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Cavitation surge modelling in Francis turbine draft

tube
a
Sébastien Alligne Project Engineer , Christophe Nicolet (IAHR Member), Executive
b c
Manager , Yoshinobu Tsujimoto Professor in Fluids Engineering & François Avellan (IAHR
d
Member), Professor of Hydraulic Machines
a
Power Vision Engineering Sàrl, Ecublens, Switzerland
b
Power Vision Engineering Sàrl, Ecublens, Switzerland Email:
christophe.nicolet@powervision-eng.ch
c
Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan Email:
d
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Laboratory for Hydraulic Machines,
Lausanne, Switzerland Email:
Published online: 17 Mar 2014.

To cite this article: Sébastien Alligne Project Engineer, Christophe Nicolet (IAHR Member), Executive Manager,
Yoshinobu Tsujimoto Professor in Fluids Engineering & François Avellan (IAHR Member), Professor of Hydraulic
Machines (2014): Cavitation surge modelling in Francis turbine draft tube, Journal of Hydraulic Research, DOI:
10.1080/00221686.2013.854847

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 Journal of Hydraulic Research, 2014
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00221686.2013.854847
© 2014 International Association for Hydro-Environment Engineering and Research

Research paper

Cavitation surge modelling in Francis turbine draft tube

SÉBASTIEN ALLIGNE, Project Engineer, Power Vision Engineering Sàrl, Ecublens, Switzerland
Email: sebastien.alligne@powervision-eng.ch (author for correspondence)

CHRISTOPHE NICOLET (IAHR Member), Executive Manager, Power Vision Engineering Sàrl, Ecublens, Switzerland
Email: christophe.nicolet@powervision-eng.ch

YOSHINOBU TSUJIMOTO, Professor in Fluids Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University,
Osaka, Japan
Downloaded by [EPFL Bibliothèque] at 07:59 27 March 2014

Email: tujimoto@me.es.osaka-u.ac.jp

FRANÇOIS AVELLAN (IAHR Member), Professor of Hydraulic Machines, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL),
Laboratory for Hydraulic Machines, Lausanne, Switzerland
Email: francois.avellan@epfl.ch

ABSTRACT
Francis turbines may experience cavitation surge phenomenon in the draft tube inducing large pressure fluctuations which can jeopardize the hydraulic
system integrity. To predict this phenomenon, a one-dimensional draft tube model is derived from flow momentum and continuity equations including
the convective terms that are not considered in the existing models. A parametric analysis of the draft tube model is carried out to investigate the
influence of parameters on the cavitation surge onset identified by the hydraulic system stability. It is shown that convective terms have a stabilizing
influence modifying stability limit prediction driven by the divergent geometry modelling of the draft tube.

Keywords: Cavitation; flow instabilities; Francis turbine; one-dimensional models; rotating and swirling flows; vortex rope

1 Introduction experiences a positive cavitation swirling flow in the same

Many public energy policies currently focus on increasing the
energy production from renewable resources. These energy
sources being intermittent, unpredictable and unevenly geo-
graphically distributed, are known to be source of disturbances
to the power network. Hence, electrical grid stability issues drive
the interest in both electrical energy storage and the capability of
units to provide ancillary services by extending their operating
range with a faster reaction time. However, the operating range of
Francis units for conventional or pumped storage power plants is
limited. This is due to the cavitation development in the hydraulic
machine with a risk of large pressure fluctuations in the piping
system with possible electrical power swing (Rheingans 1940,
Jacob et al. 1992, Koutnik 2000, Koutnik et al. 2006, Nicolet
et al. 2006).
At part load conditions with a flow rate lower than the
one at the best efficiency point, the flow at the runner outlet
direction as the runner revolution (Fig. 1a). This so-called “cav-
itation vortex rope” features a helical shape and is considered
to be an external excitation source inducing forced-oscillations
in the system (Doerfler 1982). Resonance may occur if the
precession frequency matches with one of the system eigenfre-
quencies that are modified by the cavitation amount in the vortex
core.
At full load conditions with high flow rate, the flow at the run-
ner outlet is driven by a swirling flow in the opposite direction of
the runner revolution (Fig. 1b). This cavitation vortex rope fea-
tures an axisymmetric shape. Contrary to the part load conditions
where forced-oscillations are induced by the helical vortex rope
precession, self-oscillations may occur in full load conditions
(Doerfler 1985). These self-oscillations are experienced with an
axial pulsation of the cavitation volume corresponding to the
first eigenfrequency of the system (Prénat and Jacob 1986, Jacob
et al. 1988).

Received 20 February 2013; accepted 09 October 2013/Currently open for discussion.

