definition of work 𝑊 = 𝐹 × 𝑠 where 𝑊 is equivalent to the GPE, 𝐹 is

the weight (𝑚𝑔), and 𝑠 is the height ( ), the equation for GPE is:
𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2. Elastic Potential Energy (EPE) is acquired by a body when work is done against
elastic forces acting on it. When we stretch a rubber band, we perform work on
it, and it acquires elastic potential energy. Elastic bodies are those that have the
ability to return to their original forms and size after the application of external
forces. The spring used in a clock is an elastic body.
Elastic potential energy is given by the equation

𝒌𝒙𝟐
𝐸𝑃𝐸 = where: 𝑘 is the spring constant
𝟐
𝑥 is the spring displacement
109
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy acquired by a body due to its motion as a result of
the external forces acting on it.
a
F
Vi Vf
S
The work done on the body is represented by:

𝑊 =𝐹×𝑠
Since 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎,
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑎 × 𝑠, where 𝐹 (𝑚𝑎) is constant during the displacement (𝑠).
If 𝐹 is not constant…
𝑊 =𝐹×𝑠
Since 𝑊 is equivalent to 𝐾𝐸, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 and, from the equation
2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑣𝑖2 ,
𝑣𝑓2 −𝑣𝑖2
𝑠= 2𝑎
,
𝑣𝑓2 −𝑣𝑖2
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑎 × 2𝑎
Simplifying, the equation becomes:
𝑚(𝑣𝑓2 −𝑣𝑖2 )
𝐾𝐸 = 2
And for any speed:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐾𝐸 = 2
WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
The work-energy theorem states that “the total work done on any particle by the
resultant force is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the body.”
𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑣𝑖2
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚( )
2𝑠
𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑣𝑖2
𝛴𝐹 × 𝑠 = 𝑚( )
2
𝑚𝑣𝑓2 𝑚𝑣𝑖2
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = −
2 2
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖

𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝛥𝐾𝐸 →Work-Energy Theorem
Examples:
110
1. What is the kinetic energy of a baseball whose mass is 200 grams when it is
thrown with a velocity of 16 m/s?
Solution:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐾𝐸 = 2
0.20 𝑘𝑔×(16𝑚/𝑠)2
= 2
= 25.6 J
2. By virtue of its position, what is the energy possessed by a rock weighing 4500 lb
which lies on the edge of a cliff 150 m high?
Solution:
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 4500 𝑙𝑏 W=4500lb
3.28𝑓𝑡
ℎ = 150𝑚 × 1𝑚 = 492 𝑓𝑡 h = 150m
= 4500 𝑙𝑏 × 492 𝑓𝑡
= 2214000 ft-lb
= 2.214 x 106 ft-lb
3. A 0.5-kg ball acquires 28 Joules of work after it is hit by a batter. What is the
velocity of the ball?
Solution:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐾𝐸 = 2
0.5 𝑘𝑔 ×𝑣 2
28 𝐽 =
2
𝟐 𝟐𝑲𝑬
𝒗 = 𝒎
𝟐×𝟐𝟖
= 𝟎.𝟓
𝑣 = √112
= 10.58 m/s
CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

One of the most important principles in physical sciences is that of conservation
of energy, which can be stated as follows: “Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, although it is subject to change from one form to another.”
Detection and measurement of energy is the most painstaking experiment to do

since an equal amount appears in one or several forms when it disappears in one form.
111
When energy is changed from mechanical to electrical form as in a generator, from
electrical to light form as in a lamp, or from translational to rotational form as in the
reciprocating mechanism of an engine, some of the energy is expended in work against
friction and some of this energy is wasted.
Energy may be changed from potential to kinetic or vice versa, but is never lost in
the system. If a conservative force is the only force acting on the body in consideration,
then
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝛥𝐾𝐸 = −𝛥𝑃𝐸
The total mechanical energy is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies.
𝑀𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸
Example:
A stone whose mass is 0.2 kg was dropped from a point 44.1 meters above the
ground. Show how mechanical energy is conserved in the motion of the stone.
Given: Vi=0
vi = 0
H = 44.1 m y W=mg t=1s
m = 0.2 kg
H=44.1m h1
2ℎ 2×44.1
t=√𝑔 = √ =3 s t=2s
9.8
Solution: h2
From the top, ℎ = 44.1 𝑚
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ ground
= 0.5 × 9.8 × 44.1
= 216.09 J
𝑣 = 0 (no motion)
𝐾𝐸 = 0
When 𝑡 = 1𝑠…
ℎ1 = ℎ − 𝑦
𝑔𝑡 2
𝑦= 2
9.8×12
= 2
= 4.9 m
= 44.1 − 4.9
= 39.2 m
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ1
= 0.5 × 9.8 × 39.2
112
= 192.08 J
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐾𝐸 = 2
𝑣 = 𝑔𝑡
= 9.8 × 1
= 9.8 m/s
0.5×9.82
= 2
= 24.01 J
9.8×22
𝑦= 2
= 19.6 m
ℎ2 = 44.1 − 19.6
= 24.5 m
𝑃𝐸 = 0.5 × 9.8 × 24.5

= 120.05 J
𝑣 = 9.8 × 2
= 19.6 m/s
0.5×19.62
𝐾𝐸 = 2
= 96.04 J
9.8×32
𝑦= 2
= 44.1 m
ℎ3 = 44.1 − 44.1
=0m
𝑃𝐸 = 0.5 × 9.8 × 0
=0J
𝑣 = 9.8 × 3
= 29.4 m/s
0.5×29.42
𝐾𝐸 =
2
= 216.09 J
113
In table form:
Time (s) Height (m) Velocity (m/s) PE (J) KE (J)

2ℎ 𝑔𝑡 2 (𝑔𝑡) (𝑚𝑔ℎ) 𝑚𝑣 2
(√ 𝑔 ) (ℎ − ) ( )
2 2
0 44.1 0 216.09 0
1 39.2 9.8 192.08 24.01
2 24.5 19.6 120.05 96.04
3 0 29.4 0 216.09
It can be clearly interpreted from the table shown that as the stone falls from the
top of the cliff, it loses potential energy and at the same time acquires velocity due to
the gravitational force, leading to the acquisition of kinetic energy.
The table also shows clearly that the maximum potential energy of the stone at
the top of the cliff is equal to its maximum kinetic energy when it reached the ground.
TRY THIS
An able-bodied fisherman pulls the rope of the boat’s sail up to the top of its
mast 25 ft high. If the sail weighs 150 lbs and the wind is blowing westward at
7.5 kph, how much power does the fisherman spend? (B) what is the potential
energy of the sail halfway to the top of the mast?
114
Exercise 8
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. A 0.75-kg ball with a speed of 12m/s hits a wall and bounces back with only
75% of the original speed. How much kinetic energy is lost due to the
collision with the wall?
2. To store exactly 2.0 Joules of potential energy in a spring for which

k=45N/m, how much should the spring be stretched beyond its equilibrium
length?
3. A golfer hits the ball off the tee with a speed of 250m/s at an angle of 65 o
above the ground. What is the maximum potential energy of the ball? (B)
what is the kinetic energy halfway up to the maximum attainable height?
115
Module 9
MECHANICAL WAVE AND SOUND
At the end of the module, the students are expected to:
1. Define mechanical waves , longitudinal wave, transverse wave, and sinusoidal
wave
2. Calculate the propagation speed, power transmitted by waves on a string, with
given tension, mass, and length.
3. Show relations between wave velocity, frequency, and wavelength
4. Describe the different properties of wave
5. Relate the frequency and wavelength of sound with the motion of source and
the listener.
6. Solve problems involving sound and mechanical waves
7. Plan and execute an experiment about properties of waves and sound.
Have you been to a lake? Remember the still water, so calm that it makes you
feel relaxed and peaceful. Suddenly, a small pebble dropped on the lake surface. You
saw ripples around the spot where the little stone fell, disturbing the water’s
tranquility. And as the stone goes deeper into the water, the small waves on the
surface began to disappear. The ripples made by the fallen pebble are called waves,
and the manner it was propagated is referred to as wave motion.
In physics wave motion is a mechanism by which energy is conveyed from one
place to another in mechanically propagated waves without the transference of
matter. At any point along the path of transmission a periodic displacement, or
oscillation, occurs about a neutral position. The oscillation may be of air molecules, as
in the case of sound traveling through the atmosphere; of water molecules, as in waves
occurring on the surface of the ocean; or of portions of a rope or a wire spring. In each
of these cases the particles of matter oscillate about their own equilibrium position and
only the energy moves continuously in one direction. Such waves are called mechanical
because the energy is transmitted through a material medium, without a mass
movement of the medium itself. The only form of wave motion that requires no
material medium for transmission is the electromagnetic wave; in this case the
displacement is of electric and magnetic fields of force in space.
.
Types of Wave
Waves are divided into types according to the direction of the displacements in
relation to the direction of motion of the wave itself. If the vibration is parallel to the
direction of motion, the wave is known as a longitudinal wave. Longitudinal waves are
always mechanical because it results from successive compressions (state of maximum
density and pressure) and rarefactions (state of minimum density and pressure) of the
medium. Sound waves typify this kind of wave motion.
Another type of wave is the transverse wave, in which the vibrations are at right
angles, or perpendicular, to the direction of motion. Transverse waves may be
116
mechanical such as a wave projected in a taut string that is subjected to a transverse
vibration. They may also be electromagnetic, such as light, x-ray and radio waves. Some
mechanical wave motions such as waves in the surface of a liquid are combinations of
both longitudinal and transverse motions, resulting in the circular motion of liquid
particles.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FREQUENCY, VELOCITY, AND WAVELENGTH
A wave can be characterized by its wavelength, but we can also characterize it by

the frequency (how many wavelengths pass a fixed point in a given time; think of sitting
on the dock---of the bay---counting the number of water waves passing in one minute)
and the energy that it carries (think of a water wave knocking you over in heavy surf).
For light waves the relationship among the wavelength (usually denoted by Greek
"lambda"), the frequency (usually denoted by Greek "nu"), and the energy E are
where c is the speed of light and h is another universal constant called Planck's Constant
that has the values
h = 4.135 x 10-15 eV-sec = 6.625 x 10-27 erg-sec
in two different useful sets of units (eV stands for "electron volts"; electron volts and
ergs are two common units of energy). Thus, these equations allow us to freely
117
interconvert among frequency, wavelength, and energy for electromagnetic waves:
specifying one also specifies the others.
For a transverse wave, the wavelength (𝝀) is the distance between two
successive crests or troughs. For longitudinal waves, it is the distance from compression
to compression or rarefaction to rarefaction.
The frequency (𝒇) of a wave is the number of vibrations per second.
The velocity (𝒗) of a wave is the speed at which it advances.
Period (𝑻) corresponds to the time in which the particle executes one complete
vibration.
The maximum displacement involved in the vibration is called the amplitude (𝑨)
of the wave.
𝜆
The velocity of a wave 𝑣=𝑇
1
Since 𝑓 = 𝑇,
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 ; 𝑓 = 𝑣/𝜆 and
𝑣
𝜆=𝑓
where: 𝑣 = wave velocity (m/s, ft/s, cm/s)
𝑓 = frequency (#/s or Hz)
𝜆 = wavelength (m, ft, cm)
Velocity of Transverse Wave in a Stretched Cord
The speed at which a transverse wave moves through an elastic medium

depends upon how quickly a distorted portion of the cord transmits a disturbance to
neighboring portions. The velocity depends upon the tension on the cord and its
inertia. The velocity can be doubled by quadrupling the tension; or it can be reduced to
one-half by quadrupling the mass of the string. The motion of electromagnetic waves
through space is constant at about 300,000 km/s (about 186,000 mi/s), or the speed of
light. This velocity varies slightly in passage through matter.
𝑭
𝒗 = √𝝁 where: 𝐹 is the tension on the cord (N)
𝜇 is the mass per unit length of the cord ( kg/m)

𝑣 is the velocity of the wave in the cord (m/s )
Velocity of Longitudinal Wave in an Elastic Medium

For the velocity of a longitudinal wave in a solid rod, the elasticity factor used is
the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of the rod, and the inertial factor is the density.
Therefore,
118
𝑭
𝒗 = √𝒎/𝒍 can be written as:
𝐸
𝑣 = √𝜌 where: 𝑬 is the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity
𝝆 is the density
If the medium is a liquid or a gas, elasticity is replaced by the Bulk Modulus of
the fluid. Thus:
𝛽
𝑣 = √𝜌 where: 𝛽 is the Bulk Modulus of the fluid
𝜌 is the density
In a gas,
𝜸𝑷 𝑪𝒑
𝒗=√𝝆 where 𝜸 = 𝑪 (𝐶𝑝 is specific heat at constant pressure) and
𝒗
𝐶𝑣 is 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 heat at constant volume

𝑃 is the pressure of the gas
𝜌 is the density
Examples:
1. Find the speed of a longitudinal wave in a glass rod whose elasticity modulus is 1.0
x 107 lb/in2 and specific gravity is 2.5.
Given:
E = 1.0 x 107 lb/in2
S.G = 2.5
Required:
Velocity ( v )
Solution:
(convert the given elasticity of the substance to lbm/ft 2)
107𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛 2
𝐸 = (1.0 × ) × (12 𝑓𝑡) × 32 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2
𝑖𝑛2
= 4.608 x 1010 lbm/ft2

𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒂𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑆. 𝐺 = 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝟐. 𝟓 = 𝟔𝟐.𝟒 𝒍𝒃/𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝜌 = 2.5 × 62.4
= 156 lbm/ft3
𝐸
𝑣 = √𝜌
4.608 ×1010 𝑙𝑏𝑚/𝑓𝑡 2
=√
156 𝑙𝑏𝑚/𝑓𝑡 3
= 1.719 x 104 ft/s
119
2. What is the speed of a transverse wave traveling across a cord that has a linear
speed of 2.5 x 10-3 lbm/ft and is under a tension of 15 lbf?
Given:
F = 15 lbf
m = 2.5 x 10-3 lbm/ft
Required:
velocity
Solution:
(convert 𝑚 to proper unit, slugs/ft)
2.5×10−3 𝑙𝑏𝑚/𝑓𝑡
𝑚= 32 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
= 7.8125 x 10-5 slugs/ft
𝐹
𝑣 = √𝜇
15 𝑙𝑏𝑓
= √7.8125 ×10−5 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡
= 438.19 ft/s
Properties of Wave
Transverse and longitudinal waves transmit and carry energy. They also exhibit
significant properties such as reflection, refraction, interference, and diffraction. In
addition, transverse waves are able to demonstrate the phenomenon of polarization.
When two waves meet at a point, the resulting displacement of that point will be
the sum of the displacements produced by each of the waves. If the displacements are
in the same direction, the two waves reinforce each other; if the displacements are in
opposite directions, the waves counteract each other. This phenomenon is known as
interference.
Interference between Point Sources
When two pulses traveling along a rope meet each other, their amplitudes are
added together to produce the shape of the resulting pulse. If the pulses are identical
but travel in opposite sides of the string, then the sum of the amplitudes is zero and the
120
string appears flat for one instant (A). This is called destructive interference. When the
two identical pulses travel on the same side of the string, then the sum of the
amplitudes is double, the amplitude of a single pulse when the pulses are together (B).
This is called constructive interference.
When a traveling wave in one medium falls upon an interface that separates this
medium from another whose ratio of elastic to inertial property is different, the energy
is divided into two media.
Reflection of Wave Pulses from a Boundary
A wave pulse on a string is generated by a quick movement of a hand and travels

down the string toward the left (A). If the end of the string is free to move up and down
at the wall, the pulse will come back down the string on the same side (C1). If the string
is tied to the wall, the pulse will travel back along the string on the opposite side (C2).
For the free end, the pulse will have twice the original amplitude at the turnaround
point (B1); for the fixed end, the pulse will have no amplitude at the turnaround point
(B2)
121
Refraction
When a wave strikes a boundary, it is not completely reflected. Instead, some of

the wave’s energy is reflected and some is transmitted or absorbed. When a wave
crosses a boundary into another medium, its speed generally changes because the new
material has different characteristics. Entering the medium obliquely ( at any angle ), the
transmitted wave moves in a direction different from that of the incident waves.
Diffraction
Diffraction refers to the bending of waves around an edge of an object. When

the diffracting object or opening is about the same as or smaller than the wavelength of
the wave, diffraction effects are greatest. With an opening larger than the wavelength,
diffraction is noticeable only at the edges. However, when the opening is smaller than
the wavelength, diffraction produces nearly semi circular waves.
122
Polarization
This phenomenon is exhibited specifically by transverse waves. It occurs when

the transmitted wave vibrates in only one perpendicular plane. It refers to the
orientation of the transverse wave oscillations.
Polarizer Analyzer
source Transmitted
Polarized light
When one of the sheets is rotated 90o and the polarization directions are
perpendicular (crossed polarizers ), little light ( ideally none ) is transmitted.
123
Properties of Waves
Objective
To observe and describe the reflection, refraction, and diffraction

properties of waves.
Ripple tank apparatus

2 metal rods
Ruler
Stirring rod
Thick glass plate
Procedure
1.Using the ripple tank apparatus, generate circular wave fronts by dipping
the tip of your pointer finger at a point near one side of the tank. Observe the
wave fronts as they reach the side of the tank.
2.Generate similar wave fronts using a rod, trace some incidents and
reflected wave fronts by means of a reflector placed under the tank.
Compare these waves with those in procedure 1. Write down your
observations and make diagrams of the waves formed.
3. Place a thick sheet of clear glass in half section of the ripple tank to
make it less deep. Position the glass parallel to the straight line wave fronts.
Generate waves and observe the direction of the propagation. Write and diagram
your observations
4.Using the motor of the ripple tank assembly, generate successive

waves. With two pieces of rod, set up a barrier with a small opening in the
path of the waves. Observe the waves as they go through the barrier. Note
what happens to the waves as the get in contact with the edges of the
barrier.
124
5.Repeat procedure 4, decreasing the opening between the rods. Place
the barriers 10 cm from each other. Decrease the opening to 6.0 cm then 2.0 cm.
Write down and diagram your observations.
Observations and Diagrams
Diagrams Observations
Generalization
125
Sound is a physical phenomenon that stimulates the sense of hearing. In
humans, hearing takes place whenever vibrations of frequencies ranging from 15 Hertz
to about 20,000 Hertz reach the inner ear. Based on its meaning, sound can be pursued
in either of two ways:
1. Physical and psychological or subjective approach which is concerned with the
sense of hearing and the sensations received by the individual from the
disturbance in the air and other media.
2. The physical or objective approach concerned with the disturbance themselves
and the production, propagation, and mechanical reception of sound
A sound wave is a longitudinal wave. As the energy of wave motion is

propagated outward from the center of disturbance, the individual air molecules that
carry the sound move back and forth, parallel to the direction of wave motion. Thus, a
sound wave is a series of alternate increases and decreases of air pressure. Each
individual molecule passes the energy on to neighboring molecules, but each molecule
remains in about the same location after the sound wave has passed.
What kind of music is the most pleasing to you? Is it something like a lullaby that
makes you feel calm? Or is it a kind that makes your heart beat faster? Does any
disturbance annoy you? Why do you consider them harmful?
Music is a form of sound. Characterized by softness, harshness, strength of
vibration and quality, they differ depending on the source.
Any simple sound such as a musical note may be completely described by specifying
three characteristics: pitch, loudness (intensity), and quality (timbre).
These characteristics correspond exactly to three physical characteristics: frequency,
amplitude, and harmonic constitution, or waveform, respectively. Noise is a complex
sound, a mixture of many different frequencies or notes not harmonically related.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
126
Sounds can be produced at a desired frequency by different methods. Sirens
emit sound by means of an air blast interrupted by a 44-toothed wheel. The wheel
rotates at 10 revolutions per second to produce 440 interruptions in the air stream
every second. Similarly, hitting the A above middle C on a piano causes a string to
vibrate at 440 Hz. The sound of the speaker and that of the piano string at the same
frequency are of different quality, but correspond closely in pitch. The next higher A on
the piano, the note one octave above, has a frequency of 880 Hz, exactly twice as high,
and the notes one and two octaves below have frequencies of 220 and 110 Hz
respectively. Thus, by definition, an octave is the interval between any two notes whose
frequencies are in a two-to-one ratio.
Physiological Characteristics of Sound

1. Pitch is a characteristic of musical sound that has to do with the sound’s position
in a musical scale. Quantitative determination of pitch cannot be exactly
obtained because of the judgment that individuals have on its placement.
Usually, changes in the frequency of vibration correlate with the changes in the
pitch: the lower the frequency, the lower the pitch.
2. Loudness has to do with the magnitude of auditory sensation. It is a subjective
attribute of a sound wave and exact quantitative measurement is difficult to
establish. However, it is desirable to establish a numerical scale of loudness. It
can be associated with intensity which measures the time rate of energy flow
per unit area. It also depends on frequency, and the sensitivity of the ear is
different in various audio frequency ranges.
3. Quality is the characteristic of a particular sound that enables one to distinguish
it from all other sounds of the same pitch and loudness. It enables us to
distinguish the sound of a violin from that of a clarinet, or the sound of a piano
from that of a trombone, even when the instruments are producing the same
note s at the same intensity level. Helmholtz first made a thorough study of the
quality of sound. He found that the quality of a sound is determined by the
number and relative intensities of the overtones that enter the formation.
Physical Characteristics of Sound

1. Frequency is the number of complete vibrations per unit of time. The frequency
of a vibrating string differ in various media.
For a vibrating string,

𝐧
𝐟𝐧 = 𝐅
𝟐𝐋 √𝛍
where: F is the tension
μ is the mass per unit length
fn is the natural frequency
n is an integer
L is the length of the string
127
If a string of different lengths are subject to the same tension, their
frequencies are proportional to their lengths. Thus,
𝑓1 𝑙1
=
𝑓2 𝑙2
The vibrating column

When air or other gases has the form of a column within a rigid pipe or
tube of finite length, the disturbance produced at one end is propagated along
the column as a longitudinal wave and is reflected from the ends of the tube in a
manner similar to the reflections of transverse waves in a stretched string. In an
open type of tube,
𝐧
𝐟𝐧 = 𝐅
𝟐𝐋 √𝛍
.
The wavelength of sound produced is given by
λ = 2L + 1.6d where d =diameter of the tube, L = length
In a closed type of tube, only the odd harmonics of an open pipe of a

given length can be obtained with half the length. The harmonic vibrations
correspond to a quarter-wave system. The wavelength of sound produced
λ = 4L + 1.6d , d = diameter of the tube, L = length.
Vibrating rods, plates, and membranes
a.) To set a rod in longitudinal direction, clamp it at some point and stroke it
lengthwise.
ℓ
C
𝑽
𝒇= where λ = 4ℓ
𝝀
(ℓ = length of rod)
Therefore,
𝑽
𝒇= 𝟒𝓵
b.) When a thin metal plate is clamped at its center and struck or bowed at some
point on its edge, the plate membrane will break up into series of vibrating
strings, rods, or brass.
128
2. Intensity
The distance at which a sound can be heard depends on is intensity.

Intensity is the average rate of flow of energy per unit area perpendicular to the
direction of propagation, similar to the rate at which a river flows through a gate
in a dam.
In the case of spherical sound waves spreading from a point source, the
intensity varies inversely as the square of the distance, provided there is no loss
of energy due to viscosity, heat conduction, or other absorption effects.
Thunder, for example, is four times as intense at a distance of 1km (0.6mi) from
the lightning bolt that caused it as it would be heard at a distance of 2km
(1.2mi).
In the actual propagation of sound through the atmosphere, changes in
the physical properties of the air such as temperature, pressure and humidity
produce damping and scattering of the directed sound waves, so that the
inverse-square law generally is not applicable in direct measurements of the
intensity of sound.
Sound intensities are usually measured in decibels (dB). Sound intensities
are arranged in logarithmic scale, which means that an increase of 10dB
corresponds to an intensity by the factor of 10. Thus, rustling leaves is 10 times
louder than whispering.
Some intensity levels from various common sources are as follows.

Note that the threshold of pain is at 120dB.
SOURCE OF SOUND INTENSITY

Soft whisper 10dB
Rustling leaves 20dB
Loud whisper 20dB
Quiet living room 40dB
Waves on seashore 40dB
Ordinary conversation 65dB
Shouted conversation 70dB
Busy street traffic 80dB
Vacuum cleaner 80dB
Moving train 90dB
Riveter 95dB
Rock music 100dB
Jet engine 110dB
Jet engine on takeoff 150dB
129
Intensity is related to loudness in an approximate law which states that
“the response to the sense organ is proportional to the logarithm of the
magnitude of the stimulus”.
According to the Weber-Fechner Law:
𝑆 = 𝐶 log 𝐼 where 𝑆 = magnitude of the loudness of conversation

𝐶 = constant
𝐼 = intensity of sound
The smallest sound that can be heard …
𝑺𝒐 = 𝑪 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑰𝒐 ,
Where 𝐼𝑜 = arbitrary reference intensity on the threshold of hearing
Amplitude and Volume

Amplitude is the characteristic of sound waves that we perceive as volume. The
maximum distance a wave travels from the normal (or zero) position is the amplitude.
This distance corresponds to the degree of motion in the air molecules of a wave. As the
degree of motion in the molecules is increased, they strike the eardrum with
progressively greater force. This causes the ear to perceive a louder sound.
A comparison of samples at low, medium and high amplitudes demonstrates the
change in sound caused by the altering amplitude. These three waves have the same
frequency, and so should sound be the same except for a perceptible volume difference.
The amplitude of a sound wave is the degree of motion of air molecules within
the wave, which corresponds to the changes in air pressure that accompany the wave.
130
The greater the amplitude of the wave, the harder the molecules strike the eardrum and
the louder the sound that is perceived. The amplitude of a sound wave can be expressed
in terms of absolute units by measuring the actual distance of displacement of the air
molecules, the changes in pressure as the wave passes, or the energy contained in the
wave. Ordinary speech, for example, produces sound energy at the rate of about one
hundred-thousandth of a watt. All of these measurements are extremely difficult to
make, however, and the intensity of sounds is generally expressed by comparing them
to a standard sound, measured in decibels.
DOPPLER EFFECT is the relative change in pitch as heard by an observer, when there is
relative motion between the source and the observer. Typical examples are ambulance
siren, police horn, train whistle, public address system, etc.
Three cases of Doppler Effect
1. Observer in motion, stationary source

a. Observer is moving TOWARDS THE SOURCE
𝑽 + 𝑽𝒐
𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔 ( ) where: 𝑓𝑜 = observed frequency
𝑽
𝑓𝑠 = emitted frequency of source
𝑉𝑜 = velocity of observer
𝑉𝑠 = velocity of source (on this case zero)
𝑉 = velocity of sound in air (340 m/s)
b. Observer is moving AWAY FROM THE SOURCE

