Chapter 1: Ethics

Overview
The word “ethics" is derived from the Greek "ethos" which means "characteristic way
of acting", "habit", or "custom". The Latin equivalent is mos, mores, from which come the word
moral and morality. Ethics studies the characteristics behavior of man as endowed with reason
and freewill.
The study of Ethics started with the Greek philosophers, notably Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle. Socrates is regarded as the father of moral philosophy. However, it is Aristotle who
has greatly influenced ethical thinking with three important treatises – the Nicomachean Ethics,
the Eudemian Ethics, and the Magna Moralia (Great Ethics).
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Define ethics
2. Identify the characteristics of ethics
3. Discuss the origin of ethics
4. Differentiate Ethics and Religion
5. Discuss the importance of Ethics
6. Reflect on the reading “What is Ethics”

Definition of Ethics
Ethics is the science of the morality of human acts.
Human acts are actions done intentionally and freely, like walking, reading, working,
playing, shopping, joining a contest, or signing a contract. Human acts are differentiated from
acts of man which are instinctive, such as the physiological and psychological movements like
breathing, feeling happy, or falling in love. Ethics does not study the acts of man in themselves
but as factors affecting man's judgement and violation.
Ethics is the study of man as moral being, one who is rationally able to distinguish
between right and wrong. It examines how man is accountable for his actions and its
consequences. It proposes how man ought to live his life - meaningfully.
Ethics is concerned with morality, the quality which makes an act good or evil, correct
or wrong. Ethics examines and explains the rational basis why actions are moral or immoral. In
other words, Ethics is concerned with the norms of human behavior.
The Art of Correct Living REFLECTION PAPER RUBRIC
Above Meets Approaching Below
Art provides for what is orderly and harmonious in an artwork. Ethics is an art, "the art Expectations Expectations Expectations Expectations
of correct living”, because it teaches how we may put order and harmony in our lives. Thus, 4 3 2 1
Ethics is a practical science and differs from one that is purely speculative. Ethics is beneficial Reflective The reflection The reflection The reflection The
only when its truths are put into practice as rules of conduct. Thinking explains the explains the attempts to reflection
student’s own student’s demonstrate does
Every person is expected to be decent and trustworhty. And since moral integrity as thinking and thinking thinking about not address
attested by people is the true measure of man's greatness, some philosophers regard Ethics as learning about his/her learning but is the
processes, own vague and/or student’s
"the only necessary knowledge”. Indeed, unless they are also morally upright, the rich, the as well as learning unclear about the thinking
famous and the powerful live vainly. On the other hand, the poor and ignorant who is God- implications processes. personal learning and/or
fearing, patriotic, diligent, honest, helpful of others, self-respecting and protective of his family for process. learning.
is truly a great person- dakila, says Emilio Jacinto in Katilla ng Katipunan. future learning.
Analysis The reflection The reflection The reflection The
Morality is not only necessary to a person but also to society. Beltrand Russell states is an is an attempts to reflection
that "without civic morality, communities perish; without personal morality their survival has no in-depth analysis of analyze the does
value”. When people do not accept the rule of law, society crumbles. analysis the learning not move
of the learning learning experience but the beyond a
Ethics and the Filipino experience, the experience value of the description
value of the and the learning to the of the
Filipinos believe in moral integrity as essential to life. They also believe in a just society. derived value of the student or others learning
However, the recent cheating in the Board Exams of Nurses, as well as the many more similar learning to self derived is vague and/or experience.
or others, and learning to unclear.
instances, show moral norms are easily ignored for personal interest.
the self or others.
Corruption in government, commercialism, over population, the unequal distribution of enhancement
of the student’s
wealth, and the lack of economic opportunities -- all contribute to the weakening of the moral
appreciation
resolve of the Filipinos for the
discipline.
People of some other countries suffer as much, if not worst. But this is no consolation at Making The reflection The reflection The reflection The
all since we should be looking up to the ideal When we speak of “living standard" we inevitably Connection articulates articulates attempts to reflection
mean "economic that is, higher salaries and low prices. Perhaps, we should think more of moral s Multiple connections articulate does
standard as our priority. connections between this connections not articulate
between this learning between this any
Learning experience learning connection to
experience and and content experience and other
Ethics and Religion content from from other content from other learning or
other courses, past courses, past experiences.
Ethics and religion are both concerned with moral education, but they differ from each courses, past learning learning
other. Ethics is a science and relies on reasons for its conclusions. Religion is a system of beliefs learning, life experiences, experiences, or
and practices based on faith and revelation, or truths revealed to man by God. experiences and/or personal goals,
and/or future goals. but the connection
Ethics teaches the value of religion, presenting it as a duty of man towards the Supreme future goals. is vague and/or
Being. Religion, on the other hand, as an organized church or institution, contributes to the unclear.
development of ethical thought. Thus, religion and ethics compliment each other. TOTAL 12 pts.
 ESSAY/EXPLANATION RUBRIC Ethical Norms and Law
Outstanding Good Fair Poor Very Poor
5 4 3 2 1 The laws of society sometimes legalizes immoral acts, like gambling and divorce.
Well written Writes fairly Minimal effort. Somewhat Lacking effort. Hence, what is legal is not necessary moral. Also, human laws regulate external actions, but not
and very clear. Good Minimal unclear. Shows Very poor thoughts and feelings. Thinking of robbing a bank is not a crime until it is attempted.
organized. grammar grammar little effort. grammar
Ethical norms, however, cover thoughts and feelings so that a person could sin because
Excellent mechanics. mechanics. Poor grammar mechanics.
of what he thinks or desires. Thus, St. Paul says a man who lusts after a woman is committing
grammar Good Fair mechanics. Very unclear.
mechanics. presentation presentation. Confusing and Does not adultery. Also, a moral norms require proper spiritual disposition towards what is lawful. It is
Clear and and Few supporting choppy, address topic. not sufficient to do good, one must be sincere in doing what is good.
concise organization. details. incomplete Limited Ethical Approaches
statements. Sufficient sentences. attempt.
