Module Thermodynamics 1

THERMODYNAMICS
Prepared by:
ENGR. KIM A. BENZON
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB
1
1 BASIC PRINCIPLES, CONCEPTS AND DEFINITION
Thermodynamics is that branch of physical sciences that treats various phenomena

of energy and the related properties of matter, especially of the laws of transformation of
heat into other forms of energy and vice versa.
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO)
ILO 1: Identify the different properties of pure substance, ideal gas and real gas.
ILO 2: Apply thermodynamic concepts and principles in analyzing and solving problems.
ILO 3: Apply the laws of thermodynamics in analyzing problems.
ILO 4: Evaluate the performance of thermodynamic cycles.
Thermodynamics System Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat energy can be transferred from one body to the other or from one location in a
body to the other. Study of the techniques and the methods adopted to transfer heat energy
is known as “HEAT TRANSFER”. To facilitate heat transfer between two bodies must be a 2
different temperatures one higher than the other to allow heat to flow from one body to
other. This means that no heat transfers occurs between two bodies which are at the same
temperature. At the same time it is very important to note that heat only flows a body at
higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature. Although this may look obvious, this
law is very important from the point of view of thermodynamics.
Heat transfer takes place in one of the three ways namely: Conduction, Convection
and Radiation.
A. Conduction
Conduction is the method of heat transfer of heat within a body or from one
body to the other due to the transfer of heat molecules vibrating at their mean
positions. The bodies through which the heat transfer must be in contact with each
other. There is no actual movement of matter while transferring heat from one
location to the other.
Conduction occurs usually in solids where molecules in the structure are held
together strongly by intermolecular forces of attraction amongst them and so they
only vibrate about their means positions as they receive heat energy and thus pass it
to the surrounding molecules by vibrations.
B. Convection
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Convection is the mode of heat transfer which occurs mostly in liquids and
gasses. In these methods, heat transfer takes place with the actual motion of matter
from one place within the body to the other. Often when we boil water we have seen
bubbles and currents develop in the water on careful observation.
C. Radiation
Radiation is another form of heat transfer. It does not require any medium
and can be used for transfer of heat in a vacuum as well. This method uses
electromagnetic waves which transfer heat from one place to the other. The heat
and light from the sun in our solar system reach our planet using radiation only.
In fact, radiation is the most potent method of heat transfer. In winters when
we sit near a fire we feel warm without actually touching the burning wood. This is
possible by radiation only.
Systems of Units
Newton’s law states that “the acceleration of a particular body is directly
proportional to the resultant force acting on it and inversely proportional to its
mass”.
, , ,
where k is a proportionally constant

 System of units where k is unity but not dimensionless:
cgs system : 1 dyne of force accelerates 1 g mass at 1 cm/s2
mks system : 1 newton force accelerates 1 kg mass at 1 m/s2
fps system : 1 lb force accelerates 1 slug mass at 1 ft/s2
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Systems of units where k is not unity:
If the same word is used for both mass and force in given system, k is neither unity nor
dimensionless.
1 lb force accelerates a 1 lb mass at 32.174 ft/s2
1 g force accelerates a 1 g mass at 980.66 cm/s2
1 kg force accelerates a 1 kg mass at 9.8066 m/s2
Relation between kilogram force (kgf) and Newton (N)
Therefore:
1 kgf = 9.8066 N
Relation between pound mass (lbm) and slug
Therefore:
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1 slug = 32.174 lbm
Acceleration
A unit of force is one that produces unit acceleration in a body of unit mass
1 poundal = (1 lbm)(1 ft/s2)

Where: F is force in poundals
m/k is a mass in pounds
a is acceleration in ft/s2
1 pound = (1 slug) (1 ft/s2) ;

Where: F is force in pounds
m/k is mass in slugs
a is acceleration in ft/s2
Mass and Weight

