NOTA STUDENT Buku SAB4943 Mod3

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SKAB4943: SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
1. INTRODUCTION
What is solid waste?

"Waste that is other than emission or effluent, and is regarded as inevitable by-product due to human activities,
generated at a rate and discarded after used when no longer needed by the generator”
Solid waste defined by Christensen (1998):

"Waste is a residual, a used-up product, or material of
marginal or negative value for the owner that the
owner wishes to get rid of”
1.1 Type of Solid Wastes

o Municipal wastes
o Industrial wastes
o Hazardous wastes
o Agricultural wastes
1.1.1 Municipal Wastes

o Food wastes
o Rubbish
o Ashes and residues
o Demolition and construction wastes
o Special wastes
o Treatment plant wastes
1.1.2 Industrial Wastes

Wastes arising from industrial activities, some wastes could be hazardous, include:
o Rubbish
o Ashes
o Demolition and construction wastes
1.1.3 Hazardous Wastes

o Pose a substantial danger immediately or period of time to human, plant, or animal life
o It exhibits any of the following: (ignitability; corrosivity; reactivity; toxicity)
o Can be categorized as: radioactive, chemical, biological, flammable and explosive wastes
1.1.4 Agricultural Wastes

Waste that include:
o Food processing wastes
o Plant residues
o Animal wastes
o Pesticide, herbicide, which is
hazardous
1.2 Sources of Solid Wastes

It is basic to engineering management of
wastes:
o Knowledge of the sources and
types of the wastes
o Besides data on composition and
wastes generation rates
Examples:
o Residential area – family dwellings
o Commercial area – markets, offices, shops, etc
o Open area – roadside, parks, playgrounds, etc
o Water and wastewater treatment plant sites
o Industrial activities
o Construction areas
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1.3 Properties and Characteristics of Solid Wastes

Information on the waste characteristics is important in evaluating alternative and proper waste management:
o Equipment needed
o Treatment systems
o Management plans – disposal, resources, recovery, energy recovery options, etc
1.4 Physical components of solid wastes include:

o Individual component
o Analysis of particle size
o Moisture content
o Density
1.4.1 Individual Component

Composition of MSW
o Reflects affluence of society
o The way of life
o Economic status
o Social behavior
1.4.2 Analysis of Particle Size

o Size of waste components influenced effectiveness of materials recovery. For an example; the use of
mechanical separation techniques (trommel screens and magnetic separators) can effectively sort the particle size
o For organic materials; size is important with respect to biological treatment, where smaller particles are
required.
o Reduction in particle size increases the rate of biological transformation and degradation of materials
o Shredding employed to reduce particle size
1.4.3 Moisture Content
o Is important when waste is to be composted or digested anaerobically in sanitary landfill.
o For effective composting and digestion, optimum moisture content is required.
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Moisture content is expressed as:

“mass of moisture per unit mass of wet or
dry material”
Moisture content (%) = (a-b) 100/b
where;
a – initial mass of sample as delivered
b – mass of sample after drying
1.4.4 Density
o Knowledge of density required determining waste compacted volume.
o Used for calculating volume of landfill space requirement
o Compacted volume needed to determine collection vehicle capacity
o Density is expressed on an as-compacted or as-discarded basis. Ratio between as-compacted density c to as-
discarded density d called compaction ratio, r, or:
r = c /  d
The as-discarded density of the waste sample is

calculated as:
Density = 100kg / 0.872 m3
= 114.68 kg/m3
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1.5 Chemical Composition

o Important in evaluating alternative processing and energy recovery options.
▪ Energy content or fuel value of waste is the amount of heat that will be released when wastes are combusted
▪ Calorific value of wastes decreased with increased in moisture content - if incineration is used, auxiliary fuel
is required.
o Potential of waste as fuel alternative is evaluated using proximate analysis and chemical properties.
▪ Proximate analysis - moisture, volatile matter, ash (residue after burning) and fixed carbon (remainder)
▪ Fusing point of ash
▪ Ultimate analysis, % of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and ash
▪ Heating value (energy value)
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1. Estimating the moisture content of a solid waste sample with the following composition:
Waste Percent Moisture Dry mass (kg) (based on 100kg

Component by mass Content (%) sample of waste)
Food waste 15 70
Paper 45 6
Cardboard 10 5
Plastics 10 2
Yard waste 10 60
Wood 5 20
Tin cans 5 3
100%
Determine moisture content;
Moisture content (%) = [ (initial mass – mass after drying) /

(initial mass) ] * 100%
= [(100kg – 79kg) / 100 kg] * 100 %
=
7
2. Estimating the density of a solid waste sample.
Waste Percent Typical Volume (m3) (based on 1000kg

Component by mass density sample of waste)
(kg/m3)
Food waste 15 290
Paper 45 85
Cardboard 10 50
Plastics 10 65
Yard waste 10 105
Wood 5 240
Tin cans 5 90
100%
Determine density of solid waste;
Density (kg/m3) = 1000kg / 11.07 m3

=
8
3. Estimating energy content of a solid waste.
Waste Percent Energy Total energy (kJ) (based on 100kg

Component by mass (kJ/kg) sample of waste)
Food waste 15 4,650
Paper 45 16,750
Cardboard 10 16,300
Plastics 10 32,600
Yard waste 10 6,500
Wood 5 18,600
Tin cans 5 700
100%
Determine the energy content;
Energy content (kJ/kg)

= 1,474,000 kJ / 100kg
=
Energy content (dry basis)

= Energy content ( 100 / (100 – moisture content)
= 14,740 [ 100 / (100 – 21) ]
=
Energy content (ash free, dry basis)

= Energy content ( 100 / (100 – moisture content – ash)
= 14,740 [ 100 / (100 – 21 - 5) ]
=
* assume 5% ash
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4. Estimating the overall chemical composition of a solid waste.
Waste Wet Dry Composition (kg)

Component mass mass C H O N S Ash
(kg) (kg)
Food waste 15 4.5 2.16 0.29 1.69 0.12 0.02 0.23
Paper 45 42.3 18.40 2.54 18.61 0.13 0.08 2.54
Cardboard 10 9.5 4.18 0.56 4.24 0.03 0.02 0.48
Plastics 10 9.8 5.88 0.71 2.23 - - 0.98
Yard waste 10 4.0 1.91 0.24 1.52 0.14 0.01 0.18
Wood 5 4.0 1.98 0.24 1.71 0.01 - 0.06
Summary of mass:
Element Mass (kg)
Moisture Moisture = Wet mass – Dry mass

Carbon = 95 – 74.1
Hydrogen = 20.9
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Ash
95
Convert moisture content into H and O;

H = (2/18) * 20.9 =
O = (16/18) * 20.9 =
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Revised summary of mass:
Element Mass (kg) Mass (kg) Percent by mass

(new) (mass/total)*100
Carbon 34.51 34.51

Hydrogen 4.58+2.32 6.9
Oxygen 30.00 + 18.58 48.58
Nitrogen 0.43 0.43
Sulfur 0.13 0.13
Ash 4.47 4.47
95.02 kg 95.02
Compute molar composition:
Element Mass (kg) Kg/mol Moles

Carbon 34.51 12
Hydrogen 6.90 1
Oxygen 48.58 16
Nitrogen 0.43 14
Sulfur 0.13 32
Determine approximate formula WITH or WITHOUT sulfur
Element Mol ratios

S=1 N=1
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Chemical formula with S :
Chemical formula without S:
Estimate energy content using Dulong formula

Dulong equation: kJ/kg = 337C + 1428 (H – O/8) + 9S
=
=
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2. LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS
2.1 Legal Framework Legal Framework

There are a number of laws and regulations, which contain major provisions relevant to Solid Waste Management in
Local Authority and the following are brief summaries from the existing laws and regulations, which are utilized Local
Authorities.
2.1.1 Local Government Act (Act 171) 1976