Excellent effort effort and No There are two approaches -- the atheistic and theistic ethics.
and detail. organization of
presentation thoughts. 1. The atheistic approach assumes that only matter exists and man is responsible only
with detail. to the State since there is no God who rules the universe. Morality is an invention of man to suit
Demonstrates a his requirement and to preserve society. Moral truths are temporary and changeable depending
thorough on the situation. Accordingly, the concept of good and evil is relative. Some of its tenets are the
understanding following:
of the topic.
1) Matter is the only reality.
2) Man is matter and does not have spiritual soul.
3) Man is free and must exercise his freedom to promote the welfare of society.
4) There is no life after death.
5) Man is accountable only to the State
2. The theistic approach, to which we adhere, assumes that God is the Supreme
Lawgiver. Everything must conform to God's Eternal plan of creation. Man must exercise his
freedom in accordance with God's will. There are absolute principles of morality which are not
changeable. Man is accountable for his actions and deserves either a reward or punishment in
this life or in the next. Its tenets are:
1) God is the Supreme Creator and Lawgiver.
2) Man is free and must use his freedom to promote his personal interest along with that
of others.
3) Man has an immortal soul.
4) Man is accountable for his actions, both good and evil.
General and Special Ethics
Ethics is divided into general and special ethics. The first part of this book is about
General Ethics and the second part about Special Ethics.
General Ethics is about the principles of morality. It explains the norms with which the
moral significance of the human act is determined. Special Ethics is the application of the
principles of General ethics to the problems and issues confronting a person on account of his
circumstances in life, for instance, as a citizen, neighbor, worker, wife, husband, or child.
Special Ethics includes the sub-branches of professional ethics, such as medical ethics,
business ethics, legal ethics, biological and environmental ethics. This book is divided into
General and Special Ethics.
Reading:
What is Ethics?
Jovito R. Salonga
fairness, compassion and caring for people, especially those who are in need, are among life's
highest
EXERCISE NO. 19 Date:
Name: Section:
A. Qualify your answer. 5 points each. Refer to the attached rubric.
1. Which duties do not accept exemption? Give an example.
2. Explain the meaning of “equal protection of the law”?
3. When you pay your fare in a bus, do you acquire a right to a seat which you may then
refuse to give up even to a lady or an elderly person? Explain your answer.
B. Write a reflection paper after reading the “Equality before the law”. Refer to the attached
rubric.

Ethics... is the discipline dealing with right and wrong. And when we ask what things
are right, without having to go back to the ancient philosophers and scholars, common sense
tells us the things that are right are the things that help people and society at large, such things
as honesty, fairness, decency and accountability. To be sure, ethics has a practical dimension. It
is based on what one might call reciprocity, something like the Golden Rule -- “Do unto others
what you would like others to do unto you.” Or even its negative version “Don't do unto others
what you don't like them to do unto you." I don't want to be lied to, hence I should not lie to
others. I don't want my possession stolen, therefore I should not steal other people's possessions.
If I don't want to be cheated by the other candidates for president, then I should not cheat them.
But beyond reciprocity, ethics has a spiritual a dimension: People have an inner sense of
right and wrong. That is why we feel guilt and shame. Wasn't it Abraham Lincoln who said:
“When I do good, I feel good. When I do bad, I feel bad?” Our best moments, as one ethicist
points out (Meyers 1989:18), are not when we made a lot of money, but when something we did
meant a lot good to others. In my own law practice before I got into the fascinating but turbulent
world of politics, I earned more than enough by serving as lawyer for a number of big
corporations; however, my happiest moment was not when I received a handsome attorney's fee
but when I defended gratis et amore -- an old man, a friend of my late father, who, in my
opinion was erroneously convicted by a biased judge. I appealed the judgment of conviction,
prepared the written brief at my expense and personally argued his case in the Court of Appeals,
knowing he could not pay me even if he wanted to. When the judgment of acquittal came, I
thought I was the happiest man in the world. What I am trying to say is that beyond honesty and
 But perhaps, more than any other language in the Constitution, this "equal protection" ethical values (Excerpt from “Ethics in Politics” in The Intangibles That Make A Nation Great,
clause has been used to strengthen and broaden civil rights. And this is precisely because it is so 2003, p. 165-166).
broad that it does defies (sic) an exact definition. In general, it can be defined as equality before
the law, that "no person or class of persons shall be denied the same protection of the law which
is enjoyed by the other persons or other classes under like circumstances, in their lives, liberty EXERCISE 1 Date
and in the pursuit of happiness" (Truax V. Corrigan 257 U.S. 312), Or more concisely stated, Name: Section:
the guaranty of equal protection means that the rights of all persons must rest upon the same
rule under the same circumstances both in privileges conferred and in liabilities imposed Answer briefly the following:
(Harford v. Harrison 301 U.S. 459).
1. What is the aim of Ethics?
The constitutional guaranty of equal protection does not, however, mean that laws 2. What is the difference between Ethics and Religion?
cannot be passed making classifications on the subject legislation. This is allowed as long as the 3. Why is Ethics "the only necessary knowledge”?
classification is reasonable. And a classification is reasonable, where (1) it is based on 4. How are moral norms different from civil laws?
substantial distinctions which make real differences like classifying certain natives of the 5. How does Senator Jovito Salonga define Ethics?
Philippines of a low grade of civilization usually living in tribal relationship apart from other
communities and enacting a special law applicable to them only; (2) the classification is relevant
EXERCISE NO. 2 Date:
to the purpose of the law, like prohibiting these natives to buy intoxication liquors of any kind
Name: Section:
other than their native wines and liquors; (3) the classification a applies not only to the present
conditions but also to future conditions which are substantially identical to the present; and (4) A. Identify the following:
the classification applies only to those who belong to the same class (People v. Cayat 68 Phil.
12). Thus, in another case, a law imposing a fine on a poor person less than that imposed upon ____________________________1. Voluntary actions.
one who is well-to-do for the same violation, is not against the equal protection of the law ____________________________2. The father of moral philosophy.