ISSN 0022-1686 print/ISSN 1814-2079 online

http://www.tandfonline.com
1
 2 S. Alligne et al.
Downloaded by [EPFL Bibliothèque] at 07:59 27 March 2014
Figure 1 Part load (a) and full load (b) cavitation vortex rope in the
draft tube cone
To predict oscillations induced by the cavitation vortex
rope and potential interactions with the hydraulic system, one-
dimensional compressible models are used. The complete system
is modelled including the draft tube where cavitation vortex
Figure 2 Drawing of the reduced scale model
Journal of Hydraulic Research (2014)
rope is developed. The existing draft tube models are based on
continuity and momentum equations. Key parameters such as
cavitation compliance Cc and mass flow gain factor χ are used
for the prediction of surge phenomenon. Initially, these param-
eters were introduced by Brennen and Acosta (1976) Brennen
(1978) and Duttweiler and Brennen (2002) to analyse surge
phenomenon in cavitating axial inducer pumps. In most of the
existing draft tube models, the divergent geometry of the draft
tube is not reproduced except by Chen et al. (2008) and Yonezawa
et al. (2012). They concluded that the cavitation surge at full load
conditions is due to the destabilizing influence of the draft tube
divergent geometry. This paper aims to go further by consid-
ering convective terms in the momentum equation which were
neglected by the previous authors. Indeed, due to the cavitation
development, the local wave speed in the draft tube is strongly
decreased and flow velocity is in the same order of magnitude as
the wave speed. First, the draft tube model including divergent
geometry and convective terms is derived. Then a parametric
analysis of each model parameter is carried out for both part load
and full load operating conditions to investigate their influence
on the cavitation surge onset.
2 Case study
The measurements are carried out at the test facilities of the
EPFL (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) Laboratory
for Hydraulic Machines on a reduced scale physical model of a
Francis turbine. The real generating unit, featuring a rated power
of 444 MW, is located in a power plant in British Columbia,
Canada, and experiences overload pressure surge phenomenon
inducing pressure and power output fluctuations. Particle image
 Journal of Hydraulic Research (2014) Cavitation surge modelling in Francis turbine draft tube 3

Table 1 Investigated operating points development in the draft tube, a homogeneous fluid model
defined by a density mixture ρ is considered. The momentum
Operating E Q/QBEP NED QED TED y
equation states that the resultant axial component of forces act-
point (J kg−1 ) (−) (−) (−) (−) (◦ )
ing on the control volume is equal to the material derivative of
OP#PL 272.4 0.58 0.318 0.134 0.055 15 the momentum x-component over the control volume (Wylie and
OP#FL 364.6 1.34 0.275 0.268 0.135 30 Streeter 1993)
 
d(ρC) ∂p
velocimetry measurements were carried out and reported in dV = −Aδx − ρgAδx sin θ + Fτ · x (1)
V dt ∂x
Müller et al. (2013) for this case study. Dynamic pressure sen-
sors were installed in the draft tube and synchronized with a where C and p are the x-component of the flow velocity and the
high-speed video camera to visualize the dynamic behaviour of pressure assumed as constant in the cross-section, respectively.
the cavitation volume vortex rope in the cone (Fig. 2). The cavi- The forces acting on the fluid in a segment of the draft tube
tation surge occurring at the prototype scale was reproduced on is shown in Fig. 4a and the momentum relations are shown in
the test rig at the operating point defined in Table 1. This surge Fig. 4b. F τ are the viscous forces defined by the viscous stress
phenomenon is characterized by axial pulsations of the cavitation vector T n applied to a given surface A of normal n. Expressed
volume vortex rope visualized in Fig. 3a. The time history of pres- in the cylindrical coordinates, the elementary viscous force dF τ
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sure coefficient cp and the corresponding frequency spectrum of reads

pressure sensor #6 are given in Fig. 3b and 3c, respectively. Fluc- ⎛ ⎞ 
tuations in pressure field and cavitation volume were experienced τrr τrθ τrx  nr

at a frequency value of f = 2.5 Hz. dF τ = T n dA with T n = ⎝τθ r τθ θ τθ x ⎠ · nθ (2)
τxr τxθ τxx n
The draft tube model, developed in this paper, aims to pre- x
dict the full load cavitation surge phenomenon, which induces
self-oscillations in the whole hydraulic system. Part load operat- This force acts on the inlet, the outlet and on the wall of the
ing conditions, defined in Table 1, have also been investigated. considered draft tube control volume. On the inlet surface, the
Even if no resonance phenomenon with the hydraulic system was force x-component yields
observed, prediction results of the developed draft tube model is
analysed and compared with the full load operating condition. F τ in · x = −τxx A (3)

3 Draft tube model where τxx is the normal viscous stress defined as

∂C
3.1 Momentum equation τxx = 2μ + μ ∇ · C
∂x
Momentum balance on control volume V of length δx with ∂C
= (2μ + μ ) (4)
inlet cross-sectional area A is carried out. Due to the cavitation ∂x

Figure 3 Cavitation volume pulsation (a), time history (b) and amplitude spectrum (c) of pressure fluctuations in the cone measured at sensor #6
 4 S. Alligne et al. Journal of Hydraulic Research (2014)