𝑽 − 𝑽𝒐
𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔 ( )
𝑽
2. Source in motion, stationary observer
a. Source is moving TOWARDS THE OBSERVER
𝑽
𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔 (𝑽 − 𝑽 )
𝒔
b. Source is moving AWAY FROM THE OBSERVER
𝑽
𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔 (𝑽 + 𝑽 )
𝒔
3. Both observer and source in motion

a. TOWARDS EACH OTHER
𝑽+𝑽
𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔 (𝑽 − 𝑽𝒐)
𝒔
b. AWAY FROM EACH OTHER
𝑽−𝑽
𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔 (𝑽 + 𝑽𝒐)
𝒔
c. CATCHING UP
𝑽+𝑽 𝑽
𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔 (𝑽 + 𝑽𝒎 ± 𝑽 𝒐 ) , 𝑽𝒎 =𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎
𝒎∓ 𝒔
131
Examples:
1. A police horn emits a 250-Hz tone when unmoving. What frequency does a stationary
observer hear if the police car sounds its horn while approaching at a speed of 27 m/s?
What frequency is heard when the horn is sounded as the car leaves at 27 m/s?
Given:
fs = 250 Hz
Vs = 27 m/s
Required:
a. fo (case 2a)
b. fo (case 2b)
Solution:
𝑉
a. 𝑓𝑜 = 𝑓𝑠 ( )
𝑉 − 𝑉𝑠
340 𝑚/𝑠
= 250 𝐻𝑧 (340𝑚/𝑠 – 27𝑚/𝑠)
= 250 𝐻𝑧 (1.09)
= 272.5 𝐻𝑧𝑝 Hz
𝑉
b. 𝑓𝑜 = 𝑓𝑠 (𝑉 + 𝑉 )
𝑠
340 𝑚/𝑠
= 250 𝐻𝑧 (340𝑚/𝑠 + )
27𝑚/𝑠
= 250 𝐻𝑧 (0.93)
= 232.5 𝐻𝑧
2.A fire engine has a siren with a frequency of 1 kHz. The engine is hurtling the streets at
25 m/s. Assume that the speed of sound is 340 m/s and there is no wind blowing. If a
motorist initially moving towards the engine is traveling at 15 m/s, what is the frequency
he hears before passing the engine? After?
Given:
fs = 1 kHz = 1000 Hz
Vs = 25 m/s
Vo = 15 m/s
132
Required:
a. fo (case 3a)
b. fo (case 3b)
Solution:
𝑉+𝑉
a. 𝑓𝑜 = 𝑓𝑠 ( 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑜)
𝑠
340 𝑚/𝑠 + 15 𝑚/𝑠
= 1000 𝐻𝑧 ( 340 𝑚/𝑠– 25𝑚/𝑠 )
355 𝑚/𝑠
= 1000 𝐻𝑧 (315 𝑚/𝑠)
= 1000 𝐻𝑧 (1.13)
= 1130 𝐻𝑧
𝑉−𝑉
b. 𝑓𝑜 = 𝑓𝑠 ( 𝑉 + 𝑉𝑜)
𝑠
340 𝑚/𝑠 – 15 𝑚/𝑠
= 1000 𝐻𝑧( )
340 𝑚/𝑠 + 25 𝑚/𝑠
325 𝑚/𝑠
= 1000 𝐻𝑧 ( )
365 𝑚/𝑠
= 1000 𝐻𝑧 (0.89)
= 890 𝐻𝑧
Doppler Radar
Radar has been used since the early 1940’s to provide information about
rainstorms and other forms of precipitation. This information is obtained from the
intensity of the reflected signal. Such conventional radar can also detect the hooked
( rotational ) “signature” of a tornado, but only after the storm is well developed.
A major improvement in weather forecasting came about with the development

of a radar system that could measure the Doppler frequency shift in addition to the
magnitude of the echo signal reflected from the precipitation. Doppler shift is related to
the radial velocity of the precipitation blown by the wind ( the component of the wind
velocity moving either towards or away from the radar installation ).
A Doppler based radar system can penetrate a storm and monitor its wind
speeds. The direction of the storm’s wind-driven rain gives a wind “field” map of the
storm region. Such maps provide strong clues of developing tornadoes , so
meteorologists can detect them much earlier ( about 20 minutes before they touch
down ).
vs = 0
133
vs Vs < V
subsonic
vs Vs = V
Mach 1
vs Vs> V
Supersonic
Δ Δ Δ
Tail Nose
Shock wave Shock wave
Ideally, the sound waves produced by a supersonic aircraft form a cone-

shaped shock wave.
Conical shock wave
Vt
Vs
Vt
θ
Vst
134
The waves travel outward with a speed V , and the speed of a plane( the
source ), is Vs. From the figure, the angle between a line tangent to the spherical
waves and the line along which the plane is moving is
𝑣𝑡 𝑣
sin 𝜃 = =
𝑣𝑠 𝑡 𝑣𝑠
The inverse ratio of the speeds is called Mach number ( M ), named after
Ernst Mach, an Austrian physicist who used it in studying supersonics.
𝒗
𝑴= 𝒔
𝒗
If the value of 𝑀 𝑖𝑠 equal to 1, the plane is flying with the speed of sound.
If 𝑀 is less than 1, speed is subsonic while a value greater than 1 is supersonic.
Resonance
Resonance comes from the Latin word resonare, meaning to "return to

sound." It is the condition of maximum energy transfer wherein the frequency of
the energy source is the same as one of the natural frequencies of the vibrating
body, causing the body to vibrate with maximum amplitude.
Natural frequencies are frequencies at which large – amplitude standing waves

are produced. The resulting standing wave patterns are called normal or resonant
frequencies which depend on such factors as mass, elasticity or restoring force, and
geometry.
For a stretched string, with v as the speed of wave in the string and L = length
𝒗 𝒗
𝒇𝒏 = 𝝀 = 𝒏 ( 𝟐𝑳 ) = 𝒏𝒇𝟏 ; where 𝑓1= fundamental frequency
𝒏
𝑓𝑛 = natural frequency
𝑭
Since the wave speed is 𝒗 = √ , then
𝝁
𝒏 𝑭
𝒇𝒏 = (√ )
𝟐𝑳 𝝁
135
Echo
An echo is a reflected sound wave. The perceptible gap between the emission
and repeat of the sound represents the time it takes waves to travel to an obstacle and
back. The echoed sound is often fainter because not all of the original waves are
reflected. Generally, echoes such as those heard in the mountains are caused by sound
waves striking large surfaces 30 m (99 ft) or more away from their source. An echo in a
different medium, such as a steel pipe, may be created and observed by rapping the
metal when the ear is against it.
Sound in Water
Sound waves travel more swiftly and efficiently in water than in dry air, allowing
animals such as whales to communicate with one another over great distances. Whales
and porpoises also use sound waves to help them navigate in dark water, directing and
receiving sound waves in much the same way as the sonar on a ship or submarine.
The speed of sound in dry, sea level air at a temperature of 0°C (32°F) is
332 m/sec (1,088 ft/sec). The speed of sound in air varies under different conditions. If
the temperature is increased, for example, the speed of sound increases; thus, at 20°C
(68°F), the speed of sound is 344 m/sec (1,129 ft/sec). The speed of sound is different in
other gases of greater or lesser density than air. The molecules of some gases, such as
carbon dioxide, are heavier and move less readily than molecules of air. Sound
progresses through such gases more slowly. Stated mathematically, the speed of sound
varies inversely as the square root of the density. The speed of sound in gases also
depends on one other factor, specific heat.
Under atmospheric conditions, the speed of sound in air at any temperature is

V ( toC ) = 331.45 + 0.61 ( toC )
Examples :
1. A sound has a frequency of 200 Hz. What is the wavelength of this sound when
the temperature is 10oC?
Given :
𝑓 = 200 𝐻𝑧
t = 10oC
Required: wavelength (𝜆)
Solution :
V= 331.45 + 0.61 ( 10 ) = 337.55m/s
𝜆 = 𝑣/𝑓
337.55𝑚/𝑠
=
200/𝑠
= 1.688 m
136
2. Find the length of a closed tube that will reinforce the sound wave emitted by a
tuning fork whose frequency is 350Hz. The diameter of the tube is 2.3 cm in the room at
temperature of 28oC.
Given :
𝑓 = 350 𝐻𝑧
t = 28oC
d = 2.3 cm. = 0.023m
Required : L of the tube
Solution :
𝜆
𝐿= − (0.4 𝑑) where λ = 𝑣/𝑓
4
But V ( toC ) = 331.45 + 0.61 ( toC )
𝑣 = 331.45 + 0.61( 28 )
= 348.53 m/s
348.53 m/s
λ= = 0.996m
350 Hz
𝜆
𝐿= − (0.4 𝑑 )
4
0.996𝑚
= – (0.4)(0.023𝑚)
4
= 0.2398m = 23.98 m
137
Exercise 9A
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. Why are the tides relatively weak near the north and south poles?
2. Calculate the speed of a transverse wave traveling along a cord that has a linear
mass of 0.00135 kg/m under a tension of 3.6N
3. The Modulus of Elasticity of a rod is 2.3 x 107 lb/in 2 and the specific gravity is
1.3. Find the speed of the longitudinal wave in this rod.
4. A water wave has a frequency of 0.27 Hz. The wavelength is 24.3 m. What is the
speed of the wave?
5. When you pluck the end of a kite string, a ripple will head up the string towards
the kite. Why is this motion an example of a traveling wave rather than a standing
wave?
138
Exercise 9B
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________
1 . An open tube 70 cm long reinforces sound whose wavelength is 0.35m at 25 oC.

What is the approximate diameter of the tube?
2.A girl drops a coin into a well 20m deep. How soon after will she hear the stone hit
the water if the temperature is 15oC?
3.A police car blows its siren with a frequency of 850 Hz as it chase an over-speeding
motorist with a speed of 120 kph. If the police car is 150kph,is the frequency of the
sound heard by the motorist?
139
4. A sound system has a frequency of 1023 Hz. A car approaches the speaker with a
speed of 20m/s. What frequency is heard by the man in the car? (B) what is the
frequency as the car recedes from the speaker?
5. As a bus approaches the station with a speed of 20kph, it blows its horn with a
frequency of 500Hz. How is the sound perceived by a man in the station when the
temperature is 30oC?
6. A man walking with a speed of 3ft/s apparently hears the approaching train’s
whistle at 700Hz. If the train has a speed of 40mi/h, what is the actual frequency of
the whistle?
140
Module 10
HYDROSTATICS: FLUIDS AT REST
Objectives
At the end of the module, the students are expected to:
6. Define fluid pressure and explain the pressure – depth relationship
7. State Pascal’s principle and describe how it is used in practical applications.
8. Relate buoyant force and Archimedes principle
9. Tell whether an object will float in a fluid based on relative densities.
Force can be applied to a solid at a point of contact. This is not true for
fluids ( gas and liquid ). With fluids, a force must be applied over an area. Such an
application of force is called pressure, or the force per unit area. The force being
applied perpendicular to the surface area. Pressure is a scalar quantity although the
force produced within the fluid has direction and is a vector.
F
P = where : F is the force in Newton (N)
A
A is the surface area in m2
P is pressure in N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)
If the force is applied at some angle measured with respect to the horizontal, only the
component perpendicular to the surface area is used in the definition of pressure. That
is, F
P = 𝑭𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝑨
θ A
Fcosθ
Measurement of pressure
Pressure can be measured by a variety of mechanical devices that are often
spring loaded. One instrument, called manometer , uses a liquid – usually mercury .
For an open tube manometer, the pressure of the gas in the container is
balanced by the pressure of the liquid column and atmospheric pressure acting on the
open surface of the liquid. The absolute pressure of the gas equals the sum of the
atmospheric pressure and the gauge pressure .
A tire gauge measures gauge pressure, the difference between the pressure in
the tire and the atmospheric pressure. Thus, if the tire gauge reads 200kPa, the actual
pressure within the tire is 1 atm higher or 300kPa.
A barometer is a closed – tube manometer that is exposed to the atmosphere
and thus reads only atmospheric pressure.
141
Before going on, let us review density – an important consideration in the study
of fluids. Recall that density is defined as the mass per unit volume.
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
Density =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝒎
ρ = 𝒗
We say that density is a measure of the compactness of the matter of a
substance – the greater the density, the more matter or mass in a given volume. It
would be incorrect to say that mercury (ρ=13.6x103 kg/m3) is “ heavier” than water
(ρ=1x103kg/m3) WHY? Because you could have a large volume of water that would be
heavier than some much smaller volume of mercury.
Densities of some common substances in ( kg/m 3 )
Substance Density (ρ) Substance Substance Density

