TRI

CKYTOPI
CSOFMDCATBI
OLOGY
BY
ABDULMANAN

FacebookGr
oup Exper
tMdcat
 URI
NARY SYSTEM
Ki
dney

1.Fi
l
terbl
ood

2.Excr
eteur
ine

3.Regul
atewat
erandel
ect
rol
ytebal
ance

4.Act
s asendocr
inegl
and

5.I
tisabout1%oft
hebodywei
ght

8.Eachki
dneyr
ecei
ves10%oft
hebl
oodsuppl
y

Hi
lum i
sadepressi
onononesi
deofki
dneyt
hroughwhi
chr
enal
art
eryent
ersandr
enal
vei
nand
ur
eterl
eav
esthekidney

Passagewayofurine
Nephron[Bowman'scapsul
e->PCT->LoopofHenl
e->DCT->Collect
ingt
ubul
e]->Coll
ect
ing
duct--
->Pel
vis-
--
>Ureter-
--
>Uret
ral
ori
fi
ce--->Uri
nar
ybladder-
--
>Urethr
a--
->Exter
nalur
ethr
al
ori
fi
ce--->Excret
ion

Nephr
oni
stheSt
ruct
ural
andf
unct
ional
uni
tofki
dney

Renal
cortex
1.Out
erzone 2.Itcont
ainsconv
olut
edpar
t(pr
oxi
mal
anddi
stal
tubul
es)nephr
on,
bowman'scapsul
e,glomerul
us

Renalmedul
la
1.I
nnerzone 2.I
tcont
ainsr
enal
pyr
ami
ds,
loopofHenl
e,col
l
ect
ingduct

Renal
cor
puscl
e
Bowman'
scapsul
eandgl
omer
uluscol
l
ect
ivel
yfor
mrenal
cor
puscl
es
Bowman' scapsul
eisacupshapedswell
ing.
Glomerul
usisaTuf tofcapi
ll
ari
esi
nBowman'scapsul
econnect
ingaf
fer
entar
tri
olewi
th
ef
f er
entart
ri
ole.Glomerul
uscir
cul
atebl
oodthr
oughcapsul
e

Proximal convolutedtubul
e
1.Glomer ularfi
lt
ratepassesfrom Bowman'scapsul ei
ntoproxi
malconvol
utedtubul
es
2.Chieffunct i
onisreabsorpt
ionofwat er
,el
ectrol
ytesandorgani
cnutri
ent
s(gl
ucose,ami
no
acids,v
itami ns)fr
om glomerularf
il
trat
e 3.Reabsorpt
ionofwaterandNa65%

LoopofHenl e
Countercurr
entmult
ipli
eract
ion
thi
ndescendingli
mb( 20%passi
v el
ywat err
eabsor
pti
onviamedul
l
aryhyper
tonicit
y.I
tis
i
mper meabletosodi
um ion)
Thickascendi
ngli
mb(30%Sodi um reabsor
bedhereact
ivel
yvi
aal
doster
one.Itisimper
meabl
e
towater)

Dist
alconvolutedtubul eandCollecti
ngt ubules
1.Thereisnor eabor pti
onofwaterbydi ffusi
oninDCTandcol l
ecti
ngtubul
es
2.Herereaborptionofwat eri
scont r
oll
edbyADH( act
ivereabsorpt
ion)
3.Overhydr
ation/Hy potonicbodyf l
uid--->inhi
bitADHr el
ease
4.Dehydrat
ion/Hy per t
onicbodyflui
d--->pr omot eADHr elease

Coll
ecti
ngtubul
esdraini
ntocoll
ect
ingductwhi
chdrai
nintopelv
is.Upperpartofuret
eris
expandedtofi
ll
hil
um.Thisparti
srenalpel
vi
s.Uret
erconductur
inefrom ki
dneys(r
enalpel
vi
s)
touri
narybl
adderthr
oughureter
alori
fi
ce

Urethra
1.itconveysur
inef
rom uri
nar
ybladdert
oout
sidet
hebodyt
hroughext
ernal
uret
hral
ori
fi
ce
2.Itpresent
sinbot
hmal eandfemale

Bloodvessels
1.Abdomi nalaor tagivesr enalar
terywhichpassesthr
oughhil
um.
2.Renal ar
terygi vesafferentartr
iol
ewhichsupplyglomerul
arcapil
l
ari
eswhichunitt
oform
effer
entartri
ole.
3. Ef
ferentartri
olef or
m per it
ubularcapi
ll
arywhichnouri
shesproxi
malanddist
alconvol
uted
tubul
esi nrenal cort
ex.
4.Effer
entar t
rioleswhi char i
sefrom gl
omer ul
uscapil
l
ari
esentersmedul
lar
ypyramids
alongsidel
oopsofhenl
e
5.Seriesofst
rai
ghtCapi
ll
ari
esi
nmedul
awhi
chr
unpar
all
elt
othel
oopofHenl
ecal
l
edv
asa
recta

MCQs
1.Mostoft
her
eabsor
pti
onoccur
sin:

a.Pr
oxi
mal
conv
olut
edt
ubul
e

b.Di
stal
conv
olut
edt
ubul
e

c.Ascendi
ngl
i
mbofHenl
e

d.Descendi
ngl
i
mbofHenl
e

2.I
nwhi
chpar
tofNephr
onwat
eri
sact
ivel
yabsor
bed?

a.Pr
oxi
mal
tubul
e

b.Col
l
ect
ingt
ubul
e

c.Ascendi
ngl
i
mbofHenl
e

d.Descendi
ngl
i
mbofHenl
e

3.I
nwhi
chpar
tofnephr
on,
ther
eisnoout
fl
owofwat
erf
rom f
il
tr
ate?

a.Pr
oxi
mal
tubul
e

b.Di
stal
tubul
e

c.Ascendi
ngl
i
mb

d.Descendi
ngl
i
mb

4.Majorfact
orf
ort
hepr
oduct
ionofhy
per
toni
cur
inei
sgr
adual
l
yincr
easi
ngosmot
ic
concent
rati
onfr
om :
a.Cor
text
oinnermedul
l
a

b.I
nnerMedul
l
atocor
tex

c.Renal
pel
vi
stour
eter

d.Ur
eter
stour
inar
ybl
adder

5.Whi
chpar
tofnephr
oni
slar
gel
yresponsi
blef
orpr
oduct
ionofconcent
rat
edur
ine?

a.Pr
oxi
mal
tubul
es

b.Di
stal
tubul
es

c.LoopofHenl
e

d.Col
l
ect
ingduct

6.Upperpar
tofur
eterexpandedt
ofi
l
lhi
l
um.Thi
spar
tis:

a.Renal
pyr
ami
d

b.Renal
pel
vi
s

c.Ur
ethr
a

d.Bowman'
scapsul
e

7.Whi
chpar
tofnephr
oni
sundert
heact
ionofADH?

a.PCT

b.Ascendi
ngl
i
mb

c.Descendi
ngl
i
mb

d.Col
l
ect
ingt
ubul
es

8.Eachki
dneyr
ecei
vesabout---of
 thet
otal
bloodsuppl
y

a.10%
b.20%

c.50%

d.25%

9.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
snotapar
tofcor
ti
cal
nephr
on?

a.LoopofHenl
e

b.PCT

c.DCT

d.Bowman'
scapsul
e

10.Gl
omer
ularcapi
l
lar
iesr
ecei
vebl
ooddi
rect
lyf
rom ------

a.Aor
ta

b.Renal
art
ery

c.Af
fer
entar
ter
ies

d.Ef
fer
entar
ter
ies

11.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngv
essel
sci
rcul
atebl
oodt
hroughBowman'
scapsul
e?

a.Ef
fer
entar
ter
ies

b.Af
fer
entar
ter
ies

c.Gl
omer
ulus

d.Per
it
ubul
arcapi
l
lar
ies

12.Ser
iesofv
essel
swhi
chr
unpar
all
elt
oloopofHenl
ear
ecal
l
ed:

a.Gl
omer
ulus

b.Per
it
ubul
arcapi
l
lar
ies
c.Vasar
ect
a

d.Af
fer
entv
essel
s

13.Thecor
rectpassageofur
ine:

a.Nephr
on-
>Pel
vi
s->Ur
eter-
>Ur
ethr
a->Ur
inar
ybl
adder

b.Nephr
on-
>Pel
vi
s->Ur
eter-
>Ur
inar
ybl
adder-
>Ur
ethr
a

c.Ur
eter-
>Nephr
on-
>Pel
vi
s->Ur
inar
ybl
adder-
>Ur
ethr
a

d.Nephr
on-
>Ur
eter-
>Pel
vi
s->Ur
inar
ybl
adder-
>Ur
ethr
a

14.I
nwhi
chpar
tofnephr
on,
wat
eri
spassi
vel
yabsor
bed?

a.PCT

b.DCT

c.Col
l
ect
ingt
ubul
es

d.Thi
ckascendi
ngl
i
mb

15.Wat
erconser
vat
ioni
nourbodybyki
dneyi
sundert
hecont
rol
of:

a.Ant
eri
orpi
tui
tar
ygl
and

b.Post
eri
orpi
tui
tar
ygl
and

c.Thy
roi
dgl
and

d.Adr
enal
gland

16.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
nggl
andl
i
esoneachki
dney
?

a.Ant
eri
orpi
tui
tar
ygl
and

b.Post
eri
orpi
tui
tar
ygl
and

c.Thy
roi
dgl
and
d.Adr
enal
gland

17.Howmuchv
olumeoft
hegl
omer
ularf
il
tr
atei
sexcr
etedasur
ine?

a.95%

b.0.
5%

c.99.
5%

d.5%

18.Concent
rat
ionofur
inedependsuponwhi
chor
gan?

(
a)Bowman’
scapsul
e

(
b)l
engt
hofHenl
e’
sloop

(
c)P.
C.T.

(
d)net
wor
kofcapi
l
lar
iesar
isi
ngf
rom gl
omer
ulus.

19.Adecr
easedwat
ersuppl
ytobodyr
esul
tsi
nincr
easedsecr
eti
onof
:

(
a)ADH

(
b)i
nsul
i
n

(
c)sugar

(
d)gl
ucagon

20.Bowman'
scapsul
eleadsi
nto:

(
a)t
ubul
e

(
b)nephr
on

(
c)col
l
ect
ingduct

(
d)nephr
onandcol
l
ect
ingduct
 KEY

1.A About65%r
eabsor
pti
onoccur
s

2.B About65%waterreabsor
bedbydif
fusi
oninproxi
malt
ubul
es.20%bydif
fusi
onin
Descendi
ngli
mbofloopofHenle.I
nDist
al t
ubul
esandcol
l
ecti
ngtubul
es,
reabsor
pti
onoccur
s
act
ivel
ybytheact
ionofADH

3.C Ascendi
ngl
i
mbi
snotper
meabl
etowat
er

4.A Medul
l
arynephr
on/
Loopofhenl
eismai
nlyr
esponsi
blef
ort
hepr
oduct
ionofhy
per
toni
c
uri
ne

5.C Juxtamedullar
ynephronsaremainlyinvol
vedinproducti
onofurine.Counter
curr
ent
multi
pli
cati
onintheloopsofHenleofjuxtamedull
arynephronsisl
argelyresponsi
blef
or
devel
opingtheosmot i
cgradi
entsthatareneededtoconcentrat
eurine.

6.B

7.D Di
stal
tubul
es+Col
l
ect
ingt
ubul
es

8.A

9.A Renal cor

texcontai
nsconvolut
edpart(
proxi
malanddi
stal
tubul
es)nephr
on,bowman's
capsul
e,gl
omerulus.Renalmedul
lacontai
nsrenal
pyr
amids,
loopofHenle,
coll
ect
ingduct
.
Coll
ect
ingtubul
eisthepartofbothcort
exandmedull
a

10.C

11.C

12.C

13.B

14.A

15.B ADHwhi
chi
srel
easedbyPost
eri
orpi
tui
tar
ygl
and

16.D
17.B About99.5%oft
hegl
omer
ularf
il
tr
atei
sabsor
bedi
ntubul
arsy
stem whi
l
e0.
5%i
s
excer
tedi
nurinefor
m

18.Theconcent rat
ionofuri
nedependsont helengthofHenle’sloop.Becuaseitisahair
pin-
shapedstructurepresenti
nthesecti
onofaki dneytubulesi
tuatedbetweent heproxi
mal and
dist
altubul
esi nthenephron.I
thasthindescendingli
mbwhi chisinvolvedinthepermeabil
ityof
waterandt heotheroneascendingli
mbwhi chisimpermeablet owaterandot heri
onsand
wateracrossthewal l
softheloopfuncti
onasacount ercurr
entmul t
ipli
erinassociat
ionwith
vasarectaresult
ingintheproduct
ionofconcentrat
edurineinthecollecti
ngduct.

19.A

20.A Bowman'
scapsul
e--
->P.
C.T-
--
->LoopofHenl
e--
--
>D.
C.T-
--
->Col
l
ect
ingt
ubul
e

ADH,
Insul
i
n,Gl
ucagon

Prot
einnat ure:secretedbyI sl
etofLangerhans(insulin+Glucagon)
Polypepti
denat ure:secretedbyposteri
orpitui
tarygland( ADH+Oxy toci
n)
Aminoaci dder i
vati
ves:secretedbyadrenalmedul l
a( epi
nephrine+norepinephr
ine),t
hy r
oid(T3
+T4)
Ster
oids: secretedbyadr enalcor
tex(corti
sol
,aldosterone),ov
aries(
estrogen+progesterone)
,
test
es( t
estosterone)andpl acent
a(estrogen+progesterone)

Thefact
orswhi
chcausesther
eleaseofADHfrom hypot
hal
amusare:
a.LowBloodpr
essure b.Lowbloodvolume
c.Hyper
toni
cbodysolut
ion d.Incr
easedbloodosmolal
i
ty(
dissol
vedpar
ti
clesi
nbl
ood)

ADH'highl
evelcauseswaterr
eabsor
pti
onindist
alparts(Dist
alt
ubules+Coll
ect
ingt
ubules)of
ki
dney
.Defi
ciencyofthi
shormonecausesdiabet
esinspidusinwhichlar
gequant
it
yofdi
lute
ur
inei
sexcretedandther
eisagreatt
hir
stforwater

I
sel
etsofLanger
hansi
sasecr
etor
ypar
tofpancr
easwhi
chi
sundert
hecont
rol
ofACTHand
STH.I
tdi
rectl
yrespondstobl
oodglucoselevel
.Isl
etscont
aint
wot
ypesofcel
l
s
a.Al
phacell
s:smallinnumber
.Secret
eglucagon
b.Bet
acell
s:lar
geinnumber.Secr
eteinsul
in

Whenbl oodgl ucosel evel r

ises, secreti
onofinsul i
nf r
om bet acell
sincreases.Itl
owertheblood
glucosel evelandbr ingsi tbackt onormal l
evel.Insuli
ndecr easesbloodgl ucoselev
elin
followingway s:
i
.I nsuli
npr omot esgly cogenesi s(glycogensy nthesis).Meansi nsul
inincreasestheconver
sion
ofgl ucosei ntoglycogen
i
i.Insulininhibit
sgl y
cogenol ysis(breakdownofal readystoredglycogeni nli
verandmuscles)
i
ii.Insuli
npr omot esent ryofgl ucosei ntomanycel l
sandi ncreasestheut i
li
zati
onofglucose
i
v .Insuli
nal sopromot estheconv ersionofglucosei ntoli
pidsandpr otein
v.Insulindecr easest heut i
l
izationofst oredfatsf orenergypr oduct
ion

Insufficientsecr eti
onofinsul
i
ncausesdi abetesmel li
tusI.Diabetesmel l
i
tusIIisnotcausedby
l
ackofi nsulin.Ty peIIi
scausedbyl ackofr eceptorsonwhi chi nsuli
nbind.I
nt heresul
tof
deficiencyofi nsuli
n:
a.Bloodgl ucosel evelr
ise(hy
per gl
ycaemi a)
b.Gl ucosei nur ineincr
eases(glucosuri
a)
c.Reabsor ptionofwat erfr
om renaltubulesdecr eases(osmot icdiuresi
s)
d.Bodybecomesdehy drat
ed
e.Thi rstincreases
f.Excessf atsbr eakdownduet oabsenceofgl ucoseut i
l
izati
on
g.Der angementofner voussystem

Excessiv
esecret
ionofinsuli
ncausehy poglycemia(l
owbloodgl ucoselev
elbel
ownor mal)
.It
upsetsnerveandmusclefuncti
ning.
Growt hhormoneandcor ti
sol bot
haresecret
edinresponse
tohypoglycemi
aandtheyi nhi
bitgl
ucoseut i
l
izati
onforenergyproducti
on.Theycauses
breakdownofstoredf
atstogetener gy
.Howev ert
heiref
fectsdevelopesl
owly

Glucagon, STH,ACTHandEpinephr
ineact
ionisopposi
tetotheact
ionofI
nsul
i
n.Theycause
a.Increasedbreakdownofgl
ycogenint
oglucose(gl
ycogenol
ysi
s)i
nliv
erandmuscl
es
b.br eakdownoff at
s
 MCQs
1.ADHact
sonwhi
chpar
tofnephr
ons?

a.Col
l
ect
ingt
ubul
e

b.LoopofHenl
e

c.Col
l
ect
ingt
ubul
eanddi
stal
tubul
e

d.Pr
oxi
mal
tubul
e

2.Def
ici
encyofwhi
chhor
monecausesdi
abet
esi
nspi
dus?

a.ADH

b.Oxy
toci
n

c.Gl
ucagon

d.Thy
roxi
ne

3.Def
ici
encyofwhi
chhor
mone(
s)l
eadt
omor
eint
akeofwat
er?

a.ADH

b.I
nsul
i
n

c.Gl
ucagon

d.ADHandi
nsul
i
n

4.I
nhy
per
gly
caemi
a,Lackofi
nsul
i
nleadst
o:

a.Di
abet
esmel
l
itusI

b.Di
abet
esmel
l
itusI
I

c.Di
abet
esi
nspi
dus

d.Addi
sondi
sease
5.I
sletofl
anger
hansi
sundert
hecont
rol
of:

a.STHandTSH

b.STHandACTH

c.ACTHandTSH

d.I
CSHandLTH

6.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
nghor
mone(
s)i
s/ar
esecr
etedi
nresponset
ohy
pogl
ycemi
a?

a.I
nsul
i
n

b.GHandACTH

c.Gl
ycogen

d.TSH

7.Def
ici
encyof-
--
--causesdehy
drat
ioni
nbody

a.ADH

b.I
nsul
i
n

c.ADH,
Insul
i
n

d.Gl
ucagon

8.Hor
monessecr
etedbyAdr
enal
medul
l
aar
echemi
cal
l
y:

a.Pr
otei
n

b.Ami
noaci
dder
ivat
ives

c.St
eri
ods

d.Pol
ypept
ides

9.Hor
monessecr
etedby-
--
--
--
-ar
echemi
cal
l
yst
eroi
ds
a.Ov
ari
esandt
est
es

b.Thy
roi
dgl
and

c.Adr
enal
medul
l
a

d.Pancr
eas

10.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngf
act
ori
ncr
easest
hesecr
eti
onofADHf
rom post
eri
orpi
tui
tar
ygl
and?

a.Lowbl
oodpr
essur
e

b.Hi
ghbl
oodv
olume

c.Hy
pot
oni
cbodysol
uti
on

d.Decr
easedbl
oodosmol
ali
ty

11.Def
ici
encyof-
--
--
--causesosmot
icdi
uresi
s

a.ADH

b.I
nsul
i
n

c.Gl
ucagon

d.Cor
ti
sol

12.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
nghor
moneshasnoaf
fectonki
dney
?

a.ADH

b.I
nsul
i
n

c.Vasopr
essi
n

d.Gl
ucagon

13.Nor
mal
product
ionofcel
l
sofI
slet
sofLanger
hansi
sundert
hecont
rol
of:

a.Ant
eri
orpi
tui
tar
ygl
and
b.Post
eri
orpi
tui
tar
ygl
and

c.Adr
enal
gland

d.Thy
roi
dgl
and

KEY
1.C

2.A

3.D Indefi
ciencyofbothADHandI
nsul
i
n,r
eabsor
pti
onofwat
erdecr
eases.Bodybecomes
dehy
dratedandt hi
rsti
ncr
eases.