Figure 4 Momentum control volume showing balance of forces (a) and x momentum (b)

where μ is the fluid viscosity and μ is the second viscosity expands as follows:
(Chassaing 2000). Hence, this dissipation appears in fluid-filled
  
pipes featuring compressibility and/or divergent geometry. At d(ρC) ∂(ρC)
dV = A dx + ρC C · n dA
the outlet, the viscous force can be expressed with a first-order V dt δx ∂t ∂V
Taylor development as follows: ∂ ∂
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= (ρACδx) + (ρAC 2 δx) (10)

∂t ∂x
∂(τxx A)
F τ out · x = τxx A + δx (5)
∂x The second integral on the right-hand side of Eq. (10) represents
the balance of the fluxes of the x-component momentum on the
According to Eq. (2), the viscous force on the wall F τ w projected
boundary surfaces of the control volume. Considering a linear
on the abscissa x can be expressed as follows:
distribution modelling of the flux at the outlet of the control
 volume (Fig. 4b), this integral is developed and yields to the
Fτw · x = (−nr τxr − nx τxx ) dA second line of Eq. (10). Substituting into Eq. (9), momentum
  equation reads
= −τxr |G nr dA − τxx |G nx dA (6)
1 ∂C C ∂A C 2 ∂A 2C ∂C 1 ∂p
∂A + + + + + sin θ
= −τxr |G πDδx − τxx |G δx g ∂t gA ∂t gA ∂x g ∂x ρg ∂x
∂x
τ0 π D 1 ∂τxx C dρ
+ − + =0 (11)
where D is the pipe diameter. Assuming a linear distribution of τxr ρgA ρg ∂x ρg dt
and τxx on the wall, these terms can be extracted from the integral
and evaluated on the gravity centre G of the wall surface (Wylie The last term of Eq. (11) is the material derivative of the density
and Streeter 1993). Regarding the tangential component of the and is substituted by the continuity equation (Chassaing 2000)
stress tensor τxr , the Darcy–Weisbach formulation is used while
for the normal component τxx , a first-order Taylor development 1 dρ 1 dA ∂C
+ + =0 (12)
is derived ρ dt A dt ∂x

ρC|C| The cross-section is a function of the abscissa and the pressure

τxr |G = τ0 = l (7)
8 leading to

∂τxx δx
τxx |G = τxx + (8)
∂x 2 dA ∂A dp ∂A dx
= +
dt ∂p dt ∂x dt
where l is the local loss coefficient. By replacing the viscous ∂A
forces into Eq. (1) and neglecting the second-order terms in δx, ≈ C (13)
∂x
it yields
≈ Kx C

d(ρC)
dV
V dt where Kx is the cross-section expansion rate along x of the
∂p ∂τxx draft tube geometry. In Eq. (13), the partial derivative of the
= −Aδx − ρgAδx sin θ − τ0 πDδx + Aδx (9) cross-section over the pressure represents the contribution of
∂x ∂x
the wall deformation to the compressibility of the homogeneous
The left-hand term of Eq. (9) represents the material derivative fluid-filled pipe system. This contribution is negligible compared
of the x-component momentum on the control volume V which with the compressibility of the cavitation volume. Substituting
 Journal of Hydraulic Research (2014) Cavitation surge modelling in Francis turbine draft tube 5

Eqs. (12) and (13) into Eq. (11) and using flow rate Q and
piezometric head h as state variables, Eq. (11) reads

1 ∂Q Q ∂Q Q2 ∂h τ0 πD 1 ∂τxx
+ 2 − 3 Kx + + − =0
gA ∂t gA ∂x gA ∂x ρgA ρg ∂x
(14)

Expressing the gradient of the normal stress as function of the

Figure 5 Continuity control volume with cavitation volume
flow rate yields to the following expression:

Cθ1 U 1 A1
1 ∂τxx 1 ∂ ∂C γ = = cot β1 −
= μ Cm 1 Q1
(20)
ρg ∂x ρg ∂x ∂x
 

1 ∂  1 ∂Q ∂ 1
= μ +Q (15) Hence, the time derivative of the swirl parameter can be
ρg ∂x A ∂x ∂x A
developed

The term in parentheses corresponds to the dissipation due to the dγ A1 dU1 U1 A1 dQ1
=− + (21)
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velocity gradient induced by the compressibility of the homoge- dt Q1 dt Q12 dt

neous fluid and the variation of cross-section. In this model, only
Integrating Eq. (21) into Eq. (19), the time derivative of the
the dissipation induced by the compressibility of the cavitation
cavitation volume is
volume is taken into account. With this assumption, Eq. (14) can
be rewritten as dVc A1 ∂Vc dU1 U1 A1 ∂Vc dQ1 ∂Vc dh
=− + 2
+
dt Q1 ∂γ dt Q1 ∂γ dt ∂h dt
1 ∂Q Q ∂Q Q2 ∂h τ0 πD μ ∂ 2 Q
+ 2 − 3 Kx + + − =0 ∂Vc dU1 ∂Vc dQ1 ∂Vc dh
gA ∂t gA ∂x gA ∂x ρgA ρgA ∂x2 = + + (22)
(16) ∂U1 dt ∂Q1 dt ∂h dt
dU1 dQ1 dh
= −ε −χ − Cc
For comparison purpose, the momentum equation of draft tube dt dt dt
models without convective terms, divergent geometry modelling
Finally, the dynamic behaviour of the cavitation volume fluctu-
and dilatation viscosity is expressed as follows:
ations can be described using three parameters:

1 ∂Q ∂h τ0 πD
+ + =0 (17) • the cavitation compliance: Cc = −∂Vc /∂h;
gA ∂t ∂x ρgA • the mass flow gain factor: χ = −∂Vc /∂Q1 ;
• the rotational speed gain factor: ε = −∂Vc /∂U1 .
3.2 Continuity equation

The cavitation volume Vc developed in the draft tube is a function Considering a control volume defined between the outlet runner
of the inlet swirl parameter γ and the piezometric head state (1) and the outlet of the draft tube elbow (2) including a fluctuat-
variable h ing cavitation volume (Fig. 5), the continuity balance is written
as follows:
Vc = f (γ , h) (18)
dVc dU1 dQ1 dh
Q1 − Q2 = − =ε +χ + Cc (23)
Hence, the time derivative of the cavitation volume can be dt dt dt dt
developed as follows:
In this paper, the rotational speed of the turbine is assumed
constant which yields to
dVc ∂Vc dγ ∂Vc dh
= + (19)
dt ∂γ dt ∂h dt dQ1 dh
Q1 − Q 2 = χ + Cc (24)
dt dt
The swirl parameter γ is defined as the ratio between the swirl
velocity Cθ and the meridional velocity Cm at the outlet runner
indicated by the subscript 1. From the velocity triangle at the
3.3 Electrical analogy
runner outlet, the swirl velocity can be expressed as a function of
the runner outlet blade angle β1 and the runner outlet peripheral In the SIMSEN software, developed by EPFL, the dynamic
velocity U1 (Chen et al. 2008). behaviour of hydraulic and electrical components is described
 6 S. Alligne et al. Journal of Hydraulic Research (2014)

by a set of first-order nonlinear ordinary differential equations of

the following form:

dX
A + [B(X )]X = V (X ) (25)
dt

where A and B are the state global matrices, X and V (X ) are the
state vector and the boundary conditions vector, respectively. The
set of equations of the developed draft tube model matches with
this formulation. Initially, this software was developed for the
transient simulation of electrical power systems (Sapin 1995).
Figure 6 Overlapping of momentum and continuity control volumes
Then, the capability of the software was extended to hydraulic
components in order to simulate the transient behaviour of a com-
plete hydroelectric power plant. Hence, the hydraulic models
are based on an electrical analogy (Nicolet 2007). An equiva-
lent electrical scheme of the draft tube model is derived from
the momentum and the continuity equation whose set of equa-
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tions can be written in the matrix form (25). Commonly used

for standard pipe modelling, fluid inertia and energy losses are
represented, respectively, by an inductance L and a resistance Rl Figure 7 Equivalent electrical scheme of the draft tube model

δx lδx variables. The equation related to the pressure state variable is

L= ; Rl = Q (26)
gA 2gDA2 the continuity equation (24) and the two remaining equations
The divergent influence of the geometry inducing the increase related to the flow rate state variables are the momentum equa-
of pressure along the draft tube is modelled through a negative tions (30) expressed at the two flow rate locations. Hence, the
resistance −Rd defined as follows: resulting set of ordinary differential equations, including momen-
tum and continuity equations, can be written under the matrix
δx · Kx ∂A form of Eq. (25)
Rd = Q; Kx = (27)
gA3 ∂x
⎛L ⎞ 
0 0  Q1
2 d 
The convective terms in Eq. (16) are represented by a voltage ⎝χ Cc 0 ⎠ · h1+1/2

source defined as 0 0 L2
dt  Q
2
Q ⎛1 ⎞
J = (28) 2
(Rl − Rd − J1 ) + Rμ 1 J1
2
− Rμ
gA2
+⎝ −1 0 1 ⎠
Finally, dissipation due to the dilatation viscosity μ is repre- J2
2
− Rμ −1 1
2
(Rl − Rd − J2 ) + Rμ
sented by a resistance defined as  
 Q1  h1
 
