Advantages of genetically modified food

Well, as already stated, they can produce bigger crop yields. Absolutely nothing wrong with that,
especially if the beneficiaries are countries desperately in need of food.

Genetically modified crops are cheaper to grow despite the higher initial modified seed costs. It seems
that modified crops are sturdier, standing up to more weather extremes and requiring less expensive
pesticides and herbicides (that’s a good thing). Plus, they need less day-to-day TLC. Less people
constantly tending the crops is a major cost-saving; a saving that may or may not find its way onto a
supermarket price tag.

It only gets better from there. Genetically modified food is, from all accounts, considered to be of a high
quality, more nutritious food.

Moreover, if a country’s diet is severely lacking in a particular nutrient, genetic modification is likely to
help battle malnutrition with fruit or vegetables that are high in exactly what is needed. Impressive, yet
scary stuff. And it’s hard to deny there are some huge pluses in there for all of us, but more especially,
countries in dire need of some good news.

Did you know how frozen fruits are just as healthy as fresh ones? Find out the health benefits of frozen
blueberries in our previous blog post!

Disadvantages of genetically modified food

Genetically modified foods do have some disadvantages as well. Some of these include:

People with allergies are a concern. With all this mixing and matching of genes, when is a cauliflower still
a cauliflower and when has it become a cauliflower/broccoli hybrid. And what if you’re allergic to
broccoli? Genetic modification blurs the boundaries of what people with allergies can eat and can’t eat
safely.
There are also concerns about how genetically modified food will affect the overall food chain. A pest
that suddenly stops being even remotely annoying to a sturdier crop can die out and leave an important
link in the food chain with nothing to eat.

More concerning is the great unknown of genetically modified foods being responsible for gene transfer.
A constant risk of GMO foods is that the modified genes of the organisms may escape into the wild.
Brown University warns that herbicide-resistant genes from commercial crops may cross into the wild
weed population, thus creating "superweeds" that are impossible to kill with herbicides.

More time, research and investigation needs to be undergone to decisively reach a conclusion as to
whether the pros outweigh the cons for genetically modified foods.

Cons

Because genetically engineering foods is a relatively new practice, little is known about the long-term
effects and safety.

There are many purported downsides, but the evidence varies, and the main health issues associated
with GMO foods are hotly debated. Research is ongoing.

This section discusses the evidence for a range of drawbacks that people often associate with GMO
foods.

Allergic reactions

Some people believe that GMO foods have more potential to trigger allergic reactions. This is because
they may contain genes from an allergen — a food that prompts an allergic reaction.

The World Health Organization (WHO) discourage genetic engineers from using DNA from allergens
unless they can prove that the gene itself does not cause the problem.

It is worth noting that there have been no reports of allergic effects of any GMO foods currently on the
market.
Cancer

Some researchers believe that eating GMO foods can contribute to the development of cancer. They
argue that because the disease is caused by mutations in DNA, it is dangerous to introduce new genes
into the body.

The American Cancer Society (ACS) have said that there is no evidence for this. However, they note that
no evidence of harm is not the same as proof of safety and that reaching a conclusion will require more
research.

Antibacterial resistance

There is concern that genetic modification, which can boost a crop’s resistance to disease or make it
more tolerant to herbicides, could affect the ability of people to defend against illness.

There is a small chance that the genes in food can transfer to cells the body or bacteria in the gut. Some
GMO plants contain genes that make them resistant to certain antibiotics. This resistance could pass on
to humans.

There is growing concern globally that people are becoming increasingly resistant to antibiotics. There is
a chance that GMO foods could be contributing to this crisis.

The WHO have said that the risk of gene transfer is low. As a precaution, however, it has set guidelines
for the manufacturers of GMO foods.

Outcrossing

Outcrossing refers to the risk of genes from certain GMO plants mixing with those of conventional crops.

There have been reports of low levels of GMO crops approved as animal feed or for industrial use being
found in food meant for human consumption.
Pros of GM foods

Scientists genetically engineer seeds for many reasons. For example, they sometimes make changes
designed to increase a plant’s:

resistance to insects

tolerance to herbicides

tolerance for heat, cold, or drought

crop yield

They also engineer seeds to give GM foods stronger colors, increase their shelf life, or eliminate seeds.
That’s why we can buy seedless watermelons and grapes. Some GM foods also have been engineered to
have higher levels of specific nutrients, such as protein, calcium, or folate.

Proponents of GM food contend that genetic engineering can help us find sustainable ways to feed
people. Specifically, in countries that lack access to nutrient-rich foods. The heartiness of some GM
crops makes it so they can grow in marginal environments. The longer shelf life of some GM foods
allows them to be shipped to remote areas.

Potential cons of GM foods

On the other hand, some people wonder if GM foods are safe and healthy to eat. Genetic engineering is
a relatively new development. As a result, research on the long-term health effects of GM foods is
limited.

GM foods have to meet the same safety requirements as foods grown from non-GM seeds. But critics
suggest there’s more to be concerned about. Some people worry that GM foods may be linked to
allergies, antibiotic resistance, or cancer. Others suggest these concerns are unfounded. Here’s what the
research says.

Allergies
Food allergies are a growing problem in the United States. According to the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC), food allergies in children under 18 years of age have increased; from 3.4 percent
between 1997 and 1999 to 5.1 percent between 2009 and 2011.

Some people believe that spike is linked to GM foods. But there’s no evidence that GM foods in general
are more likely to trigger allergic reactions than non-GM foods, according to a study from Harvard
University.

Others raise concerns about the transfer of specific proteins from one plant to another in genetic
engineering. Proteins found in a relatively small number of foods cause most allergic reactions. Tree
nuts are one of the most common triggers.

In the mid-1990s, researchers examined a strain of GM soybean that was engineered to contain protein
from Brazil nuts. According to their report in the New England Journal of Medicine, the soybeans
triggered allergic reactions in people with Brazil nut allergy. Those soybeans never entered the market
and aren’t sold to consumers.

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and World Health Organization
(WHO) have since established protocols for GM foods. They require GM foods to be tested for their
ability to cause allergic reactions. According to the Mayo Clinic, none of the GM foods that are currently
on the market have been found to have allergenic effects.

Antibiotic resistance

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can resist antibiotics, making them hard to kill. According to the CDC,
antibiotic-resistant germs infect two million people each year. Those infections kill at least 23,000
people per year.

Scientists often modify seeds using antibiotic-resistant genes in the genetic engineering process. Some
people wonder if there’s a link between these GM foods and rising rates of antibiotic resistant bacteria.
No studies have confirmed this claim, but more research is needed.

Cancer
In 2013, the journal Food and Chemical Toxicology retracted a paper that linked the herbicide Roundup
and Roundup-tolerant GM corn to cancer and premature death in rats. Due to concerns about the
paper, the journal’s editor reviewed the researchers’ raw data and the peer-review process. They found
the researchers had used too few rats, the specific strain of rats was prone to cancer, and the results
were inconclusive.

Pro 3

Growing GMO crops leads to environmental benefits such as reduced pesticide use, less water waste,
and lower carbon emissions.

Con 3

Certain GM crops harm the environment through the increased use of toxic herbicides and pesticides.

Pro 2

GMO crops lower the price of food and increase nutritional content, helping to alleviate world hunger.

Con 2

Tinkering with the genetic makeup of plants may result in changes to the food supply that introduce
toxins or trigger allergic reactions.

Pro 1

Genetically modified (GM) crops have been proven safe through testing and use, and can even increase
the safety of common foods.