4.A Insuf
fici
entsecret
ionofinsul
incausesdi
abet
esmelli
tusI
.Di
abetesmell
it
usIIi
snot
causedbylackofinsuli
n.TypeIIi
scausedbylackofr
eceptor
sonwhichinsul
i
nbind

5.B

6.B Glucagon,Gr
owt
hhormone(STH),ACTH(cor
ti
sol),
Epi
nephri
ne.Thesehor
moneswor
k
agai
nsttheacti
onofi
nsul
i
n,r
aisi
ngbloodglucoselev
elinr
esponsetohypogl
ycemi
a.

7.C Indef i
ciencyofbot hADHandI nsul
in,reabsorpti
onofwat erdecr
eases.Bodybecomes
dehydratedandt hir
stincreases.I
nsuli
ndeficiency---
>Bloodglucoseleveli
ncrease--
->
Glomerularfi
ltr
ationofglucose- -
->osmoticpr essur
eofr enal
tubularf
lui
dincreases--
--
>wat
er
reabsorpti
ondecr eases--
->osmot icdiur
esis

8.B

9.A secretedbyadrenal
cortex(corti
sol
,aldost
erone)
,ovari
es(
est
rogen+pr
ogest
erone)
,
test
es(
testoster
one)andplacent
a( est
rogen+progest
erone)

10.A lowbloodvol
ume---
>lowbloodpr essur
e--
->ADHsecreti
onincr
eases---
>Actsondist
al
partofnephr
on--
->r
eabsor
ptioni
ncreases---
>vol
umeinceeases--
->Pressur
eretur
nstonormal

11.B I nsuli
ndefici
ency--->Bloodglucoselevelincrease---
>Glomerul
arfi
l
trati
onofglucose--
->
osmot i
cpr essureofrenaltubularfl
uidincr
eases- -
--
>wat erreabsor
pti
ondecreases--
->osmotic
diuresi
s."Osmot icdiur
esisistheincreaseofurinati
onr atecausedbythepresenceofcert
ain
substancesi nthesmalltubesoft hekidneys.Theexcr eti
onoccurswhensubstancessuchas
glucoseent ert
hekidneyt ubul
esandcannotber eabsor bed"

12.D
13.A Hor monessecr
etedbyanter
iorpi
tui
tar
ygland(STHandACTH)ar enecessar
yfort
he
product
ion(i
ncr
ease)i
nthealphaandbetacel
lsofIsl
etsofLanger
hans

SKELETALMUSCLES

Skel
etal
Muscl
e:

1.Muscl e>Muscl ebundl e>Muscl efi

ber s/ cell> My ofibri
ls>My of
ilaments>Act i
nandMy osi
n
2.Fibers/Cellhasmul t
ipl
eov alshapednucl eiarrangedbeneat hsar colema/ Cel
lMembr aneof
mucl ecell
3.Sarcoplasm/ Cyt
oplasm cont ainsglycogen+My oglobi
n( r
edpi gment )
4.Sarcolemmaencl osesbundl esofmy ofibr i
ls
5.Sarcomer eistheSmal lestunitofmy of i
br ils°Incent erofsar comer e,t
hereisoneA- band°
Oneachendofsar comeret hereisoneI -band°Onesar comerehas2A- Ij
uncti
onst hatswhy
twot r
iads
6.Tri
ad=t woci st
erna+1Tt ubule °Tt ubul eist hedeeperel ongat i
onofsarcoplasm °T
tubuleextendandenci rcl
et hemy of
ibr
ilatl ev elofZ-lineorA-Ijunction°Eachsar comer ehas2
tri
ads
7.Aband/ Darkband/ Anisotropicband/ Pol arizi
ngbandhasbot hthickandthinfi
lament s
because°Thi ckfil
ament s/My osin(16nm)ext endt heent ir
elengthofAband°Thi n
fi
lament s/Actin(7-
8nm)ext endacr osstheIbandandpar t
lyi
ntoAband
8.Iband/ Lightband/ I
sotropicband/ Non-pol ari
zingbandhasonl ythinfi
laments
9.Hzone/ l
ighterstri
pinmi dsect i
onofAbandhasonl yt hi
ckfi
al ment
10.Zl i
ne/mi dlineofIband

Ult
rastructureofMy ofi
laments:
1.My ofil
ament scontai
ncont r
acti
l
eprotei
ns(Acti
n+Myosi
n)
2.My osin/Thickfi
l
ament s3.Eachmyosinhastai
lwhi
chconsi
stsof2longpol
ypepti
dechains
i
nspi ralform.
4.Tailendsi n2globularheads.
5.Globularheadsl i
nkst hi
ckandthinf
il
amentsduri
ngcontr
act
ionandShapeofglobul
arheads
changeincont racti
on.
6.Myosinheadal socall
edascr ossbr i
dges
7.Myosini sMadeupofmy osinprotein
8.Thinfilament smadeupof3pr otei
ns
9.Cheifpr oteinincompositionofthinfil
amentisActin
10.Actinmol eculeshavetwochai nsintwisti
ngform asmy osi
ntai
lhastwochai
nsinspi
ral
for
m
11.Twochai nsoft ropomyosinistwistedaroundactin
12.Theonl yproteininskel
etalmuscl ethathavethr
eepolypepti
dechai
nsist
roponi
n°1binds
toacti
n, 2ndbi ndst otr
opomy osin,3rdbindtoCalci
um ion

13.Eachmyosi
nfi
l
amenti
ssur
roundedby12act
inf
il
ament
sor6act
inf
il
ament
soneachend
ofmy osi
nfi
l
ament

SlidingFi lamentmodel :
1.Inr elaxedmuscl e, my osinbindingsite(presentonact i
n)isbl ockedbyt ropomyosinandt her
e
i
sl owcal ci
um i onconcent rati
oni nsarcoplasm
2.Initiationofcont ractionbyi mpul sewhi chiscar r
iedt hroughTt ubuletotheadjacent
sar coplasmi cr eticulum
3.Thei mpul secausesr eleaseofCa++f rom sarcoplasmi cret i
culum throughCalcium gates
(Act i
v etranspor t
)
4.Cal cium bi ndToponi nwhi chalreadybi ndedwi t
ht ropomy sin
5.Tr opomy osinexposest hebindingsiteonact i
n
6. My osinheadat t
achst othebi ndingsiteonact in
7.ATPi shy drolyzedwhi chwasat tachedont hemy osi nheadbyATPaseenzy meofmy osin
head
8. ATPwaspr ov idedbyt hemi tochondriapr esentint hesarcopl asm ofmuscl ecell
9.Dur i
ngcont ractionf oll
owi ngchangesoccura.I -bandshor tensb.H- zonedisappersc.Z- l
i
nes
comecl oset oeachot herd.Thi ckandt hinfil
ament sdonotshor ten.Theyjustundergo
shif t
ing/changei nposi t
ione.Abanddoesnotshor tenf .sarcomer eshort
ens

Ener
gysour
cesf
ormuscl
econt
ract
ion:

1.Nor
mal
l
yfr
om aer
obi
cbr
eakdown.Gl
ycogen-
->Gl
ucose-
->ATP

2.I
nhi
ghmet
abol
i
sm,
from Cr
eat
inphosphat
e

3.Somet
imesbyaner
obicbreakdownofglucose.Aner
obicgly
col
ysi
sgiv
eslact
ate.Atrest
,1/
5
l
acti
caci
disbr
okenaerobi
call
yanditsenergyisusedtochanger
emaini
ng4/5lact
icacidi
nto
gl
ucose.
 MCQs
1.Sar
copl
asm doesnotcont
ain:

a.Pi
gment
s

b.Car
bohy
drat
es

c.ATP

d.RER

2.Dur
ingt
hepr
ocessofcont
ract
ionofskel
etal
muscl
ewhi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngchangesdoesnot
occur
?

a.Shor
teni
ngofHzone

b.Shor
teni
ngofsar
comer
e

c.Shor
teni
ngoft
hinf
il
ament
s

d.ATPhy
drol
ysi
s

3.Chi
efpr
otei
nofAct
inf
il
amenti
s:

a.My
osi
n

b.Tr
opomy
osi
n

c.Tr
oponi
n

d.Act
in

4.Tr
oponi
ndoesnotbi
ndwi
th:

a.Cal
cium

b.My
osi
n

c.Tr
opomy
osi
n

d.Act
in
5.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sthecauseofl
ossofsensat
ions?

a.ATPdef
ici
ency

b.Lact
icaci
daccumul
ati
on

c.Lowcr
eat
inephosphat
e

d.Hy
pocal
cemi
a

6.Sar
col
emaencl
oses:

a.muscl
efi
ber
s

b.
 my
ofi
bri
l
s

c.muscl
ebundl
e

d.My
osi
n

7.Whi
choneoft
hef
oll
owi
nghav
ebot
hthi
ckandt
hinf
il
ament
s?

a.Aband

b.Iband

c.Hzone

d.Zl
i
ne

8.Whi
choneoft
hef
oll
owi
nghav
eonl
ythi
ckf
il
ament
s?

a.Aband

b.Iband

c.Hzone

d.AbandandHzone

9.My
osi
ntai
lendsi
n:
a.Twol
i
nearhead

b.Twogol
ubul
arhead

c.1l
i
nearhead

d.1gol
bul
arhead

10.Whi
choneoft
hef
oll
owi
ngl
i
nkst
het
hickandt
hinf
il
ament
sofskel
etal
muscl
es?

a.Zl
i
ne

b.M l
i
ne

c.Gl
obul
arhead

d.Tr
oponi
n

11.I
nrest
ingst
ateofskel
etal
muscl
es,
bindi
ngsi
tei
scov
eredby:

a.Act
in

b.My
osi
n

c.Tr
oponi
n

d.Tr
opomy
osi
n

12.I
nexer
cisi
ngmuscl
es,
ener
gyf
ormuscl
econt
ract
ioni
spr
ovi
dedby:

a.Cr
eat
inephosphat
e

b.Py
ruv
ate

c.Lact
ate

d.ATP

13.Cal
cium sar
copl
asmi
cret
icul
um pumpi
sanexampl
eof:

a.Di
ff
usi
on
b.Faci
l
itat
eddi
ff
usi
on

c.Act
ivet
ranspor
t

d.Passi
vet
ranspor
t

14.Al
i
ght
erst
ri
pinmi
dsect
ionofAbandwhi
chhasonl
ythi
ckf
il
ament
scal
l
ed:

a.Iband

b.Hzone

c.M l
i
ne

d.Zl
i
ne

15.Tr
iadmeans

a.2ci
ster
na+2Tt
ubul
e

b.2ci
ster
na+1Tt
ubul
e

c.1ci
ster
na+2Tt
ubul
e

d.1ci
ster
na+1Tt
ubul
e

KEY

1.D Sarcoplasm havepigments(

my oglobi
n),
ATPforcr
ossbri
dgecy
cli
ng,st
ored
car
bohydratesinform ofgl
ycogen,Sarcopl
asmicr
eti
cul
um/SER.Sar
copl
asm lackr
ibosomes

2.C Duri
ngcontract
ionfol
l
owingchangesoccura.I-
bandshor
tensb.H-zonedi
sapper
sc.Z-
l
inescomeclosetoeachotherd.Thi
ckandthinfi
lamentsdonotshort
en.Theyj
ustunder
go
shif
ti
ng/
changeinposit
ione.Abanddoesnotshortenf.sar
comereshort
ens

3.D

4.B Theonl
ypr ot
eini
nskel
etal
musclethathavethreepoly
pept
idechai
nsi
str
oponi
n°1bi
nds
toact
in,
2ndbindstotr
opomyosin,
3rdbi
ndt oCalci
um ion
5.D

6.B

7.A Aband/Dar
kband/Anisotropi
cband/Pol
ari
zi
ngbandhasboththi
ckandt
hinfi
lament
s
because°Thi
ckfi
l
aments/My osin(
16nm)extendtheent
ir
elengt
hofAband°Thin
fi
laments/
Act
in(
7-8nm)ext
endacr osstheIbandandpart
lyi
ntoAband

8.C Hzone/
li
ght
erst
ri
pinmi
dsect
ionofAbandhasonl
ythi
ckf
ial
ment

9.B

10.C

11.D

12.C Duet
oaner
obi
cgl
ycol
ysi
s

13.C

14.B

15.B

I
MMUNI
TY

I
mmunesy stem:
I
stli
neofdefenseisski
n/ mucousmembrane
2ndli
neofdefenseisphagocyti
cWBCs(Neut
rophi
ls+Macr
ophages)
Thi
rdli
neofdefenseAntibodi
esandly
mphocytes

Ant
igen/
Immunogen:
Nat
urecanbeprot
ein/
car
bohydr
ate/
li
pid.I
tcanbei
nfect
iousmi
croor
gani
sm
St
imulat
esf
ormati
onofanti
bodi
es

Ant
ibody
/Immunogl
obul
i
n:
Gl
ycoprot
eininnat
ure
Manufact
uredinB-
lymphocyt
es
Pr
esentinlymphandblood
Notmanufactur
edbyT-ly
mphocyt
es

St
ruct
ureofAnt
ibody
:

Y-shapedstructure.Consistof4pol ypepti
dechains.2ident
icall
ongchai ns/heav
ychains.2
i
dent i
calshorterchains/l
ightchains.Stem consi
stsofonlyonheav ychains.Armsconsistof
bothlightandheav ychains.4chai nsboundt oeachotherby-S-S-
Stem ofantibody/heavychai nshav econstantaminoacidsequence
Partofheav ychainsinarms/ upperpartofheavychai
nsandl i
ghterchai
nshav evar
iabl
eamino
acidsequence
Antigensbindonbot hl i
ghtandheav ychains
Antigensbindwi t
hv ari
ableami noacidsequenceofli
ghtandheav ychains

Cell
-mediat
edr esponse:
T-cel
lsarei
nv ol
ved.Tissuerej
ecti
oninti
ssuet
ranspl
anti
sanexampl
e
Defenseagainstcancercell
s/vi
rusinf
ect
edcel
ls/f
ungi
/ani
malpar
asi
tes/
for
eigncel
l
sfr
om
tr
ansplant

Humoral
-i
mmuner esponse:
B-
cel
lfor
m pl
asmacel lwhichsynthesizeanti
bodies
Def
enseagai
nstbacteri
a/bater
ial
toxins/vi
ruses

Acti
veimmunit
y:a.Vacci
nei
susedb.Ant
igensar
einj
ect
edc.Notani
mmedi
ateef
fectd.
Longlast
ingef
fect

Nat
ural
l
yacquir
edacti
vei
mmunity:
I
mmunitygai
nedthr
oughi
ll
nessandrecov
ery
.Immuni
tydev
elopesi
nresul
toft
etanus

Ar
ti
fi
ci
all
yacquir
edacti
veimmunity
:
I
mmunityaccqui
redt
hroughvacci
nati
on
Passiv
eimmuni ty:
Anti
bodiesareinjectedinf
orm ofant
isera
Eff
ectisimmedi ate
Notlonglast
ingef fect
Passiv
eimmuni tyisusedtocombatinf ect
ionsoft
etanus,
rabi
es,
snakebi
tev
enom,
hepat
it
us

Nat
ural
l
yacquir
edpassi
veimmuni t
y:
I
mmunityacqui
redf
rom ant
ibodi
espassedi
nbr
eastmi
l
kort
hroughpl
acent
a

Ar
ti
fi
cal
l
yacquir
edpassi
veimmunity
:
I
mmunit
ygainedthr
oughant
ibodi
eshar
vest
edf
rom anot
herper
sonoranani
mal

Ant
iser
um:
Ser
um cont
aini
ngant
ibodi
esusedt
ospr
eadpassi
vei
mmuni
tyt
odi
ff
erentdi
seases

Ser
um:
Bloodpl
asmanoti
ncl
udi
ngf
ibr
inogen(
clot
ti
ngf
act
or)

MCQs
1.2ndl
i
neofdef
enseofouri
mmunesy
stem i
s:

a.BandTl
ymphocy
tes

b.Mucusmembr
ane

c.Neut
rophi
l
sandMacr
ophages

d.Monocy
tes

2.Whi
cht
ypeofi
mmuni
typl
ayani
mpor
tantr
oleagai
nsti
nfect
ionofsnakebi
tev
enom?

