Prepared by: Robert Pal – MBA

Critical Thinking and Elements of Philosophy of Economics - Exam

Critical thinking, how should be taught and methods

Critical Thinking is

A way of thinking about particular things at a particular time; it is not the accumulation of facts and knowledge or
something that you can learn once and then use in that form forever.
Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally, understanding the logical connection between ideas.
Critical thinking has been the subject of much debate and thought since the time of early Greek philosophers such as
Plato and Socrates and has continued to be a subject of discussion into the modern age, for example the ability to
recognize true and fake news. It might be described as the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking.

Thinking critically is more than just thinking clearly or rationally; it’s about thinking independently. It means
formulating your own opinions and drawing your conclusions regardless of outside influence. It’s about the
discipline of analysis and seeing the connections between ideas, and being wide open to other viewpoints and
opinions.

In essence, critical thinking requires you to use your ability to reason. It is about being an active learner rather than a
passive recipient of information.

Critical thinkers rigorously question ideas and assumptions rather than accepting them at face value. They will
always seek to determine whether the ideas, arguments and findings represent the entire picture and are open to
finding that they do not. They will identify, analyze and solve problems systematically rather than by intuition or
instinct.

Someone with critical thinking skills can:

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  Understand the links between ideas

 Determine the importance and relevance of arguments and ideas

 Recognise, build and appraise arguments

 Identify inconsistencies and errors in reasoning

 Approach problems in a consistent and systematic way

 Reflect on the justification of their own assumptions, beliefs and values

The Skills We Need

The skills that we need in order to be able to think critically are varied and include observation, analysis,
interpretation, reflection, evaluation, inference, explanation, problem solving, and decision making.

Specifically, we need to be able to:

 Think about a topic or issue in an objective and critical way

 Identify the different arguments there are in relation to a particular issue

 Evaluate a point of view to determine how strong or valid it is

 Recognize any weaknesses or negative points that there are in the evidence or argument

 Notice what implications there might be behind a statement or argument

 Provide structured reasoning and support for an argument that we wish to make

The Critical Thinking Process

Sometimes we think in almost any way but critically, for example when our self-control is affected by anger, grief or
joy or when we are feeling just plain ‘bloody minded’.

Since our critical thinking ability varies according to our current mindset, most of the time we can learn to improve
our critical thinking ability by developing certain routine activities and applying them to all problems that present
themselves.

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Once we understand the theory of critical thinking, improving your critical thinking skills takes persistence and
practice.

What do we aiming to achieve

Once we have clarified that aim for ourselves we should use it as the starting point in all future situations requiring
thought and further decision making.

A major contribution to ensuring we think critically is to be aware of personal characteristics, preferences and
biases and make allowance for them when considering possible next steps, whether they are at the pre-action
consideration stage or as part of a rethink caused by unexpected or unforeseen impediments to continued progress.

The more clearly we are aware of ourselves, our strengths and weaknesses, the more likely our critical thinking will
be productive.

The Benefit of Foresight

Probably the most important element of thinking critically is foresight.

Almost all decisions we make and implement don’t prove disastrous if we find reasons to abandon them. However,
our decision making will be infinitely better and more likely to lead to success if, when we reach a tentative
conclusion, we pause and consider the impact on the people and activities around us.

The elements needing consideration are generally numerous and varied. In many cases, consideration of one element
from a different perspective will reveal potential dangers in pursuing our decision.

For instance, moving a business activity to a new location may improve potential output considerably but it may also
lead to the loss of skilled workers if the distance moved is too great. Which of these is the more important
consideration? Is there some way of lessening the conflict?

These are the sort of problems that may arise from incomplete critical thinking, a demonstration perhaps of the
critical importance of good critical thinking.

In Summary:
 Critical thinking is aimed at achieving the best possible outcomes in any situation. In order to achieve this it
must involve gathering and evaluating information from as many different sources possible

 Critical thinking requires a clear, often uncomfortable, assessment of your personal strengths, weaknesses
and preferences and their possible impact on decisions you may make

 Critical thinking requires the development and use of foresight as far as this is possible

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  Implementing the decisions made arising from critical thinking must take into account an assessment of
possible outcomes and ways of avoiding potentially negative outcomes, or at least lessening their impact.

 Critical thinking involves reviewing the results of the application of decisions made and implementing
change where possible

It might be thought that we are overextending our demands on critical thinking in expecting that it can help to
construct focused meaning rather than examining the information given and the knowledge we have acquired to see
if we can, if necessary, construct a meaning that will be acceptable and useful.

Why do we need to develop Critical Thinking

75 percent of employers claim the students they hire after 12, 16 or more years of formal education lack the ability
to think critically and solve problems -- despite the fact that nearly all educators claim to prioritize helping students
develop those very skills*.

