Advances in Water Resources 62 (2013) 227–237

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Advances in Water Resources

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A generalization of averaging theorems for porous medium analysis

William G. Gray ⇑, Cass T. Miller
Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7431, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The contributions of Stephen Whitaker to the rigorous analysis of porous medium flow and transport are
Available online 28 June 2013 built on the use of temporal and spatial averaging theorems applied to phases in representative elemen-
tary volumes. Here, these theorems are revisited, common point theorems are considered, extensions of
Keywords: existing theorems are developed to include the effects of lower dimensional entities represented as sin-
Averaging theory gularities, and a unified form of the theorems for phases, interfaces, common curves, and common points
Averaging theorems is established for both macroscale and mixed macroscale–megascale systems. The availability of the full
Porous media
set of theorems facilitates detailed analysis of a variety of porous medium systems. Explicit modeling of
the physical processes associated with interfaces, common curves, and common points, as well as the
kinematics of these entities, can be undertaken at both the macroscale and megascale based on these
theorems.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Whitaker has developed equations for flow and transport in

In the fall quarter of 1967 at the University of California at
Davis, one of the authors, WGG, encountered Stephen Whitaker
as his instructor in a junior-level course on the mechanics of mate-
rials. The first question on an exam concerned the expression for
plane shear stress rotated from one initial Cartesian coordinate
system into another coordinate system. Of the three questions on
the exam, this was the only one for which WGG received a perfect
score. This perfect score was achieved because WGG expected such
a question on the exam, memorized the derivation from the course
notes, and was able to regurgitate all the details into the blue book.
Despite the good score, the assessment from Prof. Whitaker
concerning the provided solution was probably the harshest, and
most insightful, WGG received on any question on any exam he
has ever taken. Prof. Whitaker commented, ‘‘I appreciate your
diligence, but despair over your lack of imagination [25].’’
The call to be imaginative, to not take established solutions for
granted, is a hallmark of Stephen Whitaker’s career. He has exam-
ined what are considered by many to be inviolate, established,
empirical expressions describing porous medium flow in an effort
to establish their validity and limitations based on sound funda-
mental principles. In some instances, such as his derivations of
Darcy’s Law (e.g., [2,24,28]), he has revisited his own work seeking
new insights, and new nuances of understanding. His efforts are
marked by diligence and imagination.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: GrayWG@unc.edu (W.G. Gray), casey_miller@unc.edu (C.T.
Miller).
porous medium systems based on the temporal and spatial averag-
ing theorems that he, and others, began publishing in 1967
[1,19,23,24,26]. Not willing to rest on the formulations of the the-
orems, Howes and Whitaker [16] subsequently provided a new
derivation of the averaging theorem, and Whitaker approached
averaging theorems based on geometric considerations [27]. An
alternative derivation, in an effort to be imaginative, that made
use of generalized functions was provided by Gray and Lee [10].
Other insights to obtaining the averaging theorems have also
appeared (e.g.,[3–7,15,22]).
The time and space theorems mentioned are those that apply to
phases within a porous medium system. The volume based theo-
rems that involve averaging of variables associated with a phase
within a representative elementary volume (REV) were extended
to include theorems for averaging of variables associated with
interfaces contained within an REV [9]. The REV presumes separa-
tion of scales such that its length scale is much greater than the
microscale but less than that of the system. Average values ob-
tained are independent of the actual length scale of the REV and
may be differentiated throughout the domain of interest. A more
thorough discussion of the length scales is provided in Gray and
Miller [11]. Similar to the previous theorems for phases, these
additional theorems also average quantities from the microscale
to the macroscale where spatial variability is still modeled. An
interesting feature of these theorems is that because interfaces ex-
ist throughout space, microscale equations of conservation on an
interface are transformed to equations of conservation of interface
properties throughout the domain. This situation is not surprising.
Once the averaging process has been applied, the conservation

0309-1708/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2013.06.006
228 W.G. Gray, C.T. Miller / Advances in Water Resources 62 (2013) 227–237

Nomenclature
W weighting function used in averaging
Roman letters w wetting phase entity index
A general indicator of averaging theorem type wn index of interface between w and n phases
C indicator of an averaging theorem involving the curl wns index of a common curve where wn, ws, and ns
D indicator of an averaging theorem involving the interfaces meet
divergence ws index of interface between w and s phases
E the set of entities
EC the set of common curve entities Greek letters
EI the set of interface entities
EP the set of phase entities a member of I referring to phase, interface, common
EPt the set of common point entities curve, or common point a
f arbitrary continuous vector function b member of I referring to phase, interface, common
f arbitrary continuous function curve, or common point b
G indicator of an averaging theorem involving the C boundary of domain X
gradient Ca boundary of domain Xa
I unit tensor C ae portion of Ca that formed by the intersection of Xa with
ðnÞ C, i.e., an external boundary
Ia unit tensor less the components associate with the
direction(s) orthogonal to entity a where (n) is the C ai portion of Ca that is within X, i.e., and internal bound-
number of primes ary
I index set of entities c member of I referring to phase, interface, common
IC index set of common curve entities curve, or common point c
Ica index set of all entities connected to an entity that occu- d member of I referring to phase, interface, common
pies Xa curve, or common point d
I ca index set of entities connected to Xa that are  member of I referring to phase, interface, common
of a dimension less than that of Xa curve, or common point 
Iþ ca index set of entities connected to Xa that are j member of I referring to phase, interface, common
of a dimension greater than that of Xa curve, or common point b
II index set of interface entities K unit vector tangent to the megascale direction for two-
IP index set of phase entities dimensional macroscale and one-dimensional mega-
IPt index set of common point entities scale averaging
i integer index q mass density
j integer index X spatial domain of the averaging volume
k integer index Xa domain occupied by entity a within the averaging vol-
L unit vector in the direction of the macroscale ume
spatial coordinate when megascale averaging has Xa closed domain consisting of a domain and its boundary
been applied to the other two dimensions such that Xa ¼ Xa [ Ca
la unit vector tangent to common curve a
m integer index Subscripts (for microscale) and superscripts (for macroscale)
N unit vector orthogonal to the boundary of the RAV
n non-wetting phase entity index e external
na outward normal vector on the boundary of entity a ori- i internal
ented to be positive outward. M megascale
ns index of interface between n and s phases m macroscale
Pa microscale property of entity a n non-wetting-phase qualifier
r microscale spatial coordinate (n) number of primes where the microscale dimensionality
r integration variable of the system is 3  n
R real space [n] number of back primes where the macroscale dimen-
R0 zero-dimensional real space sionality of the system is 3  n
R1 one-dimensional real space ns qualifier for interface formed by the intersection of the n
R2 two-dimensional real space and s phases
R3 three-dimensional real space s solid-phase qualifier
s solid phase entity index w wetting-phase qualifier
T indicator of an averaging theorem involving wn qualifier for interface formed by the intersection of w
a time derivative and n phases
t time wns qualifier for common curve formed where wn, ws, and ns
v velocity interfaces meet
 W.G. Gray, C.T. Miller / Advances in Water Resources 62 (2013) 227–237 229