Con 1
Genetically modified (GM) crops have not been proven safe for human consumption through human
clinical trials.

List of the Pros of the Green Revolution

1. It allowed us to create a consistent food supply.

According to Oxfam, the world is able to produce almost 20% more food than is currently required to
provide every person with a balanced diet. This is possible because of the consistencies in crop growth
offered by the Green Revolution. With just one new strain of wheat, crop production levels were able to
triple in just two decades.

2. It creates cheaper consumer prices.

The laws of supply and demand are always in play. When there is more food available, then it becomes
cheaper to purchase. The Green Revolution made it possible for farmers to produce more from their
existing fields, creating bigger harvests with the same amount of work. That lowered production costs,
which ultimately lowered consumer costs, while profits actually rose.

3. It gives us a chance to protect the environment.

Because we can produce more food from our current croplands through the Green Revolution, there is
less of a need to convert other land types into more croplands to feed a growing population. Even
though human population levels have doubled since the 1960s, our food production rates have tripled.
At the same time, the rate of land conversion has been reduced to just 10%.

4. It eliminates the need for fallowing.

In dry climates, farmers often practice fallowing as a way to preserve their land. That means no crops
are grown on the land for an entire year, which gives soil moisture levels a chance to be restored.
Through the work of the Green Revolution, the need to fallow disappears because irrigation,
fertilization, and weed control make it possible to continue producing food. As a secondary benefit,
farmers receive more income in dry climates because their croplands are now more productive.

5. It gives us predictability within the food supply.

There was always a level of uncertainty in the food supply before the 1940s. If weather conditions were
not favorable, then the harvest would be reduced. That meant less food availability, higher pricing in the
market, and an increased risk of food deserts. Because of the Green Revolution, we are now able to
have predictable harvests. Weather conditions can be managed at each field, which reduces the impact
of poor growing seasons.

6. It created more jobs.

In the developing world, the most common type of job that is available is in the agricultural sector. Two
out of three global jobs are impacted directly or indirectly by agricultural work. With more jobs, we have
more income. When there is more income, there is a chance to create a growing economy. That gives
more people a chance to pull themselves out of poverty over time.

7. It creates more harvests from a single field.

One of the biggest winners from the Green Revolution is India. With their annual rainy season, it was
impossible to have more than one crop grown each year. That eventually led to famine in the 1960s,
which devastated the country. New techniques offered by the Green Revolution allowed some regions
to double, and sometimes triple, their output, which provided the country with more access to staple
crops: rice, corn, millet, and wheat.

8. It encourages growth in multiple economic sectors.

The ability to grow more crops does more than provide additional food or jobs. It creates a need for
more tools. It requires farmers to have equipment that can handle the additional yields. It requires
barns, silos, and commercial storage options to maintain the quality of the harvested food. Each changes
produces a need for more jobs, which creates more income, which gives people more opportunities to
eliminate personal food insecurity.

List of the Cons of the Green Revolution

1. It creates the potential for environmental harm.

Although the techniques used by the Green Revolution have increased food availability, there are times
when this comes at a steep cost. The various fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides used to produce more
food also have the ability to produce higher levels of erosion and soil pollution. This can impact local
water tables, exposing people to concentrated chemicals at times, which has a negative impact on the
environment and personal health.
2. It has created high levels of food waste.

Before the Green Revolution, food waste within the supply chain was virtually unheard of. Most foods
were produced locally for local consumers. Now that food can be grown quickly and cheaply, much
more waste occurs in the system. Up to 40% of a single harvest in the developing world can be lost
before it is even processed. Up to 40% of a harvest can also be lost at the consumer level. In total, more
than 1 billion tons of food is wasted every year.

3. It creates resistance issues within the food supply.

The reason why we have been able to see larger harvests is because pesticides and herbicides were new
to the growing environment. Over the past 50 years, a growing resistance to these products has
developed, which has caused food production levels to decrease when this issue is severe. That means
our challenge now is to counter this resistance to maintain our food supply. Otherwise, we may see
growing human population levels and decreasing food outputs from our croplands.

4. It may create seed sterility in certain staple crops.

One of the biggest issues we face in the current days of the Green Revolution is patenting. Developers
who genetically modify crops are given the option to patent their work to protect their profits. One of
the characteristics that is potentially available is called a “terminator” gene. This genetic profile would
prevent the seeds from genetically modified crops from growing, forcing farmers to continually purchase
new seeds from the developer. That means higher prices for everyone involved.

5. It comes with a financial cost.

Although many farmers have been able to benefit from the technologies developed by the Green
Revolution, that is not the case for everyone. The cost of fertilizer, for example can be more than $100
per ton. For some crops, the return from the field is around $35 per ton. That means during a difficult
year, it may be almost impossible for farmers to achieve a financial profit for their work.

6. It has changed the emphasis of farming.

Because staple crops do not fetch the same prices as cash crops, farmers have shifted away from food
items to cash products to create better guarantees of profitability. Although croplands are producing at
rates never before in history, there are fewer fields being planted with wheat or rice. Corn has turned
into a fuel product, especially in the United States. Cacao and pineapple plantations are growing, as are
tobacco plantations in some areas. That might mean more income for the farmer. It also means more
food insecurity for the world.

7. It can change the land.

Soil provides a finite level of resources to the crops being grown. If those resources are depleted, then
the croplands become unusable. Unless fallowing occurs, the field could become unusable. Even in the
United States, were modern farming practices work to prevent this type of issue, about 7.5 million acres
of farm land is lost every year because of the impact of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides. Since 1988,
almost 350 million acres have been lost to these impacts.

8. It only creates positive impacts in difficult climates.

Not every farmer has been able to financially profit from the Green Revolution either. In regions of the
world where growing conditions are consistent, the yields produced have remained consistent as well. It
is only in the difficult growing regions, where crops are difficult to produce, where the biggest gains from
this effort have been seen. That means the financial benefits of this process have been unequal.

The pros and cons of the Green Revolution give us hope for the future. We still have challenges to face
when working to stop hunger, such as improving our food distribution networks. There are legitimate
concerns about soil health to consider as well. We solved this problem once. We can solve it again.

List of the Pros of the Green Revolution

1. The Green Revolution allows us to produce more food than at any time in history.

The technological advances which occurred during the Green Revolution made it possible to feed a
growing population despite the presence of challenging weather conditions and changing growing
seasons. Some farmers were able to achieve yields that were even higher than what the averages
offered when the new techniques were introduced to the developing world. As the idea spread to other
countries, the same benefits began to be experienced by everyone.

2. The Green Revolution makes food access easier for everyone.

When farmers are able to grow more food on their croplands each season, then it becomes possible for
the world to have more access to the nutrition that they require. The result of this work is so profound
that we can produce more food on our current agricultural lands then what our current populations
require. That means if we are going to have a second Green Revolution, then we will need to find ways
to improve shipping and transportation infrastructures to reduce the amount of food waste we
generate.

3. The Green Revolution improved the quality of crop structures.

The Green Revolution helped us to create several new strains of crops which are more resistant to pests
and disease. This benefit is one of the primary reasons why farmers are able to achieve such consistent
gains in productivity. It creates a product that is plentiful, healthy, and affordable to grow in virtually any
country. The techniques behind this process don’t even require the use of GMO’s to create a successful
result.