a.Nat
ural
l
yacqui
redact
ivei
mmuni
ty

b.Nat
ural
l
yacqui
redpassi
vei
mmuni
ty
c.Ar
ti
fi
cial
l
yacqui
redact
ivei
mmuni
ty

d.Ar
ti
fi
cial
l
yacqui
redpassi
vei
mmuni
ty

3.Ant
igensbi
ndon:

a.Ar
msofl
i
ghtchai
ns

b.Ar
msofheav
ychai
ns

c.Ar
msofbot
hli
ghtandheav
ychai
ns

d.St
em ofbot
hli
ghtandheav
ychai
ns

4.Whi
chf
lui
dfr
om t
het
hef
oll
owi
ngl
i
stdoesnothav
eant
ibodi
es?

i
.Bl
ood 
  i
i
.Bl
oodPl
asma 
 i
ii
.Ly
mph 
  
i
v.Bl
oodser
um 
  v
.Ant
iser
um

a.i
i
,ii
i
,iv

b.i
i

c.i
v

d.Al
ltheabov
efl
uidshav
eant
ibodi
es

5.Cel
lmedi
ater
esponsei
srel
atedt
o:

a.Bact
eri
alt
oxi
n

b.Vi
ral
tox
in

c.Ti
ssuer
eject
ion

d.Tet
nus

6.Chai
nsofant
ibodi
esar
eboundedby:

a.Pept
idebond

b.Est
erbond
c.Di
sul
phi
debond

d.Hy
drogenbond

7.Nat
ureofAnt
ibodi
esi
s:

a.Car
bohy
drat
es

b.Li
pids

c.Pr
otei
ns

d.Gl
ycopr
otei
ns

8.I
mmuni
tyacqui
redf
rom ant
ibodi
espassedi
nbr
eastmi
l
kort
hroughpl
acent
a

a.Nat
ural
l
yacqui
redact
ivei
mmuni
ty

b.Nat
ural
l
yacqui
redpassi
vei
mmuni
ty

c.Ar
ti
fi
cial
l
yacqui
redact
ivei
mmuni
ty

d.Ar
ti
fi
cial
l
yacqui
redpassi
vei
mmuni
ty

KEY

1.C

2.B

3.C

4.D

5.C Tcel
l
s

6.C

7.D
8.B

BLOOD

Bl
oodisaSpeci
altypeofconnect
ivet
issue.I
tswei
ghti
s1/
12t
hofourbodywei
ght
Component
sofBlood:a.Plasma55% b.Cells45%

Pl
asma:Fl uidpor t
ionofblood.(90%wat er/10%di ssol
vedsubst
ances) 7-
9%
di
ssol
vedsubst ancear epr
oteins.Allpl
asmapr otei
nsaresynt
hesi
zedinli
verexceptgamma
gl
obul
in whichpr oducedbylymphocy t
es.Prothrombinactsascatal
ysti
nbloodclott
ing
pr
ocess.Fi
brinogent akespartinbloodclott
ing

0.9%dissol
v edsubstancesareinorganicionsandsalts[2/3(
0.6%)of0.
9%i
sNaCl]
pHofbl oodis7. 4
Organi
cnut ri
entsinbloodareglucose, f
ats,phospol
i
pids,aminoaci
dsandl
act
icaci
d,
anti
bodies,cholester
olarepresentinplasma
Nitr
ogenouswast eli
keureaandur i
caci darealsopr
esent
Hormonesar ealsopresent
GasessuchasCO2andO2ar ealsopresent

RBCs:
Mostnumer ousbloodcel
l
s Hav epi gment s(
Hb)
Pri
nci pally
(aft
erbirt
h)f
ormedinbonemar row.Inembryoni
cli
feformedi
nliv
erandspleen
Di
st roy edinli
verandspl
een.Lif
espan120day s
Cytopl asm hav eHb95%+5%pr oteins,
enzymes, sal
ts
Mat ureRBCsdonothav enucleusandor ganal
les.Bi
concaveshape.8mi
crometerdi
ameter
Transpor tOxy genandCarbondioxide

WBCs:
NoHb/ pi
gment s Hav enucl
eus Var i
abl
eshapeofnucl
eus
Granul
ocytes[N+E+B]formedinredbonemarr
ow
Agranul
ocytes[L+M]formedinly
mphoidmasses(l
ymph
nodes/
spl
een/
tonsi
l
s/adenoi
ds/
thy
mus)

Neut
rophi
l
s:
Hi
ghestamountofWBCsar
eneut
rophi
l
s(62%).2-
5lobednucl
eus

I
stl
ineofdef
enceagainstmicr
oor
gani
sm al
ongwit
hmonocy
te.Pusf
ormat
ionati
nfect
ionsi
tes
wi
thmonocytes.Phagocy
tosi
sofsmal
lpart
icl
es

Eosi
nophil
s:
2%ofWBCs Bi l
obednucleus
Cont
rolall
ergi
creact
ions.Def
enceagainstparasi
tesespeci
all
yhel
minths(
wor
ms)
I
nacti
vatesinf
lamati
onproducingsubst
ances.Antagoni
stsofBasophi
l
s

Basophil
s:
Lessthan1% Bi l
obednucl
eus Granulescont
ainhepar
inandhist
amine
Heparinprev
entbl
oodclot
ti
ng.Hi
staminecausesinf
lamat
ion(
inv
olvedi
nall
ergi
creact
ion)
Antagoni
stofEosi
nophi
ls

Monocy t
es:
3%ofWBCs LargestWBCs Roundt olobednucleus
Pusformationatinf
ectionsit
ewithneutrophil
s.FormationofMacr
ophages.Phagocy
tosi
sof
l
argerparti
cles
Theystayinbloodfrom 10-20hoursthenentertissuesandbecomemacrophages

Ly
mphocy
tes:

32%ofWBCs Small
estWBCs Spher
ical
shapednucl
eus(
nucl
eusnear
lyf
il
lscel
l
)
Havelar
gestl
if
espan(monthsorev
enyear) Cellsofi
mmunesy st
em
2types(BandTcel
ls)

B-cell
s:
Fi
rsttimediscov
eredinBursaofFabri
cius(
lymphoi
dorgani
ncloacaofbir
ds)
Mat urei
nalll
ympoidorgansexceptThymus
Secreteant
ibodi
es Havesurf
aceanti
gens 20%ofly
mphocy t
es
I
nv olv
edinhumoral-
mediatedimmunity
T-
cell
s:
Matureonl
yinthy
mus Lacksur
faceant
igens Donotsecr
eteant
ibodi
es
I
nvolv
edincell
-medi
atedi
mmunity 80%ofl ympocy
tes

Pl
atel
ets:
Nonucleus Nopi gments(Hb)
Convertsolubleplasmaprotein(
fi
bri
nogen)i
ntoi
nsol
ubl
efor
m(f
ibr
in)
Vi
t-
Ki sinvolvedinbloodclott
ing

MCQs
1.Gammagl
obul
i
nissy
nthesi
zedby:

a.Li
ver

b.Ki
dney

c.Bl
ymphocy
tes

d.Tl
ymphocy
tes

2.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngsubst
ancesi
sabsenti
npl
asma?

a.Ant
ibodi
es

b.Gl
ucose

c.Haemogl
obi
n

d.Hor
mone

3.Whi
cht
ypeofbl
oodcel
l
shav
epi
gment
s?

a.RBCs

b.Gr
anul
ocy
tes

c.Agr
anul
ocy
tes
d.Pl
atel
ets

4.I
ncaseofhel
mint
h(par
asi
te)i
nfect
ion,
whi
cht
ypeofbl
oodcel
l
swoul
dbei
ncr
eased?

a.Monocy
tes

b.Neut
rophi
l
s

c.Basophi
l
s

d.Eosi
nophi
l
s

5.Mostnumer
oust
ypeofwhi
tebl
oodcel
l
sis:

a.Er
ythr
ocy
tes

b.Neut
rophi
l
s

c.Monocy
tes

d.Basophi
l
s

6.Whi
cht
ypeofbl
oodcel
l
shav
elongestl
i
fespan?

a.RBCs

b.Monocy
tes

c.Ly
mphocy
tes

d.Macr
ophages

7.Pr
inci
pal
l
y,RBCsar
edest
roy
edi
n:

a.Ki
dney

b.Spl
een

c.Ly
mphnodes

d.Thy
mus
8.Maj
orpor
ti
onofbl
oodpl
asmai
s:

a.Pr
otei
ns

b.NaCl

c.Chol
est
rol

d.Wat
er

9.Whi
cht
ypeofWBCshav
eopposi
teef
fect
s?

a.Neut
rophi
l
sandMonocy
tes

b.Basophi
l
sandEosi
nophi
l
s

c.Bl
ymphocy
tesandTl
ymphocy
tes

d.Neut
rophi
l
sandEosi
nophi
l
s

10.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngWBCsdef
endagai
nstal
l
ergi
creact
ion?

a.Neut
rophi
l
s

b.Eosi
nophi
l
s

c.Basophi
l
s

d.Monocy
tes

11.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngWBCsr
eleasesi
nfl
amat
orysubst
ances?

a.Neut
rophi
l
s

b.Eosi
nophi
l
s

c.Basophi
l
s

d.Monocy
tes

12.Pr
inci
pal
l
ywhi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngbl
oodcel
l
sdonotf
ormedi
nredbonemar
row?
a.Er
ythr
ocy
tes

b.Basophi
l
s

c.Monocy
tes

d.Eosi
nophi
l
s

13.Whi
cht
ypeofbl
oodcel
l
smat
urei
nthy
mus?

a.B-
ly
mphocy
tes

b.T-
ly
mphocy
tes

c.BandTl
ymphocy
tes

d.Monocy
tes

14.RBCsdonothav
e:

a.Mi
tochondr
ia

b.Pi
gment
s

c.Enzy
mes

d.Sal
ts

15.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngcel
l
sdonothav
enucl
eusandanypi
gment
?

a.RBCs

b.Gr
anl
ucy
tes

c.Agr
anul
ocy
tes

d.Pl
atel
ets

16.-
--
--
--
--
--
--pr
event
sbl
oodcl
ott
ing

a.Fi
bri
nogen
b.Pr
othr
ombi
n

c.Hi
stami
ne

d.Hepar
in

17.Thepr
otei
nthatact
sascat
aly
stsi
nbl
oodcl
ott
ingpr
ocessi
nhumanbei
ngi
scal
l
ed:

(
a)f
ibr
in

(
b)f
ibr
inogen

(
c)t
hrombi
n

(
d)pr
othr
ombi
n

KEY

1.C

2.C

3.A Onl
yRBCshav
epi
gment
(Hb)

4.D

5.B

6.C

7.B

8.D

9.B Eosi
nophil
sInact
ivat
esi
nfl
amat
ionpr
oduci
ngsubst
ances.Basophi
l
srel
easeHi
stami
ne
whi
chcausesinfl
amati
on

10.B Aller
gicreact
ioniscausedbyi nfl
ammatorysubst
ances.Eosinophi
lsInacti
vates
i
nflamationproduci
ngsubst ances.Basophi
lsr
eleaseHist
aminewhi chcausesinfl
amation.
Eosinophil
sdefendourbodywhi l
ebasophil
scausesall
ergi
creact
ionbyr el
easing
i
nflamatory(Hi
stamine)substances
11.C

12.C Agranul
ocyt
es[L+M]formedinl
ymphoi
dmasses(
lymph
nodes/spl
een/t
onsi
ls/
adenoids/
thy
mus)

13.B Tcel
l
smat
urei
nthy
mus,
Bcel
l
smat
urei
nredbonemar
row

14.A RBCsdonothav
eanyor
ganal
l
e.Theyhav
e95%pi
gment
(Hb)+5%enzy
mes,
sal
ts

15.D RBCshavepigment
(Hb)butl
acknucl
eus.WBCshav
enucl
eusbutt
heyl
ackpi
gment
(Hb)
.
Plat
elet
slackbot
hpigment
s(Hb)andnucl
eus

16.D

17.D

LYMPHATI
C SYSTEM

1.Lymphat i
csy st
em compr i
sesofl ymphcapi ll
ari
es,lymphv essels,lymphoidmasses, l
ymph
nodes, l
ymph
2.Lymphcapi l
l
ari
esendbl indlyinbodyt issues->flui
denterslymphcapi ll
ari
es->l
ymph
capil
lari
esjointofor ml argerv essels/thor aci
clymphduct- >openi ntosubclavi
anvei
n
3.Lymphi stransitbet weeni nterstit
ialfluidandblood
4.Flowofly mphismai ntai
nedbyact i
vityofskeletalmuscles,mov ementofv i
scer
a,breathi
ng
mov ementsandt hev alves
5.Massesofconnect i
v et i
ssueal ongt hepat hwayofl ymphv essel call
edlymphnodes
6.Lymphocy tesar epresentatl ymphnodes
7.Manyaf ferentl
y mphv esselsent eral y mphnodewhi chisdrainedbyasi ngl
eeff
erentlymph
vessel
8.Lymphnodesar epr esentinneckr egion, axi
ll
aandgr oinregion
9.Lymphnodesf il
tert hel ymphandspl eenf i
lt
erstheblood
10.Thereispai nf
ul swel l
ingofl ymphnodesi nmumps
11.Ly mphoidmasses( spleen, t
hy mus, tonsil
s,adenoids)arepr esentinmucosaand
submucosa
12.Ly mphoidmassespr oducesl y mphocy tes
13.Inanav erageper son, aboutt hreelitersmor efluidl
eavesbl oodcapi l
lari
es
13.Lact
eal
(ly
mphcapi
l
lar
ies)ofv
il
li
absor
bfatgl
obul
es(nake1%ofl
ymphaf
teraf
att
ymeal
)

MCQs

1.Ly
mphdoesnotcont
ain:

a.Ant
ibodi
es

b.RBCs

c.WBCs

d.Pr
otei
ns

2.Ly
mphocy
tesar
epr
oducedby---i
nly
mphat
icsy
stem

a.Ly
mphnodes

b.Ly
mphoi
dmasses

c.Bonemar
row

d.Li
ver

3.Ly
mphcapi
l
lar
iesj
oint
ofor
mlar
gerandl
arherv
essel
scal
l
ed:

a.Ri
ghtsubcl
avi
anv
ein

b.Lef
tsubcl
avi
anv
ein

c.Thor
aci
cly
mphduct

d.Lact
eal

4.Ly
mphnodei
sdar
inedby:

a.Si
ngl
ely
mphv
essel
b.Manyl
ymphv
essel
s

c.Si
ngl
ebl
oodv
essel

d.Manybl
oodv
essel
s

5.Ly
mphnodesar
enotf
oundi
n:

a.Axi
l
la

b.Gr
oin

c.Neck

d.Backbone

6.Ly
mphi
sat
ransi
tfl
uidbet
ween

a.I
nter
sti
ti
alf
lui
dandbl
oodpl
asma

b.I
nter
sti
ti
alf
lui
dandbl
ood

c.I
nter
sti
ti
alf
lui
dandser
um

d.Bl
oodandser
um

7.Val
vesar
efoundi
nthe:

(
a)ar
ter
iesonl
y

(
b)v
einsonl
y

(
c)capi
l
lar
iesonl
y

(
d)bot
hly
mphat
icv
essel
sandv
eins

KEY
1.B Ly mphisaclear-
to-
whi
tefl
uidmadeof:Whit
ebl
oodcel l
s,especi
all
yly
mphocytes,t
he
cell
sthatat
tackbacter
iaint
heblood.Fl
uidf
rom t
hei
ntest
inescall
edchyle,whi
chcontai
ns
protei
nsandfats.Lymphhasly
mphocy t
essomusthaveantibodi
es

2.C

3.C

4.A

5.D

6.B

7.D

HEART,
ECGANDBLOODPRESSURE

Heartisenclosedinapericar
dialcav i
ty( doubl emembr anoussac)whi chcontainperi
cardi
al
fl
uidandhav e4chamber s[2atrial+2v entri
cul ar]
Thicknessofmy ocardi
um isdif
ferentindi fferentchamber s.Myocardium i
sthickestinl
eft
ventri
clebecauseithastopumpbl oodal l
acr ossthebody
Mitochondri
aar enumerousincar diacmuscl est oprovi
deATPf orconti
nuouscont r
acti
onof
my ocardi
um
Sarcomer ei
st hecontr
acti
leunitofmy ocardial cel
lli
keskeletal
muscl es
Cardiacmusclesalsocontainmy of i
bri
lsandmy of
il
aments(acti
n+my osi
n)li
keskeletalmuscl
es
I
ntercalat
eddiscwi t
hmanygapj unctionsb/ wmuscl efibers
My ocardi
alcell
saresingl
enucleat ed

Bloodci r
culati
on:
Deoxy genatedbloodi nVenacav a.
..
..>r
ightat
ri
um.
..(
tri
cuspi
dval
ve).
..>r
ightventri
cle.
..
.
>pul monar ytr
unk..
..>lungs..
..
.>oxygenatedbl
oodi
npulmonaryvei
ns.
...
.>leftatr
ium. .
..
(bi
cuspi
d
valve).
..
.>leftvent
ri
cle...
..
..>aorta
Aort
agivesbr anchestothe:
a.Heart(
coronaryart
ery) b.Li
ver
(hepat
icar
ter
y)c.Leg(
il
iacar
ter
y) d.ki
dney
(renal
art
ery
) 
Gastr
ointest
inaltr
act

Coronaryarter
ies:
Atthebaseofaor ta,i
tgi
vestwocoronar
yart
ri
es.Ri
ghtcor
onaryarter
ysuppli
esri
ghtsideof
heart
.Rightsideissmall
erbecozi
tpumpsbloodonlyt
othelungs.Leftpul
monaryarter
y
suppli
esleftsideofhear
t.Lef
tsi
deislar
gerbecozi
tpumpsbloodtowhol ebodyexceptlungs

Inf
eri
orVenacav a:
Largevei
ncarriesdeoxygenat
edbloodf r
om lowerbodyandDr
ainsi
ntor
ightat
ri
um
Formedbyjoiningoflef
tandrightcommoni li
acveins
Renalvei
nfrom kidneydrai
nsintoinf
eri
orvenacava
Hepati
cveinfrom li
verdrai
nsint
oinferi
orvenacava

Superi
orvenacava:
Drai
nsint
or i
ghtatr
ium
Carr
iesdeoxygenat
edbloodfrom upperbody
Jugl
arveinandsubclavi
anveindr
ainintosuper
iorv
enacav
a
Jugl
arveindrai
nsfrom headandneck