μ

· h1+1/2 =  0 (31)
Rμ = (29)  Q −h
ρgAδx 2 2

In the SIMSEN software, control volumes for continuity and
momentum balances are overlapped in space as illustrated on
a straight divergent pipe in Fig. 6 leading to a staggered grid.
Hence, pressure hi+1/2 and flow rate Qi state variables are not
considered at the same location. Considering this spatial dis-
cretization, Eq. (16) expressed at the flow rate Qi+1 location
yields to
∂Qi+1 Ji+1
L + (Qi+2 − Qi ) − Rd Qi+1 + (hi+1+1/2 − hi+1/2 )
∂t 2 considered as an external forcing function for the hydraulic sys-
+ Rl Qi+1 − Rμ (Qi+2 − 2Qi+1 + Qi ) = 0 (30)
For this investigation, a lumped draft tube model is consid-
ered which is described by one pressure and two flow rate state
The set of equations (31) corresponds to the equations of a “T-
shaped” equivalent electrical scheme (Fig. 7). The first and the
third equations of Eq. (31) correspond respectively to the sum
of voltages in the electrical meshes related to the upstream and
downstream flow rates Q1 and Q2 . These two electrical equa-
tions correspond to the two momentum equations. The second
equation of Eq. (31) is the sum of the currents at the capacitance
node which corresponds to the continuity equation.
At part load conditions, where cavitation helical vortex rope is
tem, the above equivalent electrical scheme can be modified by
integrating an additional voltage source in each electrical mesh.
This voltage source is a momentum source corresponding to the
force induced by the helical vortex rope precession on the draft
 Journal of Hydraulic Research (2014) Cavitation surge modelling in Francis turbine draft tube 7

Figure 8 SIMSEN model of the test rig

Table 2 Test rig model parameters Considering constant cavitation compliance Cc , mass flow gain
Downloaded by [EPFL Bibliothèque] at 07:59 27 March 2014

factor χ and dilatation viscosity μ , nonlinearity of the draft tube

Pipe L (m) D (m) a (m s−1 ) l (−)
model is due to the resistive terms Rl,d and the convective terms
P1 36.4 0.60 1200 0.02 J which depend on the flow rate Q. Extracting the flow rate of the
P2 29.4 0.60 1200 0.02 resistances Rl,d , the linearization of the resistive terms yields to
P3 8.6 0.37 1200 0.02
P4 15 0.60 1200 0.02 δ(Rl,d Q) = δ(Rl,d Q2 )
P5 3.8 0.39 1200 0.02
P6 3.4 0.66 1200 0.02 = 2Rl,d δQ (33)

where Rl,d is constant reduced resistances defined respectively as

tube wall (Alligné et al. 2011). This additional source should
Rl = lδx/(2gDA2 ) and Rd = δx · Kx /(gA3 ). Extracting the flow
be used for investigations of forced response analysis to predict
rate of the voltage source J , the convective terms in the first mesh
potential resonance phenomenon.
of the electrical scheme are linearized as follows:

4 Results and discussions δ[J1 (Q2 − Q1 )] = δ[J  Q1 (Q2 − Q1 )]

4.1 Small perturbation stability analysis
The SIMSEN model of the test rig including the piping system,
feeding pump, tank, runner characteristics and draft tube is devel-
oped. The draft tube model covers the cone and the elbow parts
having a wrap length of 1.2 m. The two channels of the draft tube
divided by the pier after the elbow are modelled by an equiva-
lent pipe. The one-dimensional model of the complete test rig is
presented in Fig. 8 and the relevant input data are given in Table 2.
A small perturbation stability analysis of the complete
hydraulic system is carried out. This stability analysis is based
on the linearization of the set of equations around the operating
point and then stability is deduced from complex eigenvalues
s = α + jω of the linearized set of equations (Alligné et al.
2009). The Francis turbine is considered as a quasi-steady head
Ht (Q,  , y) depending on the flow rate Q, the rotational speed
 and the guide vane opening y. Considering constant rotational
speed and guide vane opening, the linearization of the turbine
head is given by
∂Ht
δHt = δQ (32)
∂Q
= J  [(Q2 − 2Q1 )δQ1 + Q1 δQ2 ] (34)
where J  is a constant voltage source defined as J  = 2/(gA2 ).
From the linearized matrices, the eigenvalues are computed.
Damping and oscillation frequency of the eigenmodes are given,
respectively, by the real part and the imaginary part of the eigen-
values. Positive damping corresponds to unstable eigenmode
leading to self-oscillations of the hydraulic system. The influ-
ence of the divergent geometry, the convective terms, the mass
flow gain factor and the dilatation viscosity on system stability
is discussed for both part load and full load conditions. In the
linearization approach, the gradient of the turbine characteristic
and the flow rate values differs between these two investigated
operating conditions.
4.2 Influence of divergent geometry
In this section, the influence of the divergent geometry defined by
the negative resistance −Rd in the equivalent electrical scheme
of Fig. 7 is investigated by varying the outlet cross-sectional
area A2 of the draft tube model. In Fig. 9, the damping of the
first eigenmode α is plotted as a function of the ratio between the
 8 S. Alligne et al.
Figure 9 Effect of divergent geometry on the first eigenmode damping for part load (a) and full load (b) conditions for different draft tube wave
speeds
Downloaded by [EPFL Bibliothèque] at 07:59 27 March 2014
Figure 10 Comparison of the effect of divergent geometry on the first three eigenmodes dampings for part load (a) and full load (b) conditions with
a = 25 m s−1
outlet and the inlet draft tube cross-sectional areas A2 /A1 , here-
after referred to as the divergent ratio. The inlet cross-sectional
area A1 is kept constant. A comparison between the part load and
the full load operating conditions is made. Neither the mass flow
gain factor nor the dilatation viscosity is applied to the model.
The cavitation compliance parameter Cc (i.e. the capacitance
of the equivalent electrical scheme) defines the wave speed a of
the travelling pressure wave in the draft tube according to the
following equation:
gAL
Cc = (35)
a2
The wave speed parameter is taken to be the parameter from 25
to 1000 m s−1 and is considered to be constant in the whole draft
tube. The influence of this wave speed on the damping evolution
as a function of the divergent ratio is assessed. For high-wave
speed values corresponding to cavitation free conditions in the
draft tube, the influence of the divergent is negligible. However,
by decreasing the wave speed, the damping of the first eigenmode
becomes sensitive to the divergent geometry: α is increased when
Journal of Hydraulic Research (2014)
the divergent ratio increases. Similar results were found by Chen
et al. (2008).
At full load operating conditions, positive α values are reached
for the lowest wave speed value of 25 m s−1 . This positive damp-
ing yields to a full load cavitation surge phenomenon inducing
self-oscillations in the hydraulic system.
In part load conditions, positive damping can be obtained as
well. However, for the lowest wave speed value of 25 m s−1 , the
divergent geometry has less influence. For the same outlet cross-
section variation, damping is less modified. This is due to the
lower Mach number pronouncing the influence of the convective
terms which tends to stabilize the flow.
Regarding the higher order eigenmodes, the influence of the
divergent geometry on the dampings is investigated and plot-
ted in Fig. 10. The wave speed value is set to 25 m s−1 inducing
sensitivity of the first eigenmode damping to the divergent geom-
etry. The α values of the second and the third eigenmodes feature
much less variations as a function of the outlet cross-sectional
area than the first eigenmode. For the system considered in the
present study, positive α values cannot be reached for the higher
 Journal of Hydraulic Research (2014) Cavitation surge modelling in Francis turbine draft tube 9