8
ws qualifier for interface formed by the intersection of w $ macroscale divergence operator when one dimension
and s phases has been averaged to the megascale
$00 microscale gradient operator along a curve
Symbols $008  microscale divergence operator for a curve
$8 macroscale gradient operator when two dimensions

above a superscript refers to a density weighted macro- have been averaged to the megascale
8
scale average $ 8 macroscale divergence operator when two dimensions
⁄
excess contribution associated with a singularity have been averaged to the megascale
0 time derivative with all spatial coordinates fixed
vector tangent to a microscale surface @/@t
  
R R @ 0 /@t partial time derivative fixed to point on a surface of a
hfa iXb ;Xc ;W ¼ Xb Wfa dr Xc W dr , general average of a function dependent on microscale spatial coordinates
property associated with entity a and time
   @ 8 /@t partial time derivative fixed to point in two-dimen-
R R
hfa iXa ;Xa ¼ f a ¼ Xa fa dr Xa dr , macroscale volume aver- sional macroscale space
@ 00 /@t partial time derivative fixed to a point on a curve of a
age of a a phase (interface) property over the phase function dependent on microscale spatial coordinates
(interface) and time
  
R R @ 88 /@t partial time derivative fixed to point in one-dimensional
hfa iXa ;Xa ;qa ¼ f a ¼ Xa qa fa dr Xa qa dr , density weighted
macroscale space
macroscale average of a property of an entity over that
entity Abbreviations
Da/Dt microscale material derivative
Da =Dt macroscale material derivative RAV representative averaging volume for averaging from the
$ spatial gradient operator microscale to a representation that is a mix of macro-
$ spatial divergence operator scale and megascale dimensions
$0 microscale surficial gradient operator on a microscale REV representative elementary volume for averaging from
interface the microscale to the macroscale such that average val-
$08  microscale surface divergence vector ues are stable and independent of the averaging scale
$ macroscale gradient operator when one dimension has TCAT thermodynamically constrained averaging theory
been averaged to the megascale