4. The Green Revolution creates predictable harvest schedules.

Farmers have always been dependent upon the quality of a growing season to maximize their potential
profits. Thanks to the Green Revolution, there is more predictability in the income levels that are
possible for agricultural workers in any environment. The threat of a poor season doesn’t go away
entirely, but it can help farms find ways to produce the crops they need to get to the next year without
going out of business. That means we have a predictable food chain that everyone can use to reduce
scarcity issues as well.

5. The Green Revolution makes it possible to grow crops in different locations.

What we learned through this period of technological evolution is that it is possible to grow food
products almost anywhere on our planet. There are no longer issues with poor soil or challenging
weather conditions because farmers can use the ideas presented by the Green Revolution to maintain
productivity levels. This process even makes it possible to create farms in places where it would be
impossible before, such as above the Arctic Circle or in Antarctica.

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6. The Green Revolution promises higher yields for the crops involved.
Norman Borlaug won the Nobel Peace Prize because of his contributions to the Green Revolution. He
earned his bachelor’s degree in forestry in 1937, and then a doctorate from the university of Minnesota
in 1942. Because of his work on wheat varieties, Mexico went from being a net importer to a net
exporter of this crop by 1963. In a 5-year period, he was also able to double the yields that were coming
out of India and Pakistan to reduce food security issues around the world. This work is credited with
saving at least 1 billion people from starvation.

7. The Green Revolution made it cheaper to purchase food.

Another significant advantage of the Green Revolution is that the higher levels of availability made it
possible for consumers to spend less on the foods that they need. Farmers are still able to make more
money despite the lower costs because of the increase in yields they can achieve consistently.

In 1900, the average cost of food for the American household was 40% of their income. In 1950, that
figure dropped to less than 30%. The Bureau of Labor Statistics now estimates that the average
household in the United States spends 10% of their total budget on food. That means the total cost per
year is $6,602. With inflation taken into consideration, it isn’t just income value that is going up. Costs
are also going down.

8. The Green Revolution works with the environment.

Because we can use croplands more efficiently thanks to the processes introduced by the Green
Revolution, there is no longer a need to transform landscapes into farming communities. Agricultural
workers can meet food demands with the technologies and techniques offered on the current
infrastructure, which reduces tree consumption and carbon release concerns.

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Although natural lands were converted to croplands at a rate of 10% in the past 50 years, human
population numbers have doubled during that time, while food production rates have managed to triple.
9. The Green Revolution reduces concerns about fallowing.

Arguably the most significant advantage of this agricultural transformation was a reduction in the need
to fallow croplands. In regions where precipitation is scarce, farmers would need to let their land be left
vacant every other year (and sometimes for two years after a growing season) to allow the soil to build
up enough moisture to support crops. Now farmers can keep their croplands productive every season,
making it possible to increase their income levels.

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List of the Cons of the Green Revolution

1. The Green Revolution has led to an increase of artificial fertilizers.

The most significant disadvantage of the Green Revolution is that it can only be successful when artificial
enhancers are added to the soil to support continued crop growth. If farmers were to grow the new
strains of crops without pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers helping the process, then they would
experience lower yields compared to the varieties that were grown traditionally. The new strains of
wheat and rice were not as adaptive to local factors as the “normal” crops that were grown.

2. The Green Revolution has created high levels of food waste.

The world is actually growing more food than it can consume right now. 40% of the losses that we
experience happens during processing or after agricultural workers harvest the fields. Most of the waste
in the developed world where the Green Revolution was unnecessary occurs at the retail or consumer
level instead. We will lose up to 50% of the foods that are grown each year in some categories. That
means over 1.3 billion tons of food is grown and not consumed annually.

One of the most significant factors for food waste is the cost of it. Even though prices are moving
downward for several crops, households living in poverty still struggle to make ends meet. About 20% of
kids in the United States live in a food insecure household despite the high median income of the
country.
3. The Green Revolution uses items that can harm the environment.

Because we have started using more synthetic chemicals and fertilizers to encourage larger yields on
existing croplands, there are new issues with erosion and pollution that farmers must deal with every
day. These components can pollute water systems that surround the fields where agricultural workers
are producing food products. The items move downstream to expose other land areas that are not being
worked. There are just as many concerns with the Green Revolution reducing soil quality levels as there
are in the advantages that improve it.

4. The Green Revolution has created a growing resistance to synthetic chemicals.

One of the primary reasons that organizations are researching GMO’s for crops is that the plants and soil
are developing a resistance to modern pesticides and herbicides. The Green Revolution forces us to
continue looking at ways to involve plant chemistry so that we can maintain the increased yields that are
possible. Although genetic modifications are generally treated as being safe, we do not have any long-
term information about how these changes could impact human health.

5. The Green Revolution comes at a steep price.

Even though the addition of fertilizer and other synthetic additives can increase crop production, there
are some farmers in the developing world who cannot afford these products. Some soil conditions are so
poor that the number of additives necessary to produce a crop would cost more than the yields that
were possible. In extremely poor conditions, a farmer may need $145 of product to produce less than
$40 in returns per acre. Agricultural workers in the developed world may be able to handle this cost
thanks to subsidies, but it may also put the hope of an income out of reach for those in poor countries.

6. The Green Revolution shifted our focus on cropland use.

According to information published by Vox in 2014 with National Geographic, about 55% of the world’s
crop calories are consumed by humans. 36% of the croplands are currently being used for animal feed
across the globe. That means the remainder is used as a cash crop for biofuels. In the United States,
where cropland potential is at its highest, only 27% of the crap calories are directly consumed. Almost
2/3 of the crops grown in the U.S., including almost all of the soybeans, goes to animal feed.

7. The Green Revolution only solved some of the hunger crisis.

Although there are undoubtedly more people in the world today who are living in households that are
food secure because of the Green Revolution, there is still a lot of hunger that we must solve. About one
in four people are currently undernourished in the world today. Almost half of the children across the
globe under the age of 5-years-old die because they lack access to proper nutrition. When the statistics
of malnutrition and hunger are put together, roughly 10,000,000 people have their lives placed at risk
because they lack access to food.

8. The Green Revolution can make the land become unusable.

The Green Revolution did make it possible for farmers to improve their yields thanks to soil
management improvements. They are also discovering that the soil can become unusable faster
because there are such high demands of productivity placed on it. Roughly 7.5 million acres of croplands
are taken out of production because of degradation issues that are directly related to the overuse of
fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. Even in the United States, roughly 350 million acres of land has
been lost to this change in farming techniques in the past 30 years.

The pros and cons of the Green Revolution suggest that it is always possible to meet our need to have
food when we allow creativity and ingenuity to be our guides. We already produce more food than we
need right now, so our next effort must be to improve our usage of what we have. That means we must
develop a food delivery system that sits outside of a political agenda to ensure the people who need this
resource the most can have it. We must also set aside socioeconomic barriers that stop people from
having access to food.

List of the Biggest Pros of the Green Revolution

1. It has allowed us to produce more food.

The Green Revolution has made it possible for the world’s croplands to become more productive. The
added food quantities from higher yields makes it possible for our growing human population. By 2050,
human population levels are expected to exceed 10 billion. The United Nations estimates that food
production would need to rise by 70% from 2005 harvest levels to meet the hunger needs of such a high
population level.

2. Higher yields can become consistent, even in challenging conditions.

One of the most famous contributors to the Green Revolution is a man named Normal Borlaug. In the
1940s, Borlaug worked to produce a new strain of wheat. His work produced a type of wheat that
produced large seed heads, was short enough to reduce wind damage, and was naturally resistant to
disease. This strain of wheat was introduced in Mexico and wheat production levels tripled in just 20
years. Borlaug would eventually win a Nobel Peace Prize for this work.