made. Neither the mass flow gain factor nor the dilatation vis-
cosity is applied to the model. Moreover, the wave speed value
is set to 25 m s−1 . In both operating conditions, for a given outlet
cross-sectional area A2 , the convective terms add damping to the
system by decreasing the α value. The convective terms have a
stabilizing influence. To understand this model behaviour, rea-
soning on the equivalent electrical scheme of Fig. 7 and on the
linearized set of equations (31) is carried out. The mesh equation
of the electrical scheme related to the flow rate Q1 is

L dQ1 1
f (Q1 , h1+1/2 , Q2 ) = + (Rl − Rd − J1 )Q1
2 dt 2
1
+ J1 Q2 + h1+1/2 − h1 = 0 (36)
2
Figure 11 Effect of divergent geometry on the first eigenfrequency for A small perturbation of the f function around the steady-state
different draft tube wave speeds (part load and full load conditions) point mentioned by the subscript 0 yields to
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order eigenmodes. Hence, in the following discussions, the focus f (Q10 + δQ1 , h1+1/20 + δh1+1/2 , Q20 + δQ2 )
 
is on the first eigenmode for the stability analysis. ∂f  ∂f 
= f (Q10 , h1+1/20 , Q20 ) + δQ + δQ2
Moreover, this divergent geometry modelling influences the ∂Q1 0 ∂Q2 0
1

frequency of the eigenmode. In Fig. 11, the first eigenfrequency f

L dδQ1
is plotted as a function of the divergent ratio. Similar to the damp- = + (Rl − Rd )δQ1 + J1 (Q20 − 2Q10 )δQ1
2 dt
ing evolution, the divergent ratio influences the eigenfrequency
when low-wave speed values in the draft tube are experienced. + J1 Q10 δQ2 + δh1+1/2 (37)
These results are the same between part load and full load
conditions. According to the experimental unstable frequency At the steady state of the system, Q10 = Q20 , which yields to the
value of 2.5 Hz observed at full load conditions, a low-wave following simplifications:
speed value of 25 m s−1 is required to predict the frequency of
self-oscillations with the model. f (Q10 + δQ1 , h1+1/20 + δh1+1/20 , Q20 + δQ2 )
L dδQ1
= + δh1+1/2 + (Rl − Rd )δQ1 + J1 Q10 δ(Q2 − Q1 )
4.3 Influence of convective terms 2 dt
(38)
In this section, the influence of the convective terms defined by
the voltage source J in the equivalent electrical scheme of Fig. 7 The damping of the system is driven by the resistive terms of the
is investigated. In Fig. 12, the damping of the first eigenmode α electrical scheme which multiply the flow rate state variables.
is plotted as a function of the divergent ratio of the draft tube and Without the divergent geometry and the convective terms, the
a comparison between convective and non-convective models is contribution of the draft tube component into the damping of the