Density( ρ) (ρ)
Solids Liquids Gases *
3 3
Aluminum 2.7 x10 Alcohol, ethyl 0.79x10 Air 1.29
Brass 8.7 x103 Alcohol, 0.82x103 Helium 0.18
methyl
Copper 8.9 x103 Blood, whole 1.05 x103 Hydrogen 0.090
Glass 2.6 x103 Blood, plasma 1.03 x103 Oxygen 1.43
Gold 19.3 x103 Gasoline 0.68 x103 Water vapor at 0.63
100oC
Ice 0.92 x103 Kerosene 0.82 x103
Iron 7.9 x103 Mercury 13.6 x103
Lead 11.4 x103 Sea water 1.0 x103
(4oC)
Silver 10.5 x103 Water, fresh 1.00 x103
(4oC)
Steel 7.8 x103
Wood, oak 0.81 x103
*at 0oC and 1atm unless otherwise specified
Pressure and Depth
When we go diving, we know that pressure increase with depth, having felt the
increased pressure in our eardrums. The opposite effect is experienced when we fly in a
plane or ride in a car going up a mountain or in a roller coaster. With increasing altitude,
our ears may “pop” because of reduced external pressure.
142
Imagine an isolated rectangular column of water shown
Weight = mg
Weight=mg
The force on the bottom of the container below the column is equal to the
𝒎
weight of the liquid making up the column: F = W = mg. since density is ρ = 𝒗 , then
m = ρ V. ( the liquid is assumed incompressible so density is constant )
The volume of the isolated liquid column is equal to the height of the column
times the area of its base : V = hA. Thus, we can write
F
F = mg = ρ Vg = ρghA with P = , the pressure at a
A
depth h due to the weight of the column is P = ρgh. Since the container is open,
atmospheric pressure is applied to the surface. Therefore, the total pressure due to the
height of the liquid is P = Po + ρgh , where Po is the pressure applied to the liquid
surface at h =0.
For an open container, Po is the atmospheric pressure , or the weight per
area due to the gases in the atmosphere above the liquid’s surface .The average
atmospheric pressure at sea level is sometimes used as a unit , called an
atmosphere (atm) : 1 atm = 101.325kPa = 1.01325x105 N/m2 ≈ 14.7 lb/in2
The atmospheric pressure is then equal to the pressure due to the weight of a
column of mercury , or
Po ≈ ρgh
A standard atmosphere is defined as the pressure supporting a column of
mercury exactly 76cm in height at sea level and at 0oC. Changes in atmospheric pressure
can be observed as changes in the height of mercury column. Atmospheric pressure is
usually reported in terms of the height of the barometer column , and weather
forecasters say the barometer is rising or falling. That is, 1 standard atm has equivalent
values of:
1 atm = 76 cm Hg = 760 mmHg
= 29.92 in Hg ( about 30 in Hg )
143
EXAMPLE:
A. What is the total pressure on the back of a scuba diver in a lake at a depth of
8.0m?
B. What is the force on the diver’s back due to the water alone , taking the
surface of the back to be a rectangle 50cm by 40cm?
Given :
h= 8.0m
A = 50cm x 40cm
= 0.2m x 0.4m = 0.24m2
ρfor water = 1.00 x103kg/m3
Po =1.01 x105 N/m2
Required:
a. Total pressure
b. F (force due to gravity)
Solution :
a. The total pressure
P = Po + ρgh
= 1.01 x105 N/m2 + (1.00 x103kg/m3)(9.8m/s2)(8.0m)
= 1.01 x105 N/m2 + ( 0.784 x10 5 N/m2 )
= 1.79x105N/m2 = 1.79 Pa
= 1.8 atm
b. The pressure due to the water alone is ρgh = 0.784 x10 5 N/m2
Pwater = F/A, F = PwaterA
F = (0.784 x10 5 N/m2)( 0.24 m2)

= 1.8816x104 N
Pascal’s Principle
When pressure is increased on the entire open surface of an incompressible

liquid at rest, the pressure at any point in the liquid or on the boundary surfaces
increases by the same amount . the effect is the same if pressure is applied by means of
a piston to any surface of an enclosed liquid. The transmission of pressure in fluids is
studied by Blaise Pascal, and the observed effect is called Pascal”s Principle
which states :
*** Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished
to every point in the fluid and to the walls of the container***
144
Common practical applications of Pascal’s principle include the hydraulic
breaking systems used in automobiles a force on the brake pedal transmits aforce to
the wheel brake cylinder. Similarly, hydraulic lift and jacks are used to raise automobiles
and other heavy objects. The input pressure supplied by the compressed air for a garage
lift gives an input force Fi on a small piston area A i. The full magnitude of the pressure is
transmitted to the output pfiston, which has an area A o. Since Pi = Po,
𝑭𝒊 𝑭𝒐 A
= and Fo = Fi ( o )
𝑨𝒊 𝑨𝒐 A1
With Ao larger than Ai, then Fo will be larger than Fi. The input force is greatly multiplied
EXAMPLE:
A garage lift has input and lift pistons with diameters of 10 cm and 30 cm ,
respectively. The lift is used to hold up a car with a weight of 1.4x10 4N. What is the force
in the input piston? What pressure is applied to the input piston?
Given Required
Di = 10cm = 0.1m a. input force, Fi
Do = 30cm = 0.3m b. input pressure, Pi
Fo = 1.4x104N
Solution
a. Fi = ( Ai /Ao ) Fo where 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
= (di2/do2)Fo
= (0.1m/0.3m)2( 1.4x104N)
= 1.6x103N
𝐹𝑖 1600N
b. Pi = = = 2.0x105 N/m2 = 200kPa
𝐴𝑖 𝜋𝑟 2
Bouyancy and Archimedes Principle
When an object is placed in a fluid, it will either sink or float. This is most
commonly observed with liquids – for example, objects floating or sinking in water. But
the same effect occurs in gases – a falling object sinks in the atmosphere, and other
bodies float .
Things float because they are buoyant , or are buoyed up. If a cork is immersed
in water and released, the cork will be buoyed up to the surface and float there. The
upward force resulting from an object being wholly or partially submerged in the fluid is
called the buoyant force.
145
Consider a buoyant object held under the surface of the fluid. The pressure on
the upper and lower surfaces of the block are P1 = ρfgh1 and P 2 = ρfgh2 ,
respectively where ρf is the fluid density. Thus, there is a pressure difference
∆P = P2 – P1 = ρfg ( h2 – h1 ) between the top and

bottom of the block , which gives an upward force ( buoyant force), Fb. the magnitude
of the buoyant force ( from the definition of pressure )
Fb = (∆P) A = ρfg ( h2 – h1 )A Since ( h2 – h1 )A is the volume of

the block, and hence the volume of displace fluid Vf, then the buoyant force
Fb = ρf g Vf
But ρf Vf is simply the mass of the fluid displaced by the block. Therefore, the buoyant
force can be written in terms of the mass of the fluid
Fb = gmf where : mf is the mass of the displaced fluid

The magnitude of the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
block. This general result is known as Archimedes Principle which states:
*** A body wholly or partially immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a

force equal in magnitude to the weight of the volume of fluid that it displaces ***
In equation : Fb = gmf = ρf g Vf
EXAMPLE
What is the buoyant force in air on a spherical balloon with a radius of 30cm if ρ for air
is 1.29kg/m3 ( neglect the weight of the balloon material )
Given :
r = 30cm = 0.3m
ρ for air = 1.29kg/m3
Required : buoyant force, Fb
Solution
Volume of air in the balloon = (4/3)πr3
V = (4/3) π ( 0.3m )3
= 0.11 m3
146
The weight of the air displaced by the balloon’s volume is the magnitude of the buoyant force
Fb = ρf g Vf
= (1.29kg/m3)(9.8m/s2)( 0.11 m3)
= 1.4 N
Buoyancy and Density
We commonly say that helium and hot – air balloons float in air because they are
lighter than air. To be correct, technically, we should say they are less dense than air.
The density of an object can tell us whether the object will sink or float in a fluid, as long
as we also know the density of the fluid.
Consider a uniform solid totally immersed in a fluid. The weight of the object is
Wo = mog = voρog
The weight of the volume of fluid displaced or the magnitude of the buoyant
force Fb = weight of the fluid = mfg = ρf g Vf. if the object is
completely submerged in the fluid, Vo = Vf. Therefore,
ρf
Fb/Wo = ρf/ρo or Fb =( ρo ) Wo
Thus, if ρo is less than ρf , then Fb will be greater than Wo and the object will be
buoyed up to the surface and float. If ρo is greater than ρf the object will sink because
the buoyant force will be less. If ρo equals ρf the buoyant force Fb = Wo and the
object will remain in equilibrium at any submerged depth. If the object is not uniform,
such that its density varies over the volume, then the density of the object is the
average density. These three conditions expressed in words are as follows:
*** An object will float in a fluid if the average density of the object is less than
the density of the fluid
*** An object will sink in a fluid if the average density of the object is greater
than the density of the fluid.
*** An object will remain in equilibrium at any submerged depth in a fluid if the
average density of the object and the density of the fluid are equal
147
EXAMPLE
A uniform solid cube of material 10cm on each side has a mass of 500g. Will the
cube float in water? If so, how much of its volume will be submerged?
Given :
m= 500g = 0.5kg
s= 10cm
ρ for water = 1.00kg/m3 = 1.00g/cm3
Required :
a. Whether the cube will float in water
b. The portion of the volume submerged if it floats
Solution:
a. The density of the cube material

𝑚 500 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
ρo = = = 0.5g/cm3
𝑉 1000𝑐𝑚3
** Since this value is less than the density of water which is

1.0g/cm3, then the cube material will float in water
b. The weight of the cube Wo = ρogVo = Fb = ρw g Vw where Vw is the

volume of the water which the submerged part of the cube displaces
ρogVo = ρw g Vw
Vw ρo 0.5
= ρw = = 0.500
Vo 1.0
Thus Vw = 0.500Vo and 50% of the cube is submerged
148
TRY THESE
1. Most of an iceberg floating in the ocean is submerged. What is seen is the
proverbial “ tip of the iceberg “. What percentage of an iceberg’s volume is
seen above the surface? ( Note : Icebergs are frozen fresh water floating in
cold salty water )
2. What is the buoyant force in water of a rectangular block of oak wood which
measures 40cm x 25cm x 12cm? What fraction of the wood’s volume is
submerged in the water?
149
Module 11
HEAT PHENOMENA
1. Convert temperatures in the following scales: Fahrenheit, Celcius, Kelvin
2. Define coefficient of thermal expansion and coefficient of volume expansion
3. Calculate volume and length changes of solids due to temperature change
4. Solve problems involving temperature, thermal expansion, heat capacity, heat
transfer, and thermal equilibrium .
5. Solve problems using the Stefan- Boltzmann Law and the heat current formula
for radiation and conduction.
6. Plan and execute an experiment about phase change in matter. ( Latent Heat of
Fusion of Ice )
When we handle anything that has recently been in contact with flame or other
source of heat, we make use of materials that do not conduct heat in order to protect
our skin. We know that physical contact with these objects will allow heat to flow and
be transmitted to the colder hand, thus raising its temperature.
Our bodies must precisely balance the amount of heat lost and gained to stay within
the temperature range necessary for life. Any disturbance can cause serious
consequences, as sickness can disrupt the balance and produce chill or fever.
The average temperature of the earth is critical for the survival of all organisms that
inhabit it, and must be maintained through a similar balance. The great amount of
energy that our planet receives from the Sun warms it, but some must be radiated away
to the cold space to keep the balance. The build up of “greenhouse” gases ( product of a
fast growing technology ) can give the whole planet a “fever” that will affect all life
processes.
The thought that heat is a form of energy is not true to the strictest sense. Like work,
it involves transfer of energy. Heat, therefore, is the name we use to describe energy in
transit ---- the addition or removal of internal energy to a body or system. Other forms
of energy such as mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc. tend to be transformed into heat
energy in a natural process.
The most common units of heat energy emphasizes the inter convertibility of the
various forms of energy as shown in the table below.
Unit Unit Symbol Definition

Joule ( SI ) J Kg-m/s2 • m = N-m
Calorie ( thermochemical) Cal 6.189 J
Kilocalorie Kcal 1 x 103 cal
British Thermal Unit BTU 252 cal = 1054 J
150
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
Motion that takes place around us can not be seen at all times. Some of it is
hidden deep within the object where thermal energy keeps the individual molecules and
atoms in endless back and forth motion. We become aware of this motion of the
molecules through the temperature of the body: the faster the movement of the
molecules, the more energy it contains and the hotter the body feels.
Benjamin Thompson also known as Count Rumford, made early observations on
the relationship of heat and energy. While supervising the boring of cannon barrels in
Germany, he noticed that water put into the bore of the cannon to prevent overheating
during the drilling boiled away, and had to be replenished frequently. He did several
experiments and he found out that mechanical work was responsible for water to heat
up.
Thompson’s conclusion was later proven quantitatively by James Joule, the
English scientist after which the English unit of work and energy is named. He
demonstrated that when a given amount of mechanical work was done, water was
heated as indicated by an increase in temperature. He found out that for every 4186J of
work done, 1kg of water increases its temperature by 1C o.
Thus, 4186J was equivalent to 1kcal: 1kcal = 4.186kJ or
1cal = 4.186J
This value is referred to as the mechanical equivalent of heat which provides the
conversion factor between heat and the standard unit of work.
Examples:
1. How much mechanical energy must be done to raise the temperature of on
liter of water from 20oC to 25oC?
Given :
Ti = 20oC
Tf = 25oC
Volume = 1.0L
Required : work done ( in J )
Solution :
Since the mass of 1L water is 1.0kg, then the amount of work needed to
raise the temperature is
W = Q = 4.186kJ / kg per oC
The total amount of work for a difference in temperature of 5C o must be

𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = (4.186 𝐶 𝑜 ) ( 5𝐶 𝑜 ) = 20.93 kJ
151
2. What is the value of the mechanical equivalent of heat expressed in BTU?
Solution:
4.186𝐽 1 𝐵𝑇𝑈
4.186 J/cal = ( ) ( 1054 𝐽 )
𝑐𝑎𝑙
= 0.00397 BTU
Therefore , 1 cal = 3.97 x 10-3 BTU
Specific Heat
When heat energy is added to a substance, the energy may go to increase the
random molecular motion resulting to an increase in temperature, and also an increase
in the potential energy associated with the molecular bonds. Different substances have
different molecular configurations and bonding patterns. The same amount of heat
added to same amount of a different substance will NOT result to the same change in
temperature. For example , if 1Kcal of heat is added to 1kg each of water and aluminum,
the temperature of water will increase by 1oC. However, since the two substances have
different bonding patterns, the aluminum will have a 4.5 oC increase in temperature.
Specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the
temperature by one degree . The specific heat of water is 1 calorie/gram °C = 4.186
joule/gram °C which is higher than any other common substance. As a result, water
plays a very important role in temperature regulation. The specific heat per gram for
water is much higher than that for a metal. The molar specific heats of most solids at
room temperature and above are nearly constant. At lower temperatures the specific
heats drop as quantum processes become significant.
For any given mass of a substance, the amount of heat needed to change the
temperature is proportional to the mass and the change in temperature.
𝑄 ∞ 𝑚 𝛥𝑇 considering the molar configuration and bonding patterns
𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑐 𝛥𝑇 where: m = mass of the substance , g
c = specific heat capacity , cal/ g-oC
𝛥𝑇 = change in temperature , oC
152
The following table of some common substances gives values of specific heat
with the temperature in oK. However, the use of oC is accepted because the size of a
Celcius degree is the same as the size of a Kelvin.
Table 9.1 Specific heats and molar heat capacities for various substances at 20 oC
c ( cal/gm oK)
Molar C
Substance c (J/gm oK) or o
(J/mol K)
( Btu/lb oF )
Aluminum 0.900 0.215 24.3
Bismuth 0.123 0.0294 25.7
Copper 0.386 0.0923 24.5
Brass 0.380 0.092 ...
Gold 0.126 0.0301 25.6
Lead 0.128 0.0305 26.4
Silver 0.233 0.0558 24.9
Tungsten 0.134 0.0321 24.8
Zinc 0.387 0.0925 25.2
Mercury 0.140 0.033 28.3
Alcohol(ethyl) 2.43 0.58 111
o
Water ( 15 C ) 4.186 1.00 75.2
Ice (-10 C) 2.05 0.49 36.9
Granite 0.790 0.19 ...
Glass 0.84 0.20 ...
Steam (110oC ) 2.010 0.48 …
Soil (average ) 1.05 0.25 ...
Wood (average) 1.68 0.40 …
Air ( 50oC ) 1.050 0.25 …
Iron or Steel 0.46 0.11 …
153
Examples:
1. Calculate the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 0.20kg of the
following substances from 15oC to 45oC. (A) water (B) mercury (C) aluminum
Given :
m = 0.20kg A. water, c = 1.0 cal/gm oC
Ti = 15oC B. mercury, c = 0.033 cal/gm oC
Tf = 45oC C. aluminum, c = 0.215 cal/gm oC
Required : Q ( heat quantity )
Solution:
𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑐 𝛥𝑇 where 𝛥𝑇 = 30𝐶 𝑜
1000𝑔
a. water: 𝑄 = (0.20𝑘𝑔)( 𝑘𝑔
) ( 1.0 cal/gm oC ) ( 30Co )
= 6000 cal
1000𝑔
b. Mercury : 𝑄 = (0.20𝑘𝑔)( ) ( 0.033cal/gm oC ) ( 30Co )
𝑘𝑔
= 198.0 cal
1000𝑔
c. Aluminum : 𝑄 = (0.20𝑘𝑔)( ) ( 0.215cal/gm oC ) ( 30Co )
𝑘𝑔
= 1290.0 cal
2. Equal masses of copper and lead are at the same temperature. Which material
will require the greater amount of heat? (B) how many times greater is this than
the heat that must be added to the other metal?
Given :
Copper, c = 0.0923 cal/gm oC
Lead , c = 0.0305 cal/gm oC
𝛥𝑇 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝛥𝑇 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑
m of copper = m of lead
Required : material which requires greater amount of heat
Solution :
Since the same masses of the materials are at the same temperature
difference,
154
𝑄𝐶𝑢 𝑚𝐶𝑢 𝐶 𝛥𝑇
=( ) ( 𝐶 𝐶𝑢 ) ( 𝛥𝑇𝐶𝑢 )
𝑄𝑃𝑏 𝑚𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑏
𝐶𝐶𝑢 0923 cal/gm oC

= = = 3.02 ≈ 3.0
𝐶𝑃𝑏 0305 cal/gm oC
Therefore,
𝑄𝐶𝑢
= 3, which gives 𝑸𝑪𝒖 = 𝟑𝑸𝑷𝒃
𝑄𝑃𝑏
This means that copper requires greater amount of heat by as much as three
times that for lead.
3. How many kg of steel will gain the same amount of heat as 350 grams of water
when the temperature change by 12Co?
Given :
Water , c = 1.0 cal/gm oC ; steel, c = 0.11 cal/gm oC
m= 350 g 𝛥𝑇 =12Co
𝛥𝑇 =12Co
Required : m of steel
Solution :
𝑄
From 𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑐 𝛥𝑇 𝑚 = 𝑐 𝛥𝑇
cal
For water, 𝑄 = (350𝑔) ( 1.0 gm oC ) ( 12C )
= 4200 cal
For steel, Q = 4200 cal

𝑄 4200𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑚 = = cal
𝑐 𝛥𝑇 ( 0.11gmoC ) (12C)
= 3181.82 g = 3.1818kg
155
Exercise 11A
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. When you swim in the ocean or in a lake at night, the water may feel
pleasantly warm even when the air is quite cool. Why?
2. Twelve grams of brass at 20oC gains 150J of heat. What is the final temperature
of the metal?
3. The temperature of a gold block and a zinc block, both 100g and both at 230 oK
are to be raised to 315oK. How much more heat must be added to the metal
that requires greater amount of energy?
4. How many kg of copper will experience the same rise in temperature as 3.0kg
of aluminum when the same amount of heat is added to them?
5. Does heat flow depend on the temperature of the two locations or only upon
temperature difference? Explain your answer.
156
Water Equivalent
It was stated earlier that the same amount of heat added to the same amount of
substances will not result to the same change in temperature. Water has specific heat
higher than any other common substance and therefore requires greater amount of
heat to raise the temperature as compared to other substances of the same mass. Since
water is very useful in temperature regulation, the amount of water that gains or loose
the same amount of heat as any given mass of substance over the same temperature
difference ----- the water equivalent of the substance would be of vital importance in
maintaining balance.
Example:
What is the water equivalent of 400g lead as its temperature change from 15 oC
to 50oC?
Given :
Lead: c = 0.0305 cal/gm oC
Ti = 15oC
Tf = 50oC
m = 400g
water : c = 1.0 cal/gm oC
Required :
mass of water
Solution :
The amount of heat needed by lead
𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑐 𝛥𝑇 = (400g ) (0.0305 cal/gm oC ) ( 50 – 15 )

= 427 cal
This is the same amount of heat that must be gained by water

𝑄 427𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑚 = = cal
𝑐 𝛥𝑇 ( 1.0 gmoC ) (35C)
= 12.2g
157
Calorimetry : The Method of Mixture
The specific heat of a substance can be experimentally determined by means of
calorimetry ----- the quantitative measure of heat exchange, done by mixing two
substances at different temperatures and allowing heat to be transferred from the
hotter to the colder one. Such measurements are made in a calorimeter, an insulated
container that allows very little heat loss ( or none at all ). The procedure, also called
method of mixture, is an application of the conservation of energy wherein the amount
of heat lost by one body must be the same amount of heat gained by the other. That is,
Σ Qt = 0. The heat exchange must be under a condition of thermal equilibrium
where the final temperature of the substances in the mixture are the same.
Examples:
1. Two hundred fifty grams of an unknown metal was heated at 100 oC and then
immediately dropped into 200g of water at 20oC. The mixture was stirred until
an equilibrium temperature of 38oC. Calculate the approximate specific heat of
the metal.
Given :
Water : m = 200g metal: m = 250g
c = 1.0 cal/gm oC Ti = 100oC
Ti = 20oC Tf = 38oC
Tf = 38oC
Required :
Specific heat of metal ( c )
Solution :
At the final temperature of the mixture, the heat lost by the metal is equal to
the heat gained by the water to raise its temperature, thus attaining thermal equilibrium.
𝑄𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑚 𝑐 𝛥𝑇 of metal = 𝑚 𝑐 𝛥𝑇 of water
(250g ) ( c of metal ) ( 100 – 38 ) = (200g)( 1.0 cal/gm oC)(38 - 20 )

15500g-oC (c ) = 3600 cal
3600 𝑐𝑎𝑙
c = 15500 𝑔−𝐶 𝑜
158
c = 0.232 cal/gm oC
2. A 0.25kg cup at 20oC is filled with boiling coffee. The cup and the coffee came
to thermal equilibrium at 80oC. If no heat is lost and the coffee is essentially
boiling water, what is the specific heat of the cup material?
Given :
Cup material Coffee
m = 0.25kg m = 0.25kg
Ti = 20oC Ti =100oC
Tf = 80oC
Required : c of cup material

Solution :
At thermal equilibrium, heat lost by coffee is equal to the heat gained
by the cup.
𝑄𝑐𝑢𝑝 = 𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒
( 0.25kg ) ( c ) ( 80 – 20 ) = (0.25kg) (1.0 kcal/kg oC) ( 100 – 80 )
15 c = 5.0 kcal/kg oC
c = (5kcal/kg oC )/15
c = 0. 333kcal/kg oC
TRY THIS!
Fifty grams of lead at 90oC was dropped into 100g of water contained in a 70-gram
vessel whose specific heat is 0.0305 ca/g-oC, at an initial temperature of 30oC. What will
be the temperature of the mixture at equilibrium?
159
Exercise 11B
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. How many kg of hot water at 80oC must be added to cold water at 15oC in
order to make a 1.2-kg mixture at 35oC? Neglect heat losses.
2. A student mixes 1.0L of water at 40oC with 1.0L of ethyl alcohol at 20oC. If heat
exchange is limited to the mixture, what is the final temperature of the
mixture?
3. Two metals, 0.50kg brass and 0.50kg iron were heated to 90oC and mixed
simultaneously with 0.35kg of water at 25oC, in a copper cup weighing 0.15kg.
What will be the final temperature of the mixture?
4. A camper heats 30L of water to boiling to get hot water for bathing. What
volume of stream water at 15oC must he add to get bath water at 40oC?
160
Phase Change and Latent Heat
Matter exists in practically three different forms depending on the arrangement

of molecules in their structures. The molecules of solids are held together by bonds into
a compact mass with definite shape and form. Liquids have particles that move more
freely, with larger space between each molecule. They can have definite volume and
could take the shape of the container. There is a weak interaction between the
molecules of gases because they are separated by relatively large distance. Gases have
no definite shape or volumes.
Addition of heat to solid particles causes increased motion of the molecules

about the equilibrium. When heat is sufficient to break the molecular bonds, the solid
undergoes phase change and turns into liquid. This change from solid to liquid is called
melting and the temperature at which it occurs is the melting point of the substance.
When liquid turns into solid, freezing takes place at temperature referred to as freezing
point. In general, these temperatures are the same for a given substance but can differ
very slightly.
The free movement of liquid molecules can be disturbed by the addition of heat
energy. When the molecules have enough energy to become separated by large
distances ( compared to their diameters ), the liquid changes to the gaseous or vapor
phase. This may occur slowly by the process of evaporation or rapidly at a particular
temperature called boiling point. As a gas condenses ( change from gas to liquid ) the
molecules lose about the same amount of heat when the liquid vaporizes. The
temperature at which this takes place is called condensation point.
There are some solids ( dry ice, moth balls, and certain air fresheners ) that do
not melt before vaporizing. Instead, they change directly from the solid to the gaseous
phase at a temperature called sublimation point. Like the rate of evaporation,
sublimation increases with temperature. The change from gas to solid without liquefying
is called deposition. Frost, for example is solidified water vapor deposited directly on
grass, car windows, and other objects. It is not frozen dew as mistakenly assumed.
When heat energy is transferred to a substance, the temperature increases as a

general reaction of the molecules. However, when heat that is removed ( or added )
causes only phase change, the temperature of the substance does not change. The
addition of more heat breaks the intermolecular bonds between the molecules , thus
causing a change in their overall configuration. The amount of heat required to do this is
called latent heat ---- a constant amount which differs for each substance,
corresponding to the phase change that take place. The heat energy involved in the
phase change process is
𝑸
𝑸=𝒎𝑳 or 𝑳 = 𝒎
where : m = mass of substance, g
L = latent heat, cal/g
161
Table 9.2 Temperatures of Phase Change and Latent Heats
of Various Substances ( at 1 atm )
Substance Melting Lf Boiling Lv

Point (oC) Point (oC)
J/kg( x 105) Kcal/kg J/kg( x 105) Kcal/kg
Alcohol -114 1.0 25 78 8.5 204
Gold 1063 0.645 15.4 2660 15.8 377
Helium* -269 0.21 5.0
Lead 328 0.25 5.9 1744 8.67 207
Mercury -39 0.12 2.8 357 2.7 65
Nitrogen -210 0.26 6.1 -196 2.0 48
Oxygen -219 0.14 3.3 -183 2.1 51
Tungsten 3420 1.8 44 5900 4.8 1150
Water 0 3.33 80 100 22.6 540
*not a solid at 1 atm pressure, melting point : -272oC at 26 atm
Examples :
1. How much ice at 0oC must be added to 1.0kg of water at 100oC so as to end
up with all liquid at 20oC?
Given :
Ice Water
Ti = 0oC Ti =100oC
m=? Tf = 20oC
Tf = 20oC m = 1.0kg
Required :
Mass of ice ( m )
Solution :
At the final temperature of the mixture,
Q lost by water = Q gained to melt ice and raise its temperature
Q lost by water = 𝒎 𝒄 𝜟𝑻
= ( 1.0kg )( 1.0 kcal/kg oC)( 100 – 20 )
= 80 kcal
162
Q gained by ice = mLf + 𝒎 𝒄 𝜟𝑻
= m (80 kcal/kg ) + m (1.0 kcal/kg oC) ( 20 – 0 )
80 m + 20 m = 100m kcal/kg
Therefore,
80 kcal = 100m kcal/kg