3. It creates cheaper prices for food.

The Green Revolution did more than provide consistency in the harvest yields. It also made the world’s
croplands become more productive without increasing the number of acres planted. Larger yields could
be produced through a similar amount of labor. That makes it possible for production costs to be lower,
which means consumer costs become lower. When households are spending less of their budget on
their basic needs, their discretionary spending can power multiple components of the local economy.

4. The Green Revolution protects the environment.

According to Margaret Cunningham, an instructor who publishes on Study.com, the Green Revolution is
also beneficial because it is protective of the environment. Fewer forests or other types of natural land
needed to be converted into agricultural land for food production purposes because of the higher yields.
From 1961-2008, Cunningham notes that human population levels doubled, food production rates
tripled, while natural lands were converted at rate that was just 10% higher.

5. It has furthered the disease-resistance and pest-resistance of plants.

The Green Revolution has helped to create numerous strains of plants that are resistant to disease and
pests. Through genetic modification and improved farming techniques, we have access to foods that are
healthier, even though they are also more plentiful. That means people can receive their required basic
nutrition by eating less overall food, which extends the supply even further.

6. Farmers no longer need to worry about fallowing.

In regions of the world where annual precipitation rates are less than 20 inches per year, dryland
farming techniques are often used. Before the Green Revolution, a field may be required every other
growing season to allow soil moisture levels to recharge. Because of the presence of irrigation, fertilizer,
and other modern growing techniques in the developing world, farmers can have more of their land be
consistently productive, which further adds to their possible income potential.

7. It has helped to create harvests that are more predictable.

Before the Green Revolution, the quality of a harvest was dependent upon the quality of the growing
season. A poor season would always produce a poor harvest. After the Green Revolution, there has been
more consistency with the annual harvest because the fields are worked in a similar way each year.
Issues with moisture, nutrients, or temperature can be managed on-site, reducing the impact a poor
growing season has on the crop.

8. We are able to grow crops almost anywhere.

Thanks to the Green Revolution, we have discovered that crops can grow almost anywhere if farming
techniques can counter the local environmental conditions. In April 2018, engineers and scientists were
able to harvest foods that were grown in a greenhouse in Antarctica for the first time. Using vertical
farming techniques and LED lighting, the climate-controlled farm produces crops even when it is -100F
outside. According to Business Insider, the first harvest included 8 pounds of greens, 18 cucumbers, and
70 radishes. Each month, up to 11 pounds of fruits and vegetables are expected per week.

9. It created more employment opportunities.

The agricultural sector is one of the largest areas of employment in the world today. In the developing
world, where the Green Revolution has made the largest impact, up to 67% of the population may be
employed in agricultural work. In the developed world, just 5% of the population may be employed in
farming or agriculture-related positions. More employment opportunities mean there are more ways to
fight hunger. There is more food and there is more money available for everyone involved.

10. The Green Revolution has reduced poverty levels in low-income nations.

Thailand is one of the best examples of the advantages offered by the Green Revolution. Since modern
techniques have been implemented, cereal production has more than doubled since the 1960s. Hybrid
crops have introduced healthier foods into distribution channels. Thailand has become the largest
exporter of rice in the world on a consistent year-by-year basis. More importantly, the poverty rate in
the country has dropped from 27% to under 10% because of the improvements made.

11. It allows farmers to harvest multiple yields in the same season.

India has also benefitted from the Green Revolution, especially since the famine years of the 1960s. The
growing season only allowed for one crop to be grown each year because of the pattern of rainfall which
occurs in that region of the world. With irrigation and new farming methods, farmers could double their
production because they could grow a second crop each season. The end result was higher yields of
millet, corn, wheat, and rice of the same quality because of the second harvest.
12. The Green Revolution stimulated the manufacturing sector.

With farmers being more productive, there became a need for new farm equipment. The manufacturing
sector was called upon to produce new tools that could maximize the productive capabilities of each
agricultural worker. That created more income to spend in the economy as well, helping non-farm
workers to gain access to new jobs and resources as well.

List of the Biggest Cons of the Green Revolution

1. The crops of the Green Revolution require fertilizer.

According to the Encyclopedia Britannica Online, many farmers began to grow the newly modified crops
in their fields because the new strains were the only option available. The new strains, if grown without
fertilizer, herbicides, or pesticides, often created lower crop yields when compared to the older strains
of crops that were previously grown. This problem occurs because the older strains were more adapted
to the local growing conditions and had natural resistance levels to disease or pests. The new strains did
not have these adaptive factors.

2. Fertilizers and synthetic chemicals can harm the environment.

Cunningham also notes that the increase use of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides influenced the
environment in two key areas: erosion and pollution. Adding the fertilizers and chemical components to
the soil polluted it and the water systems that surround the croplands being worked. These chemicals
then flow downstream, exposing workers and consumers to them when older farming methods would
not. In time, this creates a lower soil quality, which then increases erosion risks.

3. It has created high levels of food waste.

Food production has become so effective because of the Green Revolution that we are creating more
food than we can consume. In the developing world, where the Green Revolution has made the greatest
impact, 40% of the losses occur at the processing or post-harvest level. In comparison, 40% of losses in
the developed world happen at either the retail or consumer levels. According to the FAO, more than
1.3 billion tons of food are lost or wasted each year. Up to 50% of all root crops are wasted.

4. Resistance to herbicides and pesticides is growing.

Although we have benefitted from higher yields with the Green Revolution in past decades, production
levels in some regions are decreasing. The cause is an increased resistance to the herbicides and
pesticides being applied to the fields. As nature adapts to the changes that farmers are making, the way
we’ve adapted is to increase the amount of chemicals being applied to the crops. Genetic modifications
have even caused some crops to produce their own pesticides. Without change, we may see lower food
yields in the future because of this issue.

5. It may cause seed sterility.

To be clear: GMO crops do produce seeds that germinate and grow into new crops. The concern here is
that there is a patent, owned by Monsanto, for a terminator gene. This technology has reportedly not
been commercialized, though the threat of its existence could change how the Green Revolution
operates. If a farmer produces a crop with sterile seeds, then they would be forced to purchase their
next set of seeds to plant from the owner of the patent. Depending on the price set, agricultural workers
could find their increased profits being taken by the companies supplying them with seeds to grow.

6. The Green Revolution hasn’t been cheap.

Adding fertilizer, pesticide, and herbicide to a growing crop doesn’t happen for free. Farmers are the
ones who pay for these costs. Not every farmer has been able to use these items because they don’t
have the money to do so. According to the Noble Research Institute, if 60 pounds of potassium, 60
pounds of phosphorus, and 60 pounds of nitrogen are required for farming, then the cost to farm
becomes over $145 per ton of forage to produce less than $35 in returns.

7. It has placed a focus on cash crops over stable crops.

There have been more opportunities for farming because of the Green Revolution. There are also more
opportunities to grow cash crops instead of staple crops because of these improved growing methods.
Even though we’re producing more crops than ever before, crops like tobacco, oil palm, cacao, and
pineapple are expanding more than rice, wheat, or corn. The goal of cash crops is to maximize
household income levels, yet higher incomes have led to higher levels of food insecurity.

8. Green Revolution techniques can make the land unusable.

Adding fertilizers and chemicals to the soil drains it of its ability to produce crops over long periods of
time. Not only do these practices drain the soil of its nutrients, the erosion caused can create a loss of
land. That forces farmers to grow a decreased variety of crops as their harvest profile shrinks. About 3
million hectares of land are lost each year because of soil degradation. Over the last 30 years, more than
140 million hectares have been lost in the U.S. alone.

