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Course: Higher Education (8625) Semester: Spring, 2020

Level: B.Ed Total Marks: 100

Pass Marks: 50

ASSIGNMENT NO. 2

(Unit 5-9)
Q.1 Write down the specific contributions of higher education in various developing
countries. (20)

HIGHER EDUCATION

Higher education is perceived as an important form of investment in home capital development.

Higher education institutions are charged with formation of human capital through teaching,
building knowledge base through research and knowledge development, and dissemination and
use of knowledge by interacting with the knowledge users. Higher education is becoming
increasingly competitive in terms of students, staff and resources. Because of the increasing
demand for access to it by the masses, it has shifted from being the service of elite that it was, to
a service open to the masses.

Why students are attaining higher education

Generally students have a clear understanding of their purpose of attaining higher education.
They view it as a means to creating a new generation of the elite that will understand and solve
problems in society, and transform it from ignorance and perpetual poverty. At the individual
level, they view higher education as a means of getting knowledge, skills and qualifications that
will enable them to get jobs to transform their families, the majority of which are peasants or
with low income. When it comes to achieving equitable access to quality education, the world‘s
poorest countries lag far behind. According to the 2017 Global Education Monitoring Report,
some 61 million children of primary school age do not have the chance to go to school. More
than 32 million of these children live in sub-Saharan Africa, and almost eleven million in South
Asia. Fifty-three per cent of the children who do not attend school are girls. The disadvantaged
population groups also include indigenous peoples, religious, ethnic and linguistic minorities,
people with disabilities and people living in conflict regions.

Cost as a barrier to attending school

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Many people in developing countries cannot find the money to pay for school fees, books and
other learning materials, school uniforms or transport to school. As a result, their children do not
go to school or they drop out. Girls are particularly often the ones who lose out.

In countries where school fees have been abolished, enrolment rates have risen markedly.

Furthermore, numerous families rely on the income their children contribute. The International
Labor Organization (ILO) estimates that some 152 million children between the ages of 5 and 17
years have to work, so they often have no time left for school.

Inadequate budgets, little support

In most developing countries, education budgets fall short of requirements. High levels of public
debt, poor governance, corruption and a lack of organizational and managerial skills are further
obstacles hampering the universal provision of quality education.

According to the 2017 Global Education Monitoring Report, in 2015 governments spent, on
average, 4.7 per cent of GDP or 14.1 per cent of total public expenditure on education. For
Europe and North America, the average was 5.1 per cent of GDP; many developing countries
however did not even manage three per cent.

Poor quality teaching

The quality of teaching is poor in many developing countries. Even children who have
completed primary school may lack basic skills in reading, writing and arithmetic. Many
curricula do not set clear targets. They are overloaded with subjects and do not meet the learning
needs of primary school pupils. Often, too little attention is paid to cultural and regional factors
and to the living conditions of the children and young people. Many curricula also convey
distorted or stereotypical male and female role models.

Lack of post-primary education

With more and more boys and girls being enrolled in school in developing countries and also
finishing primary school, more post-primary education and training opportunities need to be
established. The opportunities available are not adequate and, in many cases, they are neither
geared to the requirements of the economy and of society, nor do they meet the needs of the
young people.

The vocational training systems in many countries are rudimentary. The teaching is usually too
theoretical and too little in line with the needs of the labor market. Universities and colleges in
developing countries are poorly equipped and lack funding. Very few of them are able to fulfill
their responsibilities as institutions for teaching and research adequately.
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The role of education in developing countries

Access to education can improve the economic outcomes of citizens and determine the prospects
of future generations, especially in developing countries. However achieving these goals is
complicated. Policymakers have implemented various measures to increase access to education
but the results are mixed. For instance, adult literacy programs are a vehicle to improve literacy
and numeracy skills but many developing countries have abandoned them as they do not achieve
their primary objectives. In sub-Saharan Africa, apprenticeships are the most common form of
non-academic training but they fail to generate high incomes. Teachers are perhaps the most
important determinant of education quality, but certifying teachers may not always be the most
effective way to guarantee high-quality teaching.

Education can be seen as both an objective and component of development, as well as

―fundamental to the broader notion of expanded human capabilities that lie at the heart of the
meaning of development‖ (Todaro and Smith, 2011, p.359).