The mass of a body is the absolute quantity of material in it. The weight of the body
means the force of gravity Fg on the body.
where g = acceleration produced by force Fg

a = acceleration produced by another force F
At or near the surface of the earth, k and g are numerically equal, so are m and F g
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Problem Exercise
1. What is the weight of a 66 kgm man at standard condition?
2. The weight of an object is 50 lb. What is its mass at standard condition?
3. Five masses in a region where the acceleration due to gravity is 30.5 ft/s 2 are as
follows: m1 is 500g of mass; m2 weighs 800gf; m3 weighs 15 poundals; m4 weight
3 lbf; m5 is 0.10 slug of mass. What is total mass expressed (a) in grams, (b) in
pounds and (c) in slugs.
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4. Note that the gravity acceleration at equatorial sea level is g = 32.088 fps 2 and
that its variation is -0.003fps2 per 1000 ft ascent. Find the height in miles above
this point for which (a) the gravity acceleration becomes 30.504 fps 2, (b) the
weight of a given man is decreased by 5% (c) what is the weight of a 180lb m man
atop the 29,131 ft Mt. Everest in Tibet, relative to this point?
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Specific Volume, Specific Weight and Density
The density ρ of any substance is its mass (not weight) per unit volume.
The specific volume v is the volume of a unit mass.
The specific weight 𝛾 of any substance is the force gravity on unit volume.
Since the specific weight is to the local acceleration of gravity as the density is to the
standard acceleration, 𝛾 / g = ρ / k conversion is easily made;
At or near the surface of the earth, k and g are numerically equal, so are ρ and 𝛾.
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Problem Exercise
1. What is the specific weight of water at standard condition?
2. Two liquids of different densities (ρ1 = 1500 kg/m3, ρ2 = 500 kg/m3) are
poured together into a 100-L tank, filling it. If the resulting density of the
mixture is 800 kg/m3, find the respective quantities of liquids used. Also,
find the weight of the mixture; local g = 9.675 mps2.
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Pressure
The standard reference atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg or 29.92 in. Hg at 32 0F,
or 14.696 psia, or 1 atm.
Measuring Pressure
1. By using manometers
A. Absolute pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure
p = absolute pressure
po = atmospheric prerssure
pg = gage pressure, the prrssure due to the liquid
column hg
p = p 0 + pg
B. Absolute pressure is less than atmospheric pressure
p = p0 - pg
The gage reading is called vacuum pressure or the

vacuum
2. By using pressure gages
Pressure Gage
A presure gage is a device for measuring gage pressure. This picture

shows the movement in one type of pressure gage known as the single
tube gage. The fluid enters the tube trough the threaded connection. As
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the pressure increases, the tube with an elliptical section tends to
straighten, the end that is nearest the linkage toward the right. The
linkage causes the sector to rotate. The sector engages a small pinion
gear. The index hand moves with the pinion gear. The whole mechanism
is of course enclosed in a case, and a graduated dial, from which the
pressure is read, and is placed under the index hand.
Problem Exercise
1. A 30-m vertical column of fluid (density 1878 kg/m3) is located where g = 9.65
mps2. Find the pressure at the base of the column.
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Atmospheric Pressure
A barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
Barometer
Po = 𝛾 ho
Where ho = height of column of liquid supported by atmospheric pressure Po
Problem Exercise
1. A vertical column of water will be supported to what height by standard
atmospheric pressure.
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2. The pressure of a boiler is 9.5 kg/cm2. The barometric pressure of the
atmosphere is 768 mm of Hg. Find the absolute pressure in the boiler. (ME Board
Problem – Oct. 1987)
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Absolute Pressure
P=𝛾h
where h = ho ± hg the height of column of liquid supported by absolute pressure p.

If the liquid used in the barometer is mercury, the atmospheric pressure becomes,
po = 𝛾Hg hg = (sp gr)Hg (𝛾w) (ho)
( )( )( )
po = 0.491 ho lb/in2
where ho = column of mercury in inches

then. Pg = 0.491 hg lb/in2
and, p = 0.491 h lb/in2
Problem Exercise
1. A pressure gage registers 40 psig in a region where the barometer is 14.5 psia.
Find the absolute pressure in psia, and in kPa
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2. Given the barometric pressure of 14.7 psia (29.92 in. Hg abs), make these
conversions:
(a) 80 psig to psia and to atmosphere,
(b) 20 in. Hg vacuum to in. Hg abg and to psia,
(c) 10 psia to psi vacuum and to Pa,
(d) 15 in. Hg gage to psia, to torrs, and to Pa.
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Temperature
Problem Exercise
1. Derive the relation between degrees Fahrenheit and degrees Centigrade. (EE
Board Question)
2. Show that the specific heat of a substance in Btu/(lb) (F o) is numerically equal to