(People v. Ching Kuan 74 Phil. 23). ____________________________3. the only necessary knowledge
____________________________4. Instinctive actions.
As rightly declared in the same case, equality before the law is therefore not "literal and ____________________________5. The true measure of greatness
mathematical but relative and practical". It recognizes the fact that human beings are not born ____________________________6. Knowledge based on faith
equal; many have material, physical or intellectual handicaps. Society cannot abolish such ____________________________7. quality of being good or evil
congenital inequality but “can endeavor to afford everybody equal opportunities” (A Law Each ____________________________8. the subject matter of Ethics
Day (Keeps Trouble Away), The Phil. Star, March 4, 1988). ____________________________9. Ethics as art.
____________________________10. tool of ethical studies
____________________________11. A godless theory
EXERCISE NO. 18 Date: ____________________________12. Etymology of Ethics.
Name: Section: ____________________________13. root word of morality
____________________________14. Characteristic way of acting
Answer briefly: ____________________________15. deals with general principles of morality
1. Explain how rights are limited?
2. What is the meaning of a positive and a negative duty? B. Write a reflection paper after reading the definition of ethics according to Jovito Salonga.
3. What is the difference between civil and political rights? Refer to the attached rubric.
4. Is citizenship an inalienable right? Explain.
5. What is the meaning of coaction?
 Chapter 2: Man As Person The fulfillment of a duty invariably poses certain degree of difficulty and sacrifice on
the person. Such common hardships do not exempt anyone from complying with the
Overview duty. Thus, the student who finds it difficult to get a ride to and from school is not
exempted from attending his classes. The security guard who finds it hard to stay awake
Ethics is the study of man as a moral being. What goals we assign to ourselves, what
on his night shift is not justified when he falls asleep on duty.
actions we choose to do, and how we treat others - depend on how we understand ourselves as a
human being. Socrates is wise indeed for proposing that the starting point of wisdom is “to Conflict of Duties
know oneself’’.
There is a conflict of duties when two or more of them needs to be answered at the same
Learning Outcomes: time. In this situation, the following guideline will be useful:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to: 1. Duties towards God must be given priority over those towards men. Theoretically, one
should be attending church service rather than attend a social gathering, a meeting or a
1. Define Man as a person
party. This conflict, however, may easily be solved by arranging persona schedule so
2. Discuss the importance of human action with regards to character
that both obligations are met.
3. Explain the demand of natural law according to Paul Tillich
2. Duties that secure public order or the common good have priority over those that
4. Compare personality and character
safeguard the individual. The need to obey traffic rules takes precedence over personal
5. Reflect on the reading “Be Proud You are Human”
convenience.
Filipino Beliefs 3. Duties towards the family and relatives take precedence over those towards strangers.
Except in the case of nepotism, the needs of family and relatives have greater claim to
Filipinos believe that ... our services and generosity. Thus, a father should spend for the food and needs of his
1. Man is a creature of God. family before he thinks of entertaining his friends or barkada.
2. Man has an immortal soul. 4. Duties of greater importance take precedence over those of lesser importance. The
3. Man has an assigned destiny in life. preservation of one's honor is more important than gaining monetary advantage.
4. Man must do good or else be punished by God. 5. Duties based on higher law take precedence over those coming from lower laws.
5. Man by nature is good but is morally weak. Condemning divorce on the basis of natural law is better than subscribing to it on the
Regarding morality, Filipinos believe that ... basis of a human positive law.

1. Morality is "batas ng Diyos"

2. A person should respect his humanity, “pagkatao"
3. A person should love and care for his family.
4. A person should strive to live peacefully with others.
5. A person should fear God and His punishment.
Rational Animal
Man is an organism composed of a material body and a spiritual soul. He is the whole
of his materiality and immateriality, the substantial union (hylomorphic) of body and soul,
matter and spirit. This essential wholeness is what we call human nature.
Reading:
Equality before the law
Jose C. Sison
The twin brother of the "due process of law" in our Constitution is the "equal protection
of the laws" clause found in the same Section! Article III. They are twins because they are more
or less based on the same principle of reasonableness and fair play and freedom from
arbitrariness. In fact, equal protection may be said to be a part of due process of the law
although it is more of a guaranty against discrimination.
Duties are expressed as laws. The command "Thou shall not steal" expressed in the Decalogue
enjoins us to respect the property of others and to omit such action as stealing. The command
"Honor your father and your mother” enjoins us to love and obey our parents and forbids such
act as disrespect, disobedience, or animosity towards them.
The reciprocity of rights and duties imposes the same privilege and burden on all men.
Thus, "those who claim their right, yet altogether forget or neglect to carry out their respective
duties, are people who build with one hand and destroy with the other hand" )John XXIII: 9).
Kinds of Duties
1. Natural duties are those imposed by natural law, such as the duty to take care of our
health, the duty to educate ourselves, and the duty to worship God.
2. Positive duties are imposed by a human positive law, such as the duty to pay taxes, the
duty to observe traffic rules, and the duty to vote.
Duties are either affirmative or negative. Affirmative duties are those that require the
performance of an act, such as the duty of loving our parents and that of paying our debts.
Negative duties are those which require the omission of an act, such as the duty not to kill
another person and that of not carrying deadly weapon.
Exemption from Duty
Duties are to be complied with unless one is prevented by a strong and just reason. A
student has to attend classes unless sickness prevents him from doing so. A driver is to observe
the speed limit unless he is rushing a dying person to a hospital. While the person concerned has
to decide for himself when he may claim exemption, such claim should never be arbitrary or
whimsical. Such decisions must be based on these principles (Panizo: 121-122)
1. Negative duties arising from negative natural law admit no exemption.
Negative duties are those that require the omission of an evil act. When an act is
intrinsically evil, nobody may claim exemption so as to be allowed it. No excuse could
be given to such act as murder, stealing, rape, kidnapping, or adultery.
2. Affirmative duties arising from affirmative precepts of natural law admit exemptions
when the act is rendered impossible under certain conditions or would involve
excessive hardship on the person.