The Local Government Act was adopted in 1976, and all previous laws were relating to Local Government were
repealed. The Act is to consolidate all previous laws relating to the administration and operation of Local Authorities
and is intended to strengthen their powers of operation by providing a better institutional and legal framework.
Part II (Section 9)
The state authority may give directions on policies to be followed by the Local Authority on matters, which appear to
affect the interests of the Local Authority and require it to furnish returns, accounts and other information with respect
to property and other related activities.
Part VIII (Section 69- 71)

Prohibits the deposition of trade refuse, solid or liquid sewage or any filth in or upon the bank of any stream, channel or
public drains or water course within the Local Authority. The Local Authority is empowered to charge and recover the
cost of works resulting from such offenses from the polluter.
Part IX (Section 72)

Empowers the Local Authority to maintain public health in areas under its administration. For this it can take specific
actions to establish, maintain and carry out such sanitary services for the removal of or otherwise dealing with
nightsoil, slops, rubbish and all kinds of refuse and effluent.
(Section 73)
Empowers the Local Authority to make amend or revoke by-laws to establish, maintain and compile the use of any
service for removal of nightsoil, slops, rubbish and all kinds of refuse and effluent.
(Section 84)
Empowers the Local Authority to take action against any person where a nuisance within or affecting any part of Local
Authority appears to be caused by some act or default committed outside its areas.
Part XIII (Section 102(s))

Provides for the control and supervision by registration, licensing or otherwise, including in proper cases by
prohibition, a trade, business or industry which is of an obnoxious nature or which could be a source of nuisance.
2.1.2 Town and Country Planning Act (Act 172) 1976.

The Town and Country Planning Act was enacted in
1976 for the proper control and regulation of town and country planning and development in Local Authority areas.
Under the Act; the Local Authorities are the local planning authority and perform the following functions:
Part II (Section 6)
o Regulate, control and plan development and use of all lands and buildings within its areas.
o Undertake, assist in and encourage the collection, maintenance and publication of statistics and monographs
and other publications relating to town and country planning.
o Perform such other functions as the State Authority or Planning committee may from time to time assign to it.
Part III
The Act provides for the creation of a local planning authority for each Local Authority whose function is
o to institute a survey of the area
o to examine matters that may be expected to affect the development or the planning of the development of the
area.
In formulating the plans to regulate control and plan the development of the area the factors required to be kept under
review include the physical, economic, environment and social characteristics, and the principal land use of the area.
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The aim is to prepare draft STRUCTURE PLANS which shall be a written statement formulating the policy and
general proposal of the local planning authority in respect of the development and the use of land in the area, including
measures for improvement of the physical environment and communications.
3) Part IV
For the purpose of planning control the Local Authority shall examine every application for planning and development
of an area, which is submitted, to it for consideration. The Local Authority is empowered to approve the plans with the
specific conditions, or disapprove or withdraw approval already granted.
2.1.3 Street, Drainage and Building Act (Act 133) 1974

The Street, Drainage and Building Act was enacted in 1974 to amend and consolidate the laws relating to street,
drainage and buildings in Local Authority areas in Peninsular Malaysia. All the local Authorities in Peninsular
Malaysia have adopted the Act:
Part II
Prohibits the deposition of domestic, trade or garden refuse; liquid wastewater; dust or soil; or any other matter in
public places.
2.1.4 Land Conservation Act (Act No. 3 of 1960) 1960

The Land Conservation Act is an establishing Act, which was promulgated to consolidate the laws relating to
conservation of the land and the protection of soil from erosion.
Part II (Section 7)
Prohibits the clearing of any hill land or interfering with, destroying or removing any trees, plants, undergrowth, weeds,
grass or vegetation unless authorized by permit, which permit shall be subject to such terms and conditions as may be
imposed.
Part III (Section 14)

Empowers the Collector to make orders to control land and erosion that may be likely to cause damage to other land, or
to any watercourse, or to interfere with cultivation.
2.1.6 The National Land Code 1965

The code empowers the State Authority to classify land use in three categories: agricultural, industrial and building.
The State Authority has powers to change the designation of land for development and proper land use planning and
management.
2.2 Action Plan for a Beautiful and Clean Malaysia (1988)

o The ABC Plan was initiated in June 1988.
o Objectives: To establish uniform, cost- effective, environmentally sound and socially accepted MSW system
by year 2010.
o On issues of recycling and resource recovery:
“Municipal solid waste should be treated as a resource and all efforts should be made to recycle and recover most of
the materials that are currently burnt or buried”
2.3 Environmental Quality Act (Act 127) 1974

The Environmental Quality Act was enacted in 1974 for the prevention, abatement, and control of environmental
pollution and to enhance the general quality of the environment.
Part IV (Section 18- 29)

Empowers the Ministers to prescribe certain premises (referred to in the Act as prescribed premises) the occupation or
use of which is an offence unless a license has been issued. Section 21 provides for the Minister to specify the
acceptable conditions for any emission into any area, segment or element of the environment. There is also a provision
in the Act to contain oil pollution of territorial waters in Malaysia.
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(Section 31- 32)

Empowers the Director General to require the occupier of a premise to install, operate and maintain equipment in an
efficient condition to control the emission of pollutants.
(Section 34A)
Requires the proponent intending to carry out any prescribed activity to prepare a report on the impact to the
environment, which report shall contain an assessment of the impact such activity will have or is likely to have on the
environment and the proposed measures that shall be undertaken to prevent, reduce or control the adverse impact on the
environment.
(Section 49)
The Director General may delegate his powers, duties and functions under this Act with respect to the issue of licenses,
investigation of offences and enforcement to any public officer, any government department, any legal authority or
committee of persons appointed by him.
(Section 51)
Empowers the Minister to make regulations in respect to the prevention, abatement and control of pollution and to
enhance the general quality of the environment.
2.4 Sustainable Development

“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs”.
As such, it seeks to reconcile economic and environmental objectives.
2.5 UK Strategy (Cm2426, HMSO, 1994)

Set out framework for waste management as follows:
o reduction of waste at source
o reuse
o recovery (including recycling, composting and energy recovery)
o environmentally sensitive disposal
o Concept governs by 5 principles:

▪ the proximity principle
▪ the regional self- sufficiency
▪ the precautionary principle
▪ the polluters- pay, and
▪ the best practicable environmental option (BPEO)
o Proximity Principle
▪ Establishment of adequate network of treatment and disposal installations to handle waste generation as close
as possible to its source.
▪ Encouraged the communities to take responsibilities over locally produced waste
▪ Reduced carbon dioxide emission, through reduction in waste transported by road
o Regional Self- Sufficiency

▪ Sufficient facilities for local waste management is to be provided in establishing the network of treatment and
disposal installations in the locality.
▪ Correspondingly, self- sufficiency is not to be used to justify overruling the proximity principle
o Precautionary Principle
▪ Defined as taking preventive measures to avoid potential but inconclusive environmental damage.
▪ When environmental implications of waste management proposal are unclear but potentially damaging,
planning authorities should consider whether the circumstances would justify planning permission being refused or
subject to conditions.
o Polluters- Pay Principle

▪ Economic measures where full environmental costs are borne by waste management options but polluters pay
for the wastes/ pollution generated.
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▪ The principle is indirectly applied through proximity and self- sufficiency principles.
▪ Directly applied through ensuring that planning permissions, including conditions, make the developer
responsible for dealing with environmental effects
o Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO)