equations essentially describe transport processes between points
associated with the centroid of an REV. The details of the small-
scale distribution of phases at the microscale, where phases are
juxtaposed with a well-defined interface between them, are lost
at the macroscale, where each phase occupies a fraction of the vol-
ume and the amount of interfacial area per volume is described.
Transport in and out of each ‘‘point’’ will depend on the distribu-
tion of the volumes or interfaces within the volume, but only the
effective behavior can be modeled. Whether the inflow to the vol-
ume and outflow from the volume occurs in a phase or on an inter-
face is immaterial. What distinguishes the behavior of phase and
interface properties is the adjacent entities (phases, interfaces,
common curves, and common points) with which these entities
interact.
Subsequently, additional averaging equations were presented
for common curves, the locations where interfaces come together
in three-phase systems [14], and some convenient theorems that
involve material derivatives were derived from the macroscopic
averaging theorems [20]. The set of possible averaging theorems
has been expanded further by the development of equations that
can be employed for systematic upscaling to the megascale and
to megascale and macroscale mixes [14]. The megascale refers to
the overall length scale of the entire domain. An average value of
a variable over the megascale is employed, but megascale averag-
ing precludes examination of the spatial dependence of the vari-
able in the megascale direction. The megascale–macroscale
theorems are useful, for example, in modeling a porous medium
system using reduced dimensionality, such as the macroscale var-
iation along the axis of a column with megascale averaging over
the column cross-section, or in an aquifer accounting for macro-
scale variability in the lateral dimensions of variables that are
megascopically averaged over the aquifer thickness. The full set
of useful theorems is quite large, but these theorems have the com-
mon attribute that they convert averages of derivatives of quanti-
ties to derivatives of average quantities plus some additional terms
that account for exchanges at the boundaries of entities and defor-
mation of the shapes of the entities. Application of the theorems to
microscale conservation and thermodynamic equations provides
differential equations in terms of larger length scales and larger
scale properties. These properties are averages over regions in
some subset of space that is common to all the entities. We note
further that whereas REV’s were developed to be minimal size vol-
umes that produced consistent average values of properties such
that full three-dimensional variability could be modeled, the use
of an averaging region that spans a full system dimension is not
an REV. Thus, we will refer to the averaging regions used by the
more general term representative averaging volume (RAV) to con-
note a domain used for upscaling.
The overall goals of the present work are both to extend existing
averaging theorems and to unify the formulation of averaging the-
orems. The averaging theorems will be extended to account for
contributions due to lower dimensional entities acting on the
boundary of an entity through idealization as a singularity. For
example, on the surface of a solid, a common curve is an idealiza-
tion of a portion of the surface to a region with zero width. The
force that can be applied at this ‘‘narrow’’ surface can be important
because this is a region where interfaces are acting on the solid.
Thus, the idealization of the width of the surface to a common
curve results in the possibility of the need to model processes
occurring on that surface as a singularity acting on the curve. This
idea can be understood analogously to modeling the force exerted
by a wire tightened around a solid as a line source acting on the so-
230 W.G. Gray, C.T. Miller / Advances in Water Resources 62 (2013) 227–237
lid. Similar reasoning indicates that point sources, located where
different common curves meet, may act on surfaces. In addition
to accounting for these effects in averaging theorems, we will unify
the notation employed to express the theorems, currently collected
as independent and different equations [14]. The unification of the
notation provides an opportunity for insightful study of the terms
that make up the theorems. Included in this study are averaging
theorems for common points, which do not seem to have appeared
previously.
2. Preliminary considerations
Some preliminary concepts underlie this work. These concepts
include representation of domains and boundaries, coordinate sys-
tems as a function of scale, and operators needed to transform
quantities among the length scales of consideration. These three
general areas of consideration are addressed in turn in the subsec-
tions that follow.
2.1. Domains and boundaries
The goal of unifying averaging theorems to a small set of gen-
eral and compact forms can be facilitated by the use of set theory
notation to represent collections of entities (i.e., phases, interfaces,
common curves, and common points) present in a domain and
their boundaries. A system composed of three phase entities, three
interface entities, and a common curve entity is depicted in Fig. 1,
and the figure caption explains some of the general notation dis-
cussed subsequently particularized to that system. We will con-
sider a domain X that consists of a set of phases EP , interfaces EI ,
common curves EC , and common points EPt with corresponding in-
dex sets IP ; II ; IC , and IPt . Thus the set of entities is
Fig. 1. Two-fluid-phase porous medium depicted at the microscale. The indices
fw; n; sg 2 IP designate the three phases which occupy the domains Xw, Xn, and Xs,
respectively. The interfaces between pairs of phases are denoted as
fwn; ws; nsg 2 II and occupy the domains Xwn, Xws, and Xns, respectively. Examples
of the unit normal vectors on the interfaces (nw, nn, and ns) that are oriented to be
positive outward from the phases with the corresponding subscript are depicted.
Also, unit vectors that are positive outward from and tangent to the interfaces at the
common curve are depicted (nwn, nws, and nns). The common curve domain is not
explicitly indicated, although it occupies the domain Xwns where the three interface
types meet with fwnsg 2 IC . No common points exist for the three-phase system.
Note that if the indicated sphere were used as an averaging volume, the total
boundary of, for example, phase s, Cs, would be composed of ws and ns interfaces
(as well as the common curve where the interfaces meet) and the portion of the
boundary of the sphere that intersects the s phase. The former comprises Csi while
the latter is Cse. Note, for example, that for interface wn; Icwn ¼ fw; n; wnsg with
Iþ 
cwn ¼ fw; ng and Icwn ¼ fwnsg.
E ¼ EP [ EI [ EC [ EPt , and the corresponding index set of entities
is I ¼ IP [ II [ IC [ IPt . Thus domain X contains entities from
E. If a 2 I, then the domain of entity a is denoted Xa. The bound-
ary of Xa is indicated as Ca. A closed domain, Xa , consists of a do-
main and its boundary such that Xa ¼ Xa [ Ca , where the entity
qualifier is a 2 I; Xa is the domain of entity a and Ca is the
boundary of this domain a. The boundary of a particular entity
can be either an external boundary located on the boundary of
the averaging region C or it may be an internal boundary resulting
from the distribution of entities within X. Thus the boundary of the
domain of an entity can be represented as Ca = Cai [ Cae, where i
denotes an internal boundary and e denotes an external boundary.
Interfaces are formed where two phases meet such that the a inter-
face has domain Xa ¼ Xb \ Xc  R2 where a 2 II and b; c 2 IP . In
a general mathematical sense, the intersection of two domains in
R3 can be third region that is a subset of R3 . However, because
the physical definition of phases precludes the situation where
they would overlap, the resulting intersection is in R2 . A similar
reduction in dimensionality generalizes for the other lower dimen-
sional entities. Common curves are formed at the juxtaposition of
three interfaces such that Xa ¼ Xb \ Xc \ Xd  R1 , where a 2 IC
and b; c; d 2 II . Similarly, common points are formed at the loca-
tions where four common curves meet such that
Xa ¼ Xb \ Xc \ Xd \ X  R0 , where a 2 IPt and b; c; d;  2 IC .
An entity b occupying Xb is said to be connected to an entity a
in Xa if Xa \ Xb – ;. The index set of all entities connected to an
entity that occupies domain Xa is defined as Ica . For a multiphase
system, phases can be connected to interfaces, interfaces can be
connected to both phases and common curves, common curves