cal/(g)(Co).
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Conservation of Mass
The law of conservation of mass states that mass is indestructible.
The quantity of fluid passing through a given section is given by the formula
V=A𝜐
where; V = volume flow rate
A = cross sectional area of the stream
𝜐 = average speed
M = mass flow rate
Applying the law of conservation of mass,
A1𝜐1ρ1 = A2𝜐2ρ2
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Problem Exercise
1. Two gaseous streams enter a combining tube and leave as a single mixture.
These data apply at the entrance section:
For one gas A1 = 75 in2, 𝜐1 = 500 fps, v1 = 10 ft3/lb
For the other gas A2 = 50in2, m2 = 16.67 lb/s, ρ2 = 0.12 lb/ft3
At exit, 𝜐3 = 350 fps, v3 = 7 ft3/lb
Find
(a) the speed 𝜐2, at section 2,

(b) the flow and area at the exit section
2. A 10-ft diameter by 15-ft height vertical tank is receiving water (ρ = 62.1 lb/cu
ft) at the rate of 300 gpm and is discharging through a 6-in ID line with a
constant speed of 5 fps. At a given instant, the tank is half full. Find the water
level and the mass change in tank 15 min later
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2 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Gravitational Potential Energy (P)
The gravitational potential energy of a body is its energy due to its position or
elevation.
( )
△P = change in potential energy
Kinetic Energy (K)
The energy or stored capacity for performing work possessed by a moving body, by
virtue of its momentum is called kinetic energy.
( )
△K = change in kinetic energy
Internal Energy (U, u)

Internal energy is energy stored within a body or substance by virtue of the activity
and configuration of its molecules and of the vibration of the atoms within the molecules.
u = specific internal energy (unit mass) △u = u2 – u1
U = m u = total internal energy (m mass) △U = U2 – U1
Work (W)
Work is the product of the displacement of the body and the component of the force
in the direction of the displacement. Work is energy in transition; that is, it exists only
when a force is "moving through a distance”
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Work of a Nonflow System
The work done as the piston moves

from e to f is
dW = Fx dx = (pA)dL = pdV
which is the area under the curve e-f on the pV

plane. Therefore, the total work done as the
piston moves from 1 to 2 is
Which is the area under the curve 1-e-f-2
The area under the curve of the process on the

pV plane represents the work done during a
nonflow reversible process.
Work of Expansion
Work done by the system is positive (outflow of energy)
Work done on the system is negative (inflow of energy
Flow Work (Wf)
Flow work or flow energy is work done in pushing a fluid across a boundary, usually
into or out of a system.
Wf = FL =pAL
Wf = pV
△Wf = Wf2 – Wf1 = p2V2 – p1V1
△Wf = change in flow work

Flow Work
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Heat (Q)
Heat is energy in transit (on the move) from one body or system to another solely
because of a temperature difference between the bodies or systems.
Q is positive when heat is added to the body or system.
Q is negative when heat is rejected by the body or system.
Classification of Systems
A closed system is one in which mass does not cross its boundaries
An open system is one in which mass crosses its boundaries
Conservation of Energy
The law of conservation of energy states that energy is neither created nor
destroyed.
The first law of thermodynamics states that one form of energy may be converted
into another.
Steady Flow Energy Equation
Characteristics of steady flow system
1. There is neither accumulation nor diminution of mass within the system.

2. There is neither accumulation nor diminution of energy within the system.
3. The state of the working substance at any point in the system remains constant.
Energy Diagram of a Steady Flow System