Q.2 Elaborate the meanings of assessment, evaluation and appraisal in higher education.
Highlight the significance of assessment at this level. (20)

DEFINITIONS OF EVALUATION

According to Hanna- ―The process of gathering and interpreted evidence changes in the behavior
of all students as they progress through school is called evaluation‖.

Muffat says – ―Evaluation is a continuous process and is concerned with than the formal
academic achievement of pupils. It is interpreted in the development of the individual in terms of
desirable behavioral change relation of his feeling, thinking, and actions‖.

Goods define– ―Evaluation is a process of judging the value or something by certain appraisal.‖

Characteristics of evaluation in education

Continuous process:-Evaluation is a continuous process. It leads together with Teaching-learning

process.

Comprehensive:-Evaluation is comprehensive as it includes everything can be evaluated.

Child-Centered:-Evaluation is a child-centered process which gives importance to the learning

process, not to the teaching process.

Remedial:-Evaluation comments on the result which helps in remedial work it is not a remedy
Evaluation is remedial in nature.
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Cooperative process:-Evaluation is a cooperative process involving students, teacher‘s parents,

and peer-groups.

Teaching Methods:-Effectiveness of teaching methods is evaluation.

Common practice:-evaluation is a common practice among the proper growth of the child
mentally and physically.

Multiple Aspects:-it is concerned with the total personality of students.

Importance of evaluation in education

Evaluation in education has great importance in teaching-learning process, following the

common purpose of evaluation.

Diagnostic:-Evaluation is a continuous and comprehensive process helps the teacher in finding

out the problems, it helps a teacher in cutting the problem of his students.

Remedial:-By remedial work we mean, the proper solution after identifying the problems a
teacher can give proper solution for a desirable change in learner‘s behavior and to develop a
personality.

To clarify the objectives of education:-An importance of evaluation is to clarify the objectives of

education. The objective of education is to change in learner‘s behavior. By evaluation, a teacher
can prove of change to learner‘s behavior.

It provides Guidance:-if a teacher has the proper knowledge and about his learners only than he
can guide him. And guidance can only after proper evaluation which involves all dimensions
abilities, aptitude, interest, and intelligence, etc.

Helpful in classification:-Evaluation is a source by which a teacher knows the various levels of

his students as intelligence, ability, and interest on this basis he can classify his students and
provide them guidance.

Helpful in Improvement of Teaching and Learning process: - By evaluation is a teacher could

not only improve the personality and learner but he is also able to know the level of his teaching
and can improve it. Thus it is helpful in the improvement of the teaching and learning process.

WHAT IS APPRAISAL?

Teacher appraisal refers to the evaluation of individual teachers to make a judgment about their
competencies and performance and/or to provide feedback to support the improvement of their
practice. Countries use a range of different approaches for the appraisal, among which the most
frequent are:
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(1) Appraisal for the completion of a probationary period;

(2) Appraisal as part of performance management, which may include registration processes,
regular appraisal and appraisal for promotion; and

(3) Reward schemes.

The performance appraisal functions not only as an evaluation instrument for instructors, but as a
learning tool for students, who can identify behavioral objectives, assess their own progress, and
set goals and strategies for development of professional attitudes.

Appraisal is a thorough yet supportive and developmental process designed to ensure that all
teachers have the skills and support they need to carry out their role effectively. It helps to ensure
that teachers are able to continue to improve their professional practice and to develop as
teachers.

The concept of ‗appraisal for learning‘ (Sinnema, 2005) emphasizes that appraisal is an
opportunity for teachers to learn about their effectiveness.

Focusing on the relationship between teaching and learning helps teachers understand their own
practice and, as a result, improve the quality of student learning. More particularly, it helps
teachers and school leaders to identify teachers‘ developmental needs in relation to helping their
students realize their potential.

Appraisal for learning sits alongside other school processes, including those used to identify the
strengths, needs, and interests of students. It is seamlessly integrated into teachers‘ professional
learning as they inquire into their effectiveness and build their professional knowledge. It
challenges teachers by requiring them to be responsible and accountable for their students‘
learning, but it also supports them to identify and address issues at the heart of their instructional
practice.

This means that individual teacher appraisal must be linked to collective planning and review
throughout the school. School leaders use information from appraisal, along with their
understandings about student needs and targets, to plan for professional learning and to monitor
its impact. Teachers share their expertise as they reflect with others on shared problems of
practice. Data is used to test and challenge assumptions and to ensure that the focus remains
firmly on student outcomes. There is an understanding that every student is ―ours‖: that the
outcomes for each student depend on the combined efforts of all staff as students move through
the school.