Best management option - environmentally as a whole; at acceptable costs, for short or long-term basis i.e. options vary
for different waste streams.
▪ BPEO is not generally applicable to development control since the primary concern for planning is the use of
land
DEPARTMENT OF NATIONAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
To provide a sustainable, integrated, efficient and cost-effective solid waste and public cleansing
management system.
The National Strategic Plan for Solid Waste Management in Malaysia strategic plan aims:
1. To provide a strategic framework related to the overall management of solid waste in Malaysia including the
scope of privatisation and implementation strategies, taking into account current obstacles or shortfalls faced in
implementing the privatisation policy; and
2. To recommend an effective solid waste management plan, which identifies the roles of each of the stakeholders,
and actions that are required to be taken to meet the objectives of the National Development Plan.
Objectives
❖ To establish a sustainable solid waste management system so as to safeguard public health,
protect and conserve the environment and preserve the natural-resource
❖ To ensure a clean surrounding and the esthetic value protected;
❖ To play its role as the responsible institution on formulating policy, strategy, action plan and law
on solid waste and public cleansing management; and
❖ To coordinate the cooperation between Federal Government agencies, State Government, local
Authority, private and the communities so as to ensure smooth implementation of solid waste and public
cleansing management.
Function
❖ To propose policies, plans and strategies in respect of solid waste and public cleansing
management;
❖ To formulate plans for solid waste management including location, type and size of new treatment
facilities, coverage areas of solid waste management facilities, the solid waste management schemes to
supply controlled solid waste to the solid waste management facilities and the time-scale for the
implementation of the plans;
❖ To set standards, specifications and codes of practice relating to any aspect of solid waste
management services and public cleansing management services;
❖ To exercise regulatory function specified in Act 672 ( Akta Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal dan
Pembersihan Awam 2007) and any regulation made under the Act;
❖ To grant licenses and approval under Act 672; and
❖ To carry out such other activities for the purpose of carrying the implementation of the Act
STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP SWM
Strategy 1: The priorities for SWM shall be as follows:

Short-term: Waste Hierarchy suited to Malaysia’s conditions Long-term: Towards a more balanced waste
hierarchy
o Expand the service coverage to areas which do not have such services
o Address problems associated with existing dump sites through upgrading and safe closure as deemed
appropriate
o Develop new sanitary landfill facilities.
o Introduce some SWM facilities to encourage waste recycling and waste-to-energy recovery
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Strategy 2: The Rapid and Comprehensive Development of the Necessary Legal and Institutional Framework shall
proceed as follows:
(1) Legal Development
o Enact the SWM Bill in 2003 as a comprehensive legislation related to SWM, with provision for federalization
of solid waste services and enabling provisions of subsidiary legislation
o Formalize the Agreements for the Concessionaires and other service providers
o Develop the environmental legislation to cover SWM aspects
o Specify duties and responsibilities for all stakeholders
(2) Institutional Development

o Establish a new institutional structure for SWM where all three levels of government have specific legally
defined roles.
o Establish the Solid Waste Management Department (SWMD) in 2003 within the Federal Government to
develop policy, and undertake planning and management of solid waste expenditures
o Establish a National Council for SWM at the Federal level and Standing Committee for SWM at State level to
provide a forum for all stakeholders to participate in SWM.
o Delegate powers to LAs to monitor and enforce the provisions of the SWM Act.
Strategy 3: Development of public participation and technical capabilities in SWM shall proceed as follows:
(1) Public Participation

o The SWMD will coordinate and engage in sustained public education and awareness campaigns.
o Public participation will be enhanced through the proposed National Council for SWM and the Standing
Committees for SWM in the States
o The topic of solid waste will be introduced as part of the curriculum in schools, together with an
environmental education program for children based on the program of ISO 14000s for Kids.
(2) Technical Capability Development

o An Institute of Waste Management will be formed by 2004
o A national program of research will be drawn up by the SWMD in collaboration with the Ministry of
Education and other agencies
o The Government will consider providing tax breaks to companies willing to fund or undertake research in
accordance with the national program.
o A SWM Research and Development Centre will be established in Malaysia to conduct research, especially to
localise technology and practices relevant to Malaysia and the surrounding countries in the region.
o A database, with collection and interpretation of relevant information will be set up by the SWMD for use in
planning and management.
Strategy 4: Provision of sustainable technologies to manage solid waste shall proceed as follows:
(1) Facility types
The following technologies and infrastructure are to be adopted for the development of SWM in Peninsular Malaysia to
2020:
o Sanitary landfills
o Transfer stations (with “bring” centres for recyclables)
o Integrated material recovery facilities; and
o Thermal treatment plants
(2) Number of facilities required for the period 2004 - 2020

o Sanitary landfills: 22 sites
o Transfer stations: 45 stations
o Integrated MRFs: 7 facilities
o Thermal treatment plants: Initially 6 plants 5 (with an additional two candidate plants in Johor and Selangor
South to be evaluated in master plans and feasibility studies to be undertaken)
(3) Detailed Planning and Feasibility Studies

o Master plans will be made to determine the suitability of the facilities
o Proposed, specific sites, technologies and operational plans.
o Feasibility studies addressing the financial viability of the projects shall be implemented.
o Environmental Impact Assessment studies will be conducted.
o These studies will be conducted during 2003 in order that construction can commence in 2004.
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Strategy 5: A comprehensive approach to develop waste reduction, re-use and recovery shall proceed as follows:
o SWMD will promote waste reduction in a coordinated manner, working with both the public and private
sectors and will monitor the development of best environmental practice.
o Waste reduction and recovery will be achieved by employing a combination of mandatory and voluntary
instruments.
o Regulatory authorities will require registered companies to report on their “Environmental Performance” on
aspects of SWM.
o In assessing new investments for industrial development, the Malaysian Industrial Development Authority
(MIDA) will include in its checklist, items related to waste management and plans for waste reduction and recovery.
o SWMD will develop fiscal incentives for the promotion of waste reduction and will employ a combination of
statutory control and non-statutory (voluntary) measures to increase resource and energy recovery from waste.
o SWMD will periodically assess public response to determine the feasibility of source separation and determine
the appropriate time for its implementation
o A detailed study on waste reduction, re-use and recovery will be undertaken during 2003/2004, upon which a
master plan setting more relevant targets and defining methods to achieve these targets shall be prepared
o Provisional overall waste reduction and recovery targets have been set at 17% by 2020. Recycling targets for
specific waste streams are 30% for paper and board, 20% for plastic, 50% for glass and 75% for metals. SWM
infrastructure has to be provided to support these targets.
Strategy 6: A Socially Acceptable SWM System shall proceed as follows:
▪ During the initial years of privatisation, payment for collection and transport services will be recovered from
charges to waste generators the annual assessment.
▪ Government intervention in construction and operation of transfer stations, treatment plants and sanitary
landfills will be required to reduce the financial burden on the public in the initial stages, with full cost recovery to be
implemented gradually.
▪ The long-term strategy is for full privatisation of all SWM functions.
▪ Operation and maintenance of SWM facilities to be constructed by Government of Malaysia will be
privatised.
▪ Third party investors are to be encouraged if proposals for development of SWM facilities are consistent with
development plans and such projects are made on a competitive basis.
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3. ON-SITE HANDLING
On-site handling
o Activities associated with the handling of solid wastes until they are placed in the containers
o Container is used for their storage before collection
o Depending on the type of collection service
o Required to move loaded containers to the collection point and to return the empty containers to the point where they are
stored between collections
3.1 On-Site Handling of Wastes
3.1.1 Domestic Solid Waste

o Usually, domestic wastes accumulated at several locations in and around low and medium-rise residential are placed in
larger storage containers to await removal by the waste collector.
o Resident is responsible for placing the loaded larger storage container(s) and returning the empty container(s) to their
storage location near their area, when curb collection is used.
3.1.2 In high-rise apartments

o Wastes are picked up by building maintenance personnel or porters
from each floor and taken to the basement service area,
o Wastes are taken to the basement service area by the tenants,
o Wastes are bagged and placed by the tenants in specially designed
vertical chutes with openings located at each floor.
3.1.3 Commercial and Industrial Solid Wastes

o In most office, commercial, and industrial buildings, solid wastes that
accumulate in the offices or work locations usually are collected in relatively large
containers mounted on rollers.
o Once filled, containers are removed by means of the service elevator.
o Containers are emptied into:
▪ large storage containers,
▪ compactors used in conjunction with the storage containers,
▪ stationary compactors that can compress the material into bales or into
specially designed containers, or Chute system for high-rise apartments
▪ other processing equipment such as incinerators.
3.2 On-Site Storage

