JOHN E.

CORT

THE INTELLECTUAL FORMATION OF A JAIN MONK:

A ŚVETĀMBARA MONASTIC CURRICULUM

INTRODUCTION

Monks have been the primary bearers of the intellectual tradition

within the Śvetāmbara Jain tradition. While there is a long and vener-
able tradition of lay pan. d. itas among the Digambaras, going back at
least as far as Pan. d. ita Āśādhara in the thirteenth century, the tradi-
tion of Śvetāmbara lay pan. d. itas is of much more recent invention.
Among the numerically dominant Mūrtipūjaka community, the title
pan. d. ita was given only to monks (as equivalent to the title now known
as paṅnyāsa)1 up until the late nineteenth century, when the institu-
tion of the lay pan. d. ita was created by influential lay and mendicant
reformers.
But most men (and in this essay I discuss only male mendicants, not
female) who become professional Jain renouncers do not do so out of
a love of learning. The domesticated monks known as yatis were for
the most part either dedicated to the monastic life as young children,
or else bought from impoverished non-Jain families.2 While a yati was
expected to be functionally literate, since part of his job was to copy
manuscripts, recite liturgies, and in some parts of India to maintain
genealogies, any intellectual propensity on the part of a yati was largely
fortuitous. The institution of the yati has been replaced by that of the
sam. veg¯ ı sādhu in the last hundred years; but as the very word sam . veg¯ı
(“impelled [to seek liberation]”) indicates, the motivation to become
a sādhu is assumed to be the pursuit of liberation, not the pursuit of
knowledge.
Not all Jain mendicants have been learned (or even fully literate), and
the maintenance of a suitable level of scriptural knowledge among the
monks has been a matter of periodic concern for the Jain community.
This is by no means limited to the Śvetāmbara Mūrtipūjaka community.
Michael Carrithers (1989: 224) has written of how many Digambara
monks of the past century have largely been illiterate or semi-literate
peasants. Only recently have some monks and nuns in the recreated
Digambara mendicant tradition taken to learning and scholarship. In

Journal of Indian Philosophy 29: 327–349, 2001.

c 2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
328 JOHN E. CORT

his biography of the charismatic Mūrtipūjaka Tapā Gaccha3 reformer

Ātmārāmajı̄ (1837–1896), Ācārya Vallabhasūri (1957) writes that in the
nineteenth century Sthānakavāsı̄ monks were strongly discouraged from
learning Sanskrit, a sine qua non for advanced intellectual pursuits in
India. When Ātmārāmajı̄ started to study Sanskrit grammar in 1859, the
Sthānakavāsı̄ laity in Jaipur publically criticized him, saying that the
study of grammar would make him dimwitted. In the twentieth century,
however, the Sthānakavāsı̄ attitude on studies other than memorization
of the root scriptures has undergone a seachange, with the result that
there are now many highly educated monks and nuns in the Sthānakavāsı̄
community.
Within the Mūrtipūjaka community, concern that monks acquire at
least the rudiments of an adequate intellectual foundation has been
expressed in a variety of settings throughout the last century-and-a-half
of reform activities. In 1912 a conference of fifty Tapā Gaccha monks
who were spiritual descendants of Ātmārāmajı̄ was held in Baroda.
The eleventh of the twenty-four resolutions passed at the conference
called for new sādhus to memorize five texts before they started to
study grammar and related subjects (Jaina Yuvaka Saṅgha, 1912: 8
and Śarmā, 1912: 36). These five comprise the daily mendicant liturgy,
the basic rules of mendicant conduct, and the fundamentals of Jain
biology, metaphysics, and cosmography.4 A larger gathering of Tapā
Gaccha monks held in Ahmedabad in 1934 passed two resolutions
on this matter (Nagaraśet.ha, 1934: 20; Jain, 1934: 140). Resolution
6.1 said that it is necessary for mendicant leaders, and other learned
mendicants, to teach the scriptures (āgama) to other monks. Resolution
6.4 expressed a need for an institution to teach monks grammar, logic,
literature, and related subjects, and called upon monks to preach to the
laity about this need. The ongoing need for such education – and by
implication, the failure of either Mūrtipūjaka lay and mendicant society
to provide for it – is seen in a large conference of Tapā Gaccha monks
held again in Ahmedabad in 1988. In his speech on the opening day,
Ācārya Om . kārasūri said,
What must monks and nuns be taught? It is necessary for them to be given knowledge in
a graduated manner. This way they can learn the scriptures, and become knowledgeable.
To accomplish this we must think about devising a curriculum. It is also necessary
to establish an institution for study so that they can learn in the proper manner. It is
impossible for a soul desirous of liberation to maintain conduct without knowledge
of Jain metaphysics (Śet.ha, 1988: 35).

To accomplish these goals, resolution 2 appointed a committee of

monks to devise a mendicant curriculum, and resolution 3 expressed
the need for schools for both prospective and new monks and nuns to
 THE INTELLECTUAL FORMATION OF A JAIN MONK 329

be established in various locations. A detailed curriculum was published

along with the proceedings of the conference, and will be the subject of
the remainder of this essay. To date there has been no more movement
toward establishing a school for novice mendicants than there was in
response to the 1934 conference. Among the four Jain congregations,
only the Terāpantha has been successful in establishing such a school.
The Paramārthi Śiks. an. a Saṅsthā was founded in Ladnun in 1948.
While it is open to both prospective monks and nuns, in actual practice
the students are almost entirely girls, as boys spend their time with
monks and are quickly initiated into full monkhood.5 While concern
for proper mendicant education has been expressed largely within
mendicant circles, it is by no means restricted to them. The many
Śvetāmbara Jain Conferences, held by the leaders of the Mūrtipūjaka
laity throughout the first half of the twentieth century, were concerned
with helping to ensure proper mendicant conduct, and also on occasion
expressed concern for mendicant education. Among the thirty-one
resolutions passed at the fourteenth Conference in Bombay in 1934,
for example, was one calling for proper training of monks (anon.,
1934: 87).
But what is a Mūrtipūjaka monk expected to learn? This is a question
of great significance for the academic study of Jainism. Most studies
of Jain history start with the earliest Jain texts, the scriptural canon.
In the Śvetāmbara case, this is the canon of forty-five texts that has
been central to academic understandings of Jainism since the nineteenth
century.6
The assumption here is that the proper place to start the study of
a religious tradition is with the “original” texts. As Kendall Folkert
(1993: 35–94) and Gregory Schopen (1991) have pointed out, this
assumption betrays an unexamined Protestant bias.7 Martin Luther and
the other Protestant theologians taught that the Bible is the only proper
place to go for proper religious understanding. Under this Protestant
influence (even if oftentimes only an implicit influence), the study
of Christianity has emphasized the study of the Bible as the proper
beginning (and oftentimes end) of the study of Christianity. In turn,
based on this Protestant model, the study of non-Christian religions also
frequently starts with the study of the “original scriptures.”8 But the
study of such original scriptures tells us more about those scriptures and
their immediate socio-cultural setting than it does about the subsequent
history of a cumulative religious tradition.9
Both the short curriculum put forward at the 1912 conference of
monks and the long curriculum put forward at the 1988 conference are
330 JOHN E. CORT