can be connected to interfaces and common points, and common
points can be connected to common curves. To distinguish be-
tween connected entities of higher and lower dimension, such as
may occur for interfaces or common curves, we use the notation
Ica ¼ Iþ  þ
ca [ Ica , where Ica is the index set of entities connected
to Xa that are of a dimension greater than that of Xa and I ca is
the index set of entities connected to Xa with a dimension less
than that of Xa. Therefore, it follows that for an interface with do-
main Xa ; Ica \ IP ¼ Iþ 
ca and Ica \ IC ¼ Ica . Similarly for a com-
mon curve with domain Xa ; Ica \ II ¼ Iþ 
ca and Ica \ IPt ¼ Ica .
Thus it follows that the internal boundary of an entity
Cai ¼ [b2Ica Xb .
In some instances, macroscale averaging is performed in one or
two coordinate directions while megascale averaging is performed
in the remaining direction(s). Fig. 2 depicts three different averag-
ing region types that might be employed. When considering sys-
tems that involve a mix of macroscale and megascale
coordinates, it is necessary to distinguish between the portions
of the exterior boundary that are associated with the macroscale
and those portions that are associated with the megascale dimen-
sionality. For example, consider averaging to be done using a RAV
that is a vertical cylinder with a macroscale radius and a megascale
length such that the vertical coordinate is completely spanned, as
in Fig. 2b. This cylinder will be moved throughout the domain so
that average properties and equations can be obtained for all the
horizontal coordinates. The top and bottom of the cylinder that
intersect the study region are said to be associated with the mega-
scale, since these boundaries are at the ends of the megascale
dimension on C. The portion of the boundary orthogonal to the
two macroscale horizontal dimensions on C, the circular boundary
of the cylinder, is said to be associated with the macroscale dimen-
sions. This distinction is needed because of boundary terms that
arise in the averaging theorems when quantities in the domain
are averaged over a megascale dimension. Define the boundary
of the RAV as C = Cm [ CM, where Cm is the portion of the bound-
ary associated with a macroscale dimension and CM is the portion
of the boundary that is associated with a megascale dimension. The
 W.G. Gray, C.T. Miller / Advances in Water Resources 62 (2013) 227–237
Fig. 2. Averaging regions. (a) REV for change of scale based on theorems
A[i, (3, 0), 0]; (b) RAV for change of scale based on theorems A[i, (2, 0), 1] with K
tangent to the cylinder axis and N normal to the surface where the cylinder
intersects the boundary, CM; (c) RAV for change of scale based on theorems
A[i, (1, 0), 2] with L normal to the slab of integration and tangent to the macroscale
direction and N normal to the surface where the slab intersects the boundary, CM.
external boundary for an a entity in the megascale dimension is
thus defined as CaM = Cae \ CM.
Certain notions regarding coordinate systems for various enti-
ties and for mixed-scale systems are important and will be consid-
ered next.
2.2. Coordinate systems and differential operators
Three length scales are of concern in this work: the microscale,
the macroscale, and the megascale. At the microscale the detailed
geometries of phases, interfaces, common curves, and common
points are all considered to be identifiable. For a multiphase porous
medium system consisting of multiple fluid phases and a solid
phase, a microscale representation implies that a given domain
can be precisely divided into subdomains occupied by each of
the phases. Also at the microscale, the distribution of the phases,
the boundaries where two phases meet, the curves where three
interfaces meet, and the points where four common curves meet
are all identifiable. Because of the natural shapes of these entities
in porous medium systems, it is useful to consider a curvilinear
coordinate system at the microscale. The details of such a coordi-
nate system have been documented in the literature [14]. For clar-
ity, it is useful to review the essential details of a curvilinear
microscale coordinate system needed to understand the theorems
of concern in this work.
Consider a microscale interface, a, with a 2 II in a general cur-
vilinear coordinate system. Let’s denote the domain of the interface
as Xa and note that this interface forms where two phases, b, meet
where b 2 Iþ ca . On the interior of a domain consisting of multiple
phases, the boundary of Xa, Cai, is a common curve j, where
j 2 Ica , with domain Xj. This boundary is formed where inter-
faces that separate three different phases come together to form
a common curve. It may also be convenient to visualize a common
curve as a locus where three immiscible phases meet. The bound-
ary of an interface can be comprised of common curves of different
constitution, corresponding to the two phases meeting different
third phases at various locations on Cai. Such a situation requires
that the system be composed of four or more phases, as a three-
231
phase system has only one type of common curve. This description
of the internal geometry of the system is adequate to identify the
microscale coordinates of interest.
A key concept is the set of microscale unit normal vectors
whose orientations change with location in a curvilinear coordi-
nate system. The unit vector outward normal from the boundary
of a phase a 2 IP is denoted na. In porous medium systems, the
boundary of a phase is curved. For example, a solid particle has a
curved boundary, and the interface between two fluids exhibiting
interfacial tension is a curved boundary shared by each of the fluid
phases. Therefore, the typical case is that na changes in direction as
a function of location on the boundary of the a phase.
An interface a with a 2 II is a curvilinear two-dimensional en-
tity. For example, this interface could be the boundary of a solid
particle or the meniscus between two fluids in a capillary tube.
Consider the capillary tube example where the interface meets
the solid-phase tube. The unit normal vector tangent to the a inter-
face at the common curve boundary and oriented positive outward
from the interface is denoted na. Note that it is important to under-
stand the entity type specified by the subscript index in order to
understand precisely the meaning of the normal vector specified.
Two additional microscale unit vectors are also of concern for
describing entity geometry. The unit vector oriented tangent to a
common curve a 2 IC that forms at least part of the boundary of
a j interface such that a 2 I cj is denoted la. The unit vector ori-
ented outward from the end of an open common curve a 2 IC is
denoted na. Thus all microscale unit vectors n correspond to vec-
tors that are oriented outward from a boundary of an entity, which
can be a phase, interface, or common curve. These unit vectors are
useful for describing fluxes at entity boundaries.
The restriction of differential operators is a second concept that
is needed to understand microscale transport phenomena in a cur-
vilinear coordinate system. For an a phase, which occupies a vol-
ume, the gradient and divergence operators, $ and $
respectively, can be applied to properties of the phase. The partial
time derivative is defined in terms of the material derivative and
the gradient operator as
@ Da
¼  v a  $; ð1Þ
@t Dt
where Da/Dt is the time rate of change observed when moving at
the microscale velocity of the phase, va, which can vary with space
and time. $ is a general three-dimensional spatial gradient opera-
tor, where a general curvilinear coordinate system is assumed at
the microscale [14].
Next, consider interface a 2 II as defined above. This interface
exists within a three-dimensional system, however the domain
of the a entity itself is two-dimensional. Therefore when assessing
the spatial change of a quantity on the interface, only the two coor-
dinates lying on the interface are needed. As a consequence the $
operator restricted to the a interface is denoted
$0 ¼ $  nj nj  $ ¼ ðI  nj nj Þ  $ for r 2 Xa ; a 2 II ; j
2 Iþca ; ð2Þ
where I is the unit tensor. The index j can be the index of either
phase that meets to form interface a.
Similarly, the partial time derivative of a quantity on an inter-
face only has meaning if the point in question remains on the inter-
face. Since an interface may be moving in three-dimensional space,
the partial time derivative on an interface must account for move-
ment of the interface in the direction normal to the interface, lead-
ing to the definition of the partial time derivative restricted to an
interface a given by
@ 0 Da
¼  v a  $0 for r 2 Xa ; a 2 II : ð3Þ
@t Dt
232 W.G. Gray, C.T. Miller / Advances in Water Resources 62 (2013) 227–237