WHAT IS ASSESSMENT?
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In education, the term assessment refers to the wide variety of methods or tools that educators
use to evaluate, measure, and document the academic readiness, learning progress, skill
acquisition, or educational needs of students.

Martha L. A. Stassen et al. define assessment as ―the systematic collection and analysis of
information to improve student learning.‖ (Stassen et al., 2001, pg. 5) This definition captures
the essential task of student assessment in the teaching and learning process. Student assessment
enables instructors to measure the effectiveness of their teaching by linking student performance
to specific learning objectives. As a result, teachers are able to institutionalize effective teaching
choices and revise ineffective ones in their pedagogy.

The measurement of student learning through assessment is important because it provides useful
feedback to both instructors and students about the extent to which students are successfully
meeting course learning objectives.

FORMS AND PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT

There are generally two forms of student assessment that are most frequently discussed in the
scholarship of teaching and learning. The first, summative assessment is assessment that is
implemented at the end of the course of study. Its primary purpose is to produce a measure that
―sums up‖ student learning. Summative assessment is comprehensive in nature and is
fundamentally concerned with learning outcomes. While summative assessment is often useful to
provide information about patterns of student achievement, it does so without providing the
opportunity for students to reflect on and demonstrate growth in identified areas for
improvement and does not provide an avenue for the instructor to modify teaching strategy
during the teaching and learning process. (Maki, 2002) Examples of summative assessment
include comprehensive final exams or papers.

The second form, formative assessment, involves the evaluation of student learning over the
course of time. Its fundamental purpose is to estimate students‘ level of achievement in order to
enhance student learning during the learning process. By interpreting students‘ performance
through formative assessment and sharing the results with them, instructors help students to
―understand their strengths and weaknesses and to reflect on how they need to improve over the
course of their remaining studies.‖ (Maki, 2002, pg. 11)

Pat Hutchings refers to this form of assessment as assessment behind outcomes. She states, ―the
promise of assessment—mandated or otherwise—is improved student learning, and
improvement requires attention not only to final results but also to how results occur.
Assessment behind outcomes means looking more carefully at the process and conditions that
lead to the learning we care about…‖ (Hutchings, 1992, pg. 6, original emphasis).
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Formative assessment includes course work—where students receive feedback that identifies
strengths, weaknesses, and other things to keep in mind for future assignments—discussions
between instructors and students, and end-of-unit examinations that provide an opportunity for
students to identify important areas for necessary growth and development for themselves.
(Brown and Knight, 1994)

It is important to recognize that both summative and formative assessment indicate

the purpose of assessment, not the method.

Assessment is more than grading

Instructors often conflate assessment with grading. This is a mistake. It must be understood that
student assessment is more than just grading. Remember that assessment links student
performance to specific learning objectives in order to provide useful information to instructors
and students about student achievement. Traditional grading on the other hand, according to
Stassen et al. does not provide the level of detailed and specific information essential to link
student performance with improvement. ―Because grades don‘t tell you about student
performance on individual (or specific) learning goals or outcomes, they provide little
information on the overall success of your course in helping students to attain the specific and
distinct learning objectives of interest.‖ (Stassen et al., 2001, pg. 6) Instructors, therefore, must
always remember that grading is an aspect of student assessment but does not constitute its
totality.

Q.3 Explain the concept of wastage in higher education. What measures can be taken to
minimize wastage in education? (20)

EDUCATONAL WASTAGE

“By wastage we mean premature withdrawal of children from schools at any stage before
completion of the primary courses”.

Such students do not complete the study of their curriculum and consequently the time, money
and energy expended on such students prove to be sheer wastage. Hence the most popular use of
the word ―Wastage‖ in education means the wastage of time, effort and money.

Educational wastage exists in the following forms:

(a) Failure of the system to provide a universal education;

(b) Failure to recruit children into the system;

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(c) Failure to hold children within the system;

(d) Failure of the system to set appropriate objectives; and

(e) Inefficiency in the achievement of such objectives.

A major aspect of educational wastage is the repetition by a student of a year of work in the same
class or grade and doing the same work as in the previous year. This may occur at any level,
from elementary to university.