noteworthy for the almost complete absence of texts of the Śvetāmbara

“canon.” This tells that in fact the canon of early texts is not where Jains
themselves go to learn the intellectual and ritual fundamentals of their
own tradition. They go to another set of texts, those found in the two
curricula. These form what I have elsewhere termed a “Canon-near,”
as opposed to the “Canon-far” of the early texts. To quote (Cort, 1992:
175):
In a Canon-near text, primacy and authority are defined by praxis and the resultant
contextualized understanding, whereas in a Canon-far text primacy and authority are
located in some intrinsic ontological value of the texts themselves. . . . A Canon-near
changes with time and place, and authority flows from the accumulated tradition into
the texts; a Canon-far is (more or less) fixed and closed, and authority is conveyed,
or vectored, via the texts.

Let us now turn to the Canon-near of the Jain monastic curriculum put
forward by the 1988 conference, to see what texts we should study (and
memorize) if we as scholars want better to understand the intellectual
world of a contemporary Tapā Gaccha Mūrtipūjaka monk. This is a
distinctively Tapā Gaccha intellectual world. While there are texts here
that transcend intra-Śvetāmbara divisions, and several that are also read
by Digambaras, many of the texts were composed by leading luminaries
of Tapā Gaccha intellectual history. A Kharatara Gaccha curriculum
would look similar in terms of the subjects covered, but would have
the student reading different authors. The language of the texts also
betrays the largely Gujarati locus of the Tapā Gaccha. Vernacular texts
are Gujarati, as are the vernacular commentaries (artha, .tabā). Here
again a Kharatara Gaccha curriculum would look different, for it would
have a Hindi vernacular cast to it.
The curriculum is devised to extend over seven years or standards
(tabakko). I doubt that any monk has followed it exactly. I would
be surprised if the early years of the intellectual career of the vast
majority of Tapā Gaccha monks does any more than roughly approx-
imate this curriculum. Most of the texts on the list are known to
almost all Tapā Gaccha mendicants,10 but there are some that are
less well-known, and indicate that the compilers of the list were
widely-read intellectuals. But it does provide us with a statement by a
committee of learned monks as to what such a curriculum should look
like.
 THE INTELLECTUAL FORMATION OF A JAIN MONK 331

THE CURRICULUM

First Standard
In the first standard, the new monk is to memorize the following
texts:
− the five Pratikraman. a Sūtras and the Navasmaran. as;
− the Sādhukriyā Sūtra;
− the “devādhideva kān. d. a” of the Abhidhāna Cintāman. i;
− selected devotional texts from the Jinagun. apadyāval¯ı;
− the root text of the first five chapters of the Daśavaikālika Sūtra.
In addition, the student is to practice to ensure that his pronunciation
and handwriting are good.
The Pratikraman. a Sūtras (Aphorisms of Confession) are the five
basic liturgies of the Jain mendicant, and it is through their performance
that the ancient Āvaśyaka Sūtras (Obligatory Aphorisms) are vectored
into the praxis of the contemporary mendicant. Part of the liturgy
involves the disavowal of intention behind karmically binding actions
committed since the previous performance. The liturgy varies slightly
according to the time-frame of the actions covered: it is performed
daily in the morning and evening, fortnightly,11 every four months,
and annually. In addition to memorizing the liturgy itself (largely in
Prakrit, with portions in Sanskrit and vernacular), the student should
also study its meaning (artha) through a vernacular commentary. The
commentary recommended in the curriculum was authored by Paṅnyāsa
Bhadraṅkaravijayagan. i (1903–1980), one of the leading Tapā Gaccha
intellectuals of the twentieth century, with the assistance of another monk
and a lay pan. d. ita.12 There are three levels of vernacular commentary
for each verse of liturgy: a word-by-word trot (śabdārtha), giving the
Gujarati meaning of the Prakrit original; a vernacular translation of the
entire verse (artha-saṅkalanā); and on occasion a further discussion of
the spiritual significance of the verse (bhāvārtha, sūtra-paricaya).13
The text of the Pratikraman. a Sūtra also includes the Navasmaran. a
(Nine Remembrances). These are nine Prakrit and Sanskrit hymns that
are central to both Tapā Gaccha practice and devotion. The first of these
is the Namukkāro or Namaskāra Mantra, the nine-line universal Jain
mantra in which the person pays homage to the Jain spiritual hierarchy.
Among the other eight texts are ancient hymns common to all branches
of Jainism such as the Bhaktāmara Stotra and Kalyān. amandira Stotra;
ancient Tantric hymns such as the Br. hacchānti Stotra, Uvasaggaharam .
Stotra, Namiūn. a Stotra, and Tijayapahutta Stotra; and the Santikaram .
332 JOHN E. CORT

Stotra composed by the Tapā Gaccha Ācārya Somasundarasūri (1380–

1447).14 These hymns are recited publically by monks as māṅgalika
or “auspicious verses,” and are also recited by many mendicants and
laity as part of their daily devotional practice.
Pratikraman. a is performed regularly by mendicants, and also on
occasion by laity. A person considering becoming a mendicant is likely to
study and memorize the liturgy, and so already be familiar with it at the
time of initiation. But there are additional liturgies specific to mendicants
that now must be learnt. These are found in the Sādhukriyā Sūtra
(Aphorisms of Mendicant Ritual). These include the regular recitations
for aticāra (“confession”), the specific form of Pratikraman. a to be
recited by mendicants,15 the rite for the several times daily inspection
of the mendicant’s clothes for small living creatures, the rite for restarting
the performance of Pratikraman. a after an inauspicious sneeze, and the
text to be recited before sleep in case one dies before waking. These
verses are also to be studied with the aid of the Gujarati artha.
The “devādhideva kān. d. a” (“God Chapter”) is the first chapter of
Hemacandra’s (1089–1172) Abhidhāna Cintāman. i (Wishing-Stone
Dictionary), a collection of synonyms. These eighty-six verses give
brief information about the pantheons of all the indigenous Indian
religious traditions, which is then expanded upon in the commentary
by Ācārya Kastūrasūri (1901–1976).16 This provides an introduction
to a comparative Indian theology.
These theological and devotional concerns are amplified by the
Gujarati texts to be memorized from the collection known as the
Jinagun. apadyāval¯ı (Anthology of Verses on the Virtues of the Jinas).
The student is to memorize stavanas (hymns) to each of the twenty-four
Jinas; fifteen texts known as sajjhāyas (Sanskrit svādhyāya, “study”),
poetic works on a wide variety of edifying subjects such as ideal
Jains from Jain universal history, the problems resulting from negative
forces such as anger, pride, delusion, and greed, and the virtues of
positive forces such as detachment from the world; the texts for rites
of veneration (caitya-vandana) to each of the the twenty-four Jinas;17
and ten other vernacular hymns (thoya) on religious topics.18
The Daśavaikālika Sūtra (Ten Chapters of Aphorisms for Evening
Study) attributed to Ārya Śayyambhava (c. 4th c. BCE) is the foundational
text of Śvetāmbara mendicancy.19 The first five chapters treat of the
need to be unattached to the world, a definition of proper and improper
conduct, the ontological distinction between soul and non-soul, the six
categories of living beings, the five great vows, and the details of the
mendicant’s food-gathering round.
 THE INTELLECTUAL FORMATION OF A JAIN MONK 333