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Energy Entering System = Energy Leaving System
P1 + K1 + Wf1 + U1 + Q = P2 + K2 + Wf2 + U2 + W
Q = △P + △K + △Wf + △U + W
(Steady Flow Energy Equation)
Enthalphy (H,h)
Enthalpy is a composite property applicable to all fluids and is defined by
H=u+pv and h=mh=U+pV
The steady flow energy equation becomes
P1 + K1 + H1 + Q = P2 + K2 + H2 + W
Q = △P + △K + △H + W
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Problem Exercise
1. During a steady flow process, the pressure of the working substance drops from
200 to 20 psia, the speed increases from 200 to 1000 fps, the internal energy of
the open system decreases 25 Btu/lb, and the specific volume increases from 1
to 8 ft3/lb. No heat is transferred. Sketch an energy diagram. Determine the work
per lb. Is it done on or by the substance? Determine the work in hp for 10 lb per
min (1 hp = 42.4 Btu/ min).
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2. Steam is supplied to a fully loaded 100-hp turbine at 200 psia with u1 = 1163.3
BTU/lb, v1 = 2.65 ft3/lb and 𝜐1 = 400 fps. Exhaust is at 1 psia with u2 = 925
BTU/lb, v2 = 294 ft3/lb and 𝜐2 = 1100 fps. The heat loss from the steam in the
turbine is 10 BTU/lb. Neglect potential energy change and determine
(a) the work per lb steam and
(b) the steam flow rate in lb/h.
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3. An air compressor (an open system) receives 272 kg per min of air at 99.29 kPa
and a specific volume of 0.026 m3/kg. The air flows steady through the
compressor and is discharged at 689.5 kPa and 0.0051 m3/kg. The initial
internal energy of the air is 1594 J/kg; at discharge, the internal energy is 6241
J/kg. The cooling water circulated around the cylinder carries away 4383 J/kg of
air. The change in kinetic energy is 896 J/kg. Sketch an energy diagram. Compute
the work.
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4. A centifugal pump operating under steady flow conditions delivers 2,270 kg/min
of water from an initial pressure of 82,740Pa to a final pressure of 275,800 Pa.
The diameter of the inlet pipe to the pump is 15.24 cm and the diameter of the
discharge pipe is 10.16 cm. What is the work?
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5. A turbine operates under steady flow conditions, receiving steam at the
following state: pressure 1200 kPa, temperature 1880C, enthalpy 2785 kJ/kg,
speed 33.3 m/s and elevation 3 m. The steam leaves the turbine at the following
pressure 20 kPa, enthalpy 2512 kJ/kg, speed 100 m/s and elevation 0 m. Heat is
lost to the surroundings at the rate of 0.29 kJ/s. If the rate of steam flow through
the turbine is 0.42 kg/s, what is the power output of the turbine in kW?
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3 THE IDEAL GAS
An ideal gas is ideal only in the sense that it conforms to the simple perfect gas
laws.
Boyle’s Law
If the temperature of a given quantity of gas is held constant, the volume of the gas
varies inversely with the absolute pressure during a change of state.
Charles’ Law
If the pressure on a particular quantity of gas is held constant, then, with any change
of state, the volume will vary directly as the absolute temperature.
If the volume of a particular quantity of gas is held constant, then, with any change
of state, the pressure will vary directly as the absolute pressure.
Equation of State or Characteristic Equation of a Perfect Gas

Combining Boyle’s and Charles’ Law
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(unit mass)
where
p = absolute pressure
V = volume
v = specific volume
m = mass
T = absolute temperature
R = specific gas constant or simply gas constant
Problem Exercise
1. A drum 6 in. in diameter and 40 in. long contained acetylene at 250 psia and
900F. After some of the acetylene was used, the pressure was 200 psia and the
temperature was 850F,
(a) What proportion of the acetylene was used?
(b) What volume would the used acetylene occupy at 14.7 psia and 800F? R
for acetylene is 59.35 ft.lb/lb 0R.
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2. The volume of a 6 x 12-ft tank is 339.3 cu ft. It contains air at 200 psig and 85 0F.
How many l-cu ft drums can be filled to 50 psig and 800F if it is assumed that the
air temperature remains at 850F? The drums have been sitting around in the
atmosphere which is at 14.7 psia and 800F.
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3. It is planned to lift and move logs from almost inaccessible forest area by means
of balloons. Helium at atmospheric pressure (101.325 kPa) and temperature
21.10C is to be used in the balloons. What minimum balloon diameter (assume
spherical shape) will be required for a gross lifting force of 20 metric tons?
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4. Two vessels A and B of different sizes are connected by a pipe with a valve.
Vessel A contains 142 L of air at 2,767.92 kPa, 93.330C. Vessel B, of unknown
volume, contains air at 68.95 kPa, 4.440C. The valve is opened and, when the
properties have been determined, it is found that pm = 1378.96 kPa, tm = 43.330C.
What is the volume of vessel B?
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Specific Heat
The specific heat of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to change
the temperature of unit mass through one degree.
In dimensional form,
( )
C
( )
In differential quantities,
and for a particular mass m,
(the specific heat equation)
If the mean or instantaneous value of specific heat is used,
∫ ( )
(constant specific heat)