Factors need to be considered:
o Type of container to be used,
o Container location,
o Public health and aesthetics,
o Collection methods to be used.
3.2.1 Containers
Types and capacities of the containers used depend on the characteristics of the solid wastes to be collected, the collection
frequency, and the space available for the placement of containers.
3.2.2 Container storage location

Depend on the type of household or commercial and industrial facilities.
o Residential
▪ Between collections, containers used in low-rise detached dwellings usually are placed
(1) at the sides or rear of the house,
(2) in alleys, where alley collection is used,
(3) in or next to garage/carport, or
(4) where available, some common location specifically designated for that purpose.
▪ When two or more dwellings are located in close proximity a concrete pad is constructed at some convenient location
between them.
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o Commercial and Industrial

▪ Depends on both the location of available space and service-access conditions
▪ As the containers are not owned by the commercial or industrial activity, the locations and types of containers to be used
for onsite storage must be worked out jointly between the building owners and the public or collector.
3.2.3 Public Health and Aesthetics

o Can cause significant public health and aesthetic impacts due to limited storage space.
o Public health concerns are related primarily to the infestation of areas used for the storage of solid wastes with insects, rats
and flies that often serve as potential disease vectors.
o Control measure with proper sanitation and the use of containers with tight lids, the periodic washing of the containers as
well as of the storage areas, and the periodic removal of biodegradable materials.
o Aesthetic considerations are related to the production of odours and the unsightly conditions when maintenance of sanitary
is not adequate.
o Odours can be controlled through the use of containers with tight lids and reasonable collection frequency, or sprayed with
a deodorant.
o Container should be scrubbed and washed periodically.
Containers-storage used at commercial and industrial facilities

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3.3 On-Site Process

On-site waste processing is used to:
o Reduce the volume,
o Recover usable materials,
o Alter the physical form of the solid wastes,
o To control spill and contamination of hazardous materials
Eg: food waste grinding, component separation, compaction, combustion and composting. Backyard incineration??
The most common on-site processing operations include manual sorting, compaction and incineration/landfill disposal.
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4. COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION
o The most importation element

o The most costly functional element
Activities:
o Picking up solid wastes
o Hauling wastes to new location
o Unloading the collection vehicle
4.1 Collection Services
4.1.1 Municipal collection

o Curb, alley, backyard or setout-setback
o Daily collection or every 2 days
o Manual method used include lifting and carrying loaded containers to collection vehicle, rolling container to the
vehicle and emptying the containers
4.1.2 Commercial, Industrial and High-rise apartment collection

o For larger apartment building
o Residential complexes
o Daily collection (early morning/late evening)
o Large containers – moveable or stationary with compactor to reduce volume
4.2 Collection Methods
The most important and costly functional element is collection (60-80% of total cost). Methods of collection will
significantly influence the quality and quantity of recovered material and the mode of disposal. 4 types collection
methods:
4.2.1 Communal Collection

o The house owners take the wastes to the collection point.
o The waste collector will collect the waste from the communal storage bin
o Commonly used in high-rise apartments, condominium, markets, hawker centres, commercial areas.
4.2.2 Block Collection

o The householders deliver the waste to the collection vehicle
o Collection intervals 2-3 times a week
o Arrival of vehicle is informed by ringing a bell or familiar musical note
4.2.3 Curbside Collection

o The residents will place the wastes in bins by the roadside
o After collection, the empty bins are taken back by owners
o Waste sorting may also were carried out by residents, or by waste collector
4.2.4 Door to Door Collection

o Curbe service: terrace and link house
o Alley service or back lane collection
o Set-out set-back service: 2 group of collector ( to clear bins & to return the bins)
o Set-out service: collection from individual houses, bungalow
o Backyard service: sack is used to collect refuse from few houses and emptied into collection vehicle
4.3 Type of Collection System

Collection system based on mode of operation
4.3.1 Hauled-Container Systems (HCS)

o Containers used for the storage of wastes are hauled to the processing, transfer, or disposal site, emptied, and
returned to either their original location or some other location.
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o Suitable for complex apartments, shopping centres

o 2 types: tilt-frame container, and trash-trailer.
o The collector is responsible for driving the vehicle, loading and unloading empty containers, and emptying
the contents of the container at the disposal site.
4.3.2 Stationary-Container System (SCS)

o Containers used for the storage of wastes remain at the point of waste generation, and the empty collection
vehicle will collect the waste from one point to the next containers.
o 2 types of stationary-container systems: self-loading compactors and manually loaded vehicles
o Vehicles equipped with a compaction mechanism. Suitable for smaller generation-rate-house to house
collection.
o Trips to the disposal site, transfer station, or landfill made after collection vehicle is full.
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4.4 Analysis of Collection Time
Stationary Container System
Conventional container mode
Exchange container mode

23
24
(0.10 – 0.25)
25
26
27
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5. COLLECTION ROUTES
Once equipment and labour requirements have been determined, collection routes must be laid out so that both the
collectors and equipment are used effectively. In general, the layout of collection routes involves a series of trials. There
is no universal set of rules that can be applied to all situations. Some heuristic guidelines that should be taken into
consideration when laying out routes are as follows:
1. Existing policies and regulations related to such items as the point of collection and frequency of collection
must be identified.
2. Existing system characteristics such as crew size and vehicle types must be coordinated.
3. Wherever possible, routes should be laid out so that they begin and end near arterial streets, using
topographical and physical barriers as route boundaries.
4. In hilly area, routes should start at the top of the grade and proceed downhill as the vehicle becomes loaded.
5. Routes should be laid out so that the last container to be collected on the route is located nearest to the disposal
site.
6. Wastes generated at traffic-congested locations should be collected as early in the day as possible.
7. Sources at which extremely large quantities of wastes are generated should be serviced during the first part of
the day.
8. Scattered pickup points (where small quantities of solid waste are generated) that receive the same collection
frequency should, if possible, be serviced during one trip or on the same day.
5.1 Establishing collection routes

● Preparation of location maps of the waste generation sources,
● Data analysis
● Preliminary layout of routes,
● Evaluation of the preliminary routes and the development of balanced routes by successive trials.
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30
31
6. TRANSFER AND TRANSPORT
Definition
Refer to means, facilities and appurtenance used to affect the transfer of wastes from small collection vehicle to larger
vehicles and transport for processing or disposal, usually a more distant location.
6.1 The Need for Transfer Operation

o Haul time to the disposal site has significant impact on cost of waste collection. Transfer and transport
operations become, a necessity when haul distances to N4RFs of disposal sites is no longer economically feasible. They
also necessary when the disposal sites are located in remote areas.
o Economic comparison is made on the unit cost associated with using the collection vehicle as the haul vehicle
versus the cost of construction and operation of a transfer station and the cost of the transfer vehicle.
6.2 Transfer Station

A facility where the wastes collected may be stored temporarily or transferred from smaller collection vehicles to bigger
transport vehicles,
6.3 Factors in Designing Transfer Station

Before the design bf transfer station, the following points must be considered:
o Type of transfer operation to be used.
o Storage capacity and identification of process required
o The type of equipment and accessories required,
o Environmental requirements
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6.4 Types of transfer operation
6.4.1 Direct-Discharge Load

o Waste from collection vehicle loaded directly into transport vehicle
o Transfer station 2 level arrangement; raised platform for collection vehicle or depressed ramp for transport
vehicle
6.4.2 Storage-Discharge Load

o Waste emptied in storage pit or onto platform then loaded into transport vehicle by auxiliary equipment
o Storage capacity ½ to 2 days volume of waste
6.4.3 Combined Direct and Storage Discharge Load

o With or without stationary compaction
6.5 Capacity requirement:

Operational capacity should make sure:
o Collection vehicles do not have to wait too long to unload
o Cost of large vehicle compensate the time wasted on waiting
6.6 Equipment and Accessories requirement:

Suitable equipment employed - scale, hopper, compactor and front loader. Suitable surrounding, which includes:
o Enclose area (with appropriate sign posted)
o Constructed of materials that are easy to clean
o Use of wind screen/barriers - blown papers
o Ample area to store wastes
6.7 Location of Transfer Station

Whenever possible, transfer station should be located:
o As near as possible to weighted centre of individual solid waste production
o In the vicinity of the area to be served
o Within easy access of major arterial highway routes
o Where minimum public and environmental objection
o Where construction and operation is most economical
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Direct Discharge
Load
34
Storage Discharge Load
Combine Direct &

Storage Discharge Load
6.8 Transfer of Municipal Waste

o More common as the distance of landfill sites becomes greater
o Most common in larger metropolitan areas.
o Variance in types, size, and degree of sophistication
o E.g. open-air stations or enclosed in a building (newer stations).
6.9 Advantages of Transfer stations:

o Better haul roads for collection vehicles (usually paved - reducing damages to trucks and delay).
o Greater traffic control (avoid traffic jams/congestions or litter + safety to children).
o Fewer truck on the sanitary landfill haul routes( reduction ratio of from 3 (trucks) :1 (transfer haul) or 5:1)
o Improved landfill operating efficiency (fewer trucks mean better traffic control).
o Lower overall haul cost (reduction in no. of drivers/crew).
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6.10 Criteria for Transfer Location:

o Near the collection area served (to minimize collection crew time for haul to the transfer station).
o Accessible to major haul routes (public acceptance and economics – lower transfer haul cost)).
o Adequate land area to provide isolation (to handle traffic flow).
o Suitable Zoning (commercial or industrial)
o Served by utilities (water, sanitary sewer, storm drainage, electricity)
6.11 Station Concepts:

o Pit
o Direct Dump
o Compaction
6.11.1 Pit
o Collection vehicles unloaded wastes into a large pit.
o Wastes are then pushed to an open-top transfer trailer by a tractor.
o The pit – as storage during peak periods
o Compaction of bulk items made by the tractor in the pit.
6.11.2 Direct Dump:

o Collection vehicles dump directly into open-top transfer trailer
o Large hoppers direct the waste into the transfer trailers.
o Very large transfer trailers are used (due to minimal compaction).
o Efficient – no intermediate handling required (direct from vehicle to transfer trailer).
6.11.3 Compaction:
Hopper type compaction station: waste drop by gravity into a compactor – packs the waste into the trailers.
Push pit compactor station: a large hydraulically operated blade moves the waste to the stationary packer – then packs
the waste into the trailers.
6.12 Break-even Point Analysis

Economic comparison of transport alternatives should be carried out to justify the construction and operation of transfer
station.
Ex. 1: Determine the break-even time for a stationary container system and a separate transfer and transport system for
transporting wastes collected from a metropolitan area to a landfill disposal site-Assume the following cost and- system
data are applicable.
Transportation costs:
a. stationary container system using a 18m3 compactor = $20/h
b. tractor-trailer transport unit with a capacity of 120m3 = $25/h
Other costs:
a. transfer station -operating cost, including amortization = $0.40/m3
b. extra cost for unloading facilities for transport unit = $0.05/m3
Other data:
a. density of waste in compactor = 325 k g/m3
b. density of wastes in transport units = 150 kg /m3
1. Convert cost data to units of dollars/tonne min

a. Stationary-container system:
Operating cost = ($20.00/h)/(60 min/h) $0.33/min
18 m3 x 325 kg/m3
Tonnes/load = ------------------------------ = 5.85
1000 kg/tonne
.
Operating cost = ($0.33/min)/5.85 tonne = $0.0564/tonne.min
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b. Transfer- transport system:

Operating cost = ($25.00/h)/(60 min/h) = $0.42/min
120 x 150
Tonnes/load = ---------------- = 18
1000
Operating cost = ($0.42/min)/18 tonnes = $0.0233/tonne.min
c. Transfer station cost:

Operating cost = ($0.40/m3)/(0. 150/tonne) = $2.67/tonne
d. Unloading cost:
Operating cost = ($0.05/m3)/(0. 150/tonne) = $0.33/tonne
2. Prepare a plot of cost versus haul time in minutes and determine break-even time.
a. Fixed cost for transfer and transport system:

Cost/tonne = $2.67 + $0.33 = $3.00
b. Variable costs at 100 min:
(1) Stationary-container system.

Cost/ton = ($0.0564/tonne.min)100 min = $5.64
(2) Transport system

Cost/ton =($0.0233/tonne.min)100 min =$2.33
c. The above data are plotted in the accompanying figure. As shown, the break-even time is equal to 83 min.
6.13 Transport Means and Method
Where the final disposition can be reached by motor vehicles, the most common means used to transport wastes from
transfer stations are trailer, semi trailers, and compactors. In general vehicles used for hauling on highway should satisfy
the following requirements:
o Wastes must be transported at minimum cost
o Wastes must be covered during the haul operation
o Vehicles must be designed for highway traffic
o Methods used for unloading must be simple and dependable such as self-emptying
Table shows the data and Figure shows the type of vehicles used to transport wastes. Open-top trailers and semi-trailers
are popular for the transport of wastes due to their simplicity and dependability. Some trailers are equipped with sumps
to collect any liquids that accumulate from wastes. The sumps are equipped with drains, so that they can be emptied at
the disposal site
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7. PROCESS AND TREATMENT
Processing techniques are used in solid waste management systems:

o to improve the efficiency of solid-waste disposal systems,
o to recover resources (usable materials),
o to prepare materials for the recovery of conversion product and energy
Processes used routinely to improve the efficiency of solid waste systems and to recover materials manually include:
compaction, thermal volume reduction (incineration) and manual separation of wastes components.
7.1 Waste Separation

Processing to segregate waste components may be carried out at the point of generation (on-site processing) need to
consider:
o Capability of improving the separation process
o Durability and reliability
o Safety of operation with adequate safeguards to discourage careless use
o Can be easily operated without the need of skilled personnel
o Reduce the environmental pollution associated with conventional functions
o Reduce health hazards
o Efficient and cost effective
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40
Central sorting is essential for efficient recycling of waste. Unit operations at a central facility involve screening, air
classifying and magnetic separations. Size reduction by using shredders, although not a segregation process is also used
to produce a more uniform sized product. Magnetic separation involves the use of electromagnets. Two types of central
sorting are commonly practised, especially in developed nations, which are:
o Material Recovery Facility (MRF)

o Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF)
7.1.1 Material Recovery Facility

Sorting of mixed recyclables, and this process is beneficial to recover or separate commingled fraction. Recovered
materials are further processed on-site or are taken off-site to other specialised centres for further treatment. MRF
usually used to separate materials from commingled waste and to process materials from separation process.
7.1.2 Refuse-Derived Fuel

This involved the mechanical separation of combustible wastes from non-combustible fractions. RDF is frequentlt
burned in utility boiler. The combustible fractions are then shredded and either used directly as fuel or may be palletised
and then used for combustion. Drying the pellets produces densified RDF, which requires more processing and hence
increased cost. The size alteration does not necessarily imply volume reduction (sometimes volume increases after size
reduction). Shredding of wastes as a first step has replaced with screening. This has been carried out due to the
following:
o Shredding tends to shatter glass and entrap organic materials within tin cans,
o Shredding contaminates paper with liquids and putrescible organic materials, and
o The operation has a high energy demand
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7.2 Unit Operation