Second Standard
The second standard consists of further memorization, and the study of
foundational texts by means of vernacular commentaries. The student
is to memorize the first chapter of the Pañcasūtra, the sixth through
tenth chapters of the Daśavaikālika Sūtra, the Vairāgya Śataka, and
the Tattvārtha Sūtra. He is to study the following texts along with
their Gujarati commentaries: the J¯ıvavicāra and the other of the four
Prakaran. as, the three Bhās. yas, and the first fifteen chapters of the
Daśavaikālika.20
The Pañcasūtra (Five Chapters of Aphorisms) is an ancient,
anonymous text on the Jain spiritual path. The first chapter treats of
the causes of accruing bad (pāpa) karma, and the means of destroying
these karmas: taking refuge (śaran. a) in the Jain mendicant hierarchy
and dharma, censuring of one’s own bad deeds, and praise of the good
deeds of others.
The Vairāgya Śataka (Century of Verses on Renunciation), also known
as the Bhava-vairāgya Śataka (Century of Verses on Renunciation of
[Re-]birth), is a popular anonymous medieval Prakrit collection of 104
verses.21 As the title indicates, these verses inculcate in the reader
the desire to renounce worldly life and seek spiritual liberation. In
the words of one author, the predominant sentiment in these verses
is that of spiritual peace (śānta) (Vinayavijaya, 1914: 142). There are
48 copies of this text found in the Patan Jain library, most of them
accompanied by Gujarati commentaries.22 Handwritten manuscripts of
this collection are usually found in the same manuscript with two other
anonymous Prakrit collections, the Indriyaparājaya Śataka (Century
of Verses on Conquest of the Senses) and the Ādināthadeśanoddhāra
Śataka (Century of Verses on the Restoration of Ādinātha’s Teaching).
While the former of these is also included in the curriculum, the latter
has been omitted and appears to have fallen out of favor with modern
students.
The Tattvārtha Sūtra (Aphorisms on the Meaning of the Verities) is
the well-known ancient text by Umāsvāti. It is the first systematized
presentation of Jain metaphysics in the pan-Indian intellectual language
of Sanskrit, and so provides a synopsis for the student. The root text
consists of 344 short phrases that can easily be memorized. Since the
phrases are so brief as to be almost meaningless on their own, the
student accompanies his memorization by study of the detailed Gujarati
commentary.
In addition to this ongoing work of memorization, the student turns to
several important medieval textbooks on Jain doctrine. The J¯ıvavicāra
334 JOHN E. CORT

(Examination of Souls) is a 51-verse Prakrit text attributed to the eleventh

century Vādivetāla Śāntisūri.23 It details the various bodies inhabited
by unenlightened souls, from those with a single sense through those
with five senses, and the four realms of possible rebirth, as humans,
hellish beings, heavenly beings, and plants and animals. Its popularity
as a textbook is seen in that Muni Mahābodhivijaya (1989: 12) lists
fifteen Sanskrit and vernacular commentaries on it from the sixteenth
through eighteenth centuries. The 30-verse Prakrit Navatattva Prakaran. a
(Textbook on the Nine Verities) is an anonymous medieval work that gives
a basic description of the nine verities (tattva) of Jain metaphysics. This
has been the subject of even more commentaries: Mahābodhivijaya (ibid.:
13–14) lists twenty-six commentaries with known authors, and adds
that there are many more anonymous ones.24 The Dan. d. aka Prakaran. a
(Textbook on Life Forms) is also known as the Vicārachatt¯ısiyāsutta
(or Vicāras. at. trim
. śikā; Thirty-Six Verse Examination) and the Laghu
Saṅgrahan. ¯ı (Short Collection). It is a 44-verse Prakrit text written
by the sixteenth century Gajasara Muni (Mehtā and Kāpad. iyā, 1968:
173–174).25 It partly overlaps in subject material with the J¯ıvavicāra. It
gives details of the physical and mental qualities and abilities of living
beings in the twenty-four possible life forms (dan. d. aka). Mahābodhivijaya
(ibid.: 20) lists eleven commentaries on this text, dating from the early
sixteenth through the mid-eighteenth centuries. The fourth textbook
is the Jambūdv¯ıpa Saṅgrahan. ¯ı (Collection about Rose-apple Island),
also known as the Laghu Saṅgrahan. ı¯ (Short Collection). It is a 29-
verse Prakrit text, attributed to Haribhadrasūri.26 In it the student is
introduced to Jain geography, as it gives the features and dimensions of
the various lands, mountains, rivers, and other features in the middle,
human-inhabited section universe. Each of these four texts is studied
by means of a Gujarati commentary.27
The three Bhās. yas (Commentaries) are Prakrit commentaries
composed by Devendrasūri (d. 1271), who is responsible for the intel-
lectual foundation of the Tapā Gaccha, on three of the āvaśyakas, the
rituals that must be performed daily by each mendicant. In the 63-verse
Caityavandanabhās. ya (Commentary on Image Veneration), he explains
the rite of veneration of the Jinas; in the 41-verse Guruvandanabhās. ya
(Commentary on Teacher Veneration), he explains the rite of venera-
tion of the mendicant gurus; and in the 48-verse Pratyākhyānabhās. ya
(Commentary on Renunciation), he explains the rite of stating one’s
intention to perform austerities, as well as many of the details of Jain
ascetic and dietary practice.
 THE INTELLECTUAL FORMATION OF A JAIN MONK 335