80 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑚 = = 0.80 kg
100𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔
2. Iron shots ( m = 300g ) are heated to 100oC and then dropped into a large
block of ice at 0oC. How many grams of ice will melt away?
Given :
Ice : Lf = 80 cal/g iron shot : c = 0.11 cal/gm oC
Ti = 0oC Ti =100oC
m= 300g
Required : mass of ice that will melt
Solution :
As the iron shots mix with the ice, it looses heat just enough to melt some of the
ice and finally acquire a temperature of 0oC. Thus,
Q lost by iron = Q to melt ice
𝑚 𝑐 𝛥𝑇 = mLf
( 300g ) (0.11 cal/gm oC ) ( 100 – 0 ) = m (80 cal/g)
3300 cal = 80 m cal/g

3300𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑚 = = 41.5g
80𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑔
163
Exercise 11C
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. Find the total amount of heat needed to change 20 grams of ice initially at
-10oC to steam at 103oC.
2. How many grams of steam at 105oC must be added to 50g of ice at 0oC so as to
have a an all liquid mixture at 24oC?
3. A 500-g piece of lead was heated and then immediately dropped into a large
block of ice at 0oC. After a while, the cavity formed in the ice was found to
contain 20g of ice water. What was the initial temperature of lead?
4. Why do we get a more severe burn from steam at 100oC than from an equal
amount of water at the same temperature?
164
Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice
Objective
To experimentally determine the value of the latent heat of fusion of ice by

applying calorimetry in methods of mixture
Calorimeter with stirrer container for hot water

Double-pan balance thermometer
Set of weights ice cubes
Procedure
1. Find the mass of the empty inner cup of the calorimeter with the
thermometer and stirrer inserted in the holes of the cover. Place the
inner cup of the calorimeter into the outer cup.
2. Obtain warm water from a container and pour this up to 1/3 full of the
inner cup. Wait for thermal equilibrium to be established then record
the temperature as T1.
3. Weigh the calorimeter cup with the warm water and obtain the mass of
the warm water by difference. Record this as mw.
4. Dry an ice cube and add it to the water. Be sure to agitate the water to
ensure the complete melting of the ice. Continue to add “dried” ice
cubes until the final temperature is at or near room temperature.
Record this temperature T2.
5. Weigh the calorimeter and mixture of melted ice and water. Determine
the mass of the ice used, mi.
6. Repeat the procedures to make two trials. Tabulate results.

165
Trial 1 Trial 2
Mass of empty cup (mc)
Specific heat of cup, cp
Mass of cup + warm water
Mass of water (mw)
Temperature of water ( T1)
Specific heat of water (cw)
Mass of cup + water+ ice
Mass of ice (mi)
Temperature of mixture (T2)
Heat of fusion of ice (expt’l)
Heat of fusion of ice (True Value)
% error
Computations
*****To calculate the experimental value of the heat of fusion of ice, use the
heat loss = heat gain equation
Generalization
166
Temperature and Expansion
Heat is related to temperature and describes the process of energy transfer from
one object to another. Generally, heat transfer is the result of temperature difference.
Many physical properties of materials change sufficiently with temperature to be used
as bases for thermometers. By far, the most obvious and commonly used property is
thermal expansion, a change in the dimension or volume of a substance that occurs
when temperature change.
Almost all substances expand with increasing temperature , but they do so to

different extents. Most substances also contract with decreasing temperature. Because
some metals expand more than others, a bimetallic strip ( strips of two different metals
bonded together ) can be used to measure temperature changes. As heat is applied, the
composite strip will bend away from the side made of metal that expands more.
Thermal expansion results from a change in the average distance separating the
atoms of a substance. The atoms are held together by bonding forces which vibrate
back and forth, with increased temperature ( that is, more internal energy ). They
become increasingly active and vibrate over greater distances. With wider vibrations in
all dimensions, the solid expands as a whole.
The change in one dimension of a solid ( length, width or thickness ) is called

linear expansion. For small temperature changes, linear expansion is approximately
proportional to ΔT or ( T1 – To ) .
T0
Lo
ΔL T1 = T0 + ΔT
L1
The fractional change in length is
𝐿1 − 𝐿𝑜 𝜟𝑳
or , where L0 is the original length at the initial
𝐿𝑜 𝑳𝒐
temperature T0. This ratio is related to the change in temperature by
𝛥𝐿
= 𝛼 𝛥𝑇 or ΔL = L0 𝜶 𝜟𝑻
𝐿𝑜
167
The final length of the material
𝐿1 = 𝐿0 + 𝛥𝐿
= 𝐿0 + L0 𝛼 𝛥𝑇
𝑳𝟏 = 𝑳𝟎 [ 1 + 𝜶 𝜟𝑻 ] where α = thermal coefficient of linear expansion
Table 9.3 Values of Thermal Expansion Coefficients (per oC)

for Some Materials at 20oC
Coefficient of linear Coefficient of
Material expansion ( α ) Material volume
( x10-6 ) expansion(β)
Aluminum 24 x10-6 Alcohol, ethyl 1.1 x 10 -4
Brass 19 x10-6 Gasoline 9.5 x 10 -4
Brick or Concrete 12 x10-6 Glycerin 4.9 x 10 -4
Copper 17 x10 -6 Mercury 1.8 x 10 -4
Glass, window 9.0 x10-6 Water 2.1 x 10 -4
Glass, pyrex 3.3 x10-6
Gold 14 x10-6 Air (and most other 3.5 x 10 -3
Ice 52 x10-6 gases at 1 atm)
-6
Iron and Steel 12 x10
Area expansion of flat objects can be computed bases from the linear expansion of
objects using the same material
Lo Lo
Lo
ΔL
2
Ao = Lo Lo
The final area 𝑨𝟏 = ( 𝑳𝒐 + 𝜟𝑳 ) 𝟐
𝑨𝟏 = ( 𝑳𝟎 + 𝑳𝟎 𝜶 𝜟𝑻 )𝟐
= 𝑳𝟎 𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑳𝟎 𝟐 𝜶𝜟𝑻 + ( 𝑳𝟎 𝜶 𝜟𝑻 )𝟐 .
168
Since the value of α is very small, raising it to an exponent makes the value even
smaller ( almost negligible ). Thus, the last term in the equation approaches zero.
Therefore ,
𝑨𝟏 = 𝑳𝟎 𝟐 ( 𝟏 + 𝟐𝜶𝜟𝑻 )
= 𝑨𝟎 ( 𝟏 + 𝟐𝜶𝜟𝑻 )
Where 2α = area expansion coefficient of the material

A0 = initial area
Volume expansion of solids using the same material for linear expansion gives an
analogous formula for final volume
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑳𝒐 𝟑 ( 1 + 3αΔT )
= 𝑽𝟎 ( 1 + 3αΔT ) where 3α = volume expansion coefficient

V0 = initial volume
Fluids ( liquids and gases ) , like solids normally expand with increasing temperature.
Because fluids have no definite shape, only volume expansion ( and not linear or area
expansion ) is meaningful. The expression is
𝜟𝑽
= 𝜷𝜟𝑻
𝑽𝟎
where β = coefficient for volume expansion of the fluid.
Examples :
1. A steel beam is 50m long at a temperature of 20oC. On a hot day, the

temperature rises to 40oC. What is the change in the beam’s length due to
thermal expansion?
Given :
L0 = 50cm
T0 = 20oC
T1 = 50oC
Required : ΔL ( change in length )
Solution :
Δ𝐿 = 𝐿0 𝛼 𝛥𝑇 where α = 12 x 10 -6/ 0C
= ( 50 cm ) (12 x 10 -6/ 0C ) ( 50 – 20 )
= 0.0012m or 1.2 mm
169
2. A circular aluminum plate of radius 0.10 m is cooled from 350oC to 20oC. By what
percentage does the plate’s area decrease?
Given :
Aluminum , α = 24 x10-6 / oC
Radius = 0.10m
R
Required :
ΔA ( change in area )
Solution :
𝛥𝐴 = 𝐴0 (2𝛼 𝛥𝑇 ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐴0 = 𝜋 𝑅 2
= π ( 0.10 m )2 = 0.01 m2
𝛥𝐴 = 𝐴0 ( 2𝛼 𝛥𝑇 )
= (0 .01 m2 ) ( 2 ) (24 x10-6 / oC ) ( 350 -20 )
= 0.0001584m2 = 1.584 x 10 -4m2
TRY THIS
A brass cube was found to change its volume by 0.00034m 3 when the
temperature changes from 20oC to 180oC. How long is each side of the cube?
170
Temperature and Humidity
Relative humidity is a measurement of the amount of water vapor in a mixture

of air and water vapor. It is most commonly defined as the partial pressure of water
vapor in the air-water mixture, given as a percentage of the saturated vapor pressure
under those conditions. The relative humidity of air thus changes not only with respect
to the absolute humidity (moisture content) but also temperature and pressure, upon
which the saturated vapor pressure depends. Relative humidity is often used instead of
absolute humidity in situations where the rate of water evaporation is important, as it
takes into account the variation in saturated vapor pressure.
Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage and is calculated by
using the following equation:
The most common units for vapor density are gm/m 3. For example, if the actual
vapor density is 10 g/m3 at 20°C compared to the saturation vapor density at that
temperature of 17.3 g/m3 , then the relative humidity is
When the temperature is high and the relative humidity is low, evaporation of
water is rapid; soil dries, wet clothes hung on a line or rack dry quickly, and perspiration
readily evaporates from the skin. Wooden furniture can shrink causing the paint that
covers these surfaces to fracture.
When the temperature is high and the relative humidity is high, evaporation of
water is slow. When relative humidity approaches 100 percent, condensation can occur
on surfaces, leading to problems with mold, corrosion, decay, and other moisture-
related deterioration.
171
Exercise 11D
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. An aluminum tape measure is accurate at 20oC. If the tape measure is placed in

a deep-freeze at – 5.0oC, what would be the tape measure’s percentage error
because of thermal contraction? Would it read high or low?
2. A steel beam 10m long is installed in a structure at 20oC. What are its changes
in length in mm at the temperature extremes of - 30oC to 45oC?
3. What temperature change would cause a 0.10% increase in the volume of ethyl
alcohol that was initially at 20oC ?
4. A circular piece 8.0cm in diameter is cut from a rectangular sheet of copper at

20oC. If the sheet is then placed in an oven and heated to 150oC, what will be
the new area of the hole?
172
Heat Transfer
Heat is defined as energy in transit. The manner by which it is transferred is

important. Heat can move from place to place by means of three mechanisms:
conduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction is a result of molecular interactions as the molecules in one part of

the body at a higher temperature vibrate faster. They transfer some of the energy to the
less energetic molecules on the cooler part of the body as they collide. As such, energy
is conductively transferred from a higher temperature – region to the lower –
temperature region ( transfer as a result of temperature difference ).
The ability of a substance to conduct heat depends upon the physical state.
Solids ( usually metals ) which have large number of electrons that are free to move
from place to place are good conductors of heat. Gases are poor thermal conductors
because of molecules that are far from each other. Liquids are better conductors than
gases due to molecules that are closer together and can interact more readily.
Heat conduction can be quantitatively described as the time rate of heat flow in
a material for a given temperature difference. It also depends on the size and shape of
the object.
Consider the slab of material with outer faces at different temperatures:
T1 T2
ΔT
Surface Area (A)

Heat Flow
Q
The rate of conduction is directly proportional to the surface area (A) and the
difference in temperature of the faces ( ΔT ) , and inversely proportional to the
thickness ( d ) of the slab.
173
𝜟𝑸 𝑨 𝜟𝑻 𝜟𝑻
∞ , term is called the temperature gradient of the material
𝜟𝑻 𝒅 𝒅
Taking into account the conducting ability of the material composition of the slab,
𝜟𝑸 𝑨 𝜟𝑻
= 𝒌 where 𝒌 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝜟𝑻 𝒅
The amount of heat conducted by the slab over a given period of time, t
𝑨 𝒕 𝜟𝑻
𝑸 =𝒌 𝒅
The temperature gradient of the slab
𝜟𝑻 𝑸
= where k = thermal conductivity, (cal/m-s-oC)
𝒅 𝒌𝑨𝒕
ΔT = T1 – T2
d = thickness, m
t = period of conduction, s
A = surface area, m2
And , the thermal conductivity of the material of the slab
𝑸𝒅
𝒌 = 𝑨 𝒕 𝜟𝑻
Comparing the relatively large thermal conductivities of metals with other

materials, we can be convinced that metals are effectively used in making bottoms for
pots and saucepans. Their ability to conduct heat faster promote the distribution of heat
over the bottom for even cooking. ( Table 9.4 )
On the other hand, plastic foams are good insulators basically due to the air
pockets they contain.
174
Table 9.4 Thermal Conductivities of Some Common Substances
Substance Thermal Conductivity ( K )