Constant Volume Specific Heat (cv)
QV =△U
QV = mcV (T2 – T1)
Relation Between cp and cv
From h = u + pv and pv = RT
dh =du + RdT
cp = cV + R
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Problem Exercise
1. For a certain ideal gas R = 25.8 ft lb/lb 0R and k = 1.09.
(a)What are the values of cp and cv?
(b) What mass of this gas would occupy a volume of 15 cu ft at 75 psia and
80 F?
0
(c) lf 30 Btu are transferred to this gas at constant volume in (b), what are
the resulting temperature and pressure?
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2. For a certain gas R =320 J/kg K and cv = 0.84 kJ/kg K0
(a) Find cp and k.
(b) If 5 kg of this gas undergo a reversible non flow constant pressure
process from V1 = 1.133 m3 and p1 = 690 kPa to a state where t2 = 5550C, find △U
and △H.
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Entropy (S, s)
Entropy is that property of a substance which remains constant if no heat enters or
leaves the substance, while it does work or alters its volume, but which increases or
diminishes should a small amount of heat enter or leave.
The change in entropy of a substance receiving (or delivering) heat is defined by:
where
dQ = heat transferred at the temperature T
△S = total change of entropy
(constant specific heat)
Temperature – Entropy Coordinates
dQ = TdS
The area under the curve of the process on the TS

plane represents the quantity of heat transferred during
the process.
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Other Energy Relations
(Reversible steady flow, △P = 0)
The area behind the curve of the process

on the pV planes represents the work of a steady
flow process when △K = 0, or it represents △K
when Ws = 0.
Any process that can be made to go in the reverse direction by an infinitesimal

change in the conditions is called a reversible process. Any process that is not reversible is
irreversible.
37

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THERMODYNAMICS

ENGR. KIM A. BENZON

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

Thermodynamics is that branch of physical sciences that treats various phenomena

Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO)

ILO 4: Evaluate the performance of thermodynamic cycles.

Thermodynamics System Modes of Heat Transfer

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

where k is a proportionally constant

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

Relation between kilogram force (kgf) and Newton (N)

Relation between pound mass (lbm) and slug

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

1 poundal = (1 lbm)(1 ft/s2)

1 pound = (1 slug) (1 ft/s2) ;

Mass and Weight

where g = acceleration produced by force Fg

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

2. The weight of an object is 50 lb. What is its mass at standard condition?

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

The specific volume v is the volume of a unit mass.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

B. Absolute pressure is less than atmospheric pressure

The gage reading is called vacuum pressure or the

2. By using pressure gages

A presure gage is a device for measuring gage pressure. This picture

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

Where ho = height of column of liquid supported by atmospheric pressure Po

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

where h = ho ± hg the height of column of liquid supported by absolute pressure p.

po = 𝛾Hg hg = (sp gr)Hg (𝛾w) (ho)

where ho = column of mercury in inches

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

2. Show that the specific heat of a substance in Btu/(lb) (F o) is numerically equal to

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

The law of conservation of mass states that mass is indestructible.

where; V = volume flow rate

A = cross sectional area of the stream

M = mass flow rate

Applying the law of conservation of mass,

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

(a) the speed 𝜐2, at section 2,

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

Gravitational Potential Energy (P)

△P = change in potential energy

Kinetic Energy (K)

△K = change in kinetic energy

Internal Energy (U, u)

u = specific internal energy (unit mass) △u = u2 – u1

U = m u = total internal energy (m mass) △U = U2 – U1

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF KAB

The work done as the piston moves

which is the area under the curve e-f on the pV

Which is the area under the curve 1-e-f-2

The area under the curve of the process on the

Work done by the system is positive (outflow of energy)

Work done on the system is negative (inflow of energy

Flow Work (Wf)

△Wf = Wf2 – Wf1 = p2V2 – p1V1