Finally, the student studies the entirety of the Daśavaikālika by means

of the Gujarati commentary written by Ācārya Bhadraṅkarasūri.28

Third Standard
All of the studies in the first two standards have consisted of memorizing
Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Gujarati texts, and studying liturgies and textbooks
by means of Gujarati commentaries. Unless the student has had prior,
pre-initiation education in Sanskrit or Prakrit, he is still unable to read
texts in either of these languages on his own. Ensuring that these key
texts firmly “reside in the throat” (kan. .thastha) of the student is more
important than that he worry over the mechanics of classical grammar.
We saw that this was also the intention of the resolution passed at
the Baroda conference in 1912. This was also central to Brāhman. ical
education in the Vedas: the student was expected to memorize vast
portions of text in order to be able to use them in various ritual contexts,
but only more diligent students went on to study Sanskrit grammar
(Mookerji, 1960). In the Mūrtipūjaka case, it is only at the third standard
that the student begins the study of Sanskrit.
Brāhman. as traditionally learned Sanskrit through a system based
on Pān. ini’s Ās. .tādhyāy¯ı (Eight Chapters) and Patañjali’s Mahābhās. ya
(Great Commentary), and expanded upon by generations of pan. d. itas,
especially the Siddhānta Kaumud¯ı (Elucidation of the Doctrine) of the
early seventeenth century Bhat.t.ojı̄ Dı̄ks. ita. Śvetāmbaras, on the other
hand, have traditionally learned Sanskrit through a system developed by
Hemacandra. His Siddhahaimacandra Vyākaran. a (Grammar) is based
on the earlier Śākat. āyana Vyākaran. a (Scharf, 169). Śakatāyana was the
pen-name of the ninth century Digambara Pālyakı̄rti. As Scharf notes,
Jains also studied the Brāhman. ical system, and the Patan library contains
many manuscripts of the works of Pān. ini, Patañjali and Bhat.t.ojı̄.
In particular, at this standard the student studies the first two-
plus chapters of the Hema Sam . skr. ta Praveśikā (Introduction to
Hema[candra]’s Sanskrit), a modern edition of Hemacandra’s grammar
compiled by a lay Jain pan. d. ita. He also memorizes several other
grammatical textbooks. The Samāsa Subodhikā (Proper Knowledge of
Compounds) is a modern textbook on Sanskrit compounds based on
the Siddhānta Kaumud¯ı and Hemacandra’s Siddhahemaśabdānuśāsana
(Instruction on Words). The Śabdarūpāval¯ı (Noun Declension) and
Dhāturūpāval¯ı (Verb Declension) are both Brāhman. ical textbooks. The
Dhanañjaya Nāmamālā (Dhanañjaya’s Garland of Words) is a Digam-
bara text treating the multiple meanings of words, studied in an edition
and Gujarati translation by a Tapā Gaccha monk.29
336 JOHN E. CORT

The student also memorizes the Indriyaparājaya Śataka, a collection

of Prakrit verses on the need to subdue the senses on the spiritual
path.30
Finally, in this standard the student studies one of two collections of
edifying tales. The Pañcatantra (Five Threads) is a Hindu text, but long
read by Jains, and one of the oldest extant recensions of the text was
compiled by the Śvetāmbara monk Pūrn. abhadra in 1199 (Caudharı̄, 1973:
389). The Bharateśvara Bāhubali Vr. tti (Commentary on Bharateśvara
and Bāhubali), also known as the Kathākośa (Collection of Stories)
was composed by the Tapā Gaccha monk Śubhaśı̄lagan. i in 1453. The
root text consists of only thirteen verses, which are just the names of
53 men and 47 women from the Jain universal history. The bulk of
the text provides edifying tales of the conduct of each of these 100
people.31

Fourth Standard
The student finishes his study of the Daśavaikālika Sūtra with its
Gujarati commentary. He also studies the first four of the Karma
Granthas (Karma Books) together with their Gujarati commentaries.
These Prakrit texts are the work of Devendrasūri. While Devendrasūri
himself wrote Sanskrit commentaries on the Prakrit root texts, they are
now studied instead with a Sanskrit and Gujarati explanation (stabuka,
.tabā) composed by Muni Jı̄vavijaya in 1747, and a modern explanation
by a contemporary lay pan. d. ita. These texts provide a thorough treatment
of Jain karma theory.32 In other words, the student continues his study
of basic doctrine, in this standard focusing on the more difficult karma
theory, whereas earlier he had studied the easier cosmography. He
also finishes his study of Sanskrit grammar by completing the Hema
Sam. skr. ta Praveśikā.
The student is also to learn to read Sanskrit epic poetry (mahākāvya).
The syllabus recommends one of two texts. The Somasaubhāgya (Good
Fortune of Soma) is a biography of Somadevasūri (1374–1443), an
important head of the Tapā Gaccha and prolific author. This biography
was composed by Pratis. t.hāsoma in 1468. It is a surprise to find it on the
syllabus, for while it is very informative about the medieval Tapā Gaccha,
copies of it are very rare, and one would expect to find a better-known
text such as Devavimalagan. i’s early seventeenth century H¯ırasaubhāgya
(Good Fortune of H¯ıra), a biography of Hı̄ravijayasūri (1527–1596),
arguably the most important medieval leader of the Tapā Gaccha.33
Instead of this text, the student can also read the first two chapters of
the Raghuvam . śa by Kālidāsa. This Jain appreciation of Kālidāsa’s text
 THE INTELLECTUAL FORMATION OF A JAIN MONK 337

is not a recent phenomenon; the Patan library has forty-five copies of

all or part of it.
In addition, the student continues his reading of edifying stories
from Jain universal history by reading the Upadeśamālā (Garland of
Teachings) composed by Dharmadāsagan. i around 750. In 542 Prakrit
verses he tells 310 stories as examples of Jain virtues such as equanimity,
asceticism, and renunciation. This has also been a very popular text;
there are over 200 copies of it in the Patan library, and it was cited as
scripture (āgama) by medieval Tapā Gaccha authors.34 Between the tenth
and eighteenth century more than twenty Sanskrit commentaries were
composed on it (Caudharı̄, 1973: 233, Velankar, 1944: 49–51). Since
the student has yet to study Prakrit, the syllabus calls for him to read
the text through the Gujarati translation by Ācārya Bhuvanabhānusūri.35