J / ( m-s-oC ) Kcal / ( m-s-oC )
METALS
Aluminum 240 5.73 x 10-2
Copper 390 9.32 x 10-2
Iron and Steel 46 1.1 x 10-2
Silver 320 10 x 10-2
LIQUIDS
Transformer oil 0.18 4.3 x 10-5
Water 0.57 14 x 10-5
GASES
Air 0.024 0.57 x 10-5
Hydrogen 0.17 4.1 x 10-5
Oxygen 0.024 0.57 x 10-5
OTHER MATERIALS
Brick 0.71 17 x 10-5
Concrete 1.3 31 x 10-5
Cotton 0.075 1.8 x 10-5
Fireboard 0.059 1.4 x 10-5
Floor tile 0.67 16 x 10-5
Glass ( typical ) 0.84 20 x 10-5
Glass wool 0.042 1.0 x 10-5
Human tissue ( average ) 0.20 4.8 x 10-5
Ice 2.2 53 x 10-5
Styrofoam 0.042 1.0 x 10-5
Wood ( oak ) 0.15 3.6 x 10-5
Wood ( pine ) 0.12 2.9 x 10-5
Vacuum 0 0
175
Examples :
1. The glass pane of a window measures 2.0m long, 1.5m wide, and 4.0mm
thick. How much heat is conducted through the glass per hr, when the faces
are maintained at a difference of 2Co?
Given :
Glass pane , k = 0.84 J / ( m-s-oC )
Dimensions : 2m x 1.5m x 0.04m
ΔT = 2Co
t =1h = 3600s
Required:
Q conducted
Solution:
𝑨 𝒕 𝜟𝑻
𝑸 =𝒌 where A = (2𝑚)(1.5𝑚) = 3𝑚2
𝒅
( 3𝑚2 )( 3600𝑠 )(2C )

= ( 0.84 J / ( m-s-oC ) [ ]
0.04𝑚
= 4536000J = 4.536 x 106 J
2. An aluminum bar and a copper bar have the same cross – section and
temperature difference between their ends. If they conduct the same
amount of heat, which bar is longer and by how many times is it longer ?
Given :
Aluminum : k = 240 J / ( m-s-oC )
Copper : k = 390 J / ( m-s-oC )
A Al = A Cu ; ΔT Al = ΔTCu
Required :
d of each bar
176
Solution:
Q of aluminum = Q of copper
𝑨 𝒕 𝜟𝑻 𝑨 𝒕 𝜟𝑻
𝒌 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒎 = 𝒌 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓.
𝒅 𝒅
Since the bars have the same cross – section and temperature difference over
the same period of time,
𝒌 𝒌
𝒅
𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚 = 𝒅
𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟
240𝐽 𝐽
− 390 −
𝑚−𝑠 𝐶 𝑚−𝑠−𝐶
=
𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟
240 (d of copper ) = 390 ( d of aluminum )

Dividing by 390,
0.615 d of copper = d of aluminum
Therefore, copper is longer than aluminum by 0.385 units.
3. What is the temperature gradient of a 15-cm thick concrete that looses

about 3.5 x 105 J/ m2 of heat in an hour?
Given :
concrete : k = 1.3 J / ( m-s-oC )
d = 15cm = 0.15m
Q = 3.5 x 105 J
177
A = 1 m2
t= 1h = 3600s
Required :
temperature gradient of the material
Solution:
𝜟𝑻 𝑸
=
𝒅 𝒌𝑨𝒕
𝟑.𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑱
= 𝑱
(𝟏.𝟑𝒎−𝒔−𝑪)( 𝟏 𝒎𝟐 )( 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒔 )
= 74.79 oC/m
178
Exercise 11E
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. How much heat is conducted per square foot of brick per day, if the faces are
maintained at a temperature difference of 6oC?
2. A wall is made up of 2.0cm thick fiberboard on the inside with 15cm thick
concrete outside. On a cold day, the outside temperature is -10oC and it is 20oC
on the inside. How much energy ( in Joules ) is conducted through 3.5m x 5.0m
of the wall in one hour?
3. A plastic ice tray and a metal tray are removed from the same freezer ( same
initial temperature ) . However, when your hand touch both, the metal one
feels cooler. Why?
4. How many times faster would heat be conducted from your bare feet by a tile
floor than by an oak floor? ( assume that the tile and oak floors are at the same
temperature and have the same thickness )
179
Convection
Generally, liquids and gases are not as good thermal conductors as solids.
However, the ability of the molecules to move more freely permits the transfer of heat
through them by another process ---- convection.
Convection is heat transfer as a result of the actual movement of the heated
molecules. It maybe natural or forced. Natural convection cycles occur in liquids and
gases which are important in atmospheric processes. During the day, the land heats up
more quickly than large bodies of water because water has greater specific heat than
land, and convection currents disperse the heat absorbed throughout the great volume
of water. The air in contact with the ground is heated by conduction, expands and
becomes less dense than in the surrounding cooler air. Cooler air descends, setting up a
convection cycle that transfers heat away from the land. At night, the land loses heat
more quickly than the water, thus reversing the cycle.
In forced convection, the medium of heat transfer is moved mechanically. Heat

transfer can be made without temperature difference and even from a low-temperature
region to a high-temperature area, such as the removal of energy from the inside of the
refrigerator by the forced convection of the coolant. Another very good example is the
human circulatory system where the heat generated internally is transferred close to
the skin by blood circulation in order to maintain a normal body temperature. The
energy is then conducted to the air or lost by radiation.
Radiation
Heat transfer by conduction and convection require a material as a medium. In

radiation, energy is transferred in the form of electromagnetic waves that requires no
material medium. The sun transfers heat energy to the Earth through empty space by
radiation. Visible light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation are commonly
called radiant energy. An open flame from a burning material produces a heating effect
from the invisible infrared radiation absorbed by the water molecules of our skin. This
method of radiation plays an important role in maintaining the warmth of our planet in
a mechanism called the “greenhouse effect”, where the water vapor and carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere selectively absorbs sunlight to heat the surface while some of the
infrared radiation that is re- emitted is absorbed.
Infrared radiation is invisible to the human eye. However, they can be detected
by instruments that use the direct relationship of the temperature of the source and the
frequency of radiation. They can measure the radiation remotely. There are also some
cameras that use special infrared films which take pictures consisting of contrasting dark
and light areas corresponding to regions of lower and higher temperatures, respectively.
180
A new application of thermography is for security. The system consists of an
infrared camera and a computer that identifies an individual by means of a unique heat
pattern emitted by the facial blood vessels. The picture taken from the radiation of the
person’s face is compared with the standard image stored in the computer. It is
reported that this system can even identify identical twins because their facial features
are slightly different.
The microwave oven operates through the principle of heat transfer by

radiation. Microwaves are forms of electromagnetic radiation whose frequency range is
just below that of infrared radiation. They are absorbed chiefly by water molecules, fats,
and sugars, thereby heating rapidly within 2 to 3 cm of the surface. Heat is conducted to
the interior o the food. Therefore, large items must be left in the oven after it is shut off
to allow further conduction of heat to warm the food or cook it thoroughly.
The rate at which an object radiates energy has been found to be proportional to
the fourth power of the absolute temperature at which radiation occurs, the area of the
radiating surface, and the characteristic of the material to emit heat energy. This
relationship is expressed in the equation known as :
Stefan – Boltzmann Law
𝜟𝑸
= ∞ 𝑨𝓮 𝑻𝟒
𝜟𝒕
Considering the ability of the material to radiate or emit heat energy,
𝑷 = 𝝈 𝑨𝓮 𝑻𝟒 where P = power radiated, Watts (W)

𝜎= Stefan – Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-oK4
T = absolute temperature of radiation, oK
A = area of radiating surface, m2
ℯ = emissivity of the material, %
The emissivity of the material ranges from 0 to 1.0, depending upon the ability of
the surface to emit or absorb heat energy. Dark surfaces have emissivity close to 1.0,
while shiny surfaces have values close to 0. A perfect absorber called a blackbody has an
emissivity of 1.0, while the human skin has 0.70.
When an object is in equilibrium with the surrounding, the temperature is

constant and the rate of emission and absorption of heat is the same for both the
radiating surface and the surrounding. However, there is a net flow of radiant energy
when the temperatures are different. Thus, the net rate of energy loss or gain is
𝑷𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝝈 𝑨𝓮 ( 𝑻𝒔 𝟒 − 𝑻𝟎 𝟒 )
Where Ts = temperature of the surrounding
T0 = temperature of object
181
Examples :
1. If an object has an emissivity of 0.75 and an area of 0.20m 2, how much
energy does it radiate outward per second at 20oC?
Given :
ℯ = 0.75
A = 0.20 m2
T = 20oC + 273 = 293oK
Required :
Energy radiated per sec, P
Solution :
𝑃 = 𝜎 𝐴ℯ 𝑇 4
= ( 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-oK4 )( 0.20 m2 )( 0.75 ) (293oK) 4
= 62.6 Watts
2. Glass panels 8.0cm wide and 70cm long radiates heat energy at the rate of
50W. If the emissivity of glass is 0.4, at what temperature did radiation take
place?
Given : glass panel

L = 70 cm = 0.7m
w = 8.0cm = 0.08m
ℯ = 0.40
P = 50W
Required :
Temperature of radiation, T
Solution :
𝑃 = 𝜎 𝐴ℯ 𝑇 4 where A = 0.08m )( 0.70m ) = 0.056m2
50W = ( 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-oK4 )( 0.056m2) ( 0.40 ) T4
50 𝑊
𝑇4 = 5.67 x 10−8 W
( ) (K −4 )0.056m )2 ( 0.40)
m2
4
T = √3.937 𝑥 1010 = 445.44oK
= 172.44oC
182
Exercise 11F
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. If the temperature of an object is increased from 20oC to 40oC, how are the
object’s emissivity and radiation rate affected?
2. A tungsten filament 20in long and 3.0in wide radiates heat energy at the rate
of 15 J/s at a temperature of 35oC. What is the approximate emissivity of the
filament?
3. The emissivity of an object is 0.60. how many times greater would the outward
radiation be from a similar blackbody at the same temperature?
4. A lamp filament radiates 100W of power when the temperature of the

surrounding is 20oC, and 99.5W when the temperature is 30oC. What is the
temperature of the filament in each case?
183
Module 12
Ideal Gases and the Laws of Thermodynamics
1. Enumerate the properties of an ideal gas and solve problems involving ideal
gas equations
2. Distinguish among system, wall and surroundings
3. State the relationship between changes in internal energy , work done, and
thermal energy supplied through the First Law of Thermodynamics
4. Differentiate the thermodynamic systems, and use the First Law of
Thermodynamics in combination with the properties of adiabatic, isothermal,
isobaric, and isochoric processes.
5. Solve problems involving the application of the Second Law of
Thermodynamics
Matter differs in molecular arrangement. In the gaseous phase, it is

characterized by the absence of a fixed volume and shape. It expands rapidly when
placed in a closed container and becomes distributed uniformly through the entire
space, thus acquiring shape and volume. When a gas is sufficiently cooled, it turns into
liquid. However, some change to the liquid state only upon cooling down to almost 0 oK.
( hydrogen and helium) while others are liquefied quite easily ( Chlorine and ammonia ).
When two gases are mixed, each gas behaves independent of the other, diffuse
uniformly throughout the volume of the container.
Gases may undergo expansion and compression. When air is forced into an
automobile tire, it is compressed but when allowed to escape, it expands. Gases also
exert pressure which evenly distributed on all sides, top and bottom containing them.
The similar behavior of gases under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure became the basis for the theory ( later accepted as a law ) which states “equal
volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain
the same number of molecules” , now known as Avogadro’s Principle.
Because of the deviation from the ideal behavior of some gases, ( Avogadro’s
Principle ) the actual observed molar volume of gas at standard temperature and
pressure (STP) may be slightly different .
Applying the combined gas law to one mole of an ideal gas, we derive the ideal
gas constant ( subscript o refers to standard conditions )
pV poVo (1.0atm)(22.4L / mole)

= = = 0.0821 L-atm/K- mol
T To 273 K
This quantity, designated by R is known as the universal gas constant . For n moles of
ideal gas at the same temperature and pressure, the volume will be n times as great.
184
pV
Therefore, = nR or pV = nRT . This is the Ideal Gas Law which shows
T
that when pressure and temperature are fixed, volume is proportional to the number of
moles of the gas.
Alternative forms of the Ideal Gas Law
w
pV = ( ) RT
M
where: d = density of the gas
d
p = (RT ) M = molecular weight of the gas
M
w = mass or weight of the gas
Examples:
1. Compute the volume of 11.0 grams of nitrous oxide ( N2O ) at STP
Solution:
The molecular weight of nitrous oxide = 44 g/mole , therefore