The unit operations and facilities used for the separation and processing of waste materials at MRFs are introduced for
the separation and processing of separated and commingled wastes are designed
o To modify the physical characteristics of the waste so that waste components can be removed more easily,
o To remove specific components and contaminants from the waste stream, and
o To process and prepare the separated materials for subsequent uses.
7.2.1 Size Reduction

o Waste materials are mechanically reduced in size.
o Mechanical size-reduction operations by shredding, glass crushers wood grinders and milling
o The objective is to obtain a final product that is reasonably uniform and considerably reduced in size
o Shredders
Most common types of shredding devices used to reduce the size are the hammer mill, the flail mill or shredder, and the
shear shredder. Other examples include cutters, cage disintegrators, drum pulverizers, and wet pulpers.
o Glass Crushers
Used to crush glass containers and other glass products after it has been separated to reduce storage and shipping costs.
o Wood Grinders
Most wood grinders are wood chippers, used to shred large pieces of wood (e.g., large branches, broken pallets) into
chips which can be used as a fuel, and finer material, which can be composted.
7.2.2 Screening
Screening is a unit operation used to separate mixtures of materials of different sizes into two or more size fractions by
means of one or more screening surfaces, either dry or wet. The principal applications of screening devices:
o Removal of oversized materials,
o Removal of undersized materials,
o Separation of the waste into light combustibles and heavy non-combustibles,
o Recovery of paper, plastics, and other light materials from glass and metal,
o Separation of glass, grit, and sand from combustible materials,
o Separation of rocks and other oversized debris from soil excavated at construction sites, and
o Removal of oversized materials from combustion ash.
Disc
Rotary
drum Screen
screening
Rotary Drum: As the drum rotates, the waste move in a helical path towards the outlet at teh end of the drum and are
mixed and granulated by abrasion. Typical digestion is 1 to 3 days in the drum and is usually followed by screening and
static pile curing.
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o Vibrating Screens
Used to remove undersized materials of commingle MSW and to process construction and demolition wastes.
o Rotary Screens
The most common type of rotary screen used is a trommel screen also known rotary drum screens used to separate
waste materials into several size fractions. Small particles will fall through the holes in the screen, while the oversized
material will pass through the screen.
o Disc Screens
Disc screens consist of sets of parallel horizontal shafts equipped with interlocking discs. The undersized materials to
be separated fall between the spaces in the discs, and oversized materials ride over the top of the discs as in a conveyor
belt.
7.2.3 Density Separation (Air Classification)

o Air classification is the unit operation used to separate light materials such as paper and plastic from heavier
materials such as ferrous metal, based on the weight difference of the material in an air stream.
o The light materials will be carried away with the air while the heavier materials will fall in the counter-current
direction.
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Magnetic Separation
Magnetic separation is a unit operation whereby ferrous metals are separated from other waste materials by utilizing
their magnetic properties, i.e. ferrous materials. Commonly used to separate aluminum cans from tin cans
Densification
Densification (also known as compaction) is a unit operation that increases the density of waste materials so that they
can be stored and transported more efficiently including baling and pelleting.
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45
SEPARATION OF ALUMINIUM AND

TIN CANS
SEPARATION OF MIXED
PAPER
SEPARATION OF COMMINGLED
PLASTICS AND GLASS
46
47
CONVENTONAL RECOVERY (WITH

SHREDDER)
RECOVERY (WITH SHEAR SHREDDER

AND TROMMEL)
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8. RESOURCE RECOVERY
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50
YARD WASTES
To reduce the amount of material going to a landfill, many communities now collect and process yard wastes separately.
Reuse and Recycling Opportunities

The principal recycling opportunities for yard wastes are for
● The production of compost,
● The production of landscape mulch,
● Use as a biomass fuel, and
● Use as intermediate landfill cover material.
Production of Compost.
material for high-quality compost, high in nitrogen. Compost operators sell compost to homeowners and landscapers.
Production of Mulch.
Brush and woody wastes such as tree prunings can be used to produce a mulch for landscaping projects as well as onsite at the
landfill that enhance plant growth.
Biomass Fuel.
Yard wastes can also be used as a biomass fuel (green waste and wood chips). Yard wastes are ground using a tub grinder then
passed through a trommel screen to separate pieces of wood larger than inch. Wood chips larger than 1 inch are sold as a biomass
fuel.
Intermediate Landfill Cover.

Yard wastes can also be used as intermediate landfill cover. Typically, the yard wastes are ground up and composted before being
applied.
THERMAL CONVERSION
The thermal processing of solid waste, used both for volume reduction and energy recovery, is an important element in many integrated
waste management systems.
Fundamentals of Thermal
Thermal processing of solid waste can be defined as the conversion of solid wastes into gaseous, liquid, and solid conversion products,
with the concurrent or sequent release of heat energy.
o Stoichiometric Combustion is combustion with exactly the amount of oxygen (or air) needed for complete combustion.
o Excess-Air Combustion is combustion with oxygen in excess of the stoichiometric requirements.
o Gasification is the partial combustion solid waste under substoichiometric conditions to generate a combustible gas (CO, H,
HC).
o Pyrolysis is the thermal processing of waste in the complete absence of oxygen.
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Stoichlometric Combustion
The basic reactions for the stoichiometric combustion of the carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur in the organic fraction of MSW are as follows:
If it were assumed that dry air contains 23.15 percent oxygen by weight, then the amount of air required for the oxidation of Ig of carbon
would be equal to 11.52g [(32/12)(1/0.2315)]. The corresponding amounts for hydrogen and sulfur are 34.56g [(8/2)(1/0.2315)] and 4.31g
[(32/320(1/0.2315)] respectively.
Excess-Air Combustion
In practical combustion systems, excess air must be used to promote mixing and turbulence, thus ensuring that air can reach all parts of
the waste. The use of excess air for combustion affects the temperature and composition of the combustion products (known as flue
gases). As the percentage of excess air increases, the oxygen content of the flue gases increases and the temperature of combustion
decreases; thus, the combustion air can be used to control combustion temperature to minimize the emission of dioxins, furans, volatile
organic compounds (VOCs), and other potentially hazardous compounds in the flue gas.
COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
Definition: The thermal processing of solid waste by chemical oxidation with stoichiometric or excess amounts of air. End products
include hot combustion gases, composed primarily of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and water vapour (flue gas) and non-combustible residue
(ash). Energy can be recovered by heat exchange from the hot combustion gases.
Types of Combustion Systems

Solid waste combustion systems can be designed to operate with two types:
Mass-Fired for commingled solid waste
Refuse Derived Fuel RDF-Fired for processed solid waste
Mass-Fired Combustion Systems.

Minimal processing is given to solid waste before it is placed in the charging hopper of the system. The system must be designed to
handle these objectionable wastes (including bulky, oversize non-combustible objects (e.g., refrigerators) and even potentially hazardous
wastes) without damage to equipment or injury to operational personnel.
RDF-Fired Combustion Systems.

RDF can bum and provides for the introduction of underfire air to promote turbulence and uniform combustion. RDF can be produced
with fair consistency to meet specifications for energy, moisture, and ash content. RDF-fired system can also be controlled more
effectively than a mass-fired system because of the more homogeneous nature of RDF, allowing for better combustion control and better
performance of air pollution control devices.
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53
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
The operation of thermal recovery systems produces several impacts including gaseous and particulate emissions, solid residues,
and liquid effluents.
Air Emissions
Pollutants identified include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, inhalable particulate matter (PM10), and lead.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

NOx are NO (nitric oxide) and N02 (nitrogen dioxide). Formed by reactions between nitrogen and oxygen in the air used for
combustion. Precursors to the formation of ozone (03) and PAN, the photochemical oxidants known as smog. Nitrogen oxides also
contribute to the formation of nitrate aerosols (liquid droplets), which can cause acid fog and rain.
Sulfur Dioxide (S02)

Sulfur dioxide is formed by the combustion of fuels containing sulfur. Sulfur dioxide is an eye, nose, and throat irritant, illness or
death to persons lung problems such as asthma or bronchitis. Sulfur dioxide is related to the production of acid rain and snow.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide, formed during the combustion of carbonaceous materials when insufficient oxygen is present, reacts with the
hemoglobin in the bloodstream to form carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO). The human body confuses HbCO with oxyhemoglobin (Hb02),
which normally transfers oxygen to the living tissues throughout the body. The lack of oxygen can cause headaches, nausea, and
even death.
Particulate Matter (PM)

Particulate matter is formed during incomplete combustion of fuel and the physical entrainment of noncombustibles. Particulate
emissions cause visibility reductions and health effects (lungs)
Acid Gases
The combustion of wastes containing fluorine and chlorine leads to the generation of the acid gases hydrogen fluoride (HF) and
hydrogen chloride (HCI). Fluorine is found in trace amounts in many products, whereas chlorine is found primarily in plastics,
chiefly polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene (PE). The combustion of sulfur- and nitrogen-containing wastes
can also lead to the formation of acid gases. The S02 may be oxidized to S03 and then react with water droplets in the atmosphere
to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The emission of N02 can form nitric acid (HN03) in the atmosphere.
Dioxins and Furans.