By subtracting the term accounting for movement within the inter- lows the mass at the averaged velocity. This form restricts the
face from the material derivative, we restrict the partial derivative partial time derivative to being fixed at a point on the region that
such that it is a measure of a rate of change at a point on the inter- has two spatial variables since integration was performed over
face that may move in space. the third dimension.
A similar need for restricted differential operators applies for Mixed-scale systems consisting of one macroscale dimension
the case of common curves. Because a common curve is a one- and two megascale dimensions are also of interest. For this case,
dimensional entity, the spatial operator acting on a property of averaging over the entire domain is accomplished in two spatial
the common curve involves a spatial derivative along the curve. dimensions, which are everywhere orthogonal to the one macro-
Thus, rather than making use of the three-dimensional $ operator, scale dimension. The macroscale dimension may be curvilinear,
a spatial operator must be employed that considers change with subject to a small curvature assumption, and the cross-sectional
respect to the one curvilinear dimension oriented along the com- area of the megascale dimensions may vary in shape and magni-
mon curve. The restricted $ operator on the a common curve is tude with respect to the macroscale coordinate. The unit vector
thus defined as in the macroscale dimension is denoted L, and the unit normal vec-
tor directed outward from the domain is denoted N. Because the
$00 ¼ la la  $ for r 2 Xa ; a 2 IC ; ð4Þ megascale dimensions are integrated over and not resolved, the
where la is a unit vector tangent to the common curve. The partial $ operator must be restricted to the macroscale dimension alone
time derivative restricted to the common curve is taken while hold- giving
ing the coordinate along the curve constant but allowing movement 8
$ 8 ¼ LL  $: ð8Þ
in directions orthogonal to the common curve with the curve so
that the point of interest remains on the curve. This derivative is Analogously with the case of a single megascale dimension, the
stated as temporal derivative restricted to a macroscale position in the do-
main that may be moving in the megascale dimensions is defined as
@ 00 Da
¼  v a  $00 for r 2 Xa ; a 2 IC ; ð5Þ
@t Dt @ 8 Da
8
8
¼  va  $ 8 : ð9Þ
where va is the velocity of material along the common curve. @t Dt
Some additional considerations are necessary to understand 8
The dot product of v a with $ 8 means that only the macroscale
mixed-scale systems consisting of a combination of macroscale velocity component along the common curve is employed and the
and megascale dimensions. Megascale averaging is over the full ex- gradient is along the macroscale dimension. Thus, this representa-
tent of a system. Spatial megascale averaging may be performed tion considers a point fixed in the macroscale dimension of a do-
over the full space a system occupies or over only one or two of main that may itself move through space.
the spatial dimensions. In a direction of megascale averaging, spatial Systems in which all spatial dimensions are megascale do not
variability is not resolved and spatial derivatives of properties in the require restricted spatial operators, since variability within the do-
megascale dimensions are unresolved quantities. Megascale aver- main is not resolved. For consistency, however, the time derivative
aging can also be employed over the time domain, which leads to will be denoted as @ 88 8 /@t with the three backprimes used to
descriptions of the system only at the beginning and end of the emphasize that this is a time derivative taken with variability in
interval. Megascale temporal averaging will not be considered here. all three spatial dimensions unaccounted for.
When a microscale quantity is upscaled to two macroscale dimen-
sions and one linear megascale dimension, the averaging region is
2.3. Averaging operator
taken to be a column with uniform cross-section, such as a cylinder,
with the longitudinal axis aligned with the megascale dimension
An averaging operator can be introduced to condense and gen-
and the unit vector in this dimension denoted K. Macroscale averag-
eralize the representation of mathematical operations needed to
ing is performed over the dimensions orthogonal to the cylinder
transform integrals of differential operators to differentials of inte-
axis. If one were interested in megascale averaging over one dimen-
gral quantities. Such operations are needed to upscale quantities
sion while retaining a microscopic description in the other direc-
appearing in conservation and balance equations from the micro-
tions, the averaging domain would be a cylinder with a radius of
scale to a larger scale. These averages are computed by the ratio
zero, a straight line. Because quantities are averaged over the entire
of integral quantities, which can be expressed using averaging
domain in the megascale dimension, the $ operator that survives in
operator notation defined by
resultant equations is restricted to account for spatial variability
only in the two macroscale dimensions giving rise to the macroscale
8 R WP dr
>
> Rj
X
a
for dim Xj > 0; dim Xb > 0;
spatial operator in those dimensions defined as >
>
>
>
W dr
>
> X
Xb
8 >
>
$ ¼ $  KK  $ ¼ ðI  KKÞ  $: ð6Þ >
> Pari W
>
>
< ri 2RXj
Note that when this operator is applied to a variable that has been for dim Xj ¼ 0; dim Xb > 0;
hPa iXj ;Xb ;W ¼ W dr ð10Þ
averaged to the macro–megascale form, the difference between $ >X
>
Xb
>
>
8
and $ is unimportant because KK  $ operating on this variable will >
> Pari W
>
>
>
> ri 2Xj
be zero. Nevertheless, it is convenient to retain the notational differ- > X
> for dim Xj ¼ 0; dim Xb ¼ 0;
>
> W
ence for emphasis. :
ri 2Xb
Similarly, the temporal derivative restricted to a position on the
potentially moving and curvilinear megascale dimension is de- where Pa is a microscale property of entity a to be averaged, and W
noted as is a weighting function that is equal to unity if not specified. When
Xb = X the averaged quantity is normalized by an integral over the
Da
8
@ 8
¼  va  $ ; ð7Þ entire REV. When dim Xj = 0 the domain consists of a set of com-
@t Dt
mon points located at ri. For this case the averaging operator corre-
where v a is the velocity vector that has been averaged to the mac- sponds to a summation over the set of points located at ri that
roscale. The material derivative in this expression is one that fol- comprise Xj. Cases will arise in which the point form is used to
 W.G. Gray, C.T. Miller / Advances in Water Resources 62 (2013) 227–237 233