Fifth Standard
At this level the student starts to study Prakrit, using a grammar (Prākr. ta
Vijñāna Pāt. hamālā) and reader (Pāı̈ya Vinnān. a Kahā) written by Ācārya
Kastūrasūri. In other words, the Mūrtipūjaka monk learns the “canonical”
language of Prakrit upon the earlier foundation of Sanskrit, in the same
manner as Prakrit is taught at universities.
He studies two texts. One is either the Sirisirivālakahā (Story
of Blessed Śr¯ıpāla) or the Vijayacandrakeval¯ıcariya (Legend of the
Enlightened Vijayacandra). In either case, he is studying stories about
the meritorious efficacy of Jain ritual, the worship of the siddha-
cakra in the first case, and the eightfold worship of the Jina in the
second case. The Sirisirivālakahā is a Prakrit text of 1,342 verses
(with a few Apabhramsa verses also). It was composed in 1428 by
Ratnaśekharasūri.36 The Vijayacandrakeval¯ıcariya, of which there are
two recensions of 1086 and 1329 Prakrit verses, was composed in 1071
by Candraprabha Mahattara, disciple of the famous Abhayadevasūri
(Caudharı̄, 1973: 177; Velankar, 1944: 354). It gives examples of why
the use of material offerings in the ritual of worshiping the Jinas –
the eponymously defining ritual of the Mūrtipūjakas – is efficacious.
The other text to be studied is the Yatidinacaryā (Daily Conduct of
a Monk), a Prakrit text of 154 verses composed by Bhāvadevasūri in
1356. It is accompanied by a lengthy Sanskrit commentary authored by
Matisāgarasūri. It provides details of proper monastic conduct beyond
that provided in canonical texts such as the Uttarādhyayana Sūtra and
Oghaniryukti (Mehtā and Kāpad. iyā, 1968: 287).37
Finally, the student is to memorize two verse texts. The Jñānasāra
(Essence of Knowledge) is by the Tapā Gaccha intellectual giant
338 JOHN E. CORT

Mahopādhyāya Yaśovijayagan. i (1624–1688). In thirty-two chapters

of eight verses each, Yaśovijaya gives a brief outline of the spiritual
goal and the means to attain it. In the words of Paul Dundas (1991:
449), in this text authored late in his life, Yaśovijaya shows the influence
of Jain mysticism and “dwells on the inner, soul-oriented aspects of
the religion.”
The Sindūraprakara (Multitude of Sindūra Trees) has long been
a favorite hymn of Śvetāmbara mendicants.38 In the introduction
to his edition, Paṅnyāsa Pradyumnavijayagan. i (now Ācārya Vijaya
Pradyumnasūri) says, “Many monks and nuns have memorized hese
sayings and have used them in their preaching” (p. 4). It was composed
in 1177 by Somaprabhācārya, a monk in the medieval Br. had Gaccha
who was also author of the well-known Kumārapālapratibodha (The
Conversion of King Kumārapāla) among other texts. It is also known
as the Sūktamuktāval¯ı (Pearl Garland of Sayings). In 100 verses the
author treats twenty subjects, including devotion of the Tı̄rthaṅkara,
guru, Jain teachings, and congregation; overcoming five faults through
the five great vows; victory over the four failings of anger, pride, delu-
sion, and greed; and six spiritual virtues. It was the subject of at least
eight medieval commentaries; of these, it is usually studied with that
by Hars. akı̄rtisūri of the Nāgapurı̄ya Tapā Gaccha in 1599.39

Sixth Standard
At this level the student progresses to the study of more advanced levels
of Śvetāmbara doctrine. He studies the remaining two of Devendrasūri’s
Karma Granthas, the Tattvārtha Sūtra, the Br. hatsaṅgrahan. ¯ı (Long
Collection), and Ks. etrasamāsa (Succinct Geography), all through
Gujarati commentaries. The last two are more advanced texts on Jain
cosmography, the former a text of 318 Prakrit verses composed by
Candrasūri in the twelfth century, the latter a text of 637 or 655 Prakrit
verses composed by Jinabhadragan. i Ks. amāśraman. a in the sixth century.
He is also to study the Oghaniryukti (General Explanation), attributed
to Bhadrabāhu. While this is one of the few texts from the Śvetāmbara
“canon” on the syllabus, it is also one that was largely ignored by
Western scholarship until the work of Adelheid Mette (1974) and
Willem Bollée (1991–1994). It provides details of various aspects of
the mendicant life, such as food gathering and inspection of objects for
minute living beings, together with illustrative stories.
Finally, the student studies the tenth chapter of Hemacandra’s
Tris. as. .tiśalākāpurus. acaritra (Biographies of the Sixty-three Great
Heroes). This chapter gives a detailed biography of Mahāvı̄ra.
 THE INTELLECTUAL FORMATION OF A JAIN MONK 339

There are two texts which he is expected to memorize in this standard.

The Praśamarati (Textbook on Joys of [Spiritual] Peace) of Umāsvāti
consists of 313 Sanskrit verses that treat basic Jain doctrine, including
metaphysics, bondage, meditation, and the path to liberation. In the
V¯ıtarāgastotra (Hymn to the Dispassionate Lord) Hemacandra in twenty
chapters of eight verses each gives a detailed description of the Jain
definition of god as dispassionate and liberated.

Seventh Standard

In this last level of the curriculum the monk undertakes the study of
logic and argument. He studies six texts, four by Jain authors and two
by Brāhman. as. While Jains have long been prolific authors of logic
texts, at the same time they have read widely in non-Jain materials,
just as they have in the study of grammar.
The Tarkasam . graha (Compendium on Dialectics) is by the
seventeenth-century south Indian Annam . bhat.t.a. In the words of Bimal
Krishna Matilal (1977: 107), “This text is very popular with the students
who are beginners in navya-nyāya,” the “new” style of logic that became
dominant in the past half-millenium.40
The Pramān. anayatattvālokālam . kara (Ornament for Seeing the Truth
of Valid and Partial Knowledge) is, in the words of its English trans-
lator, “a standard work on the Jaina mediaeval logic, psychology and
epistemology. The book and particularly the commentary contain and
develop at first the views of the opponent schools and then set them
aside and finally establish the theories of the Jaina Śvetāmbara school”
(Bhattacharya, 1967: vi). Its author, Vādi Devasūri (born 1087) became
well-known for defeating a wide array of opponents in public debates,
most famously the Digambara Kumudacandra in a debate judged by
the Caulukya Emperor Jayasim . ha Siddharāja in Anahillavada Pattana
in 1125. In eight chapters he presents a theory of proper knowledge
and logic from a Jain perspective. It is studied with the aid of three
medieval commentaries, by Devasūri’s disciple Ratnaprabhasūri (early
twelfth century), Paṅnyāsa Jñānacandra of the Pūrn. imā (or Maladhārı̄)
Gaccha, and Rājaśekhara of the Maladhārı̄ Gaccha.
The Nyāyasiddhānta Muktāval¯ı (Pearl Garland of the Doctrine
of Logic) is by the Brāhman. a Viśvanātha Bhat.t.a, who flourished in
the mid-seventeenth century. This text is an autocommentary on the
author’s Kārikāvali (Anthology of Technical Verses), also known as
the Bhās. āpariccheda (Discrimination Concerning Language). Matilal
(1977: 116) says of the root text that it was a favorite textbook for
340 JOHN E. CORT