The emission of the organic compounds in the dioxin and furan families has become one of the most complex and
controversial issues in the thermal processing of municipal solid waste. A dioxin is a member of a family of organic
compounds known as polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDD) and polychlorinated dibenzofuran (PCDF) the most
toxic and carcinogenic substances.
Metals
Metals of particular concern are cadmium, chromium, mercury and lead. After combustion, metals are either emitted as particulate
matter or vaporised into gaseous form.
Air Pollution Control Systems

Gaseous and particulate air emissions from resource recovery systems can be controlled with five classes of control equipment:
● Electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, electrostatic gravel bed filters (particulate control);
● Source separation, combustion controls, flue gas treatment (NO, control);
● Source separation, wet or dry scrubbing (S02 and acid gas control);
● Combustion controls (CO and HC control);
● Source separation, combustion controls, particulate control (non-criteria pollutant controls)
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Electrostatic
precipitator
Filter Bag
Wet cyclone scrubber
Countercurrent flow
packed tower
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9. WASTE DISPOSAL AND LANDFILL
9.1 Introduction
Treatment and disposal of solid waste differ from one country to another depending on the waste types, composition,
infrastructure, land availability, labour, economic aspects, extent of recycling, awareness of public and environmental
impact. Whatever happens in life, one certain thing that will always be around is waste products. Disposal on or in the
land is by far the commonest and viable way for waste disposal. In all this, landfill has become an everyday necessity
because all other options still produce waste. Landfilling is by far the most economical disposal method if suitable land
is available at low cost, within the vicinity of the waste producing population. Opposition to landfill is unwarranted, and
based on the past, recalling open dumping and the nuisance of smell and vermin. Today’s sanitary landfill is not a dump
anymore as its design and construction requires lots of planning. Modern methods of engineering, good management
and monitoring need not create this climate of environmental concern.
Sanitary landfill is defined as:

“A method, of disposing solid waste on land without creating nuisance or hazard to public health or safety. Utilising
engineering principles to confine wastes, to the smallest practical area and to reduce it to the smallest practical volume
and cover it with a layer of earth at the conclusion of each day's operation or at such more frequent intervals as may be
necessary".
Hence the main objective of sanitary landfilling is the safe long-term disposal of solid waste with minimal health, or
environmental degradation. If waste to energy technology is available, the landfill gas could be used as an alternate
source of energy.
9.2 Planning a Landfill
Selecting the best site for a landfill, calls for the combined skills of planners, engineers, geologists, hydrogeologists and
ecologists. The steps taken in planning of new landfill are:
o Waste management conception;
o Landfill site selection
o Environmental impact assessment
o Design of the landfill
9.3 Waste management concept to be considered deals: with following topics:

o Type and volume of waste to be disposed;
o Operation time, and
o Type of transportation
Site Selection
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Sanitary Landfill
Secured Landfill
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9.4 Landfill Siting Considerations
One of the most difficult tasks faced by most communities in implementing an integrated solid waste management
program is the siting of new landfills. Factors that must be considered in evaluating potential sites for the long-term
disposal of solid waste include (1) haul distance, (2) location restrictions, (3) available land area, (4) site access, (5) soil
conditions and topography, (6) climatological conditions, (7) surface water hydrology, (8) geologic and hydrogeologic
conditions, (9) local environmental conditions, and (10) potential ultimate uses for the completed site. Final selection of
a disposal site usually is based on the results of a detailed site survey, engineering design and cost studies, and an
environmental impact assessment.
9.4.1 Haul Distance

The haul distance is one of the important variables in the selection of a disposal site. The length of the haul can
significantly affect the overall design and operation of the waste management system.
9.4.2 Location Restrictions

Location restrictions refer to where landfills can be located. Restrictions now apply with respect to siting landfills near
airports, in floodplains, in wetlands, in amas with known faults, in seismic impact zones, and in unstable areas.
9.4.3 Available Land Area

In selecting potential land disposal sites, it is important to ensure that sufficient land area is available. Although there
are no fixed rules concerning the area required, it is desirable to have sufficient area, including an adequate buffer zone,
to operate for at least five years at a given site. For shorter periods, the disposal operation becomes considerably more
expensive, especially with respect to site preparation, provision of auxiliary facilities such as platform scales and
storage facilities, and completion of the final cover.
9.4.4 Site Access

As the number of operating landfills continues to decrease, new landfills that are being sited are increasing in size.
Because land areas of suitable size are often not near existing developed roadways and cities, construction of access
roadways and the use of long haul equipment has become a fact of life and an important part of landfill siting.
9.4.5 Soil Conditions and Topography

Because it is necessary to cover the solid wastes placed in the landfill each day and to provide a final cover layer after
the landfilling operation is completed, data must be obtained on the amounts and characteristics of the soils in the area.
If' the soil under the proposed landfill area is to be used for cover material, data must be developed on its geologic and
hydrogeologic characteristics. If cover material is to be obtained from a borrow pit, test borings will be needed to
characterize the material. The local topography must be considered because it will affect the type of landfill operation
to be used, the equipment requirements, and the extent of work necessary to make the site usable. If suitable cover
material is limited or an effort is being made to extend the useful life of the landfill, it may be necessary to consider the
use of compost or other materials for intermediate cover.
9.4.6 Climatologic Conditions

Local weather conditions must also be considered in the evaluation of potential sites. Wet weather may necessitate the
use of separate landfill areas. Wind strength and wind patterns must also be considered carefully.
9.4.7 Surface Water Hydrology

The local surface water hydrology of the area is important in establishing the existing natural drainage and runoff
characteristics that must be considered. Other conditions of flooding (e.g., the limits of the 100-year flood) must also be
identified. Because mitigation measures must be developed to divert surface runoff from the landfill site, planners must
take great care in defining existing and intermittent flow channels and the area and characteristics of the contributing
watershed.
9.4.8 Geologic and Hydrogeologic Conditions
Geologic and hydrogeologic conditions are perhaps the most important factors in establishing the environmental
suitability of the area for a landfill site. Data on these factors are required to assess the pollution potential of the
proposed site and to establish what must be done to the site to ensure that the movement of leachate or gases from the
landfill will not impair the quality of local groundwater or contaminate other subsurface or bedrock aquifers.
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9.4.9 Local Environmental Conditions

Although it has been possible to build and operate landfill sites in close proximity to both residential and industrial
developments, they must be operated very carefully if they are to be environmentally acceptable with respect to truffic,
noise, odor, dust, airborne debris, visual impact, vector control, hazards to health, and property values.
9.4.10 Ultimate Use for Completed Landfills