I
nAr t
eri
al r
elaxat
ion:
DeoxygenatedBloodenter
sr i
ghtatr
iathr
oughsuper
iorandi
nfer
iorv
enacav
a
Oxygenatedbloodenter
sleftatr
ium t
hroughpul
monaryvei
ns

I
nArter
ialcontract
ion:
At
ri
alpressureincr
easesduetoi
ncreaseinbloodvol
ume
AVvalv
es[ Tr
icuspidandbi
cuspi
dvalves]ar
eopened

Bl
oodentersfr
om RAtoRVthr
oughtri
cuspi
dval
ve.Bl
oodent
ersf
rom LAt
oLVt
hrough
bi
cuspi
dv al
ve
Bl
oodvolumeIncr
easesi
nventr
icul
es

I
nv entr
icl
econtracti
on:
Ventri
clesal
readyfil
l
edwi t
hbl
ood
Pressureinvent
ricl
erises
Aorti
candpulmonaryv
alv es(semil
unarvalvespresentatbaseofaort
aandpul monarytr
unk)
opens
Bloodfl
owsoutofventr
iclesintopulmonaryart
eriesandaorta.Asaresul
tpressurei
naor t
a
ri
ses
AVv al
ve(di
cuspi
dandtricuspidvalv
es)closeandpr oduceLubsound
Lubsoundoccursimmedi at
elyaft
erQRScompl ex(i
mmedi at
elyaf
tervent
ri
cularcont
ract
ion)

Inventri
cler el
axati
on:
Aft
ercont raction,vent
ri
clesrelax
AVv alve[biscupidandt r
icuspidval
ve]openwhichwereclosedduri
ngv ent
ri
cularcontr
act
ion
Aorti
candpul monar yval
v es(semil
unarval
ves)closewherewereopenedinv ent
ri
cular
contracti
on
Dubsoundpr oducedjustafterT-
wav e(
immediatel
yaft
erventr
icul
arrel
axati
on)

P-
wav
e:Repr
esent
sar
ter
ial
depol
ari
zat
ion

QRS-
wav
e:Repr
esent
svent
ri
cledepol
ari
zat
ion

T-
wav
e:Repr
esent
svent
ri
cler
epol
ari
zat
ion

SAnode:
Locatedinwal
lofri
ghtat
ri
um atj
uncti
onofsuperi
orv
enacavaandri
ghtatr
ium
ActsasPacemaker
Produceimpul
sesandsendoutstoatr
ialmuscl
es
Consist
sofdif
fusel
yori
entedcar
diacf
iber
s/fewmyof
ibr
il
s/f
ewnerv
eendingsfrom ANS

AVnode:
Locat
edbeneat
hendocar
dium ofmedi
alwal
lofr
ightat
ri
um atbaseofi
nter
vent
ri
cul
arsept
um

Passageofi mpulse:
SAnode...
..>muscul t
ureofat
ri
um(atr
ialmuscles)
+AVnode...
.>AVbundle.
...
.>Purki
nji
fi
bers(
exci
t ablef
iber
sinint
erv
entr
icul
arseptum)..
..
.>myocardi
um ofventr
icl
es..
..
.>contr
act
ion
Thereisadel ayof0.
15secinconductanceofimpulsef
rom SAnodetoAVnode
Systol
icpressure:
Highestarter
ial
pressureduri
ngcar
diaccycl
e
Measur edwhenhear tcont
ract
sandbloodisej
ect
edi
ntoar
ter
ial
syst
em
Valueis120mmHg

Diast
oli
cpr essure:
Lowestarterial
pr essur
eMeasur
edwhenhear
tisr
elaxedandbl
oodi
sret
urnedt
ohear
tvi
avei
ns
Valueis80mmHg

Bl
oodpr
essurei
shi
ghestinaor
taandlowesti
nvenacava
Aor
ta>ar
ter
ies>ar
ter
iol
es>capil
lar
ies>v
enul
es>v ei
ns>venacav
a

Rat
eofbl
oodfl
owishi
ghesti
naor
taandlowesti
ncapi
l
lar
ies
Aor
ta>Ar
ter
ies>Ar
ter
iol
es>Capi
l
lar
ies<venul
es<vei
ns<v enacav
a

MCQs
1.
Car
diacmuscl
esdonothav
e:

a.Mi
tochondr
ia

b.My
osi
n

c.My
ofi
bri
l
s

d.Tr
iads

2.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngv
einsdonotdr
aini
ntoi
nfer
iorv
enacav
a?

a.I
nter
nal
jugl
arv
ein

b.r
enal
vei
n
c.Hepat
icv
ein

d.Commoni
l
iacv
ein

3.Whendoest
hel
ubsoundi
spr
oduced?

a.Justaf
tert
hePwav
e

b.Justaf
tert
heQRScompl
ex

c.AtTwav
e

d.Justaf
tert
heTwav
e

4.I
nECG,
Twav
erepr
esent
s:

a.At
ri
alcont
ract
ion

b.At
ri
alr
elaxat
ion

c.Vent
ri
cul
arcont
ract
ion

d.Vent
ri
cul
arr
elaxat
ion

5.At
ri
arecei
vesoxy
genat
edbl
oodby:

a.Super
iorv
enacav
a

b.I
nfer
iorv
enacav
a

c.Super
iorandi
nfer
iorv
enacav
a

d.Pul
monar
yvei
n

6.Wher
eist
heSAnodel
ocat
ed?

a.Atj
unct
ionofRAandI
VC

b.Atj
unct
ionofRAandSVC

c.I
nthewal
lofLA
d.I
nthewal
lofRV

7.
Ther
eisadel
ayof----i
ntr
ansmi
ssi
onofi
mpul
sef
rom SAnodet
oAVnode

a.0.
5sec

b.0.
15sec

c.0.
9sec

d.0.
19sec

8.Thecor
rectpassageofi
mpul
sei
s:

a.SAnode-
>At
ri
almuscl
e+AVnode-
>My
ocar
dium -
>Ex
cit
abl
efi
ber
s

b.AVnode-
>At
ri
almuscl
e+AVnode-
>Exci
tabl
efi
ber
s->My
ocar
dium

c.SAnode-
>At
ri
almuscl
e+AVnode-
>Exci
tabl
efi
ber
s->My
ocar
dium

d.SAnode-
>Exci
tabl
efi
ber
s->At
ri
almuscl
e->my
ocar
dium ->AVnode

9.SAnodedoesnothav
e:

a.My
ofi
bri
l
s

b.Di
ff
usel
yor
ient
edcar
diacf
iber
s

c.Ner
veendi
ngsf
rom CNS

d.Ner
veendi
ngsf
rom ANS

10.AVnodei
slocat
edi
nthewal
lof:

a.Ri
ghtat
ri
um

b.Lef
tat
ri
um

c.Ri
ghtv
ent
ri
cle

d.Lef
tvent
ri
cl
e
11.I
nvent
ri
cul
arcont
ract
ions:

a.Dubsoundpr
oduces

b.Semi
l
unarv
alv
esar
eopened

c.Twav
eappear
sonECG

d.Pr
essur
einaor
taf
all
s

12.Dubsoundpr
oduces-----

a.Af
terPwav
e

b.Af
terQRScompl
ex

c.Bef
oreTwav
e

d.Af
terTwav
e

13.Rat
eofbl
oodf
lowi
slowesti
n:

a.Aor
ta

b.Capi
l
lar
ies

c.Vei
ns

d.Venacav
a

14.Bl
oodent
ersf
rom LAt
oLVt
hrough:

a.Bi
cuspi
dval
ve

b.Tr
icuspi
dval
ve

c.Aor
ti
cval
ve

d.Pul
monar
yval
ve

15.Aor
taati
tsbase,
giv
esr
iset
o:
a.Renal
art
ery

b.CommonI
li
acar
ter
y

c.Cor
onar
yar
ter
y

d.Pul
monar
yar
ter
y

16.Car
diacmuscl
escanbedi
sti
ngui
shedf
rom ot
hermuscl
esbecauset
hey
:

(
a)cont
ainonl
yact
in

(
b)ar
evol
unt
aryi
nact
ion

(
c)l
ackr
egul
arar
rangementofsar
comer
es

(
d)hav
eint
ercal
ateddi
scs

17.Hear
tbeatsoundi
sduet
o:

(
a)cont
ract
ionofmuscl
es

(
b)cont
ract
ionofat
ri
a

(
c)cont
ract
ionofv
ent
ri
cles

(
d)act
ionofv
alv
esi
nhear
t

18.Thehear
tisencl
osedbyat
oughmembr
ane,
the:

(
a)per
icar
dium

(
b)per
it
oneum

(
c)epi
thel
i
um

(
d)endot
hel
i
um
 KEY

1.D Mitochondri
aarenumerousincardi
acmusclestoprovi
deATPf orconti
nuouscontr
act
ion
ofmyocardium.Sarcomer
eisthecontr
acti
leuni
tofmy ocar
dial
cel
ll
ikeskeletal
muscles.
Car
diacmuscl esal
socontai
nmy of
ibr
il
sandmy ofi
laments(
acti
n+myosin)l
ikeskel
etal
muscles.
Car
diacmuscl eshavedi
adsinst
eadoftri
ads

2.A I
nter
nal
jugl
arv
eindr
aini
ntosuper
iorv
enacav
a

3.B Lubsoundoccursi
mmediat
elyaft
erQRScompl
ex(
immedi
atel
yaf
terv
ent
ri
cul
ar
cont
ract
ion)duet
oclosi
ngofAVvalves

4.D

5.D Pul
monar
yvei
ncar
ryoxy
genat
edbl
oodf
rom l
ungst
olef
tat
ri
um

6.B SAnodei
slocat
edonupperpor
ti
onofr
ightat
ri
um meansatt
hej
unct
ionofSVCandr
ight
atr
ium

7.B

8.C

9.C SAnoder
ecei
vest
imul
usf
rom ANS

10.A

11.B Whenv ent

ri
clescontr
act--
->Semil
unarvalv
esopen--
->Bloodenter
sAorta+Pul
monary
art
ery--
->Pr
essureinaortaandpulmonaryart
eryri
se.WhenVentri
cul
arcont
racti
onoccur
sQRS
complexappearonECG.Asv ent
ri
cul
arcontr
acti
onsend,l
ubsoundproduces

12.D Dubsoundpr
oducesj
ustaf
tert
hev
ent
ri
cul
arr
elaxat
ion(
justaf
terTwav
e)

13.B Rat
eofbloodfl
owi shi
ghestinaor
taandlowestincapil
lar
ies
Aort
a>Arter
ies>Art
eri
oles>Capil
lari
es<venul
es<v ei
ns<v enacava

14.A

15.C

16.D I
nter
clat
eddi
scsar
epr
esentonl
yincar
diacmuscl
es
17.D Lubsoundpr
oduceswhenAVv
alv
escl
ose.Dubsoundpr
oduceswhensemi
l
unarv
alv
es
cl
ose.

18.A

MALEREPRODUCTI
VESYSTEM
Malereproduct
ivesystem consi
stsof
a.Ext
ernalgeni
tali
a[test
es+Copulat
oryor
gan/
Peni
s] b.Sper
m duct

Scrotum:
Partofexternal
genit
ali
a Sacofskincont
aini
ngtest
es
Protect
ivefunct
ion Actascl
imatecontr
olsyst
em

Testes:
a.Producespermatozoa(mal
egamet
es)byseminif
eroustubul
es/highl
ycoil
edt
ubul
esnet
wor
k
i
nt est
es
b.Secret
etestost
erone(mal
esexhor
mone)byinter
sti
ti
alcell
s/Cel
lsofLeydi
g

Sertol
icell
s:
Presentinsemini
feroustubul
es
Supportandnutri
ti
onofdev el
opi
ngger
ms
Protect
ionofgerm cell
s
Secreti
onoftesti
cularf
lui
dintol
umenofsemi
nif
eroust
ubul
es

Spermatozoa:
Malegamat espr oducedbysemi ni
feroustubul
es
Haploidreproductivecel
l
s
Tai
l hasmi t
ochondr ia
Headi scall
edacr osomewhi chcontainsenzymesandcont
ainscondensednucl
eus
Mitochondri
apr ovideenergyformov ementoftai
l
Duct
usef
fer
ent
es/
vasaef
fer
ent
iadr
aint
est
esi
ntoepi
didy
mus

Epididy
mus:
Storageofsperms+Matur
ati
onofsper
ms
Sperm becomemotil
ehere
Transportsper
mstoduct
usdefer
ens

Ductusdef erens/vasdefer
ensisDi
rectconti
nuati
onofduct usepi
didymus
Termi natesbyjoini
ngductofseminalvesi
cletoform ej
acul
atoryductwhi
chopensi
nto
prostaticurethr
a
Transpor tspermsf r
om ductofepi
didy
must oejacul
atoryduct

Seminalvesi
cles:
Semenf ormat
ionoccurs(
fruct
oseri
ch)i
nsemi
nal
vesi
cles.SemenhasAl
kal
i
nenat
ure
Consist
sofsper msandseminalf
lui
d

Bul
bour
ethr
algl
andsSecr
etemucust
olubr
icat
elumenofpeni
l
eur
etht
ra

Ext
ernal
uret
hral
ori
fi
cei
sanOpeni
ngatt
ipofpeni
sthr
oughsemeni
sexpel
l
edf
rom ur
ethr
a

Gl
anspeni
sisHeadofpeni
s.Gl
anspeni
siscov
eredbyaf
oldofski
ncal
l
edpr
epuce

Spermatogenesis:
Processofformationofsper ms.Takespl aceinsemi ni
fer
oustubules
Germ cel
ls.
..
..
(r
epeat eddivision).
..
..
>Spermatogonium(2n).
..
..
(di
ffer
enti
ati
on).
..
.>Pr
imar
y
spermatocyt
es(2n)..
.(meiosis)..
.>Sec.
spermatocyt
es(n).
...
(meisois) .
..
>Spermat
ids(
n)..
..
(dif
fer
enti
ate).
..
>maturesper
ms

Pathwayofsper ms:
Seminifer
oust ubules.
..
.>duct
usef f
erentes..
..>epi
didy
mus..
.>vasdef
erens.
..
.>seminal
vesi
cles..
..>ej
aculator
yduct..
..>pr
ostategland...
.>bul
bour
ethr
algl
and.
..>ur
ethr
a..
.>ext
ernal
ur
ethr
alor
if
ice

I
nsimpl
eway :
Semi
nif
eroust
ubul
es.
..
.>Epi
didy
mus.
..
.>Vasdef
erens.
..
.>Ej
acul
ator
yduct
..
..
.>Ur
ethr
a

MCQs
1.Test
ost
eronei
ssecr
etedby:

a.Scr
otum

b.Ser
tol
icel
l
s

c.Ley
digcel
l
s

d.Semi
nif
eroust
ubul
es

2.Test
icul
arf
lui
dwhi
chnour
ishest
est
esi
ssecr
etedby:

a.Scr
otum

b.Ser
tol
icel
l
s

c.Ley
digcel
l
s

d.Semi
nif
eroust
ubul
es

3.Sper
met
azoai
spr
oducedby:

a.Scr
otum

b.Ser
tol
icel
l
s

c.Ley
digcel
l
s

d.Semi
nif
eroust
ubul
es
4.Gamet
ogensi
sinmal
e,t
akespl
acei
n:

a.Vasdef
erens

b.Epi
didy
mus

c.Semi
nif
eroust
ubul
es

d.Semi
nal
vesi
cles

5.Sper
mat
idsdev
elopei
ntosper
msby:

a.Mi
tosi
s

b.Mei
osi
sI

c.Mei
osi
sII

d.Di
ff
erent
iat
ion

6.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngconnect
sthet
est
eswi
thepi
didy
mus?

a.Vasdef
erens

b.Vasaef
fer
ent
ia

c.Pr
ost
ati
cgl
and

d.Bul
bour
ethr
algl
and

7.Thest
orageandmat
urat
ionofsper
mst
akepl
acei
n:

a.Epi
didy
mus

b.Vasdef
erens

c.Vasaef
fer
ent
ia

d.Bul
bour
ethr
algl
and
8.Whi
chhor
monei
nmal
est
imul
atest
hei
nter
sti
ti
alcel
l
soft
est
ist
osecr
etet
est
ost
erone?

a.FSH

b.Est
rogen

c.TSH

d.Pr
ogest
erone

KEY

1.C Ley
digcel
l
s/I
nter
sti
ti
alcel
l
s

2.B

3.D

4.C

5.D

6.B

7.A

8.A

FEMALEREPRODUCTI
VESYSTEM

Femalerepr
oducti
vesy
stem consi
stsofa.Pai
rofov
ari
es b.Ov
iductductc.Ut
erusd.
Ext
ernal
genital
i
a

Ext
ernalgeni
tali
a:
Str
uctur
eexternalt
ovagi
na.Ref
eredt
oasv
ulv
a.I
ncl
udesmonspubi
s,cl
i
tor
is,
labi
amaj
oraand
l
abi
ami
nor
a,openi
ngofv
agi
na(
bir
thcanal
)

Ovar
ies
a.Pr
oduceest
rogenandpr
ogest
erone
b.Pr
oduceOva

Uter
inetubes/Fall
opiantubes/ovi
duct
:
Fert
il
izati
ontakesplaceher e
Thepr i
maryfuncti
onoft heuteri
netubesi
stotr
anspor
tspermfrom ut
erustowardt
heegg
rel
easedbyov aryandt othenall
owpassageofthef
ert
il
izedeggbacktotheuter
us

Uter
us/ womb:
Holl
owmuscul aror gan.Sec.femaler
eproduct
iveor gan
Lowerendofut erusiscervixwhichopensint
ov agina
Upperendofut erusisfunduswhi chi
sconnectedt ofall
opi
antube
It
sinnerli
nningcalledendomet r
ium.I
tsouterl
ay ercall
edmy omet
ri
um
Fert
il
izedeggimpl antsinuter
usandundergoesdev el
opement
Uri
narybladderisinferi
ortouterus

Uter
inecervi
x:
Lowermostpartofuter
usopensintovagi
na
Functi
onoftheuter
inecerv
ixist
oal l
owfl
owofmenst rual
bloodf
rom t
heut
erusi
ntot
hev
agi
na,
anddirectt
hespermsintotheut
erusduri
ngint
ercour
se

Bi
rt
hcanal:
Muscul
arcanalgoesf
rom uter
ust ot
heoutsi
deofthebody
.
Dur
ingbi
rt
h,thebabypassesthroughthebi
rt
hcanal.