learning the Navadvı̄pa school of Navya Nyāya and that its 166 verses
were memorized by thousands of pan. d. itas.
The Dravyagun. aparyāyano Rāsa (Drama on Substance, Quality
and Mode) is a Gujarati text authored by Yaśovijaya that provides the
student with a clear description of these three key concepts within Jain
philosophy. Yaśovijaya’s text includes a critique of the contemporary
(and then new) Digambara Adhyātma (Spiritualist) movement, which
advanced a radically non-dualist vision of the Jain path that was attacked
by Yaśovijaya in a number of texts.41
Finally, the student is to study two related texts by Hemacandra. The
Anyayogavyavacchedikā (Discrimination Concerning Other Systems) and
Ayogavyavacchedikā (Discrimination Concerning Wrong Systems) are
both texts of thirty-two verses. The former disproves the claims of other
systems, while the latter demonstrates the truth of Jainism by disproving
the arguments of other systems against it. The Anyayogavyavacchedikā
is by far the better known of the two, as it is widely read as the basis
for Mallis. en. a’s well-known Syādvādamañjari (Flower Spray of the
Doctrine of Maybe), composed in 1158. There are many medieval
manuscripts of this text, whereas there are very few of the far less
well-known Ayogavyavacchedikā.

CONCLUDING COMMENTS

The majority of the texts discussed above are probably unknown to the
casual student of Jainism, and while the more specialized student has
probably heard of them, s/he has most likely not read them or otherwise
utilized them in the study of the Jains. How our understanding of Jain
ideology would differ if we utilized these texts in our study instead of
the more commonly used (and translated) texts from the Śvetāmbara
canon is a question worthy of future research. But here let me conclude
by clarifying the structure that underlies this seven-stage curriculum.
In the first standard the new monk is engaged in the memorization of
key liturgical texts that he will recite regularly for the rest of his life. In
the second standard he moves on to memorize key texts that give details
of Jain practice and metaphysics, and that confirm him in an attitude
of renunciation of his former social self. In addition, he now studies,
through vernacular commentaries, texts that discuss mendicant practice
and Jain biology. All of the study in the first two standards is through
the vernacular, although he has by now memorized a large amount of
material in Prakrit and Sanskrit. Only at the third standard does he
start to learn Sanskrit, and also begin to read narrative texts that will
 THE INTELLECTUAL FORMATION OF A JAIN MONK 341

prove useful when he gives sermons and other teaching to the laity.42
At the fourth standard he begins to study karma theory and to read
Sanskrit epic poetry. The study of Prakrit grammar does not begin until
the fifth standard, at which level he continues his reading of narratives
and memorization of edifying verses. The sixth standard involves more
advanced studies in Jain doctrine, and finally at the seventh standard
he undertakes the formal study of logic and argument.
At this point the monk has sufficient education that he can proceed
with advanced studies under senior, more learned monks. Many monks,
however, do not choose to pursue further studies, and instead lead lives
focused on austerities, recitation of devotional texts, involvement with
lay activities, or monastic organizational details. In every generation,
however, there are a handful of monks with a deep thirst for learning
who maintain the Tapā Gaccha intellectual tradition – a tradition whose
intellectual foundations are in the texts discussed in this essay.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Paul Dundas for helpful comments on an earlier version of

this essay. For bibliographic ease, I transliterate all Hindi and Gujarati
words and names into Sanskrit form, so that the silent “a” is spelled in
English. The one exception is “Jain,” since this is the standard spelling
among both academics and English-writing Jains themselves.

NOTES
1
See Cort, 1991: 663–665 on the titles and internal hierarchy among Mūrtipūjaka
mendicancy.
2
See Cort, 1991: 657–661 and 2000: chapter 2 on yatis.
3
See Cort, 1991: 655–657 and 2000: chapter 2 on the gacchas or mendicant lineages
in the contemporary Mūrtipūjaka community. The Tapā Gaccha is by far the dominant
gaccha. My discussion in this essay is exclusively within a Tapā Gaccha context.
4
These texts are: the five Pratikraman. a Sūtras, the first four chapters of the
Daśavaikālika Sūtra, as well as J¯ıvavicāra, Navatattva Prakaran. a, and Dan. d. aka. I
will discuss these texts in greater detail below.
5
See Vallely, 1999 for detailed discussion of this institution.
6
On the many problems with this understanding of the Jain scriptural canon, see
Folkert, 1993: 41–76.
7
I have also discussed this issue at Cort, 1990.
8
This tendency is not restricted to Euro-American Orientalist scholarship, but is
common also in academically located Indian studies of Jainism as well.
9
This point is also made by Smith, 1971.
10
Many of them are also found in textbooks published for Tapā Gaccha mendicants.
I have included several of these in the bibliography: the Prakaran. a Ratnākara
(Treasury of Textbooks), a massive late-nineteenth century compilation; the Prakaran. a
342 JOHN E. CORT