Z Z X Z
denote a boundary of a common curve. Because a quantity must be
$  f a dr ¼ $  f a dr þ na  f a for a 2 IP : ð12Þ
defined in the space over which it is averaged, Pa is typically inte- Xa Xa j2Ica Xk
grated over Xa or the domains that form parts of the boundary of
entity a. Normalization of all terms in Eq. (12) by the volume of the RAV X,
allows Eq. (12) to be written in averaging operator form as
X
3. Averaging theorem notation h$  f a iXa ;X ¼ $  hf a iXa ;X þ hna  f a iXj ;X for a 2 IP : ð13Þ
j2Ica
Upscaling of conservation and balance equations from the
The form of this common theorem (e.g., as in [24] and subse-
microscale to some combination of macroscale and megascale rep- quent uses of the spatial divergence averaging theorem) relates
resentations for curl, divergence, gradient, and temporal derivative
the average of a divergence to the divergence of an average plus
operators leads to a large set of potential averaging theorems. Gray a term accounting for boundary effects.
et al. [14] introduced a notation to identify members of this set of
Next consider the divergence on an interface at the microscale.
theorems and detailed a generalized function approach for deriv- According to the naming convention the theorem of interest is
ing these theorems. Others have investigated various approaches
D[2, (3, 0), 0], which is written as
for deriving small subsets of these theorems, resulting in common Z Z Z
forms for identical members of the set. Because a comprehensive $0  f a dr ¼ $  0
f a dr þ ð$0  nb Þnb  f a dr
notation exists, we briefly summarize this notation for complete- Xa Xa Xa
ness of exposition. The general notation is A[i, (j, k), m]. A is a Ro- X Z
man symbol that denotes the type of theorem, where C þ na  f a dr for a
j2Ica Xj
represents a curl, D a divergence, G a gradient, and T a transport
theorem. The symbols i, j, k, and m are integers that are divided 2 JI ; b 2 Iþca : ð14Þ
into three groups that correspond to the scales of concern in order
Normalizing all terms by the volume of the REV allows this equa-
of microscale, macroscale, and megascale.
tion to be rewritten in operator notation
The index i represents the number of microscale dimensions. X
0
When i = 3 the microscale representation is for a spatial differential h$0  f a iXa ;X ¼ $  hf a iXa ;X þ hð$0  nb Þnb  f a iXa ;X þ hna
operator or a partial time derivative in three-dimensional space. j2Ica
When i = 2 the theorem involves a differential operator restricted  f a i Xj ;X for a
to an interface. When i = 1, the theorem involves a differential
operator restricted to a common curve entity. When i = 0, the 2 JI ; b 2 Iþca ; ð15Þ
microscale differential is for a common point. Common point the- 0
where f a ¼ ðI  nb nb Þ  f a is a vector consisting of the components of
orems were not included in the work of Gray et al. [14]. fa that are tangent to the interface, and $0 ¼ ðI  nb nb Þ  $.
The indices (j, k) represent the macroscale dimensionality of the Comparing Eqs. (13) and (15) reveals some differences. The
theorem. Since a macroscale representation can be either a differ- divergence of the microscale vector for the interface is restricted
ential of a macroscale quantity or an integral quantity on the to lie on the interface. This is because at the microscale the domain
boundary of the domain, two indices are needed. The convention is two-dimensional in nature, thus the divergence is two dimen-
is that j + k represents the number of macroscale dimensions and sional as well. In Eq. (15), the macroscale divergence operator acts
the product jk = 0, which implies that either a differential (when on a macroscale vector that is the average of only the microscale
k = 0) or a boundary representation (when j = 0) is used. components of the vector that are tangent to the surface. The
The index m represents the number of megascale dimensions. boundary term applies to the set of common curves that form
Dimensions that are treated at the megascale are integrated over the boundary of the interface, and only the connected entities from
the entire length of the domain in that dimension and spatial var- the set of lower dimensional entities comprise this boundary. The
iability in that megascale dimension is not resolved. Fluxes enter second term on the right side of Eq. (15) does not seem to corre-
and leave a megascale dimension over a boundary of the domain. spond directly to any term in Eq. (13). This terms accounts for con-
Mixed dimensionality systems have some dimensions resolved at tributions to the divergence due to the curvature of the interface
the macroscale and other dimensions resolved at the megascale. when the vector has a normal component.
For such cases, a macroscale point implies an average over the Many other differential operator-scale combinations exist.
megascale dimension(s). These theorems can be extended to account for common points,
additional contributions that are typically neglected can be in-
3.1. Examples of traditional forms cluded, and families of theorems can be put into a common con-
densed form that encompasses each member of the set of
To fix ideas on this naming convention, consider the common theorems. These three topics are discussed in turn in the sections
case of D[3, (3, 0), 0], which is a macroscale divergence theorem that follow, first considering common points.
that is traditionally represented in integral form as
Z Z Z
4. Common point theorem
$  f a dr ¼ $  f a dr þ na  f a dr for a 2 IP : ð11Þ
Xa Xa Cai
Multiphase porous medium systems that have four or more
Although X is independent of time and space, the domain Xa and phases can contain common points. The definition of a common
the boundary Cai may both depend on time and position because point is the location at which four phases meet. A porous medium
the a phase will be distributed differently within the averaging vol- system consisting of a water phase, an immiscible liquid phase, a
ume with its centroid at different spatial locations. While only a sin- gas phase, and a solid phase is an example of a relevant environ-
gle integral is shown for simplicity of notation, the integration is mental system that admits common point entities. If continuum
performed over a number of dimensions that is consistent with models are to be formulated at the scales above the microscale
the dimensionality of Xa, where r is a general spatial variable of for systems that admit common points, the set of theorems repre-
integration. Because Cai consists of interfaces in the connected en- senting the behavior of properties of collections of common points
tity set, Eq. (11) is typically re-expressed as will be needed to produce high-fidelity closed models that account
234 W.G. Gray, C.T. Miller / Advances in Water Resources 62 (2013) 227–237
for transport phenomena affected by all possible entities. The pur-
pose of this section is to consider the [0, (3, 0), 0] family of com-
mon-point theorems, which can be used to advance models
containing four or more phases.
The situation with common points differs from the other types
of entities that form in multiphase systems in two significant re-
gards. First, while averaging theorems for other entities involve
integration over the domain, collective common point properties
reduce to a summation, as was formulated in Subsection 2.3. Sec-
ond, the R0 dimensionality of a set of common points means that
spatial differential operations are not defined at the microscale.
This can be viewed as a natural consequence of the dimensional
restriction of spatial operators. For example, phase properties man-
ifest three-dimensional spatial variability, interfaces two-dimen-
sional spatial variability, and common curves one-dimensional
spatial variability. It follows then that a specific common point
can have properties, such as excess mass, momentum, energy, or
entropy, but these points cannot have spatial differential proper-
ties at the microscale. Correspondingly, a general conservation
principle at the microscale is void of spatial differential operators,
and consists of accumulation, body force, and generation contribu-
tions. As a consequence of the fact that spatial differential opera-
tors are undefined at the microscale, it follows that averaging
theorems for microscale spatial differential operators are similarly
undefined. Macroscale spatial operator theorems are unnecessary
for the formulation of macroscale and megascale models of com-
mon point dynamics.
The situation regarding the temporal derivative is different.
Clearly, a property of a common point, or a collection of common
points, can change with time as properties such as composition,
mass, or temperature of the point vary. These properties change
due to exchanges that occur to and from the end points of the four
common curves that meet to form a common point. Such changes
are manifest in the accumulation term that is written for a micro-
scale conservation equation. If macroscale or megascale models are
desired for properties of common points in a system, it is necessary
to upscale the microscale temporal derivative term. A theorem to
accomplish this upscaling can be derived by extending previously
developed generalized functions approaches [14] to yield transport
theorem T[0, (3, 0), 0] given by
! !
X @ 000 fa  X X
 ¼ @ fa jri þ$ ðv a fa Þjri
r 2X
@t ri @t ri 2Xa ri 2Xa
i a
2 IPt ;
and ri are the locations of common points within X. This equation
can be normalized with respect to the volume of the RAV in which
the points exist. Then, with reference to the definitions of averages
given in Eq. (10), the normalized theorem is
 000 
@ fa @ elastic band exerting a force on a solid it is wrapped around. This
¼ hfa iXa ;X þ $  hv a fa iXa ;X for a 2 IPt :
@t Xa ;X @t
5. Extended averaging theorems
Traditionally, averaging approaches have been applied to up-
scale porous medium equations from the microscale to the macro-
scale considering only volume entities. However, it is now
recognized that other entities, such as interfaces, common curves,
and common points, play an important role in porous medium
dynamics. Consider the case of two-fluid-phase flow through a
porous medium. While it is common knowledge that capillary
forces are important, these forces occur at interfaces. It follows
then that if interfaces are not explicitly included in the formula-
tion, capillary effects can only be included implicitly through
parameterization of closure relations. At best this approach ob-
scures the connection between the microscale and the macroscale;
at worst it hinders an appropriate representation of the operative
physics.
An interface, the idealization of the location where two
immiscible phases meet, is the shared boundary between the
phases. Properties resulting from molecular interactions make a
transition along a path from the interior of one phase across
the boundary and into another phase. Specifically including inter-
face entities provides a means to account for excess mass,
momentum, and energy that occurs as a result of this transition.
For example, interfaces exhibit tension and curvature as a result
of molecular forces, and these properties can be measured exper-
imentally; surfactant molecules accumulate at interfaces between
phases. A similar situation exists for common curves that form
where three phases meet and for common points where four
phases meet.
Explicit, high-fidelity representation of the operative physics re-
quires a proper representation of the effects of interfaces, common
curves, and common points. The goal of an improved representa-
tion of the physics of multiphase systems can be advanced by
including additional interactions not embodied in extant theorems.
Let us consider the case conceptually first, and then mathemati-
cally through modifications to the form of theorems used for
change-of-scale operations.
Consider a two-fluid-phase porous medium system comprised of
a wetting fluid phase denoted w, a non-wetting fluid phase denoted
n, and a solid phase denoted s. Including all possible entities results
in an explicitly listed index set, I ¼ fw; n; s; wn; ws; ns; wnsg, con-
sisting of indexes corresponding to the three phases, three inter-
faces, and the common curve that can form in such a system. Now
consider the situation that exists on the surface of the solid
Csi ¼ [j2Ics Xj , which denotes that the internal boundary of the solid
phase consists of the union of the ws and ns interfaces. Internal
boundaries occur in traditional theorems and provide a means to ac-
count for the transfer of physical quantities among entities. How-
ever, the real physical situation is somewhat more complicated
than this example suggests.
Because in this example system the surface of a solid can be in
contact with one of two fluids, two different interfaces exist on the
solid surface. As an example, forces can act normal to the surface of
for a the solid within these interfaces. Because the properties of the flu-
ids are different, the normal forces will be different for the two dif-
ferent types of interfaces. Thus if one moves along the surface of
ð16Þ
the solid from one type of interface to the other type of interface
a transition in the normal force may occur in the vicinity of the
boundary between the ws and ns interfaces, which is also the
wns common curve. The region in the vicinity of the common curve
may affect the surface of the solid, for example by exerting a nor-
mal force on the solid. As an analogous case, one can consider an
ð17Þ
elastic band exerts a force on the surface that can be modeled
approximately as a singularity acting on a curve around the solid
rather than a surface force on a region with a narrow width. The
normal components of physical phenomena acting on common
curves on phase boundaries are not accounted for in existing the-
orems. While these effects are small in most cases, this is not uni-
versally the case. For example, this force is important in assuring
equilibrium of forces normal to a solid surface at the location of
a common curve (The balance of forces in the tangential direction
is Young’s equation supplemented by the common curve effects).
Change of scale theorems can be amended to account for these sin-
gularities to provide a higher fidelity representation of the opera-
tive dynamics.
Let us examine the situation mathematically. Consider the clas-
sical spatial averaging theorem, expressed as
 W.G. Gray, C.T. Miller / Advances in Water Resources 62 (2013) 227–237 235