Vagina:
Musculartube3-4i nches.I
trecei
v esmal ecopul
atoryorgan
Expandstopr ov
ideachannel f
ordel i
veryofanewbor nfrom t
heuter
us.
Servesasacanal f
ormenst r
ual f
luidandt i
ssuetoleavethebody.
Uri
narybladderislocatedanteri
ort ovagina
FemaleUr et
hraandv agi
nahav ei
ndependentopeni ngstoexteri
or
Femaleurethratransportonl
yur i
net ooutsidebody
(
Mal
eur
ethr
atr
anspor
tur
ineandsemen)

Cl
it
ori
s:
Par
tofext ernal geni
tali
a
Si
mili
artomal ecopul ator
yorgan(
peni
s)
Smallsexual organatt hetopofvagi
na
Ver
ysensi ti
vedur ingcopulati
on

Oogenesis:
Processofformati
onofov um
Germ cel
ls.
..
.>oogoni
a(2n)..
.(
mi t
osi
s)..
.>pir
mary
oocyte(
2n).
..
(meosisI
).
..
.>Sec.oocyt
e(n).
..
(meosi
sII
).
..>Ov
um(
n)

Polarbodies:
Smal l
cell
swhi chbudofffr
om anoocy t
eanddonotdevelopei
ntoov
um anddegener
ate
Pri
mar yoocytegivesonesec.oocyt
eandonepolarbody
Thispolarbodygivesfur
ther2polarbodi
es
Sec.oocyt
egivesoneov um andonepolarbody

MCQs
1.Fer
ti
li
zedeggi
simpl
ant
sin----

a.Ut
erus

b.Ov
iduct

c.Ov
ary

d.Vagi
na

2.Secondar
yoocy
tesar
epr
oducedby----ofpr
imar
yoocy
tes

a.Mi
tot
icdi
vi
sion
b.Mei
oti
cdi
vi
sionI

c.Mei
oti
cdi
vi
sionI
I

d.Di
ff
ernt
iat
ion

3.Secondar
yoocy
teonMei
oti
cdi
vi
siongi
ver
iset
o:

a.1pol
arbody

b.2pol
arbodi
es

c.3pol
arbodi
es

d.4pol
arbodi
es

4.Howmanypolarbodi
esar
epr
oduceddur
ingt
heent
ir
epr
ocessofoogenesi
sisunmar
ri
ed
humanf
emale?

a.1

b.2

c.3

d.4

5.Fer
ti
li
zat
iont
akespl
acei
n:

a.Ut
erus

b.Ov
ary

c.Ut
eri
net
ube

d.Cer
vix

6.Cer
vixi
sapar
tof:

a.Vagi
na

b.Cl
i
tor
is
c.Ut
erus

d.Fal
l
opi
ant
ube

7.Whi
chhor
monei
nfemal
est
imul
atesov
aryt
osecr
etepr
ogest
erone?

a.FSH

b.Est
rogen

c.TSH

d.Test
ost
erone

KEY

1.A

2.B

3.A Duri
ngOogenesist hefi
rstpolarbodyisproducedwhenamat ur
epr i
maryoocytechanges
i
ntosecondaryoocyt
eThef ir
stpolarbodyproducedagai ndi
videsfur
thertoproducetwopolar
bodi
es.whensecondar yoocyt
etransformsintomat ur
eov um anot
herpolarbodyisproduced,
maki
ngat otalof3polarbodi
esdur ingoogenesis.Sothecorr
ectansweris'3'
.

4.C Dur
ingOogenesist hef
ir
stpolarbodyi
sproducedwhenamat ureprimaryoocytechanges
i
ntosecondaryoocyt
eThef ir
stpolarbodypr
oducedagaindi
videsfur
thertoproducetwopolar
bodi
es.whensecondar yoocytet
ransfor
msintomatureovum anot
herpolarbodyisproduced,
makingatotalof3polarbodiesduri
ngoogenesi
s.Sothecorr
ectansweris'3'

5.C

6.C Cer
vixi
sal
ower
mostpor
ti
onofut
eruswhi
chopeni
ntov
agi
na

7.A FSHst
imul
atesov
aryt
osecr
eteest
rogenandpr
ogest
erone
 HORMONALCONTROLOFREPRODUCTI
VECYCLE

Menst
rual
phase:

1th-
5thday
.Bl
ood,
uter
ineflui
dandepi
thel
i
alcel
l
sar
edi
schar
gedt
hroughv
agi
naasmenses.
Thisi
sknownasmenstruat
ion

Prolif
erativ
ephase:
6th-14thday .Alsoknownasest rogeni
cphasebecauseest rogenleveli
shighinthisphase
Regener ati
onofendomet r
ium occurs
Regener ati
ont akespl
aceunderi nfl
uenceofest r
ogensecretedbyovari
anfoll
i
cles
Earlydev el
opementofov arianfoll
i
clesisinducedbyFSHbutf inalst
agesofmat urationrequire
LHaswel l
FSHst imul at
esdev el
opementofov ari
anf ol
liclesandproducti
onofestrogenbyf oll
icul
arcel l
s.
Aftergrowt hofpr i
maryfol
licl
es,maturefoll
iclesformedwhichar eknownasGr aafianf ol
li
cles.

Struct
ureofmaturefoll
i
cle:
From outert
oinner(
coronaradiat
a..
..>zonapel
l
uci
da.
..>membr
aneofoocy
te
Zonapelluci
daisaglycoprot
eincoat

Ovulation:
14th-15thday .Occur si
nst artofluteal phase
LHt r
igger sov ul
ution[r
upturingofmat urefoll
i
cle/
Gr aaf
ianf ol
li
cleandreleaseofsec.oocy
te]
Incaseofcessat ionofov ulati
on,ov ulati
oncanbei nducedbyadmi nist
rati
onof
gonadot rophin(FSHandLH)hor monesbecauseFSHst imul at
esf ol
l
icul
argr owthandLH
sti
mul atesov ulat
ion
Gonadot ropin(FSHandLH)r el
easinghor monei ssynthesizedbyneur osecretorycel
lsi
n
hypothalamusandcar r
iedbycapi ll
ar ynetwroktotheant eri
orlobeofpi t
uit
ar ygland

Lut
ealphase:
15t
h-28thday s.Aft
erov
ulat
ion,
rupturedov
ari
anf
oll
i
clesdev
elopei
ntoagl
andul
arst
ruct
ure
cal
ledcorpusl ut
eum
Eggisfert
il
ized24hoursaft
erovulati
on
LHst i
mulatescorpusluteum topr oduceprogest
eronewhi chhelpstokeeptheuterinewall
recepti
vetoaferti
li
zedegg.I nlutealphase,pr
ogester
onel evel
isonpeak
Iffer
ti
li
zat
ionoccurs,corpuslut eum doesnotdegenerat
eandendomet ri
um remainsinluteal
phasetoreceivezygote/fer
ti
li
zedegg
Iffer
ti
li
zat
iondoesnott akepl acecospusl ut
eum degenerates,
progester
onenotpr oducedby
corpuslut
eum, endomt r
ium notmai ntai
nedbyprogesteroneandi tunder
goesmenst r
ualphase

Embr yoni
cstage:
I
nf i
rst2mont hsofpregnancy,dev
elopi
ngbabyi scal
l
edembryo.Mostofthemajororgansare
for
medwi t
hin12weeksofpr egnancy.I
nabegi ni
ngof3rdmonth)
,dev
elopingembry
oi scal
led
fet
us.Amni on(i
nnermostlayeroffet
us).Chor
ion(out
ermostl
ayeroff
etus)

Placenta:
Itsformationstart
swhenzy goteisconceived.Placentafusedwit hwal
lofuter
us.I
tisatransfer
device.Itsuppl
iesO2andnut ri
entstofetus.Itdoesnotsuppl ybloodtofet
us
Itsecreteshormones(estrogen,progestr
one, placent
allactogen,LTH)
Progesteronemai ntai
nsthepr egnancy.Disturbanceinitssecret
ioncancauseprematur
ebi r
th
ormi scarri
age
LTHandpl acentall
actogenstimulatesdev el
opementofmammar ygl
and.

Umbi l
i
calcord:
Connectsfetustotheplacenta.Throughoutapregnancy,t
heumbil
i
cal
cordcar
riesi
mportant
nutr
ientsandbloodfrom themot hertothebaby..Aft
erbi
rth,
acl
ampisputonthecord,
anditis
cutsothatthebabyisnol ongerattachedtotheplacent
a.

Labourpai n:
Ini
tialsti
mul usf orlabourcomesf r
om fet
us.ACTHr eleasedfrom fet
uspitui
taryst i
mulatesfetal
adrenal glandt oreleasecorti
cost
eroi
dswhi chcrossespl acental
barri
erandent erplacental
bloodci rculat
ioncausi ngadecreaseinprogesteronelevel.Thereducti
onofpr ogesteronelevel
stimulatespi t
uitaryglandtoproduceoxytocin.Thisinduceslabourpain(
contractionofutreus
wal l
).Labourpr ovidesf or
cetoexpelf
etusf r
om ut r
eus.Cer vi
xdil
atesandcont racti
onf or
ce
spreaddownwar dleadingt odel
iv
eryofbaby
After
bir
th:
Placent
aandf
etal
membr
anesdi
schar
gedf
rom t
heut
erusandv
agi
nat
oousi
deaf
ter
thebir
thofoff
spri
ng

MCQs
1.FSHst
imul
atesdev
elopementofov
ari
anf
oll
i
clesandpr
oduct
ionof------byf
oll
i
cul
arcel
l
s.

a.Pr
ogest
erone

b.Test
ost
erone

c.Est
rogen

d.Andr
ogen

2.I
ncaseofcessat
ionofov
ulat
ion,
ovul
ati
oncanbei
nducedbyadmi
nist
rat
ionof-----

a.FSHandLH

b.Pr
ogest
eroneandest
rogen

c.Cor
ti
cost
eroi
ds

d.Est
rogen

3.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
nghor
monesi
spr
oducedbycor
pusl
uteum?

a.FSH

b.Pr
ogest
erone

c.Andr
ogen

d.LH

4.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
nghor
monespr
epar
etheendomet
ri
um f
ori
mpl
ant
ati
onofzy
got
e?

a.Pr
ogest
erone
b.Est
rogen

c.LH

d.Andr
ogen

5.Ov
ulat
ioni
srupt
uri
ngofmat
uref
oll
i
clesandr
eleaseof:

a.Pr
imar
yoocy
te

b.Secondar
yoocy
te

c.Ov
um

d.Oogoni
a

6.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
snotaf
unct
ionofPl
acent
a?

a.I
tsecr
eteshor
mones

b.I
tsuppl
yO2t
ofet
us

c.I
tsuppl
ybl
oodt
ofet
us

d.Pl
ayr
olei
nmai
ntai
ningpr
egnancy

7.Ri
peni
ngofmor
efol
l
icl
esi
spr
event
edby
:

(
a)oest
rogen

(
b)pr
ogest
erone

(
c)andr
ogens

(
d)LTH

8.Decr
easeofFSHandi
ncr
easeofoest
rogen,
causet
hepi
tui
tar
ygl
andt
osecr
ete:

(
a)l
uteot
ropi
chor
monone

(
b)l
utei
nizi
nghor
mone
(
c)v
asopr
essi
n

(
d)oxy
toci
n

KEY
1.C

2.A

3.B

4.A

5.C

6.C Placent
asecr
etespr
ogest
eronewhi
chmai
ntai
npr
egnancy
.Itsuppl
yO2andnut
ri
ent
sto
fet
us.

7.B Progester
one---
>Inhi
bitr
eleaseofFSHf
rom ant
eri
orpi
tui
tar
y--
->Mat
urat
ionofmor
e
ovar
ianfol
li
clesinhi
bit
ed

8.B Whenest
rogenisr
eleasedbyovari
anfol
l
icl
es,
itst
imul
ateant
eri
orpi
tui
tar
ygl
andt
o
rel
easeLHsothati
tmayt r
iggerov
ulat
ion.

NERVOUSCOORDI
NATI
ON

Ner
voussy
stem whi
chhel
psi
ncoor
dinat
ioni
scomposedof

i
.Receptor
saret
hecel
lsoror
ganwhichrev
eivesti
muli
i
i
.Effect
orsar
ecell
soror
ganwhichcar
ryoutacti
ons
i
i
i.Neurons

TypesofReceptor
sar e:
Chemoreceptor
s(receptor
sinhypot
hal
amus)--
--Smel
l,Taste,
Elect
roly
tes
Mechanorecept
ors(f
reenerveendi
ngs)
--
-Touch,Pr
essure,Heari
ng,Equil
i
bri
um
Phot
oreceptor
s(r
ods,cones)-
--Li
ght
Ther
mor ecept
ors--
-Temperat
ure
Noci
eceptor--
-pai
n

Mei
ssnercor
puscl
esareEncapsul
atedner
veendi
ngspr
esenti
nepi
der
misofski
n.Thesear
e
mechanor
ecept
orsforl
i
ghttouch

Paci
niancorpuscl
esareEncapsul
atednerv
eendi
ngspr
esenti
nder
misofski
n.Thesear
e
mechanoreceptor
sforpr
essureandvibr
ati
on

Pai
nrecept
ors27t
imes>col
drecept
ors10t
imes>war
mthr
ecept
ors

Neuronorner
vecel
li
saStruct
uralandfunct
ional
uni
tofner
voussy
stem.Neur
onhas
a.Cell
bodyorsoma b.Dendri
te c.Axon

Threearethreet
ypesofneur ons
i
.Sensoryneuron--
-carryimpulsesf r
om recept
ortoCNS.Sensoryneuronshavelongdendri
tes
andshortaxons.Sensoryneuronshav enot r
uedendri
tes.
i
i.Motorneuron--
-carr
yimpul sesfrom CNSt oeff
ect
ors.Motorneur
onshav eshortdendr
it
es
andlongaxons
i
ii
.Associati
veneuron/
Interneurons--
-presenti
nbrai
nandspinalcord

Soma:

Provi
deNouri
shment.Cont
ainnucl
eusandsev
eral
organall
es.Contai
nNissel
bodies.Mostof
theProt
einsy
nthesi
soccur
sinsomaThemostconspicuous(di
sti
nct)or
ganal
leofsomaisRER

Axonsar
eEffer
entprocesses.i
tscy
topl
asm i
saxopl
asm.Axopl
asm cont
ainal
lst
ruct
uresof
somaexceptNi
sselbodies

Nissl
bodies:
RERwi
thf
reer
ibosomes.Si
teofpr
otei
nsy
nthesi
s.Pr
esenti
nsomaanddendr
on
Absenti
naxons
Dendr
it
ear
eAf
fer
entpr
ocesses.Cont
ainal
lst
ruct
uresofsomaexceptgol
gibodi
es

Neurogl
i
alcel
lsorgl
ial
cel
l
saretheSuppor
ti
vecell
s.Cannotproduceanacti
onpot
ent
ial
.
Schwanncell
sareneur
ogl
i
alcel
l
s ofPNS.It
sfunct
ionismy el
i
nationofneur
on

Myel
inat
edsheathisaProt
ect
ivecoveri
ngaroundneur
on.Duetomy el
i
nat
ionofneur
on,speed
ofi
mpulsei
ncreases.I
tisl
i
poprot
einlay
er.Chi
efcomponentofi
tscomposit
ioni
sli
pid

Refl
exacti
onisaninvol
untaryact
ion.Itinvol
v esreceptor
s,neur
onsandef f
ects.Reflexaction
hasnoinvol
vementofbrai
nI ti
sbecausemostsensor yneuronsdonotpassdi rect
lyintothe
brai
nbutsynapsei
nthespinalcordwhi challowsr efl
exacti
onst ooccurrel
ati
v elyquickl
yby
acti
vat
ingspi
nalmotorneuronswithoutt hedelayofrouti
ngsignalsthroughthebr ain.
Recept
or->Sensor
yneuron- >Associati
v eneuron->Mot orneuron->Effect
or

Nerveimpulsei
sawav eofelect
rochemical
changewhicht
ravel
sal
ongneur
on,
inv
olv
ing
chemicalr
eacti
onsandmov ementofionsacrosscel
lmembrane

RMP/ Polar
izati
on:
Potenti
aldiff
erenceacrosst
heneuronalmembranewheni
tisnotconduct
inganyi
mpul
se.I
n
rest
ingconditi
on,ther
ei smorenegat
ivi
tyi
nsi
dethemembrane.I
tsval
ueis-70mV

AMP/ Depolari
zati
on:
Thei ncreaseintheRMPinposit
ivedi
recti
onwhenani mpulset
rav
elsalongneur
onalmembrane.
It
sv alueis+50mV.Thest i
mulusofminimum intensi
tywhichcanproducener
veimpul
seis
call
edt hresholdsti
mul
us.Theval
ueofthresholdstimul
usis-50mV.Dur i
ngacti
vemembrane
potential,
innermembranebecomesmor epositi
v e

Mor enegati
vet yinside(-
70mV)- -
->Sodi
um diff
usesinsidebyleakychannels--
->Potent
ial
rises
to-50mV- -
->Thisi scalledt
hresholdpot
enti
al -
--
>Att hi
spotenti
alNav olt
agegatedchannels
open---
>Nai onsr ushintoneuron--
->potent
ialri
sesinposit
ivedir
ecti
onupt o+50mV- -
->Thisis
cal
ledAMP- -->NowNachannel scl
oseandpot assi
um channelsopen--->Kioneffl
ux--
->again
potenti
alfal
lsi nnegat i
vedir
ecti
on
Na-KATPasepump:
Thisisanexampleofintegral
protei
n
I
tpumpst hreesodi
um ionsout wardandtwopotassi
um i
onsi
nwardthi
sisdueto:
Pumphast hreebi
ndingsitesoninnerfaceandtwobindi
ngsi
tesonout
erface.Thi
spump
rest
orestheRMPaf t
erthepassageofani mpulse.