FACTORS CAUSING EDUCATONAL WASTAGE

Poverty may be directly responsible for wastage and stagnation in secondary school level as in
many cases the children who are admitted in schools are withdrawn from school in order to help
the family in household chores or seeking employment. Educational institutions especially in
villages are suffering from scarcity of funds and students usually come bare footed, their clothes
are dilapidated and filthy. They do not take curiosity in their children‘s education nor can they
assist them in their studies.

Psacharopolous and Woodhall (1985) argued that factors influencing school wastage are high
opportunity cost of schooling for poor families, inappropriate curriculum factors which is
excessively academic and designed to prepare majority of pupils for upper secondary and higher
education, and a shortage of secondary school places which lead to depletion at the primary
level.

Rumberger (2008) argued that school resources, structural features of school and policies and
practices of the school influence wastage. According to Kane (2004), other school-based factors
leading to wastage in schools include teacher pupil conflicts, poor methods of teaching,
excessive punishments; excessive homework, overcrowded schools, inaccessibility and costly
school requirements. The girls and their parents are also discouraged by absence of female
teachers who act as their role models. Muhammad and Muhammad, (2011) also claimed that
poor attendance and negative attitudes towards school lead to wastage. Distance travelled to
school is another school-based factor which influences wastage. This is due to the fact that it
deters access to schools. In order to help boost educational access, it is therefore important to
reduce the distance that students travel by establishing more secondary schools.

School-based factors are significant influencers of educational wastage and should be put into
account while dealing with wastage. Schools should have adequate teaching and learning
facilities, proper staffing, and a conducive learning environment. The quality of the school
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management, its ability to motivate both students and staff as well as ability to create team spirit
are all vital ingredients of an efficient school.

Recommendations for reducing educational wastage

1. Home-school communication is a key to child's academic success. There must be free flow of
information between school and parents with all the activities. School must provide information
on their children's learning or behavior to all the parents. When the problems arise in school or
classroom, teachers should also involve parents in solving these problems through discussions
and interactions with the parents. For example, some schools bring out bulletins or newsletter to
inform parents about school activities. These formal means of communication are conducive to
motivate the parents to send their children at school.

2. Physical facilities affect the teaching learning situation in school. Primary schools are
government oriented, because of lack of physical facilities, teaching learning situation will not be
suitable, meaningful and fruitful. In order to reduce the wastage in education, school should well
manage the physical facilities for the improvement of teaching learning. In this regard, the local
resources, such as no cost and low cost instructional materials are also to be mobilized for
effectiveness of learning environment.

3. The incidence of students' absence in class is high, because of geographic and transport
difficulties. On the other hand, due to flooded rivers and streams, small children cannot go to
school in the rainy season.

4. Illiteracy is one of the major problems of backward countries. Large majority of the parents of
rural and remote areas of most developing countries are illiterate and they are unknown about the
value and necessity of education. In order to reduce the illiteracy rate, the government must
sponsor many "Parents Awareness Programs" to motivate and encourage them. If parents are
aware of illiteracy and know the value and necessity of education, they do not hesitate to send
their children to school and definitely the education wastage will be reduced to minimum.

5. It is an absurdity in society, where the sons and daughters are looked from different angles. In
our society, daughters are regarded as a tool that must be handed to somebody in the future.
Keeping in view, parents are not ready to pay a large amount sending their daughters at
expensive schools. The daughters are sent to the kitchen and other household and domestic
works, whereas the sons are sent to expensive boarding schools. The discrimination between son
and daughter is also the major issue behind repetition and dropout.

Q.4 Explain the significant problems of higher education and indicate possible measures to
solve these problems in Pakistan. (20)
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IMPORTANCE OF HIGHER EDUCATON

Higher education is recognized today as a capital investment and is of paramount importance for
economic and social development of the country (Barnet, 1990). Institutions of higher education
have the primary responsibility for equipping individuals with advanced knowledge and skills
required for positions of responsibility in government, business, and other professions (Mughal
& Manzoor, 1999). Quality higher education is a source of great potential for the socio economic
and cultural development of the country.

The purpose of higher education is not simply to impart knowledge in certain branches of
knowledge; it has deeper meaning and objectives. The purpose may be multidimensional and
may be termed as personal, social, economical, and cultural (Moore & Farris, 1991).