Z Z Z
Existing forms of the transport theorem implicitly assume that this
$ } f a dr ¼ $ } f a dr þ na } f a dr for a 2 IP ; ð18Þ
Xa Xa Cai common curve contribution to phase behavior is negligible.

where } is a general product operator, which can be a cross prod-

6. General microscale–macroscale averaging theorems
uct, a dot product, a gradient product, or a dyadic product. This the-
orem is of the general form A[3, (3, 0), 0], where A denotes the
Theorems used to convert integrals of differential operators to
appropriate spatial operator and the transformation is from three
derivatives of integral quantities can be derived in a variety of
microscale to three macroscale dimensions. In this equation, Xa is
ways and exist for combinations consisting of different differential
the domain occupied by a phase, and Cai is the internal boundary
operators, different microscale entities, and different combinations
of the phase. For example, for a system composed of a single fluid
of macroscale and megascale forms of the averaged operators.
and a solid, Xa would be the volume in the RAV occupied by one
Combinatorics considerations suggest that many possible combi-
of the phases and Cai would be the boundary of that phase, the
nations of the above variables exist, which in turn leads to a large
fluid–solid interface. For a two-fluid porous medium system com-
number of possible theorems. Indeed many of these theorems have
posed of a wetting fluid, w, a non-wetting fluid, n, and a solid, s, if
been published [14]. A particularly useful subset of these theorems
a = w then Xa is the volume occupied by the wetting phase, Cwi
is the general class of [3  n, (3, 0), 0] theorems, where 0  n  3.
is the boundary of that phase. Typically, Cwi is accounted for as
When n = 0 the theorem applies to a phase; when n = 1 the theo-
the union of the ws and wn interfaces. However, at the location
rem applies on an interface; when n = 2 the theorem is for common
where Cwi changes from ws to wn, an abrupt change in properties
curve; and when n = 3 the theorem is concerned with a common
can occur, and an additional contribution can act at this location.
point. These theorems convert an average of a differential operator
This location is a common curve, wns, where the three phases meet.
at the microscale for a phase, interface, common curve, or common
Thus, a transition in properties occurs in the vicinity of a common
point entity to a differential operator applied to a macroscale quan-
curve, and an excess contribution can be idealized as a singularity
tity plus boundary terms. For the case of curl, divergence, gradient,
acting along the curve. Thus, the integral over Cai can only be ex-
and transport theorems, this family consists of 13 theorems, where
pressed in terms of an integration over the interfaces that constitute
only the transport theorem is defined for the common point entity.
Cai if the additional contribution that acts at the common curve is
These theorems are used routinely to derive macroscale models
accounted for. Thus, the general re-expression of Eq. (18) is
(e.g., [12,13,17,21]). The 9 spatial differential operator theorems,
Z Z X Z S[3  n, (3, 0), 0], can be written in condensed form
$ } f a dr ¼ $ } f a dr þ na } f a dr  D
 E
Xa Xa j2Ica Xj h$ðnÞ } f a iXa ;X ¼ $  IðnÞ
a } f a Xa ;X  $ðnÞ  IðnÞ } fa
X X Z
a
Xa ;X
þ

na } f a dr for a 2 IP : ð19Þ X
 Xj
þ hna } f a iXj ;X
b2I
ca j2Icb j2Ica
X X 
In this equation, I
is the set of interfaces that form the internal
ca þ na } f a Xj ;X
: ð22Þ
boundary of the phase a; I cb is the set of common curves that
b2I 
ca j2Icb

are on the boundary, and f a is the excess contribution singularity
The four temporal differential operator theorems, T[3  n, (3, 0), 0],
associated with the common curve. The presence of a singularity
are written as
can also occur at a common point on a surface of a phase, but this * +
is not included in the present formulation. Note that when there @ ðnÞ fa @ 

is no singularity at the common curve, even when the properties ¼ hfa iXa ;X þ $  I  IðnÞ a  v a fa Xa ;X
@t @t
of fa change significantly at the transition between the two inter- Xa ;X
D
 E X
faces, the last term on the right side of Eq. (19) is negligible. This þ $ðnÞ  IðnÞ  v a fa  hna
a
condition is implicitly presumed to be the case in traditional forms Xa ;X
j2Ica
of the averaging theorems. Division of Eq. (19) by the volume of the X X
 v j fa iXj ;X  na  v j fa Xj ;X
: ð23Þ
averaging region allows the equation to be written in terms of aver- b2I j2Icb
ca
aging operators as
X These equations apply for a 2 I and integer n with 1  n  3 for the
h$ } f a iXa ;X ¼ $ } hf a iXa ;X þ hna } f a iXj ;X spatial theorems, and 0  n  3 for the temporal theorems. The (n)
j2Ica
X X notation denotes the number of primes, 0 , applied at the microscale.