Figure 12 Effect of convective terms on the first eigenmode damping for part load (a) and full load (b) conditions with a = 25 m s−1
 10 S. Alligne et al.
Figure 13 Effect of the mass flow gain factor on the first eigenmode damping for part load (a) and full load (b) conditions with a = 25 m s−1 and
A2 /A1 = 2.2
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hydraulic system is only given by the resistance Rl , correspond-
ing to the friction head losses. Considering now, the divergent
geometry without the convective terms, the resistance Rd is sub-
tracted from the friction resistance Rl . Particularly pronounced
for the non-convective model, Fig. 12 shows that the increase of
the outlet cross-sectional area first increases the α value and then
decreases after an area value. This evolution is driven by the resis-
tance Rd being a function of the outlet cross-sectional area A2 ,
see Eq. (27). Actually, the outlet cross-sectional area value giving
the maximum α value corresponds to the area inducing the maxi-
mum resistance Rd , i.e. the minimum losses in the draft tube given
by Rl − Rd . Regarding the stabilizing influence of the convec-
tive terms, it is explained by the additional damping given by the
term J1 Q10 multiplying the fluctuation of the flow rates difference
δ(Q2 − Q1 ). In Fig. 12, the wave speed value is set to 25 m s−1 ,
modelling the occurrence of a cavitation volume in the draft
tube. When fluctuation of this cavitation volume is experienced,
the downstream flow rate fluctuations are much higher than the
upstream ones (Chen et al. 2008, Yonezawa et al. 2012). Hence,
the difference is positive and the cavitation volume fluctuations
induce an additional damping to the system. This explains why
the convective terms have a stabilizing influence. It can be con-
cluded that the modelling of the divergent geometry without the
convective terms, inevitably yields to the prediction of an unsta-
ble hydraulic system inducing self-oscillations in the system.
4.4 Influence of the mass flow gain factor
The mass flow gain factor χ represents the cavitation volume
variation as a function of the runner exit flow rate Q1 . For full load
conditions, the tangential velocity Cθ increases if the flow rate
is increased. Then, the pressure in the vortex core is decreased
and the cavitation volume is increased. Hence, negative values
define the mass flow gain factor at full load conditions. On the
other hand, in part load conditions, the tangential velocity Cθ
decreases if the flow rate is increased. Then the core pressure is
increased and the cavitation volume is decreased. Hence, positive
Journal of Hydraulic Research (2014)
values define the mass flow gain factor at part load conditions.
Nevertheless, at deep part load conditions, characterized by very
low flow rate, the cavitation volume increases with the flow rate
and behaves similarly to full load conditions (Doerfler 1985). In
the framework of this paper, deep part load conditions are not
investigated.
In Fig. 13, the damping of the first eigenmode α is plotted as
a function of the mass flow gain factor value for part load and
full load conditions. The wave speed value and the divergent
ratio are set, respectively, to 25 m s−1 and 2.2. The wave speed
value is chosen to predict the first eigenfrequency at 2.5 Hz cor-
responding to the cavitation volume fluctuations experienced on
the test rig. The selected divergent ratio value corresponds to the
divergent geometry of the reduced scale model. The dilatation
viscosity is not applied to the model. This set of parameters yields
to the prediction of unstable positive α values for both operat-
ing conditions characterizing self-oscillations of the hydraulic
system. Figure 13 shows that the influence of the mass flow
gain factor differs between part load and full load conditions. In
full load conditions, the mass flow gain factor features a sta-
bilizing influence by decreasing the α value whereas in part
load conditions it features a destabilizing influence by increas-
ing α. Similar results were obtained by Chen et al. (2008). In
the given range of the mass flow gain factor, α keeps a positive
value leading to self-oscillations prediction for both operating
conditions. However, in part load, the helical vortex rope pre-
cession induces forced-oscillations (Doerfler 1982) in the system
which frequency can match with one of the eigenfrequency of
the system. Hence, to reduce the destabilizing influences of the
divergent geometry and the mass flow gain factor, the dilatation
viscosity μ must be considered to avoid positive α values at
part load conditions.
4.5 Influence of the dilatation viscosity
In this section, the influence of the dilatation viscosity defined
by the resistance Rμ in the equivalent electrical scheme of
 Journal of Hydraulic Research (2014)
Figure 14 Effect of the dilatation viscosity on the first eigenmode damping for part load (a) and full load (b) conditions with a = 25 m s−1 and
A2 /A1 = 2.2
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Fig. 7 is investigated. This term was initially introduced in
the draft tube model to represent energy dissipation during a
phase change between liquid and gas when cavitation volume
experiences fluctuations (Pezzinga 2003, Alligné et al. 2011).
In Fig. 14, the damping of the first eigenmode α is plotted as
a function of the dilatation viscosity value for different mass
flow gain factor values. For both part load and full load con-
ditions, this viscosity tends to decrease the α value linearly to
stabilize the system. Moreover, it is shown that the mass flow
gain factor shifts this linear damping evolution in a destabi-
lizing or a stabilizing sense respectively for part load and full
load conditions. With this analysis, orders of magnitude for the
dilatation viscosity parameter can be drawn, based on experi-
mental observations. Indeed, to ensure negative α values at part
load conditions, the dilatation viscosity μ should be higher
than 400 Pa s. Alternatively, for full load conditions, predic-
tion of self-oscillations requires a dilatation viscosity lower than
1000 Pa s.
4.6 Stability of the case study and discussions
At the investigated full load operating point mentioned in Table 1,
the cavitation volume experiences self-oscillations at a frequency
value of 2.5 Hz. This frequency corresponds to the first eigen-
mode of the hydraulic system which is driven by the wave speed
parameter and the divergent ratio (Fig. 11). It has been shown
that a wave speed value of 25 m s−1 is required to predict this
unstable frequency. In cavitation free conditions, the wave speed
value is much higher in piping systems close to 1200 m s−1 . It
is known that the cavitation occurrence drastically decreases the
wave speed, which can reach this typical low value. However,
the wave speed is considered as constant in the whole draft tube
domain since a lumped model is used. With a distributed model
described by several pressure nodes, a non-uniform wave speed
value can be set along the draft tube length depending on the
amount of cavitation (Arpe et al. 2009).
Cavitation surge modelling in Francis turbine draft tube 11
The range of the mass flow gain factor parameter, used in
the above parametric analysis, is conventional compared with
experimental and numerical investigations aiming to determine
this parameter (Alligné et al. 2010, Doerfler and Braun 2010).
Considering this range, it is shown that the dilatation viscosity is
required to avoid prediction of self-oscillations at part load condi-
tions. The order of magnitude is found to be around 1000 Pa s for
this case study. However, in cavitation free conditions in piping
system, the dilatation viscosity value is much higher (Doerfler
2011, Landry et al. 2012). Due to the cavitation occurrence, this
parameter decreases drastically (Pezzinga 2003, Alligné et al.
2011) to reach these typically low values.
In the draft tube model development, see Eq. (15), the contri-
bution of the divergent geometry to the dissipation induced by
the dilatation viscosity has been neglected and should be consid-
ered for further investigations. Indeed, this contribution could
have a destabilizing influence in the same way as the negative
resistance −Rd . In that case, stability limits could be moved and
the adequate set of parameters for accurate prediction will be
changed compared with this study.
5 Conclusions
In this paper a new Francis draft tube model is developed for the
prediction of cavitation surge phenomenon both in part load and
full load conditions. This new model introduces the convective
terms in the momentum equation combined with the divergent
geometry of the draft tube. The main findings of the present study
can be summarized as follows:
• The divergent geometry is the destabilizing parameter of the
draft tube model which may induce self-oscillations of the
cavitation vortex rope.
• The convective terms have a stabilizing influence. Hence, if
these terms are not considered, the modelling of the divergent
geometry inevitably yields to cavitation surge prediction.
 12 S. Alligne et al. Journal of Hydraulic Research (2014)