Number of moles of 11g of the gas = 11/44 = 0.25 mole
At STP: T = 2730K , and P = 1.0 atm
From
pV = nRT, (1.0atm)(V) = (0.25mole)(0.0821 L-atm/K mole)(273oK)
V = 5.6L
2. Assuming methane to behave ideally at 20oC and 5.0 atm, what will be its
density under these conditions? ( For methane, M = 16g/mole )
Solution
d pM
From the alternative formula p = (RT ) , d= Thus
M RT
(5.0atm)(16 g / mole)
d= = 3.33 g/L
(0.0821L − atm / mol − K )(293 K )
185
Thermodynamics
Deals with the transfer or the actions (dynamics ) of heat ( the Greek word for heat is
“therme”)
Thermodynamic System – a definite quantity of matter enclosed by boundaries or

surfaces, either real or imaginary. The boundaries have no definite shape nor do they
have to enclose a fixed volume
Examples:
1. A quantity of gas in a piston-cylinder of an engine
2. A cubic meter of air in a room.
Thermally isolated system – heat transfer into or out of the system is impossible.
Ex. A thermally isolated balloon can be compressed by external force or pressure so

work is done on the system which results to transfer of energy
Heat reservoir – a system assumed to have an unlimited capacity. When heat enter or leaves a
system, it is absorbed or given up to the surroundings without changing its temperature.
Ex. Pouring a warm bottle of water into a cold lake does not appreciably raise the
temperature of the lake.
State of a System
Equation of state-describe the condition of the thermodynamic system, expressed as a

mathematical relationship of the thermodynamic variables. The ideal gas law, PV = nRT is a
simple equation of state where the state variables are: P-pressure, V- volume, n-number of
molecules and T-absolute temperature. A set of these variables that satisfies the ideal gas law
specifies the state of the system as long as the system is in thermal equilibrium and has a
uniform temperature.
Processes
Process - a change in state or thermodynamic coordinates of a system. That is, the set of
variables P, V, T that describe the state completely change…Processes can either be reversible or
irreversible
Irreversible process - a process for which the intermediate steps are non-equilibrium
states. The process path can not be retraced because of the non-equilibrium conditions.
Reversible process - one whose path is known: the initial and final states are known or
defined.
186
First Law of Thermodynamics
• A statement of the law of conservation of energy applied to a thermodynamic system
• Heat, internal energy, and work are the quantities involved in thermodynamic system
• When heat is added to a system, it increases the internal energy of the system and work
is done by the system.
In equation:
Q = ΔU + W
Convention: +Q heat is added
+W work is done by the system
-Q heat is removed
-W work is done on the system
ΔU = change in internal energy (U2-U1)
The first law can be applied to several processes for a closed system of an ideal gas
Isobaric Process – constant pressure process
For an ideal gas, V/T = nR/P =constant
The heat added to the gas goes into increasing the internal energy of the gas and doing work by
increasing the volume from V1 to V2
W = P ( V2 – V1 )
Therefore in terms of the first law,
Q = ΔU + W
= ΔU + P ( V2 – V1 ) , ΔU = U2-U1
Isometric Process
- Short for isovolumetric or equal- volume process, is a constant-volume process –

sometimes called isochoric process
- No work is done ( W = PV =0,since ΔV = 0 )
187
* If heat is added it goes into increasing the internal energy. Therefore, the temperature
of the gas.
By the first law,
Q = ΔU + W = ΔU + 0
and thus, Q = ΔU
Isothermal Process
- A constant-temperature process.
- At constant temperature, nRT/V =constant/V for an ideal gas.
- In going from state 1 to state 2, heat is added to the system, and both the pressure and
volume change in order to keep the temperature constant ( pressure decreases and
volume increases)
- The internal energy of the ideal gas remains constant (ΔU =0 ) because the temperature is
constant.
By the first law, Q = ΔU + W = 0 + W Hence, Q = W
**** For an ideal gas , in an isothermal process, heat energy is converted to mechanical work
and vice versa
Adiabatic Process
- No heat is transferred into or out of the system; that is, Q = 0 ( the Greek word
adiabatos means “impassable”)
- The condition Q=0 is satisfied for a thermally isolated system.
- If the system is not thermally isolated, processes that are nearly adiabatic occur rapidly
enough that there is no time for much energy to be transferred into or out of the
system. By the first law,
Q = 0 = ΔU + W and W = - ΔU
Example
An ideal gas occupies a volume of 22.4L at STP. While absorbing 2.53kJ of heat from the
surroundings, the gas expands isobarically to 32.4L. What is the change in internal energy of the
gas?
188
Solution :
At STP: T = 0oC = 273oK,
P=1.0atm = 1.01x105 N/m2 (Pa)
V1 = 22.4L = 22.4x10-3m3
V2 = 32.4L = 32.4x10-3m3
Q = 2.53kJ = 2530J
Q = ΔU + W
ΔU = Q –W = Q –P(V2-V1)
=2530 - [1.01x105 (32.4x10-3 - 22.4x10-3 )]
= 2530 – 1010 J
= 1520 J
Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy
When a piece of hot metal is placed in an isolated container of cool water, heat will be
transferred from the metal to the water and the two will attain thermal equilibrium at some
intermediate temperature. For a thermally isolated system, the total energy of the system
remains constant.
The principle which specifies the direction in which a process could take place is
embodied in the second law of thermodynamics which says that: certain processes do not take
place, or have never been observed to take place , even though they are consistent with the first
law.
Other Statement of the Second Law
• Heat will not flow from a colder body to a warmer body
• In a thermal cycle, heat energy can not be completely transformed into mechanical
work.
Thermal cycle – typically consists of several separate thermal processes,

connected such that they end up back at the starting conditions.
· It is impossible to construct an operational perpetual motion machine .
189
***Real machines are always less than 100% efficient, that the work output is
always less than the energy input.
Entropy
- A property that indicates the natural direction of a process, coined by Rudolf Clausius- a
German physicist.
- Mathematically, the change in a system’s entropy (ΔS) when an amount of heat (Q) is
added or removed by a reversible process at a constant temperature is
Q
ΔS = where T is in the Kelvin temperature and the unit for entropy is J/K
T
In terms of entropy, the second law can be stated as:
The total entropy of the universe increases in every natural process.
**** The entropy of an isolated system never decreases.
**** The entropy of the system is a function of its state. Each state of the system has a
particular value of entropy and a change in entropy depends only on the initial and final states
for the process.
In terms of heat engines, the second law can be expressed as:
**** No heat engine operating in a cycle can convert its heat input completely to work
Heat engine – a device that takes heat from a high-temperature source, converts some of it to
useful work, and transfers the rest to the surroundings
THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
***** It is impossible to reach a temperature of absolute zero.
Examples:
1. What is the change in entropy of ethyl alcohol when 0.25kg of it vaporizes at its
boiling point of 78oC ( latent heat of vaporization Lv = 1.0x105J/kg )?
190
Solution
* A phase change occurs at constant temperature, hence we can compute for

the amount of heat added by latent heat.
m=0.25kg
T = 78oC + 273 =351oK
Lv = 1.0x105J/kg
Solving for Q
Q = mLv = (0.25kg)(1.0x105J/kg)=2.5x104J
then, ΔS= 2.5x104J/351= +71J/K
2. A metal spoon at 24oC is placed in a 1.0 kg of water at 18 oC. The thermally isolated
system comes to equilibrium at a temperature of 20oC. Find the approximate change in the
entropy of the system.
* the system is isolated , so we know that Qw + Qm = 0 where the subscripts w and m

are for the water and metal, respectively.
* the change in temperature are quite small. The change in entropy will be taken by
using each object’s average temperature.
Solution:
Water Metal
m=1.0 kg T1 = 24oC
T1=18oC T2 = 20oC
Cp= 4186J/(kgoC)
T2= 20oC
Qw=(1.0kg)(4186J/(kgoC)(20oC-18oC)
191
= 8.37x103J , Qm = - 8.37x103J
The approximate change in entropy of each object can be calculated using the average
temperature
For water: Tave= (20 + 18)/2 = 19 oC=292oK
For metal: Tave =(24 + 20)/2 = 22 oC = 295oK
ΔSw= 8.37x103J/292 = 28.7J/K
ΔSm = -8.37x103J/295=-28.4J/K.
ΔS = ΔSw+ΔSm = +0.3J/kg (heat gained is greater than heat loss)
TRY THIS
A 50.0-g ice cube at 0oC is placed in 500mL of water at 20oC. Estimate the change in entropy
when all the ice has melted (a) for the ice (b) for the water and ( c ) for the ice-water system.
192
Exercise 12
NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

1. While doing 500J of work, a system of ideal gas expanded adiabatically to 1.5 times its
volume. Does the temperature of the gas increase or decrease? B)how much heat is
transferred? C) what is the change in internal energy of the gas?
2. A gram of water (1.0cm3) at 100oC is converted to a volume of 1671cm3 of steam at

atmospheric pressure. What is the change in internal energy of the system?
3. What is the change in entropy when 0.50kg of mercury vapor (Lv=2.7x10 5J/kg)
condenses to a liquid at its boiling point of 357oC?
4. During a liquid-to-solid phase change of a quantity of a substance, the change in entropy

is – 4.19x103J/K. if 1.67x106J of heat is removed in the process, what is the freezing point
of the substance in degrees Celcius?
193
Bibliography
Beer, F., Johnston, E. R. Jr. (2013), Vector Mechanics for Engineers : Statics 10th ed.
McGraw Hill Company , USA
Bloomfield, L.A.(2006) How Things Work: The Physics of Everyday Life 3rd ed. John Wiley and
Sons Inc., USA
Buffa, A. J. and Wilson, J.D.(2006) College Physics 6th ed. Benjamin Cunnings Publication
( for Prentice Hall, USA )
Giambattista, A., Richardson, B., and Richardson, R.(2005) College Physics 2nd ed. McGrwa Hill,
Inc., Science/ Engineering/ Math ., USA
Hewitt, P.G.(2012), Conceptual Physics 11th ed., Addison - Wesley Publishing Company, USA
Jones, E.R. and Childers , R.L. (2007), Contemporary College Physics : McGraw Hill, Inc., Science/
Engineering/ Math ., USA
Resnick, R. (2007) Fundamentals of Physics 8th ed., John Wiley and Sons, Inc., USA
Serway, R. Faughn, J.S., and Vuille, C. (2008) College Physics 8th ed., Books Cole Publisher USA
Young, H. D. (2006 ), Sear’s and Semansky’s College Physics 8th ed., Addison – Wesley Publishing
Company, Inc., USA
Young,H.D., Freedman, RA., Ford, Lewis (2009) Sear”s And Semansky’s University Physics with
Modern Physics 12th ed., Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd., Singapore
Serway, R., Jewett,J.W (2012 ) University Physics I Calculus Based CENGAGE Learning Asia Pte.
Ltd., Singapore
Serway,R., Vuille, C.(2012 ) Physics Fundamentals I & II CENGAGE Learning Asia Pte
Ltd.,Singapore
Electronic References
http://www.mdd.suny.edu/sound/energy.htm
http://www.dhcdc.org/guest/light/energy.htm
http://www.review/cpt/electricity.htm
http://www.fdrc.net.com.magnetism
194
195
196

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INTRODUCTION

At the end of the discussion, the students are expected to:

FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED QUANTITIES

l – symbol 1.67 is the value m - unit

Other Fundamental Quantities…

Volumes of some common solids

1. Sphere with diameter d

V = π/4 (d2 •h)

= 1/3 (πr2)•h , r = d/2 or

7. Pyramid with Square Base

V = 1/3 (area of base )•h where

Section ___________Group No. ________ Date Submitted ______________

Laboratory Activity No. 1

Common Laboratory Apparatuses Used in Physics

Physics as an applied science can be best understood when concepts and

In doing laboratory experiments, a student must be able to distinguish the

To be familiar with the common laboratory apparatuses used in Physics.

The following is a list of the common laboratory apparatus or equipment used in

Vernier Caliper Micrometer caliper

Meter stick Platform balance

Spring balance Graduated cylinder

Pipette Iron stand and clamp

Mechanical watch Protractor

Angle finder Force frame

Force table Demonstration balance

Linear Air Tract Free-fall Apparatus

Inclined plane Centripetal Force Apparatus

Hall’s carriage Moment of Inertia Apparatus

Calorimeter Ripple Tank Apparatus

Tuning Fork Hook’s Law Apparatus

Apparatus Use Field of Application

Sir William Thomson (1824-1907), more commonly known as Lord Kelvin, an

Measurement is a process of determining how large or small something is as

1. Metric System of Measurement – a system of measurement based on the meter

2. English System of Measurement – a system which uses the standard units of

Quantity Metric System SI Units English System

Prefix Symbol Value Prefix Symbol Value

Mass Length Time Volume

A number of calculations of beginning physics involve conversion of measured

To convert within the same system:

To convert units of desired quantities:

1. Area: 5cm2 = ___in2

2. Volume: 3ft3 = ___cm3

To convert temperature, the following relationships are applied:

3. Which is colder, water at 32.3°C or milk at 85°F

4. What is the equivalent density ( in lb/ft3) of the value 8.93g/mL?

NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

Applying the methods of dimensional analysis, perform the following conversions to

1. 36.75457 kg = ___________ g = __________ mg

2. 47.89 km/h = ___________cm/min = __________ ft/s

3. 75.2hm = ________ yd = __________ mi

4. 138.57 kg/m3 = ____________ lb/ft3

5. 43.875 lb/in2 = ____________ g/cm2

NAME : _____________________________ DATE _____________

2. A hypothetical thermometer measures the freezing temperature of water at

Section ___________Group No. ________ Date Submitted ______________

Laboratory Activity No. 2

Measurement of Physical Quantities

To measure physical quantities of length, mass and weight using precision

Platform balance or triple beam balance

Rectangular wooden block

Table 1: Measurement of length using a meter stick

Trial Length (cm) Width (cm) Thickness (cm)

Section _Group No. Date Submitted ____

NAME : _________________ DATE _

1. 36.75457 kg = _ g = mg

2. 47.89 km/h = _cm/min = ft/s

3. 75.2hm = yd = __ mi

NAME : _________________ DATE _

Section _Group No. Date Submitted ____

NAME : _________________ DATE _

NAME : _________________ DATE _

NAME : _________________ DATE _

Section _Group No. Date Submitted ____

Section _Group No. Date Submitted ____

Section _Group No. Date Submitted ____