One barrier that has kept us from making more progress in critical-thinking education over the last several decades
is the perception that we still do not understand the concept well enough to determine how teaching critical-thinking
skills can be integrated.

For example, critical thinking involves thinking in a structured way. The term commonly used to describe this form
of productive, structured thinking is “logic,” but logic describes a number of systems for reasoning systematically.

Formal logic reduces words and ideas to symbols that can be manipulated, for instance, much like numbers and
symbols used in mathematics. While formal logic is extraordinarily powerful, we can also systematize our reasoning
using informal logic that allows us to consider the meaning of words rather than reducing them to symbols fit into a
structure.

Since most of the communication we need to think critically about involves everyday human language, rather than
machine code, skilled critical thinkers must also be adept at translating spoken and written language into precise
statements that can be built into a logical structure. This translation process is as much art as science, but with
practice, learners can perform this kind of translation on anything from historic or literary documents to scientific
ideas and mathematical proofs.

When those translated precise statements are built into a logical structure, we have an argument, the basic unit of
reasoning.

Structured arguments play a special role in highlighting the importance of reasons for belief, which gives learners
the ability to understand why true premises can lead to a false conclusion, rather than labor under the misconception
that the world consists of facts that can be true or false, with everything else falling into the category of opinion.

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Teaching Critical Thinking

Research shows that elements of critical thinking need to be taught explicitly, rather than assumed to come along for
the ride when thoughtful teachers run through complex material with students.

For learners to develop as critical thinkers they have to put that knowledge to work through deliberate practice that
specifically focuses on development of critical-thinking skills. That can be accomplished through carefully designed
activities and assignments that provide them opportunities to practice applying critical-thinking principles to answer
questions and solve problems.

Teaching critical thinking skills is a necessity for us as we are crucial for living life. As such, every teacher should
look for exciting ways to integrate it into classrooms. 

Since critical thinking is universally applicable, teachers can also use examples and deliberate practice exercises to
show learners how they can apply critical-thinking techniques to issues outside class, such as how to systematically
make decisions regarding college or work or how to avoid manipulation by politicians and advertisers. That is why
teachers have to not just teach critical-thinking skills and give them opportunities to put them to use, but they have
to also inspire them to continue practicing those skills on their own in all areas of life.

Concrete methods for improving student critical-thinking ability can help career-oriented majors like business,
define their mission as the place where the most vital skills are explicitly taught, practiced and mastered.

Embracing culture of critical thinking does not require overhauling education, eliminating courses or even to
sacrifice approaches they have developed and used successfully. It simply involves adding new tools to the arsenal
that allow to accomplish what we already wholeheartedly support: develop the skills needed to think critically about
the world.

Techniques for teaching Critical Thinking

Can be used for teaching critical thinking skills in every lesson and subject. Getting creative and find different ways
to incorporate them into our teaching practices.

1. Begin With a Question

Starting with a question is the most straightforward foray into the subject. What do you want to explore and discuss.
It shouldn’t be a question you can answer with a ‘yes’ or a ‘no.’ We have to develop essential questions, ones that
inspire a quest for knowledge and problem-solving, they’ll support the development of critical thinking skills.

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One primary goals as teacher should be to guide learners toward achieving a mindset of independent thought and
action, and showing them how to take responsibility for their learning. Adopting healthy questioning behaviors is
crucial to attaining this. 

When you pose your question to learners, encourage brainstorming. Write down possible answers on a chalkboard
or oversized pad as a student reference. Having open discussions with students is a big part of defining the problem
in Solution Fluency.

2. Create a Foundation

Learners cannot think critically if they do not have the information they need. Begin any exercise with a review of
related data which ensures they can recall facts pertinent to the topic. These may stem from things like:

 reading assignments and other homework

 previous lessons or exercises

 a video or text

3. Consult the Classics

Classical literary works are a perfect launch pad for exploring great thinking. Use them for specific lessons on
character motivation, plot predictions, and theme.

4. Use Information Fluency

Mastering the proper use of information is crucial to our learners’ success in school and life. It’s about learning how
to dig through knowledge to find the most useful and appropriate facts for solving a problem. Students must learn to
amass the proper expertise to inform their thinking. Teaching critical thinking skills can be supported by an
understanding of information fluency.

5. Utilize Peer Groups

There is comfort in numbers, as the saying goes. Digital kids thrive in environments involving teamwork and
collaboration. Show kids their peers are an excellent source of information, questions, and problem-solving
techniques.

6. Solve Some Problems

Assigning a specific problem is one of the best avenues for teaching critical thinking skills. Leave the goal or
“answer” open-ended for the broadest possible approach. This is the essence of asking essential questions requiring
the discovery and synthesis of knowledge through critical thinking. Ultimately, with the correct process to guide
you, it's best to teach critical thinking and problem-solving skills simultaneously.