• The mass flow gain factor stabilizes or destabilizes cavitation f = frequency (Hz)
volume fluctuations respectively for full load and part load g = gravitational acceleration (m s−2 )
conditions. h = piezometric head (m)
• The energy dissipation due to dilatation viscosity must be m = mass (kg)
considered. Due to the destabilizing influence of the mass n = runner frequency (Hz)
flow gain factor at part load conditions, the prediction of self- n = normal vector (−)
p = pressure (Pa)
oscillations is feasible if dilatation viscosity is not considered.
s = complex eigenvalue (−)
y = guide vane opening (◦ )
γ = swirl parameter (−)
Despite the improvement of the existing draft tube models, θ = pipe slope angle (rad)
the issue of the nonlinear divergence of the draft tube geometry β = outlet blade angle (rad)
as a function of the abscissa is not considered. This simplification δx = elementary length (m)
results from the use of a lumped draft tube model described by χ = mass flow gain factor (s)
only one pressure node. Since the divergent geometry plays a l = local loss coefficient (−)
significant role in the system stability, a distributed draft tube ρ = density (kg m−3 )
model with nonlinear divergent geometry and non-uniform wave τ = viscous stress (Pa)
speed parameter could be used to improve the prediction of the μ = fluid viscosity (Pa s)
μ =
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cavitation surge phenomena. second viscosity (Pa s)

μ = dilatation viscosity (Pa s)
ω = pulsation frequency (rad s−1 )
 = runner rotational speed (rad s−1 )
Acknowledgements ε = rotational speed gain factor (m2 s)
∼ = quantity fluctuations
The authors are very grateful to BC Hydro who made the reduced 1 = inlet draft tube model
scale model available for experimental investigations in the 2 = outlet draft tube model
framework of the EPFL PhD thesis No. 5117.
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