þ na } f a Xj ;X
for a 2 IP : ð20Þ Recall that a single prime restricts the operator to an interface, a
b2I
ca j2Icb double prime restricts the operator to a common curve, and a triple
prime restricts an operator to common points, for which the spatial
Just as the normal components of a common curve can affect
differential operators are not defined. Thus, the restricted identity
transport phenomena on a phase boundary for change of scale the-
tensors are defined as
orems involving spatial differential operators, a similar situation
arises for averaging theorems that involve temporal derivatives, Ið0Þ
a ¼ I for a 2 IP ; ð24Þ
which are typically referred to as transport theorems. The resultant ð1Þ 0
Ia ¼ Ia ¼ I  nb nb for a 2 II ; b 2 Iþca ; ð25Þ
form of the transport theorem given by T[3, (3, 0), 0] and expressed
in averaging operator notation is Ið2Þ 00
a ¼ Ia ¼ la la for a 2 IC ; ð26Þ
  X
ð3Þ 000
Ia ¼ Ia ¼ 0 for a 2 IPt : ð27Þ
@fa @
¼ hfa iXa ;X  hna  v j fa iXj ;X
@t Xa ;X @t j2Ica The spatial differential operators are
X X
 na  v j fa Xj ;X for a 2 IP : ð21Þ $ð0Þ ¼ $; ð28Þ

b2I
ca j2Icb ð1Þ 0 0
$ ¼ $ ¼ Ia  $ for a 2 II ; ð29Þ
As was the case for the spatial theorems, a new term that is not listed $ ð2Þ 00 00
¼ $ ¼ Ia  $ for a 2 IC ; ð30Þ
in currently used forms of T[3, (3, 0), 0] accounts for the normal con-
tribution of a scalar singularity acting along the common curve. $ð3Þ ¼ $000 ¼ I000a  $ ¼ 0 for a 2 IPt : ð31Þ
236 W.G. Gray, C.T. Miller / Advances in Water Resources 62 (2013) 227–237
7. General mixed-scaling averaging theorems
A general representation of averaging theorems that transform
integrals of differential operators applied to microscale quantities
to differential operators applied to macroscale quantities was pro-
vided in Section 6. The set of 13 theorems was reduced to a single
spatial derivative form and a single temporal derivative form,
which illustrated the commonality of these theorems. Further gen-
eralization of the averaging theorems is possible.
A common extension of interest for the averaging theorems is
the case in which an integral of a differential microscale property
is expressed as some combination of differential operators applied
to macroscale quantities and conditions applied to boundaries at
the megascale. We will refer to this set of theorems as the general
mixed-scale averaging theorems. This set of theorems includes 52
common instances that we wish to represent for the curl, diver-
gence, gradient, and time derivative of microscale entities. The
entities include phases, interfaces, common curves, and common
points, and the domains and boundaries of these entities appear
in the theorems. The general situation for these theorems is that
a microscale property for an entity of zero to three spatial dimen-
sions is averaged to three larger scale dimensions, which may be
any combination of macroscale and megascale dimensions.
Several examples of the use of the mixed-scale theorems are
available. A mixed-scale model containing one megascale dimen-
sion and two macroscale dimensions was developed to represent
the transition of multiphase systems to a single-fluid-phase system
[18]. Another example porous medium application of this general
class of mixed-scale theorems is the megascale representation of
single-fluid-phase flow in porous medium systems [13]. The theo-
rems for one macroscale and two megascale dimensions have been
applied for stream flow analysis [8]. Many other potential applica-
tions exist.
The general set of mixed-scale theorems can be represented
with the scale qualifier [3  n, (3  m, 0), m], where m and n are
integers such that 0  n  3 and 0  m  3. The qualifier for the
type of theorem can be any of the spatial differential operators
or the temporal derivative with the proviso that spatial differential
operators are not defined for common point entities. The general
microscale–macroscale theorems presented in Section 6 form a
subset of this general set of theorems that arises when m = 0. The
general mixed-scale spatial operator theorems,
A[3  n, (3  m, 0), m], can be written as
 from his teaching, insights, enthusiasm for careful derivations,
h$ðnÞ } f a iXa ;Xma ¼ $½m  IðnÞ
a } f a Xa ;Xma
where Xma is the macroscale coordinates of X, (n) denotes the num-
ber of primes, 0 , applied at the microscale, [m] denotes the number
of primes, 8 , applied at the macroscale, and the restricted megascale
identity tensors are defined as
I½0 ¼ I; ð34Þ
½1 8
I ¼ I ¼ I  KK; ð35Þ
I½2 8 8
a ¼ I ¼ LL; and ð36Þ
½3 8 88
Ia ¼ I ¼ 0: ð37Þ
These identity tensors do not have phase qualifiers because they are
used in denoting the mix of macroscale and megascale coordinates,
a mix that applies to all entities considered.
8. Conclusions
We have examined the traditional volume averaging theorems
for phases, as well as more recent theorems for interfaces, common
curves, and systems of reduced dimensionality. We have devel-
oped a transport theorem for common points. We have shown that
these theorems are related and can be expressed using a universal
notation. Building on the many contributions of Steven Whitaker
to averaging theory, our results include.
 the transport theorem for common points;
 facilitation of the inclusion of normal contributions acting along
entities of reduced dimensionality by idealizing these contribu-
tions as singularities on boundaries where multiple entities
meet and incorporating these terms into the averaging theo-
rems to more precisely resolve the operative physics;
 elucidation of the extended averaging theorems for phases,
interfaces, common curves, and common points; and
 development of a notation that allows averaging theorems for
different entities and for systems of reduced dimensionality to
be expressed in a common, condensed form making clear the
contributions of the various terms that appear in the equations.
Acknowledgments
The authors congratulate Steven Whitaker on his milestone
birthday. We have benefited both personally and professionally
and recognition of the importance to assess continually and cri-
D 
E
tique accepted wisdom. We hope that his reflection on the many
 $ðnÞ  I  IðnÞ
a } fa
Xa ;Xma people he has educated and inspired has overwhelmed his despair
X
þ hna } f a iXj ;Xma of 45 years ago. This work was supported by National Science
j2Ica Foundation Grant 0941235 and Department of Energy Grant DE-
X X  SC0002163.
þ na } f a Xj ;Xma
þ ðI  I½m Þ
b2I
ca j2Icb
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 hN } f a iCaM ;Xma : ð32Þ
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