7. Return to Role Playing

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Role-playing has always been an excellent method for exercising critical thinking. It’s why actors do tireless
research for their roles as it involves inhabiting another persona and its characteristics. Becoming someone else calls
upon stretching both your analytical and creative mind.

Pair learners up and have them research a conflict involving an interaction between two famous figures. Then lead
them to decide which character they each choose to play. They’ll each have different points of view in this conflict.
Have them discuss it until they can mutually explain the other’s point of view. Their final challenge will be to each
suggest a compromise.

8. Speak With Sketch

Though we are inherently visual learners, it can be challenging to communicate an idea without words
effectively. Nevertheless, translating thoughts to picture form encourages critical thinking. It guides learners to think
using a different mental skill set, and it’s also a great way to get them truly invested in an idea. 

9. Do Some Prioritizing

Every subject offers opportunities for critical thinking, so put teaching critical thinking skills at the forefront of your
lessons. Check to understand and provide room for discussion, even if such periods are brief. You’ll begin to see
critical thinking as a culture rather than just an activity.

10. Change Their Misconceptions

Critical thinking involves intensive work and concentration, but students should practice it themselves for much of
the process. That said, it can be helpful to step in part way through their process. Apart from correcting
misconceptions or assumptions, you’ll offer more vibrant lessons, more in-depth exploration, and better lifelong
learning.

The Best Tool for Teaching Critical Thinking Skills

By far the most important skill students need for future success is the ability to solve complex and challenging
problems.

A critical thinker-as-problem-solver requires an unconscious approach to tackling any problem of any scale. There is
such a method what can be easily transfer your students in a way that provides them such skills not only for their
years learning time but for their entire lives. This is called Solution Fluency.

Solution Fluency and Critical Thinking

With Solution Fluency you have a powerful tool to give to your students. It’s a process that will serve them well in
school and in life. Solution Fluency’s whole process is defined by the 6 Ds—Define, Discover, Dream, Design,
Deliver, and Debrief.

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Here is the essence of each stage of Solution Fluency:

  DEFINE: We must decide exactly what needs to be solved and give proper context to the problem

  DISCOVER: This is researching and gathering and analyzing knowledge about the problem

  DREAM: Here we open up the heart and mind to the possibilities of a solution the way we want it

  DESIGN: This is the workshopping phase, here the actual mechanics of your solution begin to take shape

  DELIVER: This involves the action for completing the product and presenting the proposed solution

  DEBRIEF: The reflection stage is where you look at the ways you succeeded and ways you could improve
your approach in future situations

Guiding Questions for Each Stage

Understanding how to use Solution Fluency in a classroom or any other setting we encounter problems in means
asking guiding questions at every phase. Suggestions for each phase are listed below. These will also help further
clarify the essence of each stage.

Define: What are the details of the challenge we face? What do we want to overcome specifically? What do we want
to solve?

Discover: What do I need to know and what do I need to be able to do? Why do we need this to happen? Why hasn’t
it been done previously? If it has, why wasn’t it successful? What can we change?

Dream: What do we truly want to create? How will it function? What will it look like? What’s our best-case
scenario for the end goal?

Design: What does it look like “on paper”? How will we create and implement it? What are the steps we must take?
What are the milestones and guidelines we will set for ourselves? How will we ensure everything is being done right
and on time? How will we deal with problems?

Deliver: How do we bring this idea into functional reality? How do we practically apply what we’ve done? How
will we present this to people? How will we know it’s working?

Debrief: What were the results of our efforts? How did we succeed or fall short of accomplishing our goal? What
went well, and what didn’t? How can we improve our efforts and outcome in the future? How can we apply what
we’ve done to similar problems?

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An essential system for building great problem-solving prowess while fostering exceptional critical thinking
capacity. In fact, the real power of Solution Fluency is that it’s a process derived from the world outside of school,
and from our experience in industry applications where it has been utilized most effectively. We’ve come to refer to
it as “what to do when you don’t know what to do.”

Just another reason why it's so important, students will be solving problems that haven't even been invented yet. The
children of today will be the leaders of tomorrow, and will face challenges we can't imagine using every ounce of
critical thinking capacity they have to guide them. As such, they need a process they can internalize for solving
problems that really matter, and that builds those thinking abilities every time you use it.

Since it provides skills that matter for life and success, Solution Fluency is being used in schools and training
modules all over the world. That’s because a person can work through virtually any problem imaginable with a
process like Solution Fluency.

Through school, college and career, and beyond, critical thinking and problem-solving are life skills. Adopting a
process for problem-solving like Solution Fluency provides an empowerment that prevents us from being paralyzed
by the problem, by fear, by doubt, and by uncertainty.

With it as an ingrained ability, we face problems without hesitation and work to provide the most productive
solution possible to whatever challenges await us. Ultimately, this is why it's a skill everyone needs, especially the
modern learners.

*Those statistics were included in Academically Adrift, the 201, by Richard Arum and Josipa Roksa