One of the advantages of a landfill is that, once it is complete a sizable area of land becomes available for other
purposes. Because the ultimate use affects the design and operation of the landfill, this issue must be resolved before
the layout and design of the landfill is begun. Choices for the ultimate use of completed landfills are becoming more
limited by state and federal regulations dealing with landfill closure and postclosure maintenance. If the completed
landfill is to be used for some municipal function, a staged planting program should be initiated and continued as
portions of the landfill are completed.
9.5 Design of Landfill
Designing and technical installation of landfill usually should incorporate the following:
● Leachate collection, storage and treatment facilities
● Gas collection, storage, venting and compressor systems
● Gas leakage detection probes, leachate and groundwater monitoring wells
● Final cover/top liner to reduce infiltration - protective cover system according to type of landfill and
meteorological conditions
● Low permeability bottom liner - bottom sealing consisting of impermeable mineral layer and/or an artificial,
sealing liner
In preparing the design, the following points should be given particular consideration:
● Waste management standards relating-to the type and quantity of wastes;
● Requirements concerning the overall concept of safety for the controlled landfill as an engineered, structure;
● Extent and duration of site control measures for leachate and landfill gas
● Phased development of the site;
● Area available
● Maximum height of landfill;
● Site layout requirements;
● Subsequent land use and restoration programme;
● Other constraints
All design criteria and requirements relating to the proposed structure, and the safety concept, on which these are based,
must be set out in the design report. The following points should also be considered in the design with regard to
construction, operation and closure of the landfill;
9.5.1 Construction
● Protection of components already constructed; in particular, sealing layers and drainage blankets;
● Minimum dimensions required-for construction work;
● Simple and non-sensitive design and construction;
● Climate conditions;
● Availability of construction materials.
9.5.2 Landfill operation

● Stability analyses of the waste body;
● Waste placement techniques, phasing and supervision;
● Settlement and other types of deformation, checked by monitoring programmes;
● Operating facility, buildings and roads;
● Gas management and monitoring programmes;
● Surface water and drainage;
● Leachate management and groundwater control;
● Environmental concerns, i.e. dust and noise emissions, etc.
59
9.5.3 Closure of the Landfill

● Programme for measures to seal the surface and restore the site to the required after use, taking account of
settlement, drainage and gas emission;
● Supervisory measures (type and frequency of monitoring and reporting, 1 review of the monitoring and control
programmes, etc.);
● Post closure measures
Beside site selection, other important aspects include:

✓ Landfilling methods and operations
✓ Occurrence of landfill leachate and gases;
✓ Movement and control of landfill leachate and gases
60
1. Landfilling Methods and Operations
The most common landfill technology are: Area method, Trench method, Ramp method and Depression method.
Area Method
This method is used when the terrain is not suitable for the excavation of trenches and where the groundwater level is
high. Solid waste cells are constructed in a large area, where layers of wastes are placed within an earthern dyke (berm)
and then compacted. Each layer is compacted as the filling progresses until the permitted high is reached. Usually cover
material in this method is hauled from adjacent land or from borrow-pit areas.
Trench Method
This method is ideally suited to flat areas where the water table is well below the surface. In this method the waste is
spread and compacted in an excavated trench. Trench excavation tailings are used as cover material, which is readily
available. A portion of the trench is dug and earth is stockpiled to form an embankment behind the first trench when the
process is being started. Wastes are then placed in the trench, spread into thin layers from 30 - 60 cm and compacted
before soil cover is introduced.
Ramp Method
Also called progressive slope method is actually a combination of area and trench methods. Solid waste is spread and
compacted on a slope. Cover material is obtained directly from the front of the working face and is compacted on the
waste. The excavation of cover material provides a depression for the next day's waste.
Depression Method
This method is best suited for areas where natural depressions exist such as quarries, canyons, ravines and valleys. The
installation, of liners and leachate collection system is relatively easy. The earth cover of this system is usually obtained
from borrow-pits at the site itself or brought from elsewhere
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2. Occurrence of Landfill Leachate and Gases
Landfill can be considered as a large reactor, where biological, physical, and chemical activities take place, such as:
● Biological decay of organic materials (aerobic or anaerobic);
● Chemical oxidation of waste materials;
● Release of gases from the fill;
● Movement of liquids caused by differential heads;
● Dissolution and leaching of organic and inorganic materials by water and leachate moving through, the fill,
● Movement of dissolved material by concentration gradients and osmosis and
● Uneven settlement caused by consolidation of material into voids
Biodegradation of waste in a landfill could be described under 3 phases:
o The decomposition of organic waste material takes place as result of the action of bacteria. Initially aerobic
conditions prevailed, where air trapped within the landfill is utilised by the microorganism.
o Hydrolysis and fermentation of biological polymers, takes place in the second phase. The aerobic bacteria
break down some of the complex organic compounds to more simple substances followed by anaerobic organisms
which convert the organic compounds to simple fatty acids, together with ammonia, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and
water.
o Anaerobic decomposition by strict anaerobes replaced the aerobic degradation in the third phase. Methane
generation begins with methanogens responsible for degradation of substances, like formate, methanol, hydrogen,
carbon dioxide and acetate to produce methane.
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3. Landfill Leachate
Leachate is defined as:

“Liquid that has percolated through waste and has extracted dissolved or suspended materials from it”
Many physicals, chemical and biological processes govern the production and composition of landfill leachate. In
general, the composition of leachate will be function of the type and age of waste deposited, existing physical-chemical
conditions, the microbiology and the water balance in the landfill.
All domestics and many industrial solid wastes will, produce leachate. Since domestic waste is reasonably consistent in
composition it may be reasonable to assume that the resulting leachate will be also, although its quality changes with
time. The leachate produced is highly variable in quality and quantity depending on factors like:
● Soil type
● Waste composition
● Degree of compaction
● Rainfall
● Evapotranspiration
● Landfill type and age

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1

SKAB4943: SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

What is solid waste?

Solid waste defined by Christensen (1998):

1.1 Type of Solid Wastes

1.1.1 Municipal Wastes

1.1.2 Industrial Wastes

1.1.3 Hazardous Wastes

1.1.4 Agricultural Wastes

1.2 Sources of Solid Wastes

1.3 Properties and Characteristics of Solid Wastes

1.4 Physical components of solid wastes include:

1.4.1 Individual Component

1.4.2 Analysis of Particle Size

Moisture content is expressed as:

Moisture content (%) = (a-b) 100/b

The as-discarded density of the waste sample is

1.5 Chemical Composition

Waste Percent Moisture Dry mass (kg) (based on 100kg

Determine moisture content;

Moisture content (%) = [ (initial mass – mass after drying) /

2. Estimating the density of a solid waste sample.

Waste Percent Typical Volume (m3) (based on 1000kg

Determine density of solid waste;

Density (kg/m3) = 1000kg / 11.07 m3

3. Estimating energy content of a solid waste.

Waste Percent Energy Total energy (kJ) (based on 100kg

Determine the energy content;

Energy content (kJ/kg)

Energy content (dry basis)

Energy content (ash free, dry basis)

4. Estimating the overall chemical composition of a solid waste.

Waste Wet Dry Composition (kg)

Element Mass (kg)

Moisture Moisture = Wet mass – Dry mass

Convert moisture content into H and O;

Revised summary of mass:

Element Mass (kg) Mass (kg) Percent by mass

Carbon 34.51 34.51

Compute molar composition:

Element Mass (kg) Kg/mol Moles

Determine approximate formula WITH or WITHOUT sulfur

Element Mol ratios

Chemical formula with S :

Chemical formula without S:

Estimate energy content using Dulong formula

2. LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS

2.1 Legal Framework Legal Framework

2.1.1 Local Government Act (Act 171) 1976

Part VIII (Section 69- 71)

Part IX (Section 72)

Part XIII (Section 102(s))

2.1.2 Town and Country Planning Act (Act 172) 1976.

2.1.3 Street, Drainage and Building Act (Act 133) 1974

2.1.4 Land Conservation Act (Act No. 3 of 1960) 1960

Part III (Section 14)

2.1.6 The National Land Code 1965

2.2 Action Plan for a Beautiful and Clean Malaysia (1988)

2.3 Environmental Quality Act (Act 127) 1974

Part IV (Section 18- 29)

(Section 31- 32)

2.4 Sustainable Development