Allen (1988) found ―In the time of rapid international, political, and economical changes, the
universities in South Asia and in developing countries are being transformed. Public expectations
about access to higher education direct concern about role that universities can play in innovation
and economic development‖ The applications of principles of market economies to the university
systems of all countries have created a new context for higher education (Rao, 2003).

THE PAKISTAN PERSPECTIVE

The people in Pakistan and South Asia are neither deficient in talent nor in moral qualities in
comparison to any other nation of the world, but about two centuries of foreign rule and blind
imitation of western attitudes and methods, unsuited to the genius and spiritual conditions of its
people, have spoiled some of the virtues and have brought a bad name to their intellectual
capacities.

Hassan (1990) observed

“Pakistan is unfortunately really backward in education as in certain other spheres of

intellectual activities but luckily people are not inherently incompetent or morally incurable.”

It is however necessary that the diagnosis about maladies should be correct and the measures for
curing these maladies should be appropriate in the light of that diagnosis (Abdullah, 1992).

Challenges in Higher Education

South Asian countries are facing a critical period in their history, and on that account, everybody
concerned with education has a responsibility for knowing what he is trying to do in bring up the
next generation and why he is trying to do it (Mohanthy, 2000). Higher education is faced with
very severe challenges in the shape of various economic, social, political, and moral changes,
and its future depends on the response made by its people to these challenges (Rao, 2003).
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The major challenges in higher education include:

Quantity

Despite the constraints of resources, the quantitative expansion has been highly spectacular in the
post independence period. The institutions have not only been multiplied, the student enrollments
at colleges and universities have registered exceptionally high rate of growth (Aeth, 1975). ―The
numbers of new entrants is now more than the total number of students in higher education prior
to independence‖ (Iqbal, 1981).

Equity

The major breakthrough was evident in the democratic countries of the world where franchise
was given to all adults irrespective of caste, creed, sex, and economic or social status (Barnet,
1990). Qureshi (1997) stated ―The ideal of equity was severely constrained by exiting in qualities
in the distribution of property and productive resources, low level of education and awareness
among the people, and strong influences exercised by individual and group to further their own
sectional interest rather than total social interest.‖

Quality

Development of society not only depends upon quantity of goods and services produced, but also
on their quality. ―It again leads to quality of life of the people and the quality of the society in
general‖ (Hayes, 1987). It is rightly said that the philosophical basis of quality is the innate
characteristics of a human being to attain a higher standard and the need of excellence for
attaining a higher stage in the development (Quddus, 1990).

Attempts to realize specific objectives of quality tend to narrow down the scope and discourage
efforts to attain quality in various walks of life. Allen (1988) determined that ―Various programs
have been developed and are being implemented for the last two decades for improving the
quality of teachers and their proficiency in discharging their duties and responsibilities.‖

Student Unrest

Among the challenges of higher education is the vital role of addressing student‘s unrest. Bayli
(1987) studied that ―The condition of higher education in universities and colleges is not
satisfactory in the eyes of students. Lack of physical and educational facilities is bringing much
hindrance in the way of development‖. Iqbal (1981) states ―Teachers are less motivated to do
certain research work. Most teachers are not competent, and they are teaching in higher
education institutions.‖ They have limited knowledge about subject matter they taught and many
of them have no clear idea about the subject.

Emotional Integration
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Education can play a vital role in strengthening emotional integration. It is felt that education
should not aim at imparting knowledge but should develop all aspects of a student‘s personality.
Allen (1988) found that ―It should broaden the outlook, foster the feeling of oneness,
nationalism, a spirit of sacrifice, and tolerance so that narrow group interests are submerged in
the largest interest of country.‖

―Students, the future citizens of the country, should be trained in democracy, its value and ideals
so that they will have sense of justice which is conducive for the development of national
integration especially in the particular situation of developing countries which are striving to
build up a structure of democratic living‖ (Rao, 2003).

Administrative Reform

In the last fifteen years or so, Pakistan and countries in South Asia have been giving increasing
attention to the problems of university administration (Adeeb, 1996). Abdullah (1992) observed
―They have noticed that despite the resources available for university expansion, they have not
been able to obtain the best possible results.‖ ―Further they have also begun to realize that much
of this is due to lack of proper administration and what the outcome is on the development of
higher education‖ (Aeth, 1975).