9. It has created an unequal rise in production levels.

Thailand may have experienced several benefits from the Green Revolution, like an improved economy
and lower levels of food insecurity. They have also encountered some issues as well. The Green
Revolution primarily supports agricultural efforts in regions where environmental conditions make
growth difficult. In areas where the growing season is consistent, there have been minimal changes to
the yields produced. Rice yields in Thailand using natural resources have remained consistent, while
irrigated areas have seen large production increases.

10. We have not yet solved the hunger crisis.

According to the Food Aid Foundation, 25% of people are undernourished. Poor nutrition is the cause of
death in 45% of children under the age of 5 every year. More than 3 million children die because they
don’t get enough food to eat, despite food productivity levels being much higher because of the Green
Revolution. In total, about 9 million people die of hunger or malnutrition each year.

List of Pros of Green Revolution

1. Agricultural Operations of a Massive Scale.

Green Revolution has brought agriculture to a massive scale. By looking at the world before this modern
method, we can see that crops that were grown on a massive scale are only those that require extensive
manual intervention to grow healthy. This means that managing massive scale farms was not that easy.
Thanks to Green Revolution, we have identified more ways to make things easier. Most crops, these
days, are grown on an industrial scale even by smaller farming communities.

2. Plants Have Become Resistant to Pests and Herbicides.

Perhaps the greatest gift Green Revolution has given to us is the ability to give crops resistance to pests
and herbicides. In the past, developing economies, which were still adapting to technology and did not
have very high literacy rates, struggled with farming. Now that Green Revolution is here, this has
changed, not only leading to more produce, but also making it healthier.

3. The Need to Fallow Lands Is Eliminated.

This modern method of farming has allowed farmers to re-plant the same crops without fallowing their
lands, which is another significant achievement of the inculcation of technology and knowledge in
agriculture. Take note that fallowing used to be costly for farmers. Though there are some crops that
still need fallowing, making crops for more profits has been made cost-efficient with Green Revolution.

4. Automation in the Process of Farming.

With automation, Green Revolution has made farming more predictable. It is important to note that
there is more dependence on resources that are under human control than nature and other external
factors. Now, when it comes to studying seeds and soil health, this modern method has given us the
convenience to do most of such tricky work in the boardroom, rather than running year-long trials and
then failing with massive losses to farmers.

5. Ability to Grow Any Crop Virtually Anywhere.

Yes, Green Revolution has made it possible for agriculture to be done almost everywhere. Of course, you
still cannot grow potatoes on a plateau or paddy on a beach, but you can use most types of land or
terrain to grow crops with this method. Thus, farmers do not have to be at the most fertile river banks
to be able to start farming. Agriculture has definitely become more doable everywhere.

6. More Profitable Farming Industry.

Truth be told, farmers around the world were mostly poor, unless their families had large tracts of land
and numerous farms that grow multiple crops. With Green Revolution, there are richer farmers today.

List of Cons of Green Revolution

1. Mono-Culturing.

Among the most prominent shortcomings of Green Evolution is mono-culturing. This practice demands
large tracts of land, which are not always available, large volumes of water and intensive amounts of
fertilizers. These needs poses difficulties for farmers around the world.

2. Probability of Weeds and Pests to Develop Hazards.

Green Revolution is speculated to develop poisonous and super weeds and pests that are difficult to
control. There is also the concern of cross pollination from genetically modified organisms (GMOs) to
other plants in the environment, which could result in invasive species.

3. Compromise to Crop Health.

There have been some cases with this modern farming method, where unknown ailments have plagued
the health of various crop species. It is always thought of that some new breeds of weed and pests can
develop, and they may resist pesticides that are used right now.

4. Sterile Seeds.

In most cases, GMOs will generate sterile seeds every year.

5. Varied Soil Type by Location.

Green Revolution does not take into consideration the type of soil or its suitability for certain types of
crop; it just considers the land area and does what is needed for the cultivation of crops each year. The
following year requires fresh procurement of seeds, but nothing is done to ensure that the fertility of
the soil is retained or replenished.

6. High Cost.

The price of the industrial farming and its equipment under Green Revolution may not be affordable for
small farmers.

7. Shortage of Supply.

There is a sterner focus on cash crops with this modern method, and innumerable farmers are trying to
grow them, which is leading to a shortage of staple food crops.

8. Environmental Harm.

All the equipment used in Green Revolution requires burning of fossil fuels that contributes to pollution
and global warming. Also, if you make use of petrochemical fertilizers, it requires fossil fuels that tend to
be patently and unsustainable.
Conclusion

Green Revolution’s primary goal is to eliminate hunger worldwide, but there are still people who are
suffering from starvation, where most of them are women and children. So, it is very important to have
a clear and better understanding when it comes to resolving such a problem. In order to eliminate it,
more food must be produced. According to research, there is enough food supply to feed everyone, and
the government is exerting full effort to sustain such need. Traditional farming is still used, especially
among small farmers, who cannot afford Green Revolution. So, what do you think?

Quick Navigation for Sustainable Agricultural Practices and Farming Methods

1. Permaculture

2. Biodynamic farming

3. Hydroponics and Aquaponics

4. Urban agriculture

5. Agroforestry and food forests

6. Polycultures and crop rotation

7. Heirloom and older varieties

8. Natural animal raising

9. Natural pest management

10. Mulching and manual weed control

1 Permaculture

Permaculture is a design system that applies principles that are found in nature to the development of
human settlements, allowing humanity to live in harmony with the natural world. Permaculture
principles and ethics can be applied to almost any area of living, including local economies, energy
systems, water supplies, housing systems, and food production.

Foundational to producing food through permaculture is intention, design, and “working smarter not
harder” to banish waste and to create efficient systems.
There is a particular emphasis on the use of perennial crops such as fruit trees, nut trees, and shrubs
that all function together in a designed system that mimics how plants in a natural ecosystem would
function.

Permaculture design techniques include herb spirals, hugelkultur garden beds, keyhole and mandala
gardens, sheet mulching, growing grain without tillage, each plant serving multiple purposes, and
creating swales on contour to hold water high on the landscape.

#2 Biodynamic farming

Biodynamics incorporates ecological and holistic growing practices that are based upon the philosophy
of “anthroposophy.” Farmers are encouraged to manage their farm as one living organism where
cultivated species intertwine and support each other’s health.

Biodynamics farm chicken and pigs

This includes raising animals on a farm in a way that they help replenish soil fertility and enhance plant
growth. One of the building pillars of biodynamics is high biodiversity of plants, animals and beneficial
insects. The goal is the creation of a resilient ecosystem that benefits us and other living organisms.

Biodynamics emphasizes the importance of reducing the use of off-site inputs (such as importing soil
fertility) by generating the necessary health and soil fertility for food production onsite. This is achieved
through the implementation of practices such as composting, application of animal manure from farmed
animals, cover cropping or rotating complementary crops.

It also places great importance on working with the natural phenomenon of the cosmos and its
influences upon the heath of the soil, plants, and animals during different moon and sun cycles.

Biodynamic practices can be applied to farms that grow variety of produce, gardens, vineyards, and
other forms of agriculture.

#3 Hydroponics and aquaponics

These innovative farming techniques involve the growing of plants without soil, nourishing the plants
through specialized nutrients that are added to water.