Nodetonodeconduct
ionofimpul
seiscal
ledsal
tat
oryconducti
on.Maxi
mum speedofi
mpul
se
t
ransmissi
onr
ecordedinhumanis120m/s.Normalspeedis100m/s

Synapsei
sagapnet weenaxonanddendr
onoftwoneur
ons.Asi
ngl
eimpul
secannotpass
thr
oughsynapse.I
tmaytaketwoorthr
eeimpul
ses

Neurotr
ansmit
ter
sarethechemicalmessengersthatt
ransmitmessegeacrosssynapse.
Acetyl
chol
inei
smainneurotr
ansmitt
erforsynapsesanditi
spresentout
sidetheCNS.
Serot
oninanddopaminearemostlyi
nvolv
edi nSynapt
ictr
ansmissi
onwithi
nbr ai
nandspinal
cor
d

Impulse--->Presynapt
icneuron---
>Synapt i
cknobofPresynapticneuron---
>Synapt i
cv esicl
es
fi
ll
edwi thneurotr
ansmi t
ter
sfusewi t
hPr esynapt
icmembr ane---
>Neur ot
ransmit
tersr eleaseby
exocytosisint
oSy napti
cclef
t---
>Neur otr
ansmitt
ersat
tacht orecept
orsonPostsy naptic
neuron- -
->Permeabili
tyofPostsynapticneuronforNaincreases--
->Infl
uxofNai onsi ntopost
synapticneuron--
->Act i
onpotenti
algenerates

MCQs
1.Paci
niancor
puscl
esar
etheencapsul
atedner
veendi
ngsandt
heyr
espondt
o:

a.Pr
essur
eonski
n

b.Li
ghtt
ouch

c.Pai
n
d.El
ect
rol
ytechanges

2.Whi
cht
ypeofneur
onshav
elongdendr
onsandshor
taxons?

a.Sensor
yneur
ons

b.Mot
orneur
ons

c.Mot
oneur
ons

d.I
nter
neur
ons

3.Ni
ssi
lbodi
esar
epr
esenti
n:

a.somaandaxon

b.somaanddendr
on

c.axonanddendr
on

d.axon,
dendr
onandsoma

4.Schwancel
l
sar
etheneur
ogl
i
alcel
l
sof:

a.ANS

b.SNS

c.PNS

d.CNS

5.Dist
urbanceinpotent
ial
dif
fer
enceacr
osst
heneur
onal
membr
anewhenani
mpul
sespasses
thr
oughitisrest
oredby:

a.Na/
KATPasepump

b.Na/
Kgat
edchannel
s

c.Openi
ngofNav
olt
agegat
edchannel
s

d.Cl
oseni
ngofCl
vol
tagegat
edchannel
6.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
ecept
orsr
espondst
oel
ect
rol
ytechanges?

a.Noci
cept
ors

b.Mechanor
ecept
ors

c.Chemor
ecept
ors

d.Ther
mor
ecept
ors

7.I
nourbody
,pai
nrecept
orsar
eabout:

a.270t
imesmor
ethanwar
mthr
ecept
ors

b.270t
imesl
esst
hanwar
mthr
ecept
ors

c.10t
imesmor
ethanwar
mthr
ecept
ors

d.10t
imesl
esst
hanwar
mthr
ecept
ors

8.Mostoft
hepr
otei
nsy
nthesi
soccuri
n:

a.Soma

b.Axon

c.Dendr
on

d.Gl
i
alcel
l
s

9.Funct
ionofSchwanncel
l
sis:

a.Pr
ovi
denut
ri
ti
on

b.My
eli
nat
ionofneur
on

c.Actasscav
anger
s

d.Bl
oodbr
ainbar
ri
er

10.Chi
efcomponenti
ncomposi
ti
onofmy
eli
nsheat
his:
a.Li
pid

b.Pr
otei
n

c.Li
popr
otei
n

d.Car
bohy
drat
es

11.Ref
lexact
ionhav
enoi
nvol
vementof:

a.CNS

b.Br
ain

c.Spi
nal
cor
d

d.Neur
on

12.Depol
ari
zat
ionofneur
oni
scausedby:

a.Na/
KATPasepump

b.Openi
ngofNav
olt
agegat
edchannel
s

c.Openi
ngofKv
olt
agegat
edchannel
s

d.Openi
ngofCl
vol
tagegat
edchannel
s

13.Na/
KATPasepumphashowmanybi
ndi
ngsi
tesoni
nter
nal
membr
anoussi
def
orsodi
um
i
ons?

a.1

b.2

c.3

d.4

14.I
nneur
on,
thev
alueoft
hreshol
dpot
ent
ial
is:

a.
 +70mV
b.-50mV

c.+50mV

d.-70mV

15.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sthemai
nneur
otr
ansmi
tt
ersf
orsy
npasesout
sidet
heCNS?

a.Ser
otoni
n

b.Epi
nephr
ine

c.Nor
epi
nephr
ine

d.Acet
ylchol
i
ne

16.Neur
otr
ansmi
tt
ersi
srel
easedbyPr
esy
napt
icaxont
ermi
nal
int
othesy
napt
iccl
eftby:

a.Endocy
tosi
s

b.Exocy
tosi
s

c.Di
ff
usi
on

d.Passi
vet
ranspor
t

17.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
snotacomponentofPr
esy
napt
icneur
oni
nasy
napse?

a.Mi
tochondr
ia

b.Vesi
cles

c.Nachannel
s

d.Neur
otr
ansmi
tt
er

18.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sacomponentofPostsy
napt
icneur
oni
nasy
napse?

a.Cachannel
s

b.Nachannel
s
c.Neur
otr
ansmi
tt
er

d.Vesi
cles

19.Gener
all
yint
hesy
napsesbet
weent
woneur
ons,
neur
otr
ansmi
tt
eri
srel
easedby:

a.Dendr
ont
ermi
nal
ofPr
esy
napt
ict
ermi
nal

b.Axont
ermi
nal
ofPr
esy
napt
ict
ermi
nal

c.Dendr
onofPostsy
napt
ict
ermi
nal

d.AxonofPostsy
napt
ict
ermi
nal

20.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
onmov
ement
sgener
atesact
ionpot
ent
ial
inpostsy
napt
icneur
on?

a.Na+I
nfl
ux

b.Na+ef
fl
ux

c.K+i
nfl
ux

d.K+ef
fl
ux

21.Theincr
easei
ntheRMPi
nposi
ti
vedi
rect
ionwhenani
mpul
set
rav
elsal
ongneur
onal
membr anei
scall
ed:

a.Pol
ari
zat
ion

b.Repol
ari
zat
ion

c.Depol
ari
zat
ion

d.Sy
napses

22.Agapnet
weenaxonanddendr
onoft
woneur
onsi
s

a.Sy
napsi
s

b.Sy
nopsi
s

c.Sy
npases
d.Sy
ndopses

23.Neur
otr
ansmi
tt
ersmol
ecul
esbi
ndt
orecept
orst
hatl
ocat
edon:

a.Sy
napt
icknob

b.Pr
esy
napt
icmembr
ane

c.Postsy
napt
icmembr
ane

d.Sy
napt
iccav
ity

24.Whi
cht
ypeofneur
onsdonothav
etr
uedendr
it
es?

a.Sensor
yneur
ons

b.Mot
orneur
ons

c.Mot
oneur
ons

d.I
nter
neur
ons

25.Axoni
slongi
n:

(
a)sensor
yneur
on

(
b)associ
ati
veneur
on

(
c)mot
orneur
on

(
d)i
nter
neur
on

26.Sy
napt
icv
esi
clesar
epr
esent
:

(
a)wi
thi
nthepr
esy
napt
icknob

(
b)wi
thi
nthepost
synapt
icknob

(
c)i
nthesy
napt
iccl
eft

(
d)i
nthedendr
it
epor
tofneur
on
27.Neur
otr
ansmi
tt
ersar
erel
easedby
:

(
a)axonendi
ng

(
b)Dendr
onendi
ng

(
c)cel
lbody

(
d)sy
napt
iccl
eft

KEY

1.A paci
niancor
puscl
es-
--
>pr
essur
e.Mei
ssnercor
puscl
es-
--
>Touch

2.A

3.B

4.C

5.A Af
tert
hedepol
ari
zat
ion,
RMPisret
oredbyNa/KATPasepump.Af
terdepol
ari
zat
ion,
Na
gat
escl
osewhil
eKgatesopenandt
hereisef
fl
uxofKion

6.C Chemor
ecept
orsr
espondst
ochangei
nconcent
rat
ionofCO2,
O2,
glucoseet
c

7.A Pai
nrecept
ors27t
imes>col
drecept
ors10t
imes>war
mthr
ecept
ors

8.A

9.B

10.A I
tisl
i
popr
otei
nlay
er.Chi
efcomponentofi
tscomposi
ti
oni
sli
pid

11.B I
tisbecausemostsensoryneur
onsdonotpassdi r
ect
lyi
ntot
hebrai
nbutsynapseint
he
spi
nalcordwhichall
owsref
lexacti
onstooccurrel
ati
vel
yqui
ckl
ybyact
ivat
ingspi
nalmotor
neur
onswi t
houtthedel
ayofrouti
ngsignal
sthr
oughthebrai
n

12.B I
ndepol
ari
zat
ion,
sodi
um v
olt
agegat
edchannel
sar
eopenedandt
her
eisi
nfl
uxofsodi
um
i
ons

13.C 3bi
ndi
ngsi
tesoni
nnersi
dewhi
l
e2onout
ersi
des

14.B
15.D

16.B

17.C

18.B

19.B

20.A

21.C

22.C

23.C

24.A

25.B Sensor
yneur
onshav
elongdendr
on.Mot
orneur
onshav
elongaxons

26.A

27.A Byaxont
ermi
nal
ofPr
esy
napt
icneur
on

DNAREPLI
CATI
ON

Thereisonl
yasi
ngl
esit
eforDNArepli
cat
ioni
nprokar
yot
esbuttherear
emanyrepl
i
cat
ion
ori
ginsit
esi
neukar
yot
es.Thesesi
teshav
especi
fi
csequencesofnucl
eoti
des

DNAhel
icasecausesunwi
ndi
ng.Gi
vessi
ngl
est
randedDNA
SSBpr
oteinst
abli
zessi
ngl
estr
andedDNAandprev
entrewi
ndi
ng

Pri
masesynthesi
zeRNAprimer
swhicharecompl
ementary(
sequenceof10RNAnucl eoti
des)
andant
ipar
all
eltoDNAtemplat
estr
and.Pri
meri
nit
iat
esrepl
icat
iononsingl
est
andedt emplat
e
DNA.Oneprimerforl
aggi
ngstr
and(el
ongat
esawayfrom r
epli
cati
onfor
kandsynthesized
di
sconti
nuousl
y).Manyprimer
sforl
eadi
ngst
rand(
elongat
est
owar
drepl
i
cat
ionf
orkand
sy
nthesi
zedcontinuousl
y)

DNApolymeraseII
I(dimmermolecule)elongateschainbyaddingnucleot
idesalongsingl
e
str
andusing3–OHgr oupofRNAprimer .Thusr epli
cat
ionproceedsi
n5---
>3directi
on.DNA
poly
meraseII
Iadds1000nucleot
ides/s.Itrequires2Pi f
oraddit
ionofasingl
enucleoti
de

Okazakif
ragmentsar
et hesegmentsof100-
200nucl
eot
idesi
neukar
yotesand1000-2000i
n
pr
okaryot
es.Okazaki
fragmentsaresynt
hesi
zedbyDNApolymer
aseII
Iin5--
->3di
recti
on

DNApol y
mer aseIplay
sasuppor
tingr
olei
nrepl
icat
ion.I
tal
socauseselongat
ioni
n5--
>3
di
rect
ion.Ital
sor emovesRNApr
imerbyit
sExonucl
easesacti
vi
ty(
5--
->3).I
tal
soplayr
olei
n
fi
l
li
ngofgaps.I tusesATP

DNAli
gasecausesphosphodi
est
erl
i
nkagesbet
ween5-
Pand3-
OH(
att
achesf
ragment
sof
newl
ysynt
hesi
zedDNA)

MCQs

1.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngcausesunwi
ndi
ngofdoubl
est
randedDNA?

a.SSBpr
otei
n

b.Pr
imase

c.Hel
i
case

d.DNAPol
ymer
aseI

2.Pr
imasesy
nthesi
ze-
--
--pr
imerwhi
chhassequenceof-
--
--nucl
eot
ides

a.DNA,
10DNA
b.DNA,
20DNA

c.RNA,
20RNA

d.RNA,
10RNA

3.-
--
--
-isadi
mmermol
ecul
eandi
tel
ongat
eschai
nin-
--
--
-di
rect
ioni
npr
okar
yot
es

a.DNApol
ymer
aseI

b.DNApol
ymer
aseI
I

c.DNApol
ymer
aseI
II

d.DNAPr
imer

4.DNApol
ymer
asewi
l
lmakeaDNAst
randconsi
sti
ngof-
--
--
-nucl
eot
idesi
n2seconds

a.1000

b.2000

c.200

d.400

5.Okazaki
fragment
sar
esy
nthesi
zedbyDNApol
ymer
aseI
IIi
n--
--
--
-di
rect
ion

a.5-
--
>3

b.3-
--
>5

c.3-
--
>3'

d.5-
--
>5'

6.Whi
chofthef
oll
owi
ngenzy
mei
sresponsi
blef
ort
her
emov
alofRNApr
imeraf
tersy
nthesi
s
ofDNAst
rand?

a.DNApol
ymer
aseI

b.RNApol
ymer
aseI
c.DNApol
ymer
aseI
II

d.RNApol
ymer
aseI
II

7.DNApol
ymer
aseI
IImov
esal
ongt
het
empl
atest
randi
n:

a.5-
--
>3di
rect
ion

b.3-
--
>5di
rect
ion

c.3-
--
>3'
dir
ect
ion

d.5-
--
>5'
dir
ect
ion

8.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sinf
ormat
ioni
sincor
rectr
egar
dingsy
nthesi
sofLeadi
ngst
rand?

a.Sy
nthesi
zecont
inuousl
y

b.Requi
reoneRNApr
imer

c.El
ongat
est
owar
dsr
epl
i
cat
ionf
ork

d.Okazaki
fragment
sfor
m

9.DNAl
i
gasej
oinst
het
woDNAf
ragment
sbyf
ormi
nga:

a.Est
erbond

b.Phosphodi
est
erbond

c.Hy
drogenbond

d.Cov
alentbond

10.Eachokaz
aki
fragmenti
ssy
nthesi
zedbyDNA:

a.pol
ymer
aseI

b.pol
ymer
aseI
I

c.pol
ymer
aseI
II
d.pr
imase

11.Gapsbet
weenOkazaki
fragment
sar
efi
l
ledby:

a.DNApol
ymer
aseI
II

b.DNApol
ymer
aseI

c.Pr
imase

d.DNAl
i
gase

KEY

1.C DNAheli
casecausesunwindi
ng.Gi
vessi
ngl
estrandedDNA
SSBprot
einst
abl
izessi
nglest
randedDNAandpreventrewi
ndi
ng

2.D

3.C

4.B DNApol
ymer
aseI
IIaddsnucl
eot
idesatt
hespeedof1000nucl
eot
ides/
s

5.A

6.A

7.B Si nceDNApolymeraserequir
esafree3'OHgroupfori
nit
iati
onofsynthesi
s,i
tcan
synthesizei
nonl
yonedirect
ionbyex t
endi
ngthe3'endofthepreexi
sti
ngnucleot
idechai
n.
Hence, DNApoly
merasemov esalongthetemplat
estr
andina3'–5'dir
ect
ion,andthedaught
er
str
andi sfor
medina5'–3'di
recti
on

8.B

9.B DNAl
igasecausesphosphodi
est
erl
i
nkagesbet
ween5-
Pand3-
OH(
att
achesf
ragment
s
ofnewl
ysy
nthesi
zedDNA)

10.C

11.B Seedi
agr
am ofr
epl
i
cat
ioni
ntext
book.DNApol
ymer
aseIf
il
lst
hegapwhi
l
eDNAl
i
gase
j
oint
hef
ragment
stol
aggi
ngst
randaf
terf
il
li
ngt
hegaps.

TRANSCRI
PTI
ON
Transcr
ipt
ionist
hesynthesi
sofmRNAf r
om DNA.Itoccursi
nnucl
eus.Onlyonest
randis
tr
anscri
bedandthisst
randistempl
atest
randorant
isensest
randwhi
letheopposi
testr
andi
s
codingorsensestr
and

InProkar
yotes,t
herei
sonlyasingl
eRNApol
ymer
aseenzy
mef
ort
ranscr
ipt
ion(
5--
>3)
whi
l
ein
eukaryot
estherearet
hreepoly
merases
i
.RNApol ymeraseI--
->rRNA
i
i.RNApol y
meraseII--
->mRNA
i
ii.RNApolymeraseII
I--
->tRNA

I
niti
ati
onstep:
SigmasubunitofRNApol
ymer
aser
ecogni
zepromot
orregi
ononDNA.RNApoly
mer
asebi
nds
topromotorregi
ononDNA.Pr
omot
orregi
onhastwosequencesi
npr
okar
yot
es

i
.-35sequence(TTGACA)meanscenter
edabout35basestolef
toftr
anscr
ipt
ionstar
ti
ngsite.
Thi
ssequenceisini
ti
alpoi
ntofcont
actf
orRNApolymerase.Whenpol
ymerasebinds,
closed
compl
exforms.

i
i.-10sequence(TATAAT)meanscenter
edatabout10baseslef
ttot
ranscr
ipt
ionst
art
ingsi
te.
Thissequenceisi
nit
ialpoi
ntofDNAunwindi
ng.I
tconv
ert
sclosedcomplext
oopenoneknown
astranscr
ipt
ionbubbles

Promotorr
egional
sohastwosequencesineukaryot
es
a.-70sequence
b.-25sequence(i
dent
ical
to-10sequencei
npr okar
yot
es)

El
ongati
onst ep:
Unwindi
ngofdoubl est r
andedDNAbypr omot orsequenceproducetranscr
ipt
ionbubbleswhich
movein3-->5directi
on.ThenRNApol ymerasebeginstointhedirect
ionofbubblesandbeginto
synt
hesizetr
anscr i
pt.Astranscr
iptexceedtennuceloti
desinlengthmeanbegi ni
ngof
tr
anscri
pti
on,sigmaf actorisrel
eased
Thecor eenzyme( RNApolymerase'subunit
)leav
et he
pr
omotorandmovealongtempl
atestr
and.I
tfor
msshor
tDNA-
RNAhy
bri
dhel
i
x.Tr
anscr
ipt
ion
pr
oceedsi
n5--
->3di
recti
onli
ker
epli
cati
on.