Social and cultural factors, which are often ignored, are as significant as any of the purely
technical factors in the formulation and implementation of administration policy. Barnet (1990)
states that ―The linkages between the policy and these factors are neither casual nor limited to the
contemporary period so the university administration clearly demonstrates that the success or
failure of university administrative reforms hinges on the presence and absence of certain
variables given below.‖

Faculty

The current size of present faculty is very small according to the general international standard.
Mughal & Manzoor (1999) found that ―The teacher/student ratio is very small even according to
many third world countries standards. The quality of university education at the college has
decreased because of the exiting faculty‖. ―Many present faculty members are teaching courses
which are not their own specialization‖ (Bayli, 1987). ―Many faculty members in most of
universities are just master degree holders with little or no practical knowledge and higher
education experiences‖ (Iqbal, 1981).

Educational Policies

The faculty should have primary responsibilities for determining the educational policies of the
institution. Barnet (1990) found ―If this responsibility is not conferred and defined by the
character of the institution, it should be expressed in legislation of the governing board.‖
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―Educational polices include such fundamental matters as the subject matter and methods of
instruction, facilities and support for the research work of faculty members and students,
standards for admission of students, etc‖ (Aeth, 1975).

Hayes (1987) identify that ―They also include those aspects of student life that relate directly to
the educational process.‖ Mohanthy (2000) observed that ―The faculty should also actively
participate in decisions made on other matters that may directly affect the educational policies
for which it is primarily responsible.‖ ―These matters include major changes in the size of the
student body, significant alteration in the academic calendar, establishment of new colleges and
universities or division, the provision of extension services to the community, and assumption by
the institution of research or service obligations to private or public agencies‖ (Allen, 1988).

Academic Freedom

The right of academic freedom must be recognized in order to enable the faculty members,
researchers, and students to carry on their roles. Gibbons (1998) studied ―The freedom of
universities in making professional appointments, tenure research, salary scales, and all academic
decision.‖ ―Academic freedom and university autonomy are sometimes regarded as synonymous,
but they are two quite different concepts, although they overlap at many points‖ (Taylor &
Tashakkori, 1997).

Rao (2003) found that ―These two functions are the essence of the progress and development of
the higher education and administrative endeavours.‖ Quddus (1990) studied that ―The basic
function of a college or university is to preserve, augment, criticize, and transmit knowledge and
to foster creative capacities.‖ ―These functions are performed by a community of scholars who
must be free to exercise independent judgment in the planning and execution of their educational
responsibilities‖ (Varghese, 1980).

Courses and Curricula

The courses and curricula are not designed in accordance with the standard of higher education
of the present day. Iqbal (1981) observed that ―There is no continuity of some of the important
courses: there is also no relationship between the related courses of common or similar
knowledge.‖ Bayli (1987) studied that ―So many important and modern courses required for
higher education are not taught at all.‖ ―The curricula are not written in detail and are left to the
professors personal likes, dislikes, interests or experience‖ (Adeeb, 1996).

Unemployment

―While education cannot directly reduce unemployment, except by requiring more teachers, a
reform of the educational system could help alleviate its impact especially on young people‖
(Mohanthy, 2000). Hayes (1987) found that ―There is a marked mismatch in terms of the field
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and specialization of graduates and the absorptive capacity of the labor market.‖ ―In the sense of
employment, the planners of higher education are handicapped in the assessment of the actual
labor market needs for skills in various sectors of the economy‖ (Aeth, 1975).

Barnet (1990) studied ―Even though empirical evidence justified investment in higher education
for economic growth, except for direct self-consumption, higher education failed to create
additional employment since the type of education offered restricted the entrepreneurial spirit
and initiative and discourages self employment.‖

Budgeting and Financing

Central to all the foregoing is a new concept of budgeting and financing at the higher level. Bayli
(1987) observed ―The conventional system of an annual budget is probably the most confusing
and least understood.‖ ―The budget of course, performs a number of essential functions which
even the most frustrated will acknowledge‖ (Rao, 2003). Allen (1988) identify ―The concern
here is with the budget as an instrument of academic planning which may promote the special
aims of each college and constitute a practical means by which all university purpose may be
realized ideally it must not only insure financial solvency of the university, but should also place
responsibility and commensurate authority where it may be exercised most.‖

Rao (2003) studied ―In fact realistic planning and decisive action are the only way to prevent
educational strategies from degenerating into spasmodic reactions to unforeseen exigencies.‖
―The university‘s aim should be to fashion a system which in its year to year operation may
provide for its own continuing renewal‖ (Adeeb, 1996).