In hydroponic systems, crops are grown with the roots directly in a mineral solution or with the roots in
an inert medium like gravel or perlite.

Aquaponics combines the raising of aquatic animals (such as fish) with the growing of hydroponic crops.
In aquaponic systems, the water containing the waste material from the aquaculture fish is used to
nourish the hydroponic plants. After the water is used by the plants, the water is then recirculated back
into the system to be reused by the fish.

Both hydroponic and aquaponic systems are available in a variety of scales, from small home-scale
systems to commercial-scale systems.

#4 Urban agriculture

The need to localize our food system requires that we grow food much closer to home, including in
cities. Since most of the global population is predicted to live in cities in the future, there is a
tremendous opportunity for urban agriculture to make a significant positive impact moving forward
when it comes to how we produce our food around the world.

Hydroponic lettuce

Today, many innovative and sustainable growing techniques are already being used in cities, including
backyard farms and gardens, community gardens, rooftop farms, growing crops in urban greenhouses,
indoor hydroponic farms, and perhaps even growing food inside urban farm towers someday.

Further reading: What Is Urban Agriculture?

#5 Agroforestry and food forests

Agroforestry involves the growth of trees and shrubs amongst crops or grazing land. Agroforestry
systems can combine both agriculture and forestry practices for long-lasting, productive, and diverse
land use when approached sustainably.
In agroforestry systems, trees create a favorable microclimate that maintains favorable temperature and
soil humidity, while protecting crops from wind or heavy rain. Trees have another important role. They
stabilize soils, minimize nutrient runoff and improve soil structure. This is the reason why agroforestry
has become one of the powerful tools of farmers in dry regions with soils susceptible to desertification.

Besides promoting healthy growth of food crops and maintaining soil fertility, trees in this farming
system provide wood and fruits as an additional source of income for farmers. In these systems,
possibilities for product diversification are many. Farmers can go even as far as growing a whole edible
forest.

Patterned after natural forest ecosystems, food forests (also known as “forest gardens”) are designed
permaculture systems that consist of a multilayered edible “forest.” Such a “forest” is composed almost
entirely of perennial food plants, including a canopy of tall and dwarf fruit and nut trees, a fruit shrub
layer, layers of perennial herbs, mushrooms and vegetables at the ground level, climbing plants, and
root vegetables underground.

Food forest systems are very productive, due to both the diversity of plants that are growing there, and
all of the plants within the system that are taking advantage of each existing niche within the system.

#6 Polycultures and crop rotation

Both of these techniques are trying to mimic natural principles to achieve the best yields.

Polyculture farming involves growing multiple crop species in one area. These species are often
complementary to each other and aim at producing greater diversity of products from one plot while
fully utilizing available resources. High biodiversity makes the system more resilient to weather
fluctuations, promotes balanced diet and applies natural mechanisms to preserve soil fertility.

Polyculture crops

Crop rotation is based on growing a series of different types of crops in the same area in sequential
seasons. The planned rotation may vary from a growing season to a few years or even longer periods. It
is one of the most effective agricultural control strategies that is used in preventing the loss of soil
fertility.
By diversifying the crops that are grown on an area of land in polycultures and through the rotation of
crops that are grown, farmers can greatly reduce the opportunity for disease and pests to take hold. It is
because their development cycles get interrupted by changing crops. These practices also lead to
reductions in the need to apply fertilizers and pesticides.

Further reading: Biointensive Farming: The Future of our Food Production System

#7 Growth of heirloom and older varieties

Today, due to the industrialization of the global food system, only a few varieties of our food plants are
grown commercially. This situation evolved in order to meet market demand for the viability of produce
to travel long distances and to be stored for long periods of time.

Over the last 100 years, the world has lost almost 90 percent of the fruit and vegetable seed varieties
that were once available [4].

This reduced genetic variety in our food crop species reduces those species’ opportunity to adapt to
changes in climate, diseases, and pest conditions in the environment [4].

There is currently a great need to grow heirloom and older varieties of crops in order to preserve the
biodiversity of seeds. If gardeners and farmers do not continue to grow heirloom and other older
varieties of plants and save their seeds, many of the remaining varieties of our food plants could be lost
to the world forever.

Losing traditional varieties could be compared to losing an important source of genetic information and
part of our ancestral heritage, as these plants have adapted precisely to make the most out of local
conditions. Generations of our ancestors have spent decades of selecting only the best seeds that have
provided the most nutritious and flavored food. Their quality is often supreme, and it is rather wasteful
to let them disappear.

It was these varieties that have nourished our ancestors, and therefore, contributed to who we are
today. They deserve to be preserved because their unique traits may help us in establishing future
climate-resistant varieties that will nourish our children.
#8 Natural animal raising

Sustainable animal farming is possible and is better for everyone. Not only that it is good for the
environment and our nutritional needs, it is also good for the animals. Animals that are raised on the
pasture or in their preferred environment live under less stress, closer to their natural way of living.
They can have fulfilling social interactions with other animals and behave in a way that is natural to
them (roll in the mud, pick plants they want to eat, rest side by side, play).

Sheep grazing

Allowing animals to graze and live in pasture is much healthier for animals than confined animal feeding
operations are. You will even notice that these animals are cleaner, smell better and have that curious
spark in their eyes. Their health and happiness reflect in the quality of products we get from them.
Tastier meat, yellower eggs, milk richer in the mineral and vitamin content.

Since animals and grasslands have evolved in a mutually beneficial relationship, livestock grazing and
other pastoral systems enrich the land in multiple ways. Manure returns nutrients back into the soil,
completing the natural nutrient cycle. Soils get aerated by the animal hoof action and greater diversity
of plants flourishes because animals suppress dominant species, providing opportunity for a variety of
rarer plants.

Grasses also grow stronger root systems and abundant tufts after being grazed and trampled under the
hooves. This helps to prevent erosion, build soil through the rich growth of diverse pasture grasses,
sequester carbon emissions in the soil from the atmosphere, and conserve grassland habitats that can
host many other species of wildlife and insects [5].

#9 Natural pest management

One of the main aims of sustainable agricultural practices is the prevention of the use of synthetic
pesticides and other chemicals that should suppress pest infestations and pathogens. Applying
increasing amounts of chemicals to grow food is not part of the long-term solution and doesn’t help our
health either. Farmers from sustainable farms, therefore, look for solutions in nature and try to recreate
conditions that do not favor pests.

They achieve this through the set of practices that strengthen natural resilience of crops and practices
that interrupt pest cycles.
Greater diversity of crops, intercropping and crop rotations are among the methods that have proven
successful. The key to their success lies in dispersing preferred food sources of pests by blending in crops
they do not favor. Additionally, diverse crops attract diverse insects and some of them are natural
predators of pests, helping to keep their populations within limits, thus mimicking how the real
ecosystem balances itself out.

Farmers can also release or provide habitat for populations of beneficial insects (such as ladybugs,
lacewings, and fly parasites), as well as encourage other organisms (such as birds and bats) that will
serve as predators of crop-eating pest insects.

Further reading: Why You Need Insect Houses for the Garden

#10 Mulching, groundcovers, and manual weed control

Farmers and other growers can dramatically reduce the growth of weeds and conserve soil moisture by
covering the soil around their plants through the use of mulching and ground covers.

By naturally suppressing weed growth, these practices greatly reduce, or in some cases even eliminate,
the need to apply herbicides to kill weeds. And the most stubborn weeds that appear from time to time
can be easily controlled by hand because their numbers are minimized.