Sukhasindhu (Pleasurable Indus of Textbooks), compiled in 1920; the Jaina Dharma

Prakaran. a Ratnākara (Treasury of Textbooks on Jainism), compiled in the late 1970s
by Ācārya Rāmasūri (D. ehalāvālā), the leader of one of the Tapā Gaccha samudāyas
and also a leader of the 1988 conference; and the Prakaran. atray¯ı (Textbook Triad), an
edition of the J¯ıvavicāra, Navatattva, and Dan. d. aka together with Sanskrit commentaries
(by the late eighteenth century Ks. amākalyān. agan. i on the first text, and the seventeenth
century Upādhyāya Samayasundaragan. i on the other two), published by an organization
that specializes in keeping key texts in print for study by monks.
11
It is performed on the fourteenth of the fortnight in the Tapā Gaccha; some
other gacchas perform it on the full and new moon. This was an ongoing source of
sectarian controversy in the medieval Śvetāmbara community.
12
See Ratnasenavijaya, 1982 and Devaluka, 1992: I: 407–408 for biographies of
Bhadraṅkaravijaya.
13
I have discussed these levels of translation and commentary at Cort, 1994.
14
The inclusion of the Navasmaran. a in the curriculum is specifically Tapā Gaccha;
in a Kharatara Gaccha curriculum one would instead find the Saptasmaran. a (Seven
Remembrances) compiled by Upādhyāya Samayasundaragan. i in 1638. See Cort
(forthcoming-b) for details of the texts on the Tapā Gaccha list. The titles of the
hymns usually comprise the first several words.
15
The litrugy varies slightly for mendicants and laity.
16
See Devaluka, 1992: II: 70–73 for a brief biography of this prolific editor and
author.
17
See Cort, 1995b on caitya-vandana.
18
There are more of these texts in Jinagun. apadyāval¯ı than indicated in the curriculum;
it is not clear exactly which vernacular texts the student is to memorize.
19
The meaning of the title is debated within the Jain tradition. See Dhaky, 1993 for
the most recent, albeit very contentious, scholarship on this text. The 1912 Baroda
conference had the new monk memorizing only the first four chapters of the text; I
cannot account for this discrepancy.
20
The standard edition of this text consists of ten chapters (adhyayana) and two
appendices (cūlikā); I assume that “fifteen” here is a misprint, and that in any event
the student is to study the entirety of the text.
21
This text is not to be confused with the Sanskrit Vairāgya Śataka of the Brāhman. ical
author Bhartr. hari. There are also Śvetāmbara recensions of this latter text, complete
with commentaries.
22
Information on the Patan libraries is found in Pun. yavijaya, 1972 and Jambūvijaya,
1991; any study of this extensive collection of texts must use both catalogues.
23
There is scholarly disagreement about the authorship of this text; see Mehtā and
Kāpad. iyā, 1968: 166.
The utility of using this as a textbook is seen in that a Hindi edited version of
this text was used by Babb (1996: 200n.21) as the basis for his account of Jain
cosmography and biology. He says the book “was placed in my hand by an educated
Jain friend specifically to answer my queries.” An edition of this text was published in
Europe by A. Guérinot, 1902, but the J¯ıvavicāra has been ignored by all subsequent
scholarship excepting Babb.
24
This was among the very first Jain texts to be translated into a European language,
by the Rev. J. Stevenson in 1847. Despite its long availability to Euro-American
scholars, it has been almost totally ignored, as was the J¯ıvavicāra. These texts
represent, to borrow a phrase from Charles Hallisey (1995), a “road not taken” in
the study of Jainism.
25
In the final verse, the author describes himself as a disciple of Dhavalacandra, and
living during the time of Ācārya Jinaham . sasūri of the Kharatara Gaccha. Jinaham . sa
(1478–1526), who died in Patan (Klatt, 1882: 249), lived at a time when the Kharatara
 THE INTELLECTUAL FORMATION OF A JAIN MONK 343

Gaccha still had a significant presence in Gujarat. This may account in part for the
continuing influence of this text within the largely Gujarati Tapā Gaccha.
26
Mehtā and Kāpad. iyā (1968: 170–171) are of the opinion that the author is a later
Haribhadra than the famous Śvetāmbara philosopher.
27
This and other cosmographical texts were widely disseminated in the form of
illustrated manuscripts that were used for study and preaching. See Caillat and Kumar,
1981.
28
Ācārya Bhadraṅkarasūri (b. 1902) is not to be confused with Paṅnyāsa
Bhadraṅkaravijayagan. i who was mentioned above. The former was head of the
Siddhisūri (Bāpajı̄) Samudāya, one of the eighteen samudāyas or lineages of the
Tapā Gaccha, founded by Ācārya Siddhisūri (1855–1959), also known affectionately
as “Bāpajı̄” or “Honored Father.” Bhadraṅkarasūri wrote Gujarati commentaries on
a number of important texts. For brief biographies of Bāpajı̄ and Bhadraṅkarasūri,
see Devaluka, II: 174–182 and II: 189–191. Bhadraṅkarasūri was one of the prime
organizers of the 1988 conference.
29
The date of this text is unknown, but a commentary on it was authored in the
fourteenth century by the Digambara Amarakı̄rti (Śāha, 1969: 80–81). It has long
been studied by Śvetāmbaras; there are nine copies of it in the Patan library.
30
Manuscripts of this text in the Patan library range between 98 and 102 verses.
Muni Pun. yavijaya (1972: 64) says that this is a Brāhman. ical (nigama) text.
31
On this text see Caudharı̄, 1973: 244–245 and Upadhye, 1983: 33–34.
32
Unlike many of the textbooks discussed above, these have been used by European
scholarship, as Helmuth von Glasenapp’s dense but still valuable 1915 Die Lehre
vom Karman in der Philosophie der Jainas was based to a significant extent on
Devendrasūri’s texts.
33
I thank Paul Dundas for information about the Somasaubhāgya.
34
This information also is from Paul Dundas.
35
On this monk, who was born in 1911, studied banking in England before becoming
a monk, and at the time of the 1988 conference was leader of an important samudāya,
see Devaluka, 1992: II: 387–395.
36
This monk is different from the Ratnaśekharasūri (1396–1461) who was head
of the Tapā Gaccha and author of several important works on mendicant and lay
conduct. The author of the Sirisirivālakahā was a disciple of Hematilaka of the
Nāgapurı̄ya branch of the Tapā Gaccha (in reality, a separate gaccha). He was born
in 1316 and, according to Jain sources, preached to Sultan Firozshah Tuglaq in 1351
(Caudhari 293–294). On the story of Śrı̄pāla see Cort forthcoming-a.
37
Given the paucity of editions, the inclusion of the Yatidinacaryā in the syllabus
is somewhat surprising.
38
As with most Jain hymns, the title in fact comprises the first two words of the
first verse.
39
See Velankar, 1944: 441–442 for a list of commentaries.
40
The best introduction to Navya Nyāya remains Ingalls, 1951.
41
The best English treatment of these Jain concepts is Soni, 1991. His presentation,
however, is based largely on the writings of the Digambara Kundakunda, who provided
the basis for the Adhyātma position attacked by Yaśovijaya. See also Bhatt, 1974:
284n.25.
42
It is interesting to note that nowhere in this curriculum is the monk called upon
to study the Kalpa Sūtra (Aphorisms on the Ordinances). The public recitation of
this text, along with its seventeenth century Sanskrit commentary by Vinayavijaya,
is performed by most monks during Paryus. an. a (see Cort, 2000: ch. 6). Presumably
since the monk will hear the recitation by his own teacher for several years before
he does it himself, there is no need to specify its study in the curriculum.
344 JOHN E. CORT

REFERENCES

SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT TEXTS

Whenever possible, I have given the editions of the texts mentioned in the 1988
list, rather than more scholarly critical editions, since the former are what monks
are likely to read. Many dates reflect the copies in my personal collection; most of
these texts are regularly reprinted.