Terminati
onstep:
SequenceinDNAt emplat
estr
andgeneratesequencei
nnewlysynt
hesizedRNAwhi
chfol
dsto
form Hair
pinhavi
ngGCr i
chst
em andloop.Thishai
rpi
ncausest
erminati
on.Sot
hesi
mplest
stopsignali
saseriesofGCbasepai
rsfoll
owedbyATbasepai r
s.

Modif
icati
ons:
I
nprokaryotes(bacter
ia)
,newl
ysy
nthesi
zedmRNAi
sdi
rect
lyr
eleasedi
ntot
hecy
topl
asm wher
e
i
tundergoest r
anslati
on

Whileineukaryot
es,asmRNAhast otr
avelf
rom i
nsidenucleust
otheri
bosomesincy
topl
asm,
somodi f
icat
ionsoccurwhichhel
pmRNAi nit
sjourney.
i
.7-methylGTPcapi satt
achedto5endofmRNA
i
i.PolyAtaili
sattachedt
o3endofmRNA
Thesemodi f
icati
onsprev
entmRNAf r
om att
ackofnucleasesandphosphat
ases

MCQs

1.I
neukar
yot
es,
whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngenzy
mesy
nthesi
zemRNA?

a.RNApol
ymer
ase

b.RNApol
ymer
aseI

c.RNApol
ymer
aseI
I

d.RNApol
ymer
aseI
II

2.I
npr
okar
yot
es,
Promot
orr
egi
ononDNAi
s r
ecogni
zedby:

a.Recogni
ti
onf
act
or

b.Rel
easi
ngf
act
or
c.RNApol
ymer
ase

d.I
nit
iat
ionf
act
or

3.I
npr
okar
yot
es,
TTGACAsequencei
scent
eredabout-
--
--t
othel
eftoft
ranscr
ipt
ionst
art
ing
si
te

a.70bases

b.35bases

c.10bases

d.25bases

4.I
nTr
ancr
ipt
ionofpr
okar
yot
iccel
l
,theunwi
ndi
ngofDNAdoubl
ehel
i
xist
hef
unct
ionof:

a.DNAhel
i
case

b.SSBpr
otei
n

c.RNApol
ymer
ase

d.Pr
omot
orsequence

5.I
nthesy
nthesi
sofmRNAi
npr
okar
yot
es,
whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngmakesshor
tDNA-
RNAhy
bri
d
hel
i
x?

a.si
gmaf
act
or(
par
tofRNApol
ymer
ase)

b.cor
eenzy
me(
par
tofRNApol
ymer
ase)

c.GChai
rpi
n

d.RNApol
ymer
aseI
I

6.Thest
opsi
gnal
ofGCser
iesofbasepai
rsi
sthepar
tof:

a.mRNA

b.t
RNA
c.r
RNA

d.DNA

7.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngmodi
fi
cat
ionsoccur
sat5-
endofmRNAi
neukar
yot
es?

a.At
tachementofpol
yAt
ail

b.At
tachmentofpol
yCt
ail

c.At
tachmentof7-
met
hyl
GDPcap

d.At
tachementof7-
met
hyGTPcap

8.Whati
sther
oleofsi
gmaf
act
ori
ntr
asncr
ipt
ion?

a.Recogni
ti
onofpr
omot
orr
egi
ononDNAt
empl
atest
rand

b.Act
saspr
imer

c.For
mat
ionofDNA-
RNAhy
bri
dhel
i
x

d.Ter
minat
ionofTr
anscr
ipt
ion

9.I
ntr
anscr
ipt
ion,
RNApol
ymer
asemov
esi
nthedi
rect
ionofbubbl
esi
n:

a.3-
--
>5di
rect
ion

b.5-
--
>3di
rect
ion

c.5-
--
>5di
rect
ion

d.3-
--
>3di
rect
ion

10.TheDNAst
randsopenupatt
hepl
acewher
eenzy
mei
sat
tachedt
othet
empl
atest
rand
for
ming:

a.r
RNA

b.Tr
anscr
ipt
ionbubbl
e

c.mRNA
d.t
RNA

KEY

1.C

2.C Pr
omot
orr
egi
oni
srecogni
sedbysi
gmaf
act
or(
subuni
tofRNApol
ymer
ase)

3.B

4.D I
npr
okar
yot
es,
iti
sdoneby-
10sequenceandi
neukar
yot
esi
tisdoneby-
25sequence

5.B Aft
ert
herel
easeofsi
gmafact
or,t
hecoreenzy
me(RNApol
ymer
ase'subuni
t)l
eav
ethe
promot
orandmovealongt
empl
atestr
and.I
tfor
msshor
tDNA-RNAhy
bri
dhel i
x

6.D Sequencei
nDNAtempl
atest
randgeneratesequencei
nnewlysynt
hesi
zedRNAwhi
ch
fol
dstofor
m Hai
rpi
nhavi
ngGCri
chstem andloop.Thishai
rpi
ncausest
ermi
nati
on

7.D

8.A SigmasubunitofRNApol
ymeraserecognizepromot orr
egiononDNA.RNApolymerase
bi
ndstopr omot
orregi
ononDNA.Inthebeginingoftranscri
pti
on,si
gmafact
ori
sreleased
Thecoreenzyme(RNApolymer
ase'subunit
)leavethepromot orandmoveal
ongtemplate
str
and.Itf
ormsshortDNA-
RNAhybridheli
x.

9.A Unwi ndingofdoubl estr

andedDNAbypr omotorsequenceproducetranscri
ptionbubbl es
whichmov ein3-->5directi
on.ThenRNApol ymerasebeginstointhedir
ectionofbubbl esand
begintosy nt
hesizet
ranscript.Ast r
anscriptexceedtennucelot
idesinl
engthmeanbegi ningof
tr
anscript
ion,si
gmaf actorisreleased.Thecor eenzyme( RNApol y
merase'subunit)leav ethe
promotorandmov ealongtempl atest r
and.ItformsshortDNA-RNAhy bri
dhel i
x.Transcr i
ption
proceedsin5---
>3directi
onl i
ker epl
icati
on.

10.B
 TRANSLATI
ON
Tr
ansl
ati
oni
sthesy
nthesi
sofpr
otei
nfr
om mRNA.I
toccur
sincy
topl
asm.I
toccur
sin3st
eps.

Ini
tiat
ionst ep:
a.mRNAcar riesgenet icinf ormat i
on(codons)f r
om nucleustocy toplasm wher eitact sa
templatef orsy nthesisofdesi redpol ypeptide.ThismRNAbi ndstosmal l
ersubuni tofr i
bosome
b.tRNAhast wosi tes.i .Ant icodon i i.Ami noacidattachmentsi de(3'
–OH)
c.Ami noacy ltRNAsy nthet aser ecognizespeci fi
cami noacidandspeci fi
ct RNAandcauses
covalentat t
achmentt o3' endofcor respondi nytRNAusi ngATP.I tsmeant herewill beequal
numberoft RNA, ami noaci dsandami noacy ltRNAsy nt
hetase
d.Init
iati
ngt RNA( hav ingi niti
atingami noaci di .
e Nformy lmet hi
onineinpr okary
ot esand
met hi
oninei neukar y otes)comes, r
ecogni zedbyi ni
ti
ati
ngf actor,
andbi ndst oini
tiating
codon( AUG)onmRNAbyi tsant icodon.
e.Whent RNAbi ndst omRNAwhi chwasat tachedtosmal lri
bosomal subunit,i
tisr ecei
vedbyP
-si
teonsmal l subuni t
f.Thiscompl exhav ingsmal l
ribosomal subunit,mRNA, tRNAi scalledini
tiati
oncompl ex.Now
thi
scompl exbi ndst ol argerr ibosomal subuni t

Elongationst ep:
a.Elongat i
onf actor
sf acil
i
tatebi ndingofnextami noacyltRNA( tRNAhav ingami noaci d)toits
codononmRNAonl argerr i
bosomal subunit.Thistimeami noaci disr eceivedbyempt yAsi te
ofribosome
b.Nowanenzy mepept idyltransferasecatalyzepept i
debondf ormat i
on.Theact i
vit
yoft hi
s
enzy mei sintri
nsictolargersubuni tofr i
bosome.Si mpl yucansaypept i
debondf ormat i
oni s
catalyzedbyl argerri
bosomal subunit
c.Thisact ioncausest heseper ati
onofi ni
ti
atingami noacid(met hionine)from init
iati
ng
tRNA( whichwasat t
achedt oPsi t
eonsmal l
err i
bosomal subunit)
d.Nowr ibsomeadv ancesal ongmRNAi n5--->3direct
iontonextcodoncal ledtranslocati
onby
thehel pofanot herelongationf actor.
e.Intranslocationshifti
ngoccur si.einti
ati
ngt RNA( whi
chwasat tachedt oPsi te)mov esfrom P
sit
et oEsi tewhi l
e2ndt RNA( whichwasat t
achedt oAsi te)mov esf rom Asi tetoPsi teand
againAsi t
ebecomeempt yforr eceivi
ngnewami noacy lt
RNA(tRNAwi thattachedami noacid)

Termi
nati
onstep:
a.El
ongat
ioncont
inuesunt
ilt
ermi
nat
ioncodonsar
eencount
eredatAsi
te.Ter
minat
ioncodons
ar
enonsensecodonsi
.eUAA,
UGAandUAG.

b.Thesenonsensecodonsar erecogni
zedbyr el
easingfactor
s(protei
nnature)
c.Theseterminat
ioncodonswhenbi ndstoAsi t
eofr i
bosomebyt hehelpofrel
easingfactors,
newlysynthesi
zedpolypepti
deisrel
easedfrom ri
bosomal complex
d.Thesecodonshav enocompl ementaryanti
codonssot RNAdonotbi ndandtranslat
ionstops
e.Ri
bosomedi ssoci
atesfrom mRNA

GENETI
CCODE

Geneticcodei st hecombi nati

onofthreenucleoti
deswhichspecif
yapar ti
cul
arami no
acid.
Ther earefol l
owingcharacteri
sti
csofgenet i
ccode
i
.Speci f
icit
y
i
i.Universal(exceptioninmi t
ochondri
ai.eUGAcodesf ortr
yptophaninsteadofbeingacti
ngas
at er
minat i
ngcodon)
i
ii.Commal ess
i
v .Degeneracy( eachcodoncor respondstoasi ngl
eaminoacidbutami noacidmayhav emore
thanonecodoni .
eAr gi
ninehave6di f
ferentcodonswhil
eMet hi
onineandTr y
ptophanhaveonl
y
j
ustonecodon, AUGandUGGr especti
vely.

Outof64codons,
61codonsencodesami
noaci
dswhi
l
e3nonsensecodonsdonotencodeany
aminoaci
d.

MCQs
1.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngact
sasat
empl
atedur
ingt
ransl
ati
om ?

a.t
RNA

b.mRNA

c.DNA

d.r
RNA
2.I
nit
iat
ioncompl
exdoesnothav
e:

a.t
RNA

b.Ami
noacy
ltRNA

c.mRNA

d.Smal
l
err
ibosomal
subuni
t

3.Ami
noaci
disat
tachmentsi
teont
RNAi
s:

a.3'
end

b.5'
end

c.3'
and5'
end

d.ami
noaci
dcanat
tachany
wher
eont
RNA

4.Ant
icodoni
sthesequenceof-
--
--
-pr
esenton-
--
--

a.3nucl
eot
ides,
DNA

b.3nucl
eot
ides,
tRNA

c.3nucl
eot
ides,
mRNA

d.1nucl
eot
ide,
DNA

5.Therearetwent
ydi
ff
erentt
RNA.Howmanyami
noacy
ltRNAsy
nthet
asewoul
dyouexpectf
or
thei
racti
vati
on?

a.Onl
y1

b.10

c.20

d.100

6.I
nit
iat
ingt
RNAi
sthet
RNAhav
ing-
--
--oni
ts3'
end
a.Tr
ypt
ophan

b.Ar
gini
ne

c.Met
hioni
ne

d.Ser
ine

7.I
nit
iat
ingt
RNAi
srecei
vedby:

a.Asi
teonsmal
l
err
ibosomal
subuni
t

b.Asi
teonl
argerr
ibosomal
subuni
t

c.Psi
teonsmal
l
err
ibosomal
subuni
t

d.Psi
teonl
argerr
ibi
somal
subuni
t

8.I
nit
iat
ingt
RNAbi
ndst
o:

a.AUG

b.AGU

c.CUA

d.CAU

9.Nextcomi
ngt
RNAaf
tert
heat
tachmentofi
nit
iat
ingt
RNA,
isr
ecei
vedby:

a.Asi
teonsmal
l
err
ibosomal
subuni
t

b.Asi
teonl
argerr
ibosomal
subuni
t

b.Psi
teonsmal
l
err
ibosomal
subuni
t

d.Psi
teonl
argerr
ibi
somal
subuni
t

10.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngcat
aly
zet
hef
ormat
ionofpept
idebond?

a.Smal
l
err
ibosomal
subuni
t
b.Lar
gerr
ibosomal
subuni
t

c.Ami
noacy
ltRNAsy
nthet
ase

d.RNApol
ymer
ase

11.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ocessoccur
sin3-
--
>5di
rect
ion?

a.Repl
i
cat
ion

b.Tr
anscr
ipt
ion

c.Tr
ansl
ocat
ion

d.Pr
oofr
eadi
ngofnewl
ysy
nthesi
zedDNA

12.I
ntr
ansl
ocat
ion,
shi
ft
ingofi
nit
iat
ingt
RNAsoccur
sfr
om :

a.Asi
te-
--
>Psi
te-
--
>Esi
te

b.Psi
te-
--
>Asi
te-
--
>Esi
te

c.Psi
te-
--
>E

a.Asi
te-
--
>E

13.Whichoft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sthecauseofsepar
ati
onofi
nit
iat
ingami
noaci
dfr
om i
nit
iat
ing
tRNA?

a.Pept
idebondf
ormat
ion

b.Bi
ndi
ngofUAAt
oAsi
te

c.Bi
ndi
ngofUAAt
oPsi
te

d.Ami
noacy
ltRNAsy
nthet
ase

14.Ter
minat
ionofTr
ansl
ati
onoccur
swhen:

a.UAAbi
ndst
otRNA

b.UAAbi
ndst
oPsi
te
c.UAAbi
ndst
oAsi
te

d.UAAbi
ndst
oEsi
te

15.Ter
minat
ingcodonsdonotcombi
neei
therdi
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
lywi
th:

a.mRNA

b.Ri
bosome

c.Rel
easi
ngf
act
ors

d.t
RNA

16.Nonsensecodonsar
erecogni
zedby-
--
--
-whi
chhav
e--
--
-nat
ure

a.I
nit
iat
ingf
act
ors,
Prot
ein

b.El
ongat
ingf
act
ors,
Prot
ein

c.Rel
easi
ngf
act
ors,
Prot
ein

d.El
ongat
ingf
act
ors,
gly
copr
otei
n

17.Numberofcodonst
hatencodet
heami
noaci
dsar
e:

a.20

b.60

c.61

d.64

18.Whatar
ethel
astt
hreenucl
eot
idesal
way
sfoundatt
he3endoft
RNA?

a.CAA

b.AAC

c.ACC
d.CCA

19.Howmanynucl
eot
idesappearonAsi
teatonet
imedur
ingt
ransl
ati
on?

a.1

b.2

c.3

d.4

20.Thegenet
iccodet
ransl
atedt
hel
anguageof

a)Pr
otei
nsi
ntot
hatofRNA

b)Ami
noaci
dsi
ntot
hatofRNA

c)RNAi
ntot
hatofpr
otei
ns

d)RNAi
ntot
hatofDNA

21.I
ncaseofmi
tochondr
ial
genet
iccodeUGAi
sa_
___
___
___
__codon.

a)Tr
ypt
ophan

b)Ar
gini
ne

c)Pr
oli
ne

d)St
op

22.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
nggenet
iccodeshowsambi
gui
ty?

a)CGU

b)AUG

c)GAC

d)UGA
23.Whi
choneoft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
snotanmRNAcodon

a)UUG

b)UCU

c)TAC

d)UUU

24.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngami
noaci
disencodedbyonl
yasi
ngl
ecodon?

a.Tr
ypt
ophan

b.Ser
ine

c.Cy
stei
n

d.Ar
gini
ne

25.Ther
ear
e64t
ypesofcodoni
ngenet
iccodondi
cti
onar
ybecause

a.Ther
ear
e64t
ypesoft
RNAi
ncel
l

b.Ther
ear
e44meani
ngl
essand20codonsf
orami
noaci
ds

c.Ther
ear
e64ami
noaci
dsf
orcodi
ng

d.Genet
iccodei
str
ipl
et

KEY

1.B BecausemRNAcar
ri
esgenet
ici
nfor
mat
ion(
codon)f
ort
hesy
nthesi
sofspeci
fi
cpr
otei
n

2.A I
nit
iat
ioncomplexhasmRNAattachedonsmall
erri
bosomal
subuni
t+i
nit
iat
ing
tRNA(
tRNAwi t
hatt
achedini
ti
ati
ngaminoaci
d)at
tachedonmRNAcodon

3.A

4.B
5.C Aminoacylt
RNAsy nthet
aserecognizespeci
fi
caminoaci
dandspeci
fi
ctRNAandcauses
coval
entat
tachmentto3'endofcorrespondi
nytRNAusingATP.I
tsmeanther
ewil
lbeequal
numberoftRNA,aminoacidsandami noacylt
RNAsy nt
het
ase

6.C

7.C

8.A

9.B

10.B

11.D

12.C Intransl
ocat
ionshi
ft
ingoccur
si.ei
ntiat
ingtRNA(whi
chwasat t
achedtoPsi
te)mov
es
fr
om PsitetoEsitewhil
e2ndtRNA(whichwasat t
achedtoAsite)movesfr
om Asit
etoPsit
e
andagainAsi t
ebecomeempt yf
orrecei
vingnewami noacy
ltRNA(t
RNAwi t
hatt
achedami
no
aci
d)

13.A

14.C Aft
ert
ranslocation,Asi
tebecomesempt y,newcodonappear
sonAsitewher
enew
comingt
RNAat t
aches.Whent ermi
nat
ingcodonappearsonAsite,t
RNAdoesnotbi
ndbecause
tRNAdoesnothavet heircomplement
aryant
icodon

15.C WhennonsensecodonsappearonAsit
e,t
heyarer
ecognizedbyr eleasi
ngf
actors,whi
ch
bi
ndwi tht
hem andcausessper
ati
onoft
hecomplex
(smal
lerandlargerribosomalsubunit
,
mRNA) .Nonsensecodonsdonotbi
ndwit
htRNAastRNAdonothav etheircompl
ement ar
y
anti
codons.

