STRUCTURAL DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION
1
3 GENERAL METHODS

■Open-trench construction
■Tunneling
■Trenchless construction
STANDARD ‘CLASSES’ OF BEDDING
STANDARD ‘CLASSES’ OF BEDDING
STANDARD ‘CLASSES’ OF BEDDING
APPURTENANCES AND
SPECIAL STRUCTURES
APPURTENANCES
■ The major appurtenances used for
wastewater collection systems include
street (stormwater) inlets, catch basins,
manholes, building connection, flushing
devices, junctions, transitions, inverted
siphons, vertical drops, energy dissipators,
overflow and diversion structure,
regulators, outlets, and pumping stations.
APPURTENANCES
■ A manhole design should pass at least these
major tests. It should:
■ Provide convenient access to the sewer for
observations and maintenance operations.
■ Cause a minimum of interference with the
hydraulics of the sewer.
■ Be durable and generally a watertight
structure.
■ Be strong enough to support applied loads.
SHALLOW MANHOLES

■ irregular topography sometimes results in shallow

manholes.
■ A manhole of standard design does not provide a
space in which a maintenance worker can work
effectively if the depth is only 3 to 4.5 ft (1 to 1.5 m).
■ A manhole that is cylindrical up to a flat slab at the
surface is suitable if the head room is 4 ft (1.2 m).
SHALLOW MANHOLES
Manholes on Large Sewers
DESIGN OF MANHOLES

■ The working chamber has such a size so that necessary

examination and cleaning can be done easily. The
minimum interval sizes of the chambers are as follows:

■ For depth of 0.8 m or less ----------------------0.75 by 0.75 m

■ For depth between 0.8 m and 2.1 m------1.20 by 0.90 m
■ For depth more than 2.1 m----------------------chambers of 1.4
diameter or rectangular chamber of 1.20 by 0.90 m
DESIGN OF MANHOLES

■ Manholes are placed at intervals of 30 m to 150 m and

at every change of alignment, change in gradient or
change in diameter of the sewer.
■ Manhole is constructed for giving access into the
sewer for inspection, cleaning, repairs and
maintenance.
■ A manhole is essentially consists of the following; a
working chamber, an access shaft, and a strong cast
iron cover on the top flush with the road level with a 50
to 60 cm clear opening.
STREET INLETS
■ curb or gutter to collect the storm water and surface
wash flowing along the street, and convey it to storm or
combined sewer by means of stoneware pipes 25 to 30 cm
in diameter.
■ Inlets are placed at the road gutters generally at street
junctions. If the street is very long more than 200 m,
inlets are provided at the intermediate points at 100 – 130
m spacing.
■ At the street junction inlets should be placed in such a way
that storm water may not flow across any of the streets
or flood the cross-walks causing interference with the
traffic.
STREET INLETS
Four major types of inlets

■ Curb inlet—A vertical opening in the curb through which gutter flow passes.
■ Gutter inlet—A depressed or undepressed grated opening in the gutter section
through which the surface drainage falls.
■ Combination inlet—An inlet composed of both curb and gutter openings. Gutter
openings may be placed directly in front of the curb opening (contiguous
combination inlet) or upstream or downstream of the gutter opening (offset inlet).
Combination inlets may be depressed or undepressed.

■ Multiple inlets—Closely spaced interconnected inlets acting as a unit. Identical inlets

end to end are called double inlets.
P-50 and P-50 x 100
grate

(P-50 is this grate

without 10mm (3/8")
transverse rods)
P-30

Parallel bar grate

with 29 mm (1-
1/8 in) on center
bar spacing
Curved Vane

Curved vane grate

with 83 mm (3-
1/4 in)
longitudinal bar
and 108 mm (4-
1/4 in) transverse
bar spacing on
center
45°- 60 Tilt Bar

45° tilt-bar grate

with 57 mm (2-1/4
in) longitudinal bar
and 102 mm (4 in)
transverse bar
spacing on center
45°- 85 Tilt Bar

45° tilt-bar grate

with 83 mm (3-1/4
in) longitudinal bar
and 102 mm (4 in)
transverse bar
spacing on center
30°- 85 Tilt Bar 30°
tilt-bar

grate with 83 mm (3-

1/4 in) longitudinal
bar and 102 mm (4
in) transverse bar
spacing on center
Reticuline

"Honeycomb" pattern
of lateral bars and
longitudinal bearing
bars
Flow in the street gutter can be calculated by the
Manning formula, modified for a triangular gutter
cross section (McGhee, 1991)
𝑍 1 8
𝑄=𝐾 𝑆2𝑌3
𝑁
where
Q, gutter flow, m3 /s or ft3 /s
𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑓𝑡 3
K, constant =22.61 = 0.38 or 0.56
min∙m s∙m s∙ft
z, reciprocal of the cross transverse slope of the gutter
n, roughness coefficient (0.015 for smooth concrete gutters)
s, slope of the gutter y water depth in the gutter at the curb
A street has a longitudinal
slope of 0.81%, a transverse
slope of 3.5%, a curb height
of 15 cm (6 in), and a
coefficient of surface
roughness (n) of 0.016. The
width of the street is 12 m
(40 ft). Under storm design
conditions, 4 m of street
width should be kept clear
during the storm. Determine
the maximum flow that can
be carried by the gutter.
Step 1. Calculate the street spread
limit, w
w = (12 m - 4 m)/2 = 4 m
Step 2. Calculate the curb depth (d)
with the spread limit for a transverse
slope of 3.5%
d = 4 m x 0.035 = 0.14 m = 14 cm
The street gutter flow is limited by
either the curb height (15 cm) or the
curb depth with the spread limit. Since
d = 14 cm
a curb height of 14 cm is the limit
factor for the gutter flow
A street has a longitudinal Step 3. Calculate the maximum gutter flow Q
slope of 0.81%, a transverse z = 1/0.035 = 28.57
slope of 3.5%, a curb height 1 8
of 15 cm (6 in), and a Q=𝐾
𝑍
𝑆 𝑌
2 3
coefficient of surface 𝑁
1 8
roughness (n) of 0.016. The Q = 0.38
28.57
(0.0081) (0.14)
2 3
width of the street is 12 m 0.016

(40 ft). Under storm design Q = 0.323 cu.m/s

conditions, 4 m of street Q = 11/4 cu.ft./s
width should be kept clear
during the storm. Determine
the maximum flow that can
be carried by the gutter.
GUTTERS

■ The discharge capacity of gutters depends

on their shape, slope, and roughness.
■ Manning’s equation may be used to estimate
the flow in gutters.
■ For well-finished gutters, n has a value of about
0.016 and for unpaved gutters with broken
pavement will have a higher value for n.
■ Gutters are generally constructed with a
transverse slope of 1 on 20. With
such a transverse slope and 150 mm
curb height, the width of flow in a
gutter will be 3 m when there is no
freeboard.