Strawberries on straw mulch

We can see this practice widely applied on strawberry fields where plants need to have larger spacing
between them, which would give the opportunity for weeds to take over. A layer of protective material
on top of the soil even keeps strawberries from rotting too fast, as they do not lay directly on the hard
soil while ripening. Afterall, as their name suggests “straw-berries,” people have known about the
benefits of growing these yummy fruits surrounded by the straw ground cover for many generations.

Organic mulch material like, for example, wood chips, straw or grass clippings also improves nutrient
retention in soils and encourages activity of soil microorganisms that help create healthy aerated soil
structure. This reduces the need for tillage as soils are less compacted [6].

What Are the Different Sustainable Agriculture Practices?

1) Rotating Crops

Monoculture, a widespread practice in many developing countries, is the primary cause of increased
super-weeds and poor soil which results in decreased productivity. Planting different varieties of crops
can be quite beneficial to your farm. Rotating crops helps improved pest and weed control, and
healthier soil. Some of the crop diversity practices you can adopt include complex multi-year crops
rotation and inter-cropping (planting different types of crops on the same farm).

2) Embracing Diversity

Although planting numerous plant species is a great sustainable farming method, it is not an option for
commercial farmers with a market for specific crops. Therefore instead of substituting their main crop, a
farmer can plant diverse varieties of the same plant. Farming different varieties make your crop stronger
since they are genetically distinct. Crop diversity protects the crops from pests and diseases which favor
a specific crop variety.

3) Planting Cover Crops

Planting cover crops like hairy vetch or clovers during the off-season times when the farm is left bare can
be beneficial. Cover crops build and protect the health of the soil by replenishing the soil nutrients,
preventing soil erosion and also hindering the growth of weeds which reduces the need for herbicides in
future.

4) Eliminating or Reducing Tillage

Although traditional plowing methods prevent weed problems and also help prepare the farm for
planting, plowing causes soil loss. Therefore instead of plowing your farm before planting, you can use
reduced till or no-till farming methods. By inserting all the seeds directly into the unplowed farm you
can improve the quality of the soil while preventing soil erosion.

5) Appling Integrated Pest Management Methods

Although pesticides help with pest management and improve crop production, over-usage of a specific
pesticide results in a pest-resistant breed of pests. Therefore you can employ the use of numerous
biological and mechanical pest control methods while reducing the use of pesticides. Different plants
attract a wide variety of pests and birds among other creatures; some of these small animals can
predate on the ones destroying crops. A farmer can release a group of numerous beneficial insects like
lacewings and ladybugs into the farm to help control pests. Planting trees around the farm will attract
birds who will nest there and even feed on the insects thus controlling the population of insects.

6) Integrating Crops and Livestock

Industrial agriculture keeps animal and plant production separated with the livestock grazing away from
the farm and the crops away from manure. Although keeping the animals away from the crops can
protect the crops from being consumed by the animals, evidence shows that smart integrating of
livestock and crops production can be a perfect recipe for a more efficient and profitable farm. Managed
grazing can also be a great way of crop rotation. Instead of alternating crops, you can allow your
livestock to graze on different pastures on your farm so that the animals can consume different plants.
Managed grazing will provide your cattle with a wide range of nutrients. Moving the livestock is also
perfect for the soil since the excessive foot fall will help compact the soil thus preventing soil erosion
while the manure left behind will help fertilize the farm.

7) Adopting Agroforestry Practices

Addition of shrubs of trees in the farm can help provide shelter and shade to the plants, water resource,
and animals. Trees and shrubs can help prevent soil erosion while potentially giving the farmer an
additional income. Planting trees around your water source can help prevent loss of water through
evaporation during the dry seasons.

8) Managing Entire Landscapes and Systems

Sustainable farming treats the less intensively cultivated and the uncultivated area as part of the farm.
The role played by the uncultivated areas, in reducing nutrient runoff, controlling soil erosion and
supporting the pollinators among other diversity is valued. Therefore make sure you tend to this area as
you would tend to your farm

There are eight major terrestrial biomes: tropical rainforests, savannas, subtropical deserts, chaparral,
temperate grasslands, temperate forests, boreal forests, and Arctic tundra. Biomes are large-scale
environments that are distinguished by characteristic temperature ranges and amounts of precipitation.
These two variables affect the types of vegetation and animal life that can exist in those areas. Because
each biome is defined by climate, the same biome can occur in geographically distinct areas with similar
climates (Figures 1 and 2).
Tropical rainforests are found in equatorial regions (Figure 1) are the most biodiverse terrestrial biome.
This biodiversity is under extraordinary threat primarily through logging and deforestation for
agriculture. Tropical rainforests have also been described as nature’s pharmacy because of the potential
for new drugs that is largely hidden in the chemicals produced by the huge diversity of plants, animals,
and other organisms. The vegetation is characterized by plants with spreading roots and broad leaves
that fall off throughout the year, unlike the trees of deciduous forests that lose their leaves in one
season.

Tropical rainforests are characterized by vertical layering of vegetation and the formation of distinct
habitats for animals within each layer. On the forest floor is a sparse layer of plants and decaying plant
matter. Above that is an understory of short, shrubby foliage

Subtropical deserts exist between 15o and 30o north and south latitude and are centered on the Tropic
of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn (Figure 6 below). Deserts are frequently located on the downwind
or lee side of mountain ranges, which create a rain shadow after prevailing winds drop their water
content on the mountains. This is typical of the North American deserts, such as the Mohave and
Sonoran deserts. Deserts in other regions, such as the Sahara Desert in northern Africa or the Namib
Desert in southwestern Africa are dry because of the high-pressure, dry air descending at those
latitudes. Subtropical deserts are very dry; evaporation typically exceeds precipitation. Subtropical hot
deserts can have daytime soil surface temperatures above 60oC (140oF) and nighttime temperatures
approaching 0oC (32oF). Subtropical deserts are characterized by low annual precipitation of fewer
than 30 cm (12 in) with little monthly variation and lack of predictability in rainfall. Some years may
receive tiny amounts of rainfall, while others receive more. In some cases, the annual rainfall can be as
low as 2 cm (0.8 in) in subtropical deserts located in central Australia (“the Outback”) and northern
Africa.

The chaparral is also called scrub forest and is found in California, along the Mediterranean Sea, and
along the southern coast of Australia (Figure 7 below). The annual rainfall in this biome ranges from 65
cm to 75 cm (25.6–29.5 in) and the majority of the rain falls in the winter. Summers are very dry and
many chaparral plants are dormant during the summertime. The chaparral vegetation is dominated by
shrubs and is adapted to periodic fires, with some plants producing seeds that germinate only after a
hot fire. The ashes left behind after a fire are rich in nutrients like nitrogen and fertilize the soil,
promoting plant regrowth. Fire is a natural part of the maintenance of this biome.

Photo depicts a landscape with many shrubs, dormant grass, a few trees, and mountains in the
background.

Figure 8. The chaparral is dominated by shrubs. (credit: Miguel Vieira)

Temperate grasslands are found throughout central North America, where they are also known as
prairies, and in Eurasia, where they are known as steppes (Figure 8 below). Temperate grasslands have
pronounced annual fluctuations in temperature with hot summers and cold winters. The annual
temperature variation produces specific growing seasons for plants. Plant growth is possible when
temperatures are warm enough to sustain plant growth, which occurs in the spring, summer, and fall.