16.C

17.C Ther
ear
e64codonsoutofwhi
ch3ar
enonsensecodonswhi
chdonotcodeanyami
no
aci
d.

18.D Thelastthreebasesont he3'endoftRNAar ealway sCCA–t wocytosi

nesfol
lowedby
oneadeninebase.Thisstret
chispartoftheacceptorarm ofthemolecul
e,whereanaminoaci
d
i
scovalentl
yattachedtothehydroxylgr
oupont heribosesugaroftheter
minaladeni
ne
nucl
eoti
de.Giveal ookatthest
ructur
eoft RNAgiveniny ourt
extbook

19.C Ofcour
se,
onecodonappearonAsi
teatonesi
de.Codoni
sasequenceof3nucl
eot
ides.

20.C Theover
all
processofmRNA-
gui
dedpr
otei
nsy
nthesi
sisof
tenr
efer
redt
osi
mpl
yas
tr
ansl
ati
on.
21.A I
ncaseofmitochondri
algenet
iccodeUGAi
sat
rypt
ophancodon.ButUGAi
sast
op
codoni
ntheuni
ver
sal genet
iccode.

22.D UGAi soneoftheuni

ver
sal
ter
minat
ioncodon.ButUGAcodesf
ort
rypt
ophani
n
mitochondr
ial
genet
iccode.

23.C Thy
minei
sabsenti
nRNA

24.A Try
ptophanandMethioni
near
eencodedbyonlysi
ngl
ecodonwhi
l
eot
herami
noaci
ds
have2-
6codonslikear
gini
nehave6dif
fer
entcodons

25.D Geneti
ccodeistr
ipl
etandineachtr
ipl
ett
herearethr
eebases(4³)
.Ami
noaci
dcanby
encodedby2-6codonsexceptt
rypt
ophanandmethioni
ne.NumberoftRNA=NumberofAAs

CELLULAR RESPI
RATI
ON
Cel
l
ularRespi
rat
ioni
sdi
vi
dedi
nto4st
ages

a.Gl
ycol
ysi
s b.Py
ruv
ateoxi
dat
ion

c.Kr
ebscy
cle d.Respi
rat
orychai
n

Glycol
ysis:
1.Occursincyt
osol
2.Occursinbothaer
obicandanerobi
crespir
ation
3.Productispy
ruvat
eincaseofbothaerobicrespi
rat
ionand anerobi
crespi
rati
on
4.Ithastwophases°preparat
oryphase(energyuti
li
zati
on)°oxidati
ve/
payoffphase(
ener
gy
producti
on)

5.Phosphoryl
ati
onofglucoseandF-6-Poccurs(energyutil
i
zati
onst eps)
6.Oxi
dati
onofG3P/ PGALandoxi dati
onofDAPy i
eldenergy(2NADH)
7.Dephosphoryl
ati
onofG3P/ PGALandDAPoccur s(energyproductionst
eps)
8.Dehydrat
ionoccursi
nconv er
sionof2PGi nt
oPEP
9.Dephosphoryl
ati
onofofPEPoccur s(energyproducti
onstep)
10.2ATPand2NADHpr oducedbyglycolysi
sof1gl ucosemol ecul
e
11.2NADHpr oducedbygl
ycol
ysi
sincaseofaerobi
crespi
rati
onunder
goesoxi
dati
ve
phosphor
ylat
ion
12.2NADHpr oducedbygl
ycol
ysi
sincaseofanerobi
crespi
rati
onusei
nconver
sionofpy
ruv
ate
i
ntolact
ate

13.NetATPgai
nbygl
ycol
ysi
sof1mol
ecul
eofgl
ucosei
s2

Ther
ear
ethr
eef
atesofpy
ruv
ate:

i
.Conv
ersi
oni
ntol
act
ate

i
i
.Conv
ersi
oni
ntoal
cohol

i
i
i.Conv
ersi
oni
ntoAcet
ylCoA

Fi
rstt
wor
eact
ionsoccuri
nabsenceofoxy
genwhi
l
e3r
doneoccur
sinpr
esenceofoxy
gen

Oxi
dat
ionofpy
ruv
ate:

1.Pyruvat
ecombineswithCoA- SH
2.Product
sareNADH, CO2, AcetylCoA
3.NumberofATPpr oducedi nconversi
onof1moleculeofgl
ucoseint
oacetyl
CoAare6
because1glucosemoleculegives2mol ecul
esofpyr
uvateandeachpyruv
ategiv
es1NADHon
oxi
dation.
4.NetATPgainby1gl ucosemol eculei
s6

Krebscy cl
e:
1.Occur sonl yi
naerobi
crespirati
on
2.Occur sinmi t
ochondr
ialmatr i
x
3.Subst ancesusedin1kr ebcy cl
eare,1moleculeofacet
ylcoA,1mol
ecul
eofoxal
oacetat
e,2
mol eculesofH2O
4.Pr oductsof1Kr ebcycl
eare, 2molecul
esofCO2, 3NADH, 1FADH,1GTP
5.2mol eculesofNADHar eproducedbyoxidativedecar
boxyl
ati
onofi
soci
rt
rat
eandalpha
ketoglutarate
6.1mol eculeofNADHispr oducedbyDehy drogenat
ionofMalat
e
7.Oxi
dati
onofsucci
natepr
oducesFADH
8.Tot
alener
gyproduct
ioni
s12ATPpermol
ecul
eofacet
ylCoAor24ATPpermol
ecul
eof
gl
ucose

Oxidativ
ePhosphor y
lati
on:
Couplingofelectr
ontransportdowntheETCwithATPsy nt
hesi
siscal
ledoxi
dative
phosphor yl
ati
on
ETCi slocatedini
nnermi t
ochondri
almembraneexceptcyt
ochr
omecwhi chislocatedi
n
i
ntermembr anousspace
Coenzy meQoxi di
zesNADHorFADH.Cy tochr
omes(ir
oncontai
ningpr
otei
ns)oxidi
zeCoenzy
me
Q.Cy t
ochromeoxi di
zebyoxy gen

NADH/
FADH-
--
>2e¯-
--
>CoQ/
Ubl
i
qui
none-
--
>Cy
t.b-
--
>Cy
t.c-
--
>Cy
t.a-
--
>Cy
t.a3-
--
>O-
atom

Regul
ati
onofcel
l
ularRespi
rat
ion:

1.Whentherei
sal
readyenoughATPinbody
,itwi
ll
inhi
bittheact
ionofphosphof
ruct
oki
nase
enzy
mesot hatmoregl
ucoseshoul
dnotbeconver
tedi
nt opyr
uvateandmoreATPshouldnot
beproduced

2.Nowi fAMPi shighinbody(meansATPi

slow),i
twil
lexer
tpositi
veeff
ectontheact
ivi
tyof
phosphofructokinaseenzyme.I
twil
lmakeensur
ethatmoreglucoseconver
tint
opyruv
ateso
thatbodywi l
lgetATP

3.I
fNADHi shighitwil
linhi
bitt
hepyr
uvat
edecarboxyl
asesothatnomor
econver
sionof
pyruvateint
oacetylcoAcanbemadeensur eandinresul
tnomoreNADHproduct
ionfr
om t
he
conversionofpyr
uv at
eintoacetyl
CoA

4.Ifci
tr
ate(i
stintermedi
ateofKr
ebcy cl
e)lev
eldowns,itwil
lexer
tposi
ti
veeff
ecton
phosphofr
uctokinasesothatmor
eglucoseconv er
tint
opy r
uvate,
morepyruv
ateconver
tint
o
acetyl
CoAandmor eAcet
ylCoAconverti
ntocit
rat
e
 MCQs

1.Commonf
uel
usedbycel
ltopr
ovi
deener
gybycel
l
ularRespi
rat
ioni
s:

a.ATP

b.Pr
otei
n

c.Gl
ucose

d.Fat
s

2.Aki
ndofchemi
cal
li
nkbet
weencat
abol
i
sm andanabol
i
sm i
s:

a.ATP

b.Pr
otei
n

c.Gl
ucose

d.Fat
s

3.NetNADHy
iel
dint
heconv
ersi
onof1mol
ecul
egl
ucosei
ntol
act
ate(
anaer
obi
cgl
ycol
ysi
s):

a.1

b.2

c.4

d.0

4.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngst
epi
sener
gyy
iel
dingst
epi
ngl
ycol
ysi
s?

a.Gl
ucose-
--
->Gl
ucose6-
P

b.2PG-
--
->PEP

c.G3P-
--
->1,
3BPG

d.1,
3BPG-
--
>3PG
5.I
nwhi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
eact
ion,
decar
boxy
lat
ionandhy
drat
ionoccur
ssi
mul
taneousl
y?

a.Py
ruv
ate-
--
--
>Acet
ylCoA

b.Acet
ylCoA-
--
->Ci
tr
ate

c.ket
ogl
utar
ate-
--
->Succi
nat
e

d.Fumar
ate-
--
->Mal
ate

6.I
nKr
ebscy
cle,
FADH2i
spr
oducedby:

a.Reduct
ionofSucci
nat
e

b.Oxi
dat
ionofSucci
nat
e

c.Oxi
dat
ionofFumar
ate

d.Oxi
dat
ionofMal
ate

7.Dehy
drogenat
ionofMal
ategi
ves:

a.H2O

b.NAD

c.NADH

d.FAD

8.Howmanymol
ecul
esofCO2ar
epr
oducedby1gl
ucosei
naer
obi
crespi
rat
ion?

a.3

b.2

c.6

d.4

9.
Inaer
obicrespi
rat
ion,
whi
choft
hei
nter
medi
atei
sfor
medbydehy
drat
ionoft
hepr
evi
ous
i
nter
mediate?
a.Ci
tr
ate

b.Succi
nat
e

c.Phosphoenol
pyr
uvat
e(PEP)

d.Py
ruv
ate

10.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
nter
medi
ateofKr
ebcy
clei
s5car
boncompound?

a.Ket
ogl
utar
ate

b.I
soci
tr
ate

c.Oxal
oacet
ate

d.Succi
nat
e

11.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ocessoccur
sinmi
tochondr
iamat
ri
x?

a.Aner
obi
cgl
ycol
ysi
s

b.Aer
obi
cgl
ycol
ysi
s

c.ETC

d.Kr
ebcy
cle

12.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
stheact
ivat
orofPhosphof
ruct
oki
nase?

a.I
ncr
easedAMPl
evel

b.I
ncr
easedCi
tr
atel
evel

c.I
ncr
easedCO2l
evel

d.I
ncr
easedATPl
evel

13.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngcausesi
nhi
bit
ionofpy
ruv
ateoxi
dat
ion?

a.I
ncr
easedNADH/
NADr
ati
o
b.I
ncr
easedNAD/
NADHr
ati
o

c.I
ncr
easedCO2

d.ATP

14.Coenzy
meoxi
dize-
--
--

a.NADH

b.FADH2

c.Cy
tochr
omeb

d.NADHorFADH2

15.Cy
tochr
omecr
educes-
--
--

a.Coenzy
meQ

b.Cy
tochr
omeb

c.Cy
tochr
omea

d.ATP

16.Eachpai
rofHat
omsent
eri
ngt
her
espi
rat
orychai
nasFADH2y
iel
ds:

a.2ATPs

b.3ATPs

c.4ATPs

d.0ATP

17.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
nghashi
ghestt
endencyt
ogai
nel
ect
roni
nETC?

a.Coenzy
meQ

b.Cy
tochr
omec
c.Cy
tochr
omea

d.Oxy
gen

18.HowmanyATPmadeperOxy
genat
om f
rom FADH2?

a.1

b.2

c.3

d.4

19.Howmuchener
gyperoxy
genat
om i
spr
oducedf
rom NADH?

a.21.
9kCal

b.14.
6kCal

c.43.
8kCal

d.29.
2kCal

20.Whi
chpr
ocessneedsoxy
gen?

(
a)gl
ycol
ysi
s

(
b)kr
ebscy
cle

(
c)chemi
osmosi
s

(
d)ETS

21.Duri
ngwhichst
agei
nt hecompl
eteoxi
dat
ionofgl
ucosear
ethegr
eat
estnumberofATP
molecul
esfor
medf r
om ADP?

(
a)Kr
eb’
scy
cle

(
b)Gl
ycol
ysi
s

(
c)El
ect
ront
ranspor
tchai
n
(
d)Conv
ersi
onofpy
ruv
icaci
dtoacet
ylCoA

22.Oxi
dat
ivephosphor
ylat
ioni
spr
oduct
ionof

(
a)ATPi
nphot
osy
nthesi
s

(
b)NADPHi
nphot
osy
nthesi
s

(
c)ATPi
nrespi
rat
ion

(
d)NADHi
nrespi
rat
ion

23.Wheny
eastf
erment
sgl
ucose,
thepr
oduct
sobt
ainedar
e

(
a)et
hanol
andCO2

(
b)met
hanol
andCO2

(
c)et
hanol
andwat
er

(
d)wat
erandCO2

KEY

1.C

2.A

3.D 2NADHpr oducedbyglycol

ysi
sincaseofaerobicr
espir
ati
onunder
goesoxi
dati
ve
phosphor
ylat
ionandy i
eld6ATPs
2NADHpr oducedbygl ycol
ysi
sincaseofaner
obicrespi
rat
ionusei
nconversi
onofpyr
uvat
e
i
ntol
act
ate.Thust
her
eisnonetNADHpr
oduct
ion

4.D Inglucose-
->glucose6-P,gl
ucosei sphosphoryl
atedmeansATPi sused.I n2PG--
>PEP,
therei
snoaddi t
ion(phosphoryl
ation)orremov al(
dephosphory
lat
ion)ofphosphatesonoATP
product
ionorutil
izati
on.InG3P-->2,3BPG, t
hereisaddit
ionofphosphate(phosphory
lati
on)
meansnATPi sutil
i
zed.In1,3BPG- -
>3PG, t
hereisremovalofphosphate(dephosphor
ylat
ion)
meansATPi sproduced.

5.C Inistreacti
on,onl
ydecar
boxyl
ati
onoccur
s.I
n2ndreacti
on,onlyhydr
ati
onoccur
s.I
n3rd
react
ionthereislossofCO2andther
eisaddi
ti
onofwat
er.In4threacti
on,t
herei
sonl
yaddi
ti
on
ofwat er

6.B

7.C

8.C Inglycol
y si
s,ther
ei snoproducti
onofCO2.I npyruvateoxidat
iononemol eculeofCO2is
producedbyonemol eculeofpyruv
ate.It
smean2CO2by2py ruvat
e/1glucose.Forone
moleculeofglucose,krebcycl
eoccur stwotimes.For1cy cl
e,twomol ecul
esofCO2ar e
producedandf ortwotimes,4CO2mol ecul
es.TotalCO2pr oducti
onfrom 1mol eculeof
gl
ucose=2+4=6
Howev eri
sthenousageofCO2i nrespir
ati
onwhi l
eifwet al
kaboutwat er,
twomol ecul
esof
waterarerel
easedi nglycol
ysi
sand4mol eculesofwaterareusedinkr ebcycl
ef or1glucose
molecule

9.C I
st2ar
efor
medbyhy
drat
ion.PEPi
sfor
medbydehy
drat
ionof2PG

10.A

11.D

12.A AMPi
sact
ivat
or.Ci
tr
ateandATPar
einhi
bit
ors.CO2i
snei
theri
nhi
bit
ornoract
ivat
or

i
.Whent her
eisal
readyenoughATPinbody,
itwi
lli
nhibi
ttheact
ionofphosphof
ruct
oki
nase
enzy
mesot hatmoreglucoseshoul
dnotbeconv
ertedint
opyruvat
eandmor eATPshouldnot
beproduced

i
i.Nowi fAMPi shighi
nbody(meansATPi
slow),i
twil
lexer
tpositi
veef
fectontheact
ivi
tyof
phosphofructoki
naseenzy
me.Itwi
ll
makeensur
ethatmoreglucoseconver
tint
opyruv
ateso
thatbodywi l
lgetmoreATP

i
ii
.Ifci
trat
e( i
sti
nter
mediateofKrebcycle)l
evel
downs, i
twil
lexertposi
ti
veeffecton
phosphofruct
oki
nasesot hatmor
eglucoseconv er
tint
opy r
uvate,
mor epyruv
ateconver
tint
o
acetyl
CoAandmor eAcetylCoAconvertint
ocit
rat
e

13.A I
ncr
easedNADHl
evel
isi
nhi
bit
orofpy
ruv
atedecar
boxy
lase.I
fNADHi
shi
ghi
twi
l
linhi
bit
thepyr
uvat
edecarboxy
lasesothatnomor econv
ersi
onofpy
ruvatei
ntoacet
ylcoAcanbemade
ensur
eandinresul
tnomor eNADHpr oducti
onfr
om t
heconver
sionofpyr
uvatei
ntoacet
ylCoA

14.D Ei
therNADHent
erst
heETCORFADH2ent
erst
heETC

15.C

16.A I
fFADH2ent
ersETC,
ity
iel
ds2ATP.I
fNADHent
ersETC,
ity
iel
ds3ATP

17.D Oxygenhashi
ghesttendencyt
ogainel
ect
ronbecausei
thashi
ghel
ect
rodepot
ent
ial
.
Oxygeni
sthemoreelect
ronegati
vesubst
ance

18.B I
fFADH2ent er
sETC,i
tyi
elds2ATP+1H2O.Opt
ionDi
swr
ongbecausei
tisment
ioned
i
nstat
ementthatnumberofATPperoxygenat
om.

19.A I
fNADHent
ersETC,
ity
iel
ds3ATP+1H2OEner
gypr
oduct
ionf
rom one1ATPi
s7.
3Kcal

20.D Oxy genisactual

lynotneededi
ntheKrebscy
cle-i
tisneededi
ntheel
ect
rontr
anspor
t
chai
nt hati
supstream oftheKrebscy
clet
oregener
ateNAD+from NADHandoxygenist
he
fi
nalacceptor
.

21.C NADHandFADH2pr oducedbygly

col
ysi
sorKr
ebscy
cledonotgi
veATPi
ngl
ycol
ysi
sor
krebcy
cle.Rat
hert
heyent
erETCandyiel
dATP

22.C

23.A

THEEND

BY:
Abdul
Manan