Abhidhānacintāman. i of Hemacandra (1957). With Gujarati Candrodayābhidha T. ¯ıkā.

Edited and Gujarati .t¯ıkā by Ācārya Vijaya Kastūrasūri. Ahmedabad: Jasavantalāla
Gı̄radharalāla Śāha.
Anyayogavyavacchedikā Dvātrim . śikā of Hemacandra. In Kāvyamālā 7, 102–104.
Anyayogavyavacchedikā Dvātrim . śikā of Hemacandra (1912). With Syādvādamañjar¯ ı
of Mallis. en. a. Edited by Haragovinda Dāsa and Becara Dāsa. Banaras: Yaśovijaya
Jaina Granthamālā. Yaśovijaya Jaina Granthamālā 30.
Anyayogavyavacchedikā Dvātrim . śikā of Hemacandra (1933). With Syādvādamañjar¯ ı
of Mallis. en. a. Edited by A. B. Dhruva. Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research
Institute. Bombay Sanskrit and Prakrit Series 83.
Ayogavyavacchedikā Dvatrim . śikā of Hemacandra. In Kāvyamālā 7, 104–107.
Bharateśvara Bāhubali Vr. tti of Śubhaśı̄lagan. i (1932–1937). Two volumes. Bombay:
Devacandra Lālabhāı̄ Jaina Pustakoddhāra Sam . sthā. Devacandra Lālabhāı̄ Jaina
Pustakoddhāra Series 77 and 87.
Bharateśvara Bāhubali Vr. tti of Śubhaśı̄lagan. i (1987). Edited by Paṅnyāsa
Pradyumnavijayagan. i. Two volumes. Ahmedabad: Śrı̄ Śrutajñāna Prasāraka Sabhā.
Bhās. yatraya of Devendrasūri (1977). Mehsana: Śrı̄mad Yaśovijayajı̄ Jaina Sam . skr. ta
Pāt.haśāl.ā ane Śrı̄ Jaina Śreyaskara Man. d. al.a (fourth printing).
Bhavavairāgyaśataka. In Prakaran. a Ratnākara, Volume 3, 813–834.
Br. hatsaṅgrahan. i of Maladhārı̄ Candrasūri (n.d.). With Gujarati translation by Pan. d. ita
Amr. talāla Purus. ottamadāsa. Ahmedabad: Śrı̄ Jaina Prakāśana Mandira.
Br. hatsaṅgrahan. i of Jinabhadragan. i Kśamāśraman. a (1917). With T. ¯ıkā of Malayagiri.
Edited by Paṅnyāsa Dānavijayagan. i. Bhavnagar: Jaina Ātmānanda Sabhā. Jaina
Ātmānanda Sabhā Series 47.
Br. hatsaṅgrahan. i of Jinabhadragan. i Kśamāśraman. a (1921). With T. ¯ıkā of Malayagiri.
Bhavnagar: Jaina Dharma Prasāraka Sabhā.
Dan. d. aka Prakaran. a of Gajasāra Muni (1981). Mehsana: Śrı̄mad Yaśovijayajı̄ Jaina
Sam . skr. ta Pāt.haśāl.ā ane Śrı̄ Jaina Śreyaskara Man. d. al.a (5th printing).
Daśavaikālika Sūtra of Ārya Śayyambhava (1955). Edited, with Gujarati artha and
vivecana by Muni Bhadraṅkaravijaya (later Ācārya Bhadraṅkarasūri). Ahmedabad:
Bāı̄ Samartha Jaina Śvetāmbara Mūrtipūjaka Jñānoddhara Fan. d. a.
Dhanañjaya Nāmamālā of Dhanañjaya (1969). Edited and Gujarati translation by
Muni Hitavijaya. Lakhabaval-Shantipuri: Śrı̄ Hars. apus. pāmr. ta Granthamālā.
Dhāturūpāvali (1908). Bombay: Rāma Śarmā.
Dravyagun. aparyāyano Rāsa of Mahopādhyāya Yaśovijaya (1938). With Svopajña
Stabaka Vivaran. a. Mehsana: Śrı̄ Jaina Śreyaskara Man. d. al.a (first printing).
Dravyagun. aparyāyano Rāsa of Mahopādhyāya Yaśovijaya. With Bālāvabodha. In
Prakaran. a Ratnākara, Volume 1, 315–388.
Haimadhātumālā (1927). Edited by Muni Gun. avijaya. Ahmedabad: Jaina Grantha
Prakāśaka Sabhā.
Hema Sam . skr. ta Praveśikā (1987, 1992). Three volumes. Śivalāla Nemacanda Śāha.
Patan: Hemacandrācārya Jaina Jñāna Mandira Pāt.haśāl.ā (fifth printing).
Indriyaparājaya Śataka. With Bālāvabodha. In Prakaran. a Ratnākara, Volume 4,
1–21.
 THE INTELLECTUAL FORMATION OF A JAIN MONK 345

Jaina Dharma Prakaran. a Ratnākara (1978). Edited by Ācārya Vijayarāmasūri

(D. ehalāvālā). Ahmedabad: Ācārya Śrı̄ Surendrasūrijı̄ Jaina Tattvajñānaśāl.ā.
Jinagun. apadyāval¯ı (1991). Edited by Pan. d. ita Prabhudāsa Becaradāsa Pārekha. Mehsana:
Śrı̄mad Yaśovijayajı̄ Jaina Sam . skr. ta Pāt.haśāl.ā ane Śrı̄ Jaina Śreyaskara Man. d. al.a
(ninth printing).
J¯ıvavicāra attributed to Vādivetāla Śāntisūri (1902). Edited by A. Guérinot. Journal
Asiatique (9th Series) 19: 231–288.
J¯ıvavicāra attributed to Vādivetāla Śāntisūri (1985). Mehsana: Śrı̄mad Yaśovijayajı̄
Jaina Sam . skr. ta Pāt.haśāl.ā ane Śrı̄ Jaina Śreyaskara Man. d. al.a (tenth printing).
Jñānasāra of Mahopādhyāya Yaśovijaya (1913). With T. ı¯kā of Muni Gambhı̄ravijaya.
Bhavnagar: Jaina Dharma Prasāraka Sabhā.
Jñānasāra of Mahopādhyāya Yaśovijaya (1918). With T. ı¯kā of Devacandra. Bhavnagar:
Jaina Ātmānanda Sabhā. Jaina Ātmānanda Sabhā Series 38.
Karmagrantha of Devendrasūri (1977). With Stubakārtha of Muni Jı̄vavijaya. Three
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Cort, John E. (1995b). ‘The Rite of Veneration of the Jina Images’, in Donald S.
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Department of Religion
Denison University
Granville, Ohio, USA