Temperate forests are the most common biome in eastern North America, Western Europe, Eastern
Asia, Chile, and New Zealand (Figure 9 below). This biome is found throughout mid-latitude regions.
Temperatures range between –30oC and 30oC (–22oF to 86oF) and drop to below freezing on an annual
basis. These temperatures mean that temperate forests have defined growing seasons during the spring,
summer, and early fall. Precipitation is relatively constant throughout the year and ranges between 75
cm and 150 cm (29.5–59 in).

The boreal forest, also known as taiga or coniferous forest, is found roughly between 50oand 60o north
latitude across most of Canada, Alaska, Russia, and northern Europe (Figure 10 below). Boreal forests
are also found above a certain elevation (and below high elevations where trees cannot grow) in
mountain ranges throughout the Northern Hemisphere. This biome has cold, dry winters and short,
cool, wet summers. The annual precipitation is from 40 cm to 100 cm (15.7–39 in) and usually takes the
form of snow; relatively little evaporation occurs because of the cool temperatures.

The Arctic tundra lies north of the subarctic boreal forests and is located throughout the Arctic regions
of the Northern Hemisphere. Tundra also exists at elevations above the tree line on mountains. The
average winter temperature is –34°C (–29.2°F) and the average summer temperature is 3°C–12°C (37°F
–52°F). Plants in the Arctic tundra have a short growing season of approximately 50–60 days. However,
during this time, there are almost 24 hours of daylight and plant growth is rapid. The annual
precipitation of the Arctic tundra is low (15–25 cm or 6–10 in) with little annual variation in
precipitation. And, as in the boreal forests, there is little evaporation because of the cold temperatures.

Tropical Wet Forest

Tropical wet forests are also referred to as tropical rainforests. This biome is found in equatorial regions.
The vegetation is characterized by plants with broad leaves that fall off throughout the year. Unlike the
trees of deciduous forests, the trees in this biome do not have a seasonal loss of leaves associated with
variations in temperature and sunlight; these forests are “evergreen” year-round.

Savannas

A grassy slope plain is dotted with small trees.

Figure 2. Savannas, like this one in Taita Hills Wildlife Sanctuary in Kenya, are dominated by grasses.
(credit: Christopher T. Cooper)
Savannas are grasslands with scattered trees, and they are located in Africa, South America, and
northern Australia (Figure 2). Savannas are hot, tropical areas with temperatures averaging from 24 °C
to 29 °C (75 °F to 84 °F) and an annual rainfall of 10–40 cm (3.9–15.7 in). Savannas have an extensive dry
season; for this reason, forest trees do not grow as well as they do in the tropical wet forest (or other
forest biomes). As a result, within the grasses and forbs (herbaceous flowering plants) that dominate the
savanna, there are relatively few trees (Figure 2). Since fire is an important source of disturbance in this
biome, plants have evolved well-developed root systems that allow them to quickly re-sprout after a
fire.

Subtropical Deserts

This photo shows a sandy desert dotted with scrubby bushes. An ocotillo plant dominates the picture. It
has long, thin unbranched stems that grow straight up from the base of the plant and radiate out
slightly. The plant has no leaves.

Figure 3. To reduce water loss, many desert plants have tiny leaves or no leaves at all. The leaves of
ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens), shown here in the Sonora Desert near Gila Bend, Arizona, appear only
after rainfall, and then are shed.

Subtropical deserts exist between 15 ° and 30 ° north and south latitude and are centered on the Tropics
of Cancer and Capricorn (Figure 3). This biome is very dry; in some years, evaporation exceeds
precipitation. Subtropical hot deserts can have daytime soil surface temperatures above 60 °C (140 °F)
and nighttime temperatures approaching 0 °C (32 °F). In cold deserts, temperatures can be as high as 25
°C and can drop below −30 °C (−22 °F). Subtropical deserts are characterized by low annual precipitation
of fewer than 30 cm (12 in) with little monthly variation and lack of predictability in rainfall. In some
cases, the annual rainfall can be as low as 2 cm (0.8 in) in subtropical deserts located in central Australia
(“the Outback”) and northern Africa.

Chaparral

Photo depicts a landscape with many shrubs, dormant grass, a few trees, and mountains in the
background.

Figure 4. The chaparral is dominated by shrubs. (credit: Miguel Vieira)

The chaparral is also called the scrub forest and is found in California, along the Mediterranean Sea, and
along the southern coast of Australia (Figure 4). The annual rainfall in this biome ranges from 65 cm to
75 cm (25.6–29.5 in), and the majority of the rain falls in the winter. Summers are very dry and many
chaparral plants are dormant during the summertime. The chaparral vegetation, shown in Figure 4, is
dominated by shrubs and is adapted to periodic fires, with some plants producing seeds that only
germinate after a hot fire. The ashes left behind after a fire are rich in nutrients like nitrogen that
fertilize the soil and promote plant regrowth.

Temperate Grasslands

Temperate grasslands are found throughout central North America, where they are also known as
prairies; they are also in Eurasia, where they are known as steppes (Figure 5). Temperate grasslands
have pronounced annual fluctuations in temperature with hot summers and cold winters. The annual
temperature variation produces specific growing seasons for plants. Plant growth is possible when
temperatures are warm enough to sustain plant growth and when ample water is available, which
occurs in the spring, summer, and fall. During much of the winter, temperatures are low, and water,
which is stored in the form of ice, is not available for plant growth.

Temperate Forests

Photo shows a deciduous forest with many tall trees, some smaller trees and grass, and lots of dead
leaves on the forest floor. Sunlight filters down to the forest floor.

Figure 6. Deciduous trees are the dominant plant in the temperate forest. (credit: Oliver Herold)

Temperate forests are the most common biome in eastern North America, Western Europe, Eastern
Asia, Chile, and New Zealand (Figure 6). This biome is found throughout mid-latitude regions.
Temperatures range between −30 °C and 30 °C (−22 °F to 86 °F) and drop to below freezing on an annual
basis. These temperatures mean that temperate forests have defined growing seasons during the spring,
summer, and early fall. Precipitation is relatively constant throughout the year and ranges between 75
cm and 150 cm (29.5–59 in).

Boreal Forests

The boreal forest, also known as taiga or coniferous forest, is found south of the Arctic Circle and across
most of Canada, Alaska, Russia, and northern Europe (Figure 7). This biome has cold, dry winters and
short, cool, wet summers. The annual precipitation is from 40 cm to 100 cm (15.7–39 in) and usually
takes the form of snow. Little evaporation occurs because of the cold temperatures.

Arctic Tundra

This photo shows a flat plain covered with shrub. Many of the shrubs are covered in pink flowers.

Figure 8. Low-growing plants such as shrub willow dominate the tundra landscape, shown here in the
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. (credit: USFWS Arctic National Wildlife Refuge)
The Arctic tundra lies north of the subarctic boreal forest and is located throughout the Arctic regions of
the northern hemisphere (Figure 8). The average winter temperature is −34 °C (−34 °F) and the average
summer temperature is from 3 °C to 12 °C (37 °F–52 °F). Plants in the arctic tundra have a very short
growing season of approximately 10–12 weeks. However, during this time, there are almost 24 hours of
daylight and plant growth is rapid. The annual precipitation of the Arctic tundra is very low with little
annual variation in precipitation. And, as in the boreal forests, there is little evaporation due to the cold
temperatures.

There are many different classification systems used to determine biomes, each resulting in different
numbers of biomes. Here we will just be covering some of the major biomes (9 terrestrial and 4 aquatic).

Terrestrial Biomes

Let's take a look at the terrestrial biomes.