Population Explosion

―The fast growing population in Pakistan and South Asian developing countries is another
problem by causing overcrowding in the higher educational institution because the number of
higher level institutions is deficient‖ (Hayes, 1987). Mohanthy (2000) observed ―The demand for
the quantitative expansion of education at all levels remains one of the primary concerns because
of the continuous population expansion.‖ Adeeb (2000) stated ―The developing countries will
account for nearly 50% of the total world population compared with 66% in 1950.‖ ―The
population of Asia as a proportion of the world‘s total population (a reduction of 29.4% to
18.4%) is in a much weaker position than some ten to fifteen years ago‖ (Allen, 1988).

SUGGESTIONS TO MEET THE CHALLENGES

1. Stress is laid on the need for improving the quality of education at every stage so that a
proper foundation can be laid for advanced study in science, engineering, agriculture, and those
other areas which are most closely allied to the national economic development and
reconstruction of the nation as a whole.
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2. To begin from the top without reforming the lower stages is against the law of nature; it is
against the law of evolutionary progress. Before any restrictions are imposed on the higher
education, the earlier stages should be improved so as to produce better students for the higher
stage.

3. A critical point to be considered by educational planner is the adaptation of a

multidimensional, flexible, and dynamic education system, which serves people according to
their ability and aptitude and is responsive to their economic, social political and cultural needs.

4. The new system of higher education should be flexible enough to offer a variety of courses,
formal and non formal, full time and part time, correspondence and media based to fit every
individual as well as the economic needs of the country

5. Economic conditions of the people cannot be ignored in all matters in which the question of
equal opportunities to all is involved. In an atmosphere of economic depression as it is today in
Pakistan how could one expect from our youth to be able to develop their potential qualities in
desired way.

6. The test of qualities must be made reliable upon examination and more effective; the
teaching method must be made more rational and natural; and last of all, the teachers must be
kept fully satisfied. It is well known, that a foreign medium of instruction and examination is
seriously hampering the progress of education. Pakistan will have to determine its policy with
regards to this question also.

7. There is great question of availability of qualified university teachers, suitably equipped

libraries, and fully developed plants and laboratories. It is a matter of common knowledge that
our resources in all these areas are very merger. Any unnecessary addition to the number of the
universities at present would therefore mean nothing, but more ill-fed and ill-equipped
institutions with no specially or individuality of purpose.

Higher education institutions must be responsive to the challenges of the rapidly changing and
challenging new world: expectation of society and growing demands of the rising student
population. This policy therefore looks forward to a new beginning in higher education in South
Asian developing countries.

Q.5 How continuing education plays significant role for society and individuals
development? Explain status of continuing education in Pakistan. (20)

WHAT IS CONTINUING EDUCATION?

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Continuing education - is an all-encompassing term describing additional formal learning

activities that are generally not focused on a college degree outcome. Continuing education can
be course based or delivered with self-directed, group-based or online hybrid mediums.

Continuing education are courses that let you develop your knowledge and skills in a specific
area. Continuing education courses are offered to adults in the community by local school
boards, colleges and universities. These courses can be on everything from web design to
philosophy to art appreciation. Some schools may offer certificate programs, but usually the
focus of continuing education is on non-credit courses that allow you to develop a specific area
of interest.

If you already have a university degree or college diploma, you may take continuing education
courses to upgrade your skills. Employers may also allow flexible work hours during the period
of study or subsidize course fees, especially if the program of study will make you more
valuable to the organization.

Some continuing education courses offer a certificate at the end of the individual course or at
the end of a course series. A course series is a group of courses on one subject.

IMPORTANCE OF CONTINUING EDUCATION

1. Increases your chances for promotion.

Many times, employers find your pursuit of continuing education a great reason to give you a
promotion. They recognize you‘ve invested time and sometimes money into improving yourself
and want to reward that. Your new education also makes you more qualified for advanced work
and an ideal candidate for promotions.

Employers also sometimes have positions within a company that have an advanced degree as a
basic requirement. Getting that advanced degree could be the factor in being picked for a
promotion.