Affirmative duties do not bind when circumstances make it impossible to comply with
it. He who is himself destitute is not bound to feed the hungry. A family may not
provide expensive medical care to a relative if it becomes excessively difficult to
borrow money and repay it without suffering deprivation.
3. Ordinary hardships which come along with the performance of a duty do not exempt
one from complying with such duty.
Human nature is made up of man's biological, psychological, and rational powers. The
biological powers are nutrition, locomotion, growth, and reproduction. The psychological
powers include those
of the senses, such as smelling, tasting, seeing, hearing, perceiving, imagining and
remembering; and those acts of emotions, such as love, hatred, desire, disgust, joy, sorrow, fear,
despair, and courage. The rational powers are those of the intellect and the will - comprehension
and volition, respectively.
Natural Law: All human powers or faculties are operational tendencies towards what is
good to man as a rational animal. In this sense, human nature is the natural law because, like the
laws of society, it directs man in all his activities. Natural law differs from the so-called laws of
nature which are the forces governing the material universe, including man. Natural law applies
only to man as a rational animal. When we speak of an act as "contrary to natural law", we mean
the act to be against human nature or humanity
A Moral Being
Three characteristics reveal man's moral nature:
1. Man by natural insight is able to distinguish between good and evil, right and wrong,
moral and immoral. All people, including those we regard as primitive, have an understanding
of what is right r wrong, of what is permitted and prohibited behavior.
2. Man feels himself obliged to do what is good and to avoid what is evil. He is moved
by the inner force of his being demanding that what is good “ought“ to be done, and what is evil
“ought to be avoided.
3. Man feels himself accountable for his actions so that his good deeds merit reward,
while his evil deeds deserve punishment. Man feels content with himself for doing a good deed,
or he feels remorseful for doing an evil deed. All cultures have a system of reward and
punishment based on the concept of justice.
These characteristics show man's innate perception of truth, duty, and law. Contrary to
this view is the theory suggesting that human nature as a blank sheet (tabula raza) on which
culture writes its text, so that man is merely the product of social interaction and his behavior is
nothing more than "a reflex of social conditioning" (Erich Fromm, Beyond the Chains of
Illusion, 29).
Man as Person
Man is born as an individual, or person. Person is human nature actualized and
manifested in the history of place and time.
 Etymologically, the word "person” comes from the Greek prosophon” which is the
mask worn by stage actors. The Latin "personare” alludes to the mask which is constructed so as
to project forcefully the voice of the actor. Underneath the person is human nature which is the
principle of human activity.
Person is defined as "an individual, existing separately and independently from others, capable
of knowing and loving in an intellectual way, and of deciding for himself the purpose or end of
his actions" (Brennan: 280) We also refer to person as "self" or "ego”.
Personality and character
The person is an individual human being. Personality is the sum of those physical
attributes and tendencies which define a person's distinctive behavior. Personality is the sum of
a person's physical constitution, talents, abilities, and habits which define characteristic
behavior. In layman's terms, personality consists of the physical qualities and mannerisms of an
aesthetically refined person.
As persons, all men are equal regardless of race. However, one person may have more
personality than another. Brennan observes:
"The person does not grow in stature, but personality develops and enlarges itself
according to the pattern of his actions, the mature use of his powers, and the scheme of his
habits. There is no such thing as cultivating a person, but we speak of cultivation of personality.
Hence, personality is the result of one's achievement”. (Ibid: 291).
Character is often taken as synonymous with personality. This is correct if personality is
taken as the sum-total of the psychological systems in an individual which enable him to adjust
to his environment. Character, however, refers the person's choice of values and his intelligent
exercise of his freedom. (Vernon Jones, Meaning of Character, Collier"'s Encyclopedia, V-708)
While personality is an aspect of the body, character is an aspect of the human soul. We
describe personality as pleasant or unpleasant, but we speak of character as good or bad in the
moral sense. “Personality”, says Brennan, “the principle of rational action, character is the
principle of moral action” (Ibid: 292)
Moral Character
Character is the will of the person directing him towards a recognized ideal. This is how
human actions are significant because they actualize man's potential to be what he truly is as a
rational being. When a person falls short of the expectation, he is said to have bad character. On
the other hand, a person who lives up to the ideals of his humanity is said to have good
character, or moral integrity.
The Philippines is a signatory to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights of the United Nations General Assembly. The Covenant calls on all signatory
States to recognize and guarantee the basic social, economic and cultural rights of all people.
Among others, the Covenant guarantees the right to work, including the right to just and
favorable conditions of work, to fair wages, and the right to freely form and join trade unions. It
guarantees the right to social security, the right to an adequate standard of living, the right to be
free from hunger and the right to enjoy the highest attainable standard of physical and mental
health. It guarantees the right to education, the right to take part in cultural life and the right to
enjoy the benefits of scientific progress.
Above all, the Covenant guarantees, as a collective right of a people, the right to self-
determination, which is the right to freely determine their political status and freely pursue their
economic, social and cultural development.
The Meaning of Duty
Duty, taken objectively, is anything we are bound to do or omit. Taken subjectively, it
is a moral obligation incumbent upon a person to do, omit, or avoid something.
Duty is a moral obligation because it depends upon freewill of the subject person. And
because duty is defined by law, any willful neglect of a duty makes a person accountable for
such omission.
Correlation of Right and Duty
Right and duty are correlative in a given person. One who has a right to something has
the duty to act consistent with that right. For instance, the right to life of a person imposes upon
himself the duty to work for sustaining such life. Pope John XXIII says “the right of every
person to life is correlative with the duty of living it becomingly, and his right to investigate the
truth freely, with the duty of seeking it and possessing it ever more completely and profoundly”
Encyclical Pacem in Terris, Peace on Earth: p. 9).
A prevailing error is insisting that other people respect our rights, while we ourselves do
very little about our duty to act consistently with such rights. For example, we claim the right to
freedom of expression or speech without fulfilling the prior duty of investigating the facts.
Reciprocity of Rights and Duties
In interpersonal relationships, rights and duties are reciprocal. The right of one person implies in
another the duty to respect that right. Because Pedro has the right to live, other persons or
agencies are duty bound not to harm him but to help him fulfill such right.
 proceed notwithstanding the absence of the accused provided that he has been duly
notified and his failure to appear is unjustifiable.
Sec.15. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended except in
cases of invasion or rebellion when public safety requires it.
Sec.16. All persons shall have the right to a speedy disposition of their case before all
judicial, quasi-judicial, or administrative bodies.
Sec.17. No person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.
Sec.18. (1) No persona shall be detained solely by reason of his political beliefs and
aspirations. (2) No involuntary servitude in any form shall exist except as a punishment for a
crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted.
Sec.19. (1) Excessive fines shall not be imposed, nor cruel, degrading or inhuman
punishment inflicted. Neither shall death penalty be imposed, unless, for compelling reasons
involving heinous crimes, the Congress hereafter provides for it. Any death penalty already
imposed shall be reduced to reclusion perpetua. (2) The employment of physical, psychological,
or degrading punishment against any prisoner or detainee or the use of substandard or
inadequate penal facilities under subhuman conditions shall be dealt with by law.
Sec.20. No person shall be imprisoned for debt or non-payment of a poll tax.
Sec.21. No person shall be twice put in jeopardy of punishment for the same offense. If
an act is published by a law and an ordinance, conviction or acquittal under either constitute a
bar to another prosecution for the same act.
Sec.22 No ex post facto law or bill of attainder shall be enacted.
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
The sum of human rights is not limited to the civil and political rights of individuals.
Today, human rights include economic, social and cultural rights.
Renato Constantino declares: "Economic, social and cultural rights are as important as
political and civil rights. For freedom from detention, torture and other forms of political
repression will be meaningless when people are hostage to hunger, disease, ignorance and
unemployment. In the same way, freedom from social and economic inequities would be in vain
without the right to participate in determination of the direction of society (Civil Liberties,
Human: The Larger Focus: 22-23).
Character is not the product of a moment's inspiration, but a disciplined tendency to
choose the right thing in any given circumstance. It is adherence to what is true, beautiful, and
good in us. History counts men of great character who acted against and above the prevailing
beliefs and practices of their day, like Jesus Christ, Sakya-Muni or Buddha, Confucius, Gandhi,
Martin Luther King, Jose Rizal, Ninoy Aquino, Pope John Paul II, and many more.
Social Dimension of the Person
Society is but an extension of the person. Ethics is particularly relevant because of
man's social nature. The golden rule, for that matter, is concerned about the other person.
Among modern thinkers, George Hegel teaches that man is fully developed in his
participation in family life, civic community, and in the State. Likewise, Thomas Hill Green
(1836-1882) expresses the conviction that a person's morality must identify itself with public
welfare.
Paul Tillich puts it more clearly and emphatically when he says natural law is the
demand for us, "to be a person in the community of other persons.
Reading:
Be Proud You Are Human
Roger William Riis
I admire the human race. Everybody is running us down, these days, for the mess they
say we have made here and there and everywhere. That's short-range stuff. Over the marching
and abundant centuries, we haven't made any mess. We have done and are doing a better job
than anyone has any right to expect.
From the beginning, we found ourselves alone in a vast universe, and not only alone but
the only living thing on this planet which could realize its loneliness. We realized it, gave it a
good close look, and then turned our attention to making something practical and useful out of
an unprecedented situation.
First of all, we found a Light, a God, and we got a sense of direction, a goal to work
toward. We proceeded to set up standard for living together. We made the revolutionary
discovery and gentleness and kindliness were more practical than brute strength. No other
species has ever found that out and used it as a model and practical code of conduct. We
observe our ideal standards in at remarkable degree. We are honest and trustworthy with another
so that it is the exception, it is news, when we commit a theft. We are decent 99 percent of the
time, when we could easily be vile.
 With silence and mystery behind us and ahead of us, we make up gay little songs and
whistle them, and our feet keep jig time to them. We look life and fate in the eye, and smile. I
like that, and I admire the people who do it. Alone among all living things, we have discovered
beauty, and we cherish it, and create it for eye and ear. Alone among living things, we have the
power to look at our environment and criticize it and improve it.
Finding it necessary to live together by the millions, we created for ourselves governing
systems covering vast geographical spaces. We have conceived the ideal of justice and plan it
for all men. Finding that we have work to stay alive, we work with ability beyond imagining.
Out of the earth we take food, and improve that food year by year; we take heat and light. We
enjoy the myriad products of unparalleled ingenuity. Every morning the necessity for a day's
work faces us. And we go and do a day's work.
If persistence, a daring and ingenuity impossible to surpass, we find ways to move
easily under water and through the air. Now specu- latively eye our neighboring planets. How
shall I not admire such a creature?
Whenever he comes to an impassable obstacle, an apparently final barrier, he goes to
work at it, and in due time, surpasses it. If he has limits, I do not see where they are. I do not
think he has limits. I think he is a child of the universe who inherits eternity. I think he is
wonderful, I am his devoted partisan, and I am proud indeed to be one of him (How to Live with
Life, Reader's Digest, 1965, pp 664-565).
EXERCISE NO. 3 Date:
Name: Section:
A. Answer briefly the following:
1. In what sense is human nature a natural law?
2. What is the significance of human action with regards to character?
3. What is the demand of natural law according to Paul Tillich?
4. Differentiate between personality and character.
5. From the reading, list five achievements why the author says we should be proud as
human beings.
B. Write a reflection paper after reading the “Be Proud You are Human” by Roger William Riis.
Refer to the attached rubric.
Sec. 6: The liberty of abode and of changing the same within the limits prescribed by
law shall not be impaired except upon lawful order of the court. Neither shall the right to travel
be impaired except in the interest of national security, public safety, or public health, as may be
provided by law.
Sec. 7: The right of the people to information on matters of public concern shall be
recognized. Access to official records, and to documents and papers pertaining to official acts,
transactions, or decision, as well as to government research data used as basis for policy
development, shall be afforded the citizen, subject to such limitations as may be provided by
law.
Sec. 8: The right of the people, including those employed in public and private sectors,
to form unions, associations, or societies for purposes not contrary to law shall not be abridged.
Sec. 9: Private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation.
Sec.10: No law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be passed.
Sec. 11: Free access to the courts and quasi-judicial bodies and adequate legal
assistance shall not be denied to any person: by reason of poverty.
Sec.12:(1) Any person under investigation for the commission of an offense shall have
the right to be informed of his right to remain silent and to have competent and independent
counsel preferably of his own choice. If the person cannot afford the services of counsel, he
must be provided with one. These rights cannot be waived except in writing and in the presence
of counsel. (2) No torture, force, violence, threat, intimidation, or any other means which vitiate
the free will shall be used against him. Secret detention places, solitary, incommunicado, or
other similar forms of detention are prohibited. (3) Any confession or admission obtained in
violation of this or Section 17 hereof shall be inadmissible evidence against him. (4) The law
shall provide for penal and civil sanctions for violations of this section as well as compensation
to and rehabilitation of victims of torture or similar practices, and their families.
Sec.13. All persons, except those charged with offenses punishable by reclusion
perpetua when evidence of guilt is strong, shall, before conviction, be bailable by sufficient
sureties, or be released on recognizance as may be provided by law. The right to bail shall not
be impaired even when the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus is suspended. Excessive bail
shall not be required.
Sec.14. (1) No person shall be held to answer for a criminal offense without due process
of law. (2) In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall be presumed innocent until the
contrary is proved, and shall enjoy the right to be heard by himself and counsel, to be informed
of the nature and cause of the accusation against him, to have a speedy, impartial, and public
trial, to meet the witnesses face to face, and to have compulsory process to secure the attendance
of witnesses and the production of evidence in his behalf. However, after arraignment, trial may
 the right to vote, the right to be informed of public issues, and the right to Chapter 3: The Human Act
public services.
Overview
Civil and political rights comprise what we refer to as human rights listed in the Bill
of Rights. Actions, since they are products of our thoughts and desires, reveal our moral character.
What we are and what becomes of us as persons depends on our choices and actuations.
“The Bill of Rights":
Learning Outcomes:
The Bill of Rights is a list of rights pertaining to persons. These rights are recognized,
guaranteed, and protected against invasion, reduction, or destruction. At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

"The Bill of Rights”, writes Leonardo A. Quisumbing, " is premised on the belief in the 1. Define human acts
dignity of man and the intrinsic worth of human life. The powerful idea of human dignity, 2. Identify the characteristics of human acts
taught by great ethical teachers from Confucius to Christ and Kant, received a tremendous boost 3. Compare intrinsic and extrinsic evil
from the democratic ideal of equality" (Constitutional Rights and Obligations of the People: 70- 4. Discuss the importance of human acts
71). 5. Reflect of the reading “Moral Sensibility”

The 1987 Constitution of the Philippines provides for the Bill of Rights as follows:
Section 1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process
of law, nor shall any person be denied the equal protection of the laws.
Sec. 2. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects
against unreasonable searches and seizures of whatever nature and for any purpose shall be
inviolable, and no search warrant of warrant of arrest shall issue except upon probable cause to
be determine personally by the judge after examination under oath or affirmation of the
complainant and the witnesses he may produce, and particularly describing the place to be
search and the persons or things to be seized.
Sec. 3 (1) The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable except
upon lawful order of the court, or when public safety or order requires otherwise as prescribed
by law.
(2) Any evidence obtained in violation of this or the preceding section shall be
inadmissible for any purpose in any proceeding.
Sec. 4: No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, of expression, or of the
press, or the right of the people peacefully to assemble and petition the government for redress
of grievances.
Sec. 5: No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without
discrimination or preference, shall be forever be allowed. No religious test shall be required for
the exercise of civil or political rights.
Attributes of Human Act
Human acts are those performed by a person who is acting knowingly, freely, and
willfully. These actions are deliberate, intentional, or voluntary. They are differentiated from
acts of man which are instinctive and are not under the control of the freewill.
An act is considered a human act, when it is done knowingly, freely, and willfully.
1. An act is done knowingly when the doer is conscious and aware of the reason and the
consequences of his actions. Every normal person of age is presumed to act knowingly.
However, children below the age of reason, the senile and the insane - are considered incapable
of moral judgment.
2. An act is done freely when the doer acts by his own initiative and choice without
being forced to do so by another person or situation. An action done under duress and against
one's freewill is not a voluntary action. A person is not acting freely when he gives up his
money to a robber who threatens him with a knife.
3. An act is done willfully when the doer consents to the act, accepting it as his own, and
assumes accountability for its consequences. An act which lacks of any of the abovementioned
attributes is either imperfectly voluntary or involuntary.
Kinds of Human acts
Human acts are either elicited or commanded acts.
A. Elicited acts are those performed by the Will but are not bodily externalized such as
the following:
 1. Wish is the tendency of the Will towards an object, without considering whether it
is attainable or not. The object of wishing includes the impossible, or that which is
remotely possible, such as winning the lotto.
2. Intention is the tendency of the Will towards an object which is attainable, without
necessarily committing oneself to get it. A student, for instance, may intend to study
without applying himself to the task.
3. Consent is the acceptance of the Will to carry out the intention. A student shows
consent to the act of studying when he accepts the reasons and accountability for
Characteristic of Rights
undertaking the act.
4. Election is the selection of the Will of those means necessary to carry out the
intention. The student, for instance, may elect to stay in the library to study his
lesson, or seek a friend to help him.
5. Use is the command of the Will to make use of the means elected to carry out the
intention, such as when the student makes up his mind to stay in the library to
study.
6. Fruition is the enjoyment of the Will due to the attainment of the intention. The
student may feel satisfied about the prospect of learning the lesson and being
prepared for the class.
B. Commanded acts are the mental and bodily actions performed under the command
of the Will. These are either internal or external actions.
Internal actions are those performed mentally, such as reasoning, recalling, imagining,
and reflecting. External actions are those performed bodily, such as walking, dancing, talking,
and writing. All external actions derive themselves from the internal acts, since every deliberate
act is first thought of and decided mentally. Thus, philosophers speak of human acts as "being
first in intention, but last in execution”. (Paul Glenn, Ethics: A Class Manual in Moral
Philosophy, p.7-8).
Moral Distinctions
On the basis of their conformity or non-conformity with the norm of morality, human
Civil and Political Rights
acts are either moral, immoral, or amoral.
1. Moral actions are those in conformity with the norm of morality. They are good and
permissible actions, such as working, studying, paying debts, telling the truth,
loving someone, etcetera.
2. Immoral actions are those which are not in conformity with the norm of morality.
They are evil and prohibited actions, such as cursing, cheating, stealing, lying,
etcetera.
3. Amoral actions are those which stand neutral or indifferent to the norm of morality.
These acts are neither good nor evil, but they may become evil because of
4. Juridical and Non-juridical rights. Juridical rights are those based on the law. These
rights are to be respected, permitted, fulfilled as a matter of justice. Non-juridical rights
are those based on virtue rather than strict justice. The right of a worker to a wage is
juridical, but his right to a clothing allowance is non-juridical.
5. Right of jurisdiction is the power of a lawful authority to govern and make laws for his
constituents or dependents. A mayor has right of jurisdiction over the municipality and
its residents. A parent has the same right over his children.
1. Coaction is the power inherent in rights to prevent their being violated and to exact
redress for their unjust violation. Under normal circumstances, coaction is exercised by
the courts of justice. In extraordinary situation, however, coaction may be enforced by
the subject person himself whose right is endangered, such as in the case of self-defense
against an unjust aggressor.
2. Limitation is the natural limits or boundary beyond which a right may not be insisted
without violating the right of another. One may not turn loud his radio when it is time
for everyone to be sleeping in the dormitory.
3. Collision is the conflict of two rights so related that it is not possible to exercise one
without violating the other. There is a collision of rights between the right of
demonstrators to freedom of expression and the right of the pedestrians and car drivers
to use the streets in pursuit of their legitimate activities. In theory, the conflict of rights
is merely apparent since rights are founded on laws which cannot be contradictory. In
practice, conflict of rights are resolved thru negotiation and compromise.
In the resolution of conflict, the right which should prevail is that which (1)
belongs to the more higher order, or (2) is concerned with a graver matter, or (3)
founded upon a stronger title or claim. For example, the right of the citizens to peace
and order takes precedence of over the right of demonstrators to rally and obstruct
traffic, the right of a patient to medical care takes precedence over a doctor's right to a
fee, and the right of a parent to care for a child takes precedence over that of a guardian.
In a democratic society, the individual person is assured of his civil and political rights.
1) Civil rights are those enjoyed by persons as private individuals in pursuit of
their personal activities and in their transactions with others. These include
among others the right to life, the right to privacy, the right to own a property,
the right to education, and the right to worship. Civil rights are enjoyed by
citizens and non-citizens.
2) Political rights are those enjoyed by persons as citizens in their participation in
government affairs. These include among others the right to run for public
office,
 Chapter 10: Rights and Duties
Overview
Man is born with rights and duties. There is too much talk about rights. We even have a
Commission on Human Rights. Some suspect that duties are not given the same emphasis. We
insist on our rights but often ignore our duties. Duties however are more fundamental than
rights. The duty to do good and avoid evil takes precedence over all rights.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Define right
2. Define du
3. Identify the characteristics of right
4. Discuss the kinds of duty
5. Reflect on the reading “Equality before the law”
Notion of Right
Right, objectively, is anything which is owed or due. Taken subjectively as possessed
by a person, right is the moral power, bound to be respected by others, of doing, possessing, or
requiring something (Glenn:136).
Right is founded upon a law, either the natural law or the human positive law. Rights
are vested on the individual person or on a group of individuals constituted by law as a juridical
person, such as business corporations, institutions, and associations.
Kinds of Right
1. Natural Rights are those based on the natural law. The right to life, to education, to
work - are natural rights,
2. Human Rights are those based on human positive laws, either those enacted by the State
or by Religion. Civil rights are those promulgated by the State, such as the right to form
associations, the right to run for public office, and the right to due process.
Ecclesiastical or religious rights are those promulgated by a church or sect, such as the
right to attend religious services, the right to be instructed in the faith, and the right to
the services and rites.
3. Alienable and Inalienable Rights. Alienable rights are those which could be
surrendered, renounced, or removed -such as the right to travel and the right to operate a
business. Inalienable rights are those which cannot be surrendered, renounced, or
removed – such as the right to life, the right to marry and the right to education.
circumstances. Playing basketball becomes morally wrong when it causes a student
to miss his class. Drinking wine is amoral, but excessive drinking is wrong.
The adjectives ethical and unethical are respectively synonymous with right and wrong,
proper and improper. They best describe actions in relation to professional standards rather than
in relation to moral laws. A doctor who reveals information about his patient is unethical but not
necessarily immoral.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Evil
Immoral acts are either intrinsically or extrinsically evil. An act is intrinsically evil
when its wrongfulness is part of the nature of such act. The act of stealing, because it consists in
depriving someone of his property against his will, is intrinsically evil.
An act is extrinsically evil when its wrongfulness comes from an outside factor. The act
of alms-giving, though good in itself, is extrinsically evil when it is done for purposes of
building one's public image. This indicates that actions which are themselves good or neutral
may become evil due to external factors, whether this be the motive of the person or the
circumstances of the act.
Voluntariness
Voluntariness, or volition, comes from the Latin "voluntas", which means the Will. An
act is voluntary because it is done under the control of the will. Voluntariness is either perfect or
imperfect, either
simple or conditional.
1. Perfect voluntariness is possessed by a person who is acting with full knowledge and
complete freedom. We act with perfect voluntariness when, for instance, we are eating
our favorite ice-cream, or when we are telling a story to a friend.
2. Imperfect voluntariness is possessed by a person who acts without full understanding
what he is doing, or without complete freedom. We act with imperfect voluntariness
when we perform an act which we dislike.
3. Simple voluntariness is the disposition of a person performing any activity regardless of
his liking or not liking it. Simple voluntariness is either positive or negative. It is
positive when the act requires the performance of an activity, such as taking the train,
going for a walking, or caring for a sick person. It is negative when it requires the
omission of an activity, such as refraining from talking, or not taking prohibited drugs
(Paul Glenn: 13-18).
4. Conditional voluntariness is disposition of a person who is forced by circumstances to
perform an act which he would not do under normal conditions. A person who gives up
his money to the robber is acting with conditional voluntariness.
Directly and Indirectly Voluntary
The result of an act which is primarily intended is said to be directly voluntary. The
result of an act which follows or goes along with the primarily intended act is indirectly
voluntary. A student watches a movie is to entertain himself (directly voluntary), but, in so
doing, he misses school (indirectly voluntary). Or a couple enjoys walking in the park (directly
voluntary) which causes them to be mugged (indirectly voluntary).
A person is accountable for actions directly intended. Is he also accountable for those
indirectly willed acts or consequences? A person is accountable for indirectly voluntary acts
when:
1. The doer is able to foresee the evil result or consequence though in a general way;
2. The doer is free to refrain from doing that action which would result in the foreseen
evil;
3. The doer has the moral obligation not to do that which would result in something
evil. (Paul Glenn: 18-19).
Acts with Double Effect: Alfredo Panizo cites these principles (Ibid: 38-39):
1. A person is held morally responsible for any evil effect which flows from the action
directly willed and as a natural consequence of such action, though such evil effect
is not directly willed nor intended.
2. A human act with double effect, one good and another evil, is morally permissible
under four conditions. A violation of any of these conditions makes an act
unjustifiable. These conditions are:
1) The action which produces double effects must be good in itself, or at least
morally indifferent.
2) The good effect must not come from the evil effect. It is never justified to do
evil in order to attain something good.
3) The purpose of the doer is the attainment of the good effect, with the evil
effect being tolerated as an incidental result.
4) The good effect must outweigh in importance the evil result.
These principles apply to "therapeutic abortion”, a medical process intended directly to
saving the life of the mother with the sad result of aborting the fetus.
The Significance of Human Acts
Because human acts come from the intellect and the will, they express the thoughts and
desires of a person, revealing his moral character. Hence, people are judged by their actions like
trees by their fruits. We condemn a person for his evil deed or praise him for doing what is
good.
When Christ says that the poor will also be around, he does not mean that poverty is to
be accepted as a normal economic situation in society. Rather, he means that poverty is a
recurring moral evil which must be confronted and solved.
Christ sets the example. He rests the crowd of people following him, settles them down
on the grass, and feds them. He multiplies several loaves of bread and fish to feed a multitude.
His aim is not to awe the crowd with a miracle, but to teach the simple truth that – a man does
not learn anything on an empty stomach. It is not feasible that man listens to the stirring of the
soul while his body writhes in hunger.
Christ -- in admonishing man to seek first the kingdom of God so that all other things
(material possessions) are received by him besides - means that man should use his God-given
talents for the satisfaction of his needs. Indeed, while the sparrows and the lilies are cared by
God, giving them for pantry the open fields and valleys, man has to sweat out for his
sustenance. "From the sweat of thy brow thou shall eat thy bread”, says God in the Book of
Genesis.
Therefore, work is a natural right of man. And when social conditions prevent man to
work, or cause him to lose his work, it becomes the moral responsibility of the leaders of
government to restore him that right. The eradication of poverty is a moral duty of the State.
EXERCISE NO. 16 Date:
Name: Section:
Answer briefly the following:
1. What is the strength of the Filipino character?
2. Identify a moral weakness in the Filipino character.
3. What is rationalization and how can you correct it?
4. What is the basis of social justice?
EXERCISE NO. 17 Date:
Name: Section:
A. Write an essay about one of these suggested topics:
1. How well do Filipinos prioritize their values? For example, do Filipinos spend more time
and money on gimmicks, cosmetics, or text messaging?
2. Is the migration of Filipino workers bad or good for the family?
3. The Philippines is the world's capital in text messaging. Is this good or bad to the image
of the Filipino?
B. Write a reflection paper after reading the “From the Sweat of the Brow”. Refer to the
attached rubric.
people were not that poor and hungry to be enticed by a raffle for cash prizes. The incident
shows how the government lacks the program to improve the plight of the poor.
On the other hand, an inordinate desire to get rich quickly and to accumulate too much
are dangers to the soul. When materialistic goals become the primary and sole reason for
working, work becomes an excuse for greed and contention.
4) Social Justice
Social Justice is more than just the act of charity. It is founded on the truth which holds
all earthly goods as belonging to all men and to be shared equally by them, not in the
mathematical sense of equality but in the prudential sense, so that everyone has access to a
decent life.
This is the basis of land reform program of the Philippines which, however, remains
ineffective, causing endless conflict between landowners and tenants. On personal level, Social
Justice urges one to help the poor in every way possible, not because it is the "pious" thing to
do, but because it is the duty of every capable individual to do so. Social justice demands that
we share our good fortune with the less fortunate.
Conclusion
The Filipino has his strength and weaknesses. But, like all other people in the world, he
possesses a beautiful soul. He is religious, helpful, diligent, and honest. Anywhere in the world
today, the Filipino is admired for his honesty, competence, and dedication to work - As doctors,
nurses, teachers, engineers, architects, artists, clerks, or household helpers. Because of his
talents and values the Filipino belongs indeed in the fellowship of mankind.
Reading:
From the Sweat of the Brow
In the natural order of the created world, eating is a normal function for the preservation
of life. Therefore, hunger is to be satisfied. Starvation is violence against human nature. And
when hunger is the result of poverty, it must be asked why there is poverty in the first place.
Why is the majority of Filipinos poor?
When poverty is the result of personal indolence, it partakes of the sins of omission. But
when poverty is the result of the ineptness of