Similarly, when placed side-by-side with another candidate for a promotion, you will stand out
to and impress a hiring manager if you have more education. Education qualifies you to handle
more tasks and responsibilities and may have even given you specific knowledge in how to do a
job better.

If you‘re hoping to get a promotion, an advanced degree or other continuing education pathway
could be the key to help you get there. From giving you skills and abilities, to showing your
employer how dedicated you are to improving yourself, there are many reasons why your
continuing education plan can help you get a promotion.
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2. Increases your salary

Continuing education often leads to a raise or a higher starting salary at a new position. Whether
you will be offered a raise or promotion in your current job or will qualify for a new job that has
a better salary, continuing education will have a major benefit for your income.

On average, a college degree holder will earn twice as much as someone who doesn‘t have a
degree. This form of continuing education often requires you to invest in yourself, but the
payout at the end is usually well worth it.

If you‘re hoping to get a raise or move to a career with better pay, continuing education may be
the way to go.

3. Increases your ability to make a career transition

If you‘re ready to move into a new career field, often the first step will be gaining education that
qualifies you for that new path. From nurses to teachers to accountants, many professions have
strict requirements for licensure or degrees in order to qualify. Obtaining this education will
make you prepared to move into a new career.

Many professions require continuing education because they have specific training that is
crucial to your success. Without this education, there‘s no way for you to qualify for or succeed
in a position. Learning new skills through continuing education is key to being prepared for a
career transition.

4. Improves your image and marketability.

Continuing education is a valuable element to your résumé. For many jobs it is a direct
qualification requirement to have a certain amount of education, but even if you meet the
minimum qualifications, additional education will make you stand out.

Consider if you‘re one of several candidates up for a job. If you have additional education, you
will obviously be looked at more closely.

You will stand out not only because of your additional qualifications, but employers will
recognize that you have the determination to take on a challenge—and succeed.

Employers will also recognize that you have new insights on the most current trends and skills
in your industry, as well as having additional technology experience because of your time spent
learning something new.

Overall, your image will increase, as will your job marketability, if you pursue continuing
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education.

5. Improves your lifestyle

If you‘re not satisfied with your current lifestyle, continuing education could be the answer to
your problems.

As you spend time devoted to learning, the outcomes are positive for your career and your
overall lifestyle. Improving your career often trickles down to the rest of your life because
you‘re more satisfied with your job, make more money, etc.

Don‘t wait to change your life, start your continuing education path now and get ready for the
lifestyle you have wanted.

6. Increases personal development.

Even if you‘re completely satisfied with your job and lifestyle, that doesn‘t mean continuing
education isn‘t for you.

Experts agree that learning should be a lifelong process, and devoting time to continuing
education can be a journey of personal development.

Whether you want to learn more about a subject that you find interesting or want some
additional skills to take to your work, there are ways you can use continuing education to your
advantage.

CONTINUING EDUCATION---PAKISTAN STATUS

The demand for education has increased drastically throughout the world. This is on the one
hand due to the development of literacy and the greater opportunity for leisure and on the other,
the rapid advances in technology. The formal system of education cannot cope with the demand
of education for all. In an effort to extend educational opportunities, especially to adults,
distance education appears to provide the answer. In view of the importance of distance
education, the Department of Distance, Non-formal and Continuing Education was established
in the University in 1984.

The department was established in 1984 and was renamed as Distance, Non-Formal and
Continuing Education in 2008. It offers specialized degree programmes/ courses in Distance,
Non-Formal and Continuing Education, Adult Education and Educational Technology at M.A
Education, M.Ed, MS/M.Phil leading to Ph.D and Ph.D (M.Phil based) in Education. It also
offers courses at B.A level. Moreover, the department also provides on job training in distance
learning system to the academic staff of AIOU.
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Main Objectives identified for the department are as following:

1) To conduct need assessment surveys.

2) To guide the writers and to conduct writing techniques workshops to assist the selection of
instructional support material.

3) To provide training in script-writing techniques to assist in pilot testing of course material.

4) To provide in-service training/orientation courses.

5) To provide feedback to writers/department on course content and materials during

preparation of the course and make them effective for students' learning.

6) To evaluate the required media support for courses.

7) To document and disseminate material on distance and non-formal education.

8) To exchange material and experience with institutions of distance and non-formal education.

9) To provide instructional programs in distance and non-formal education for specialization in

this sphere of education.

10) To collaborate with other institutions for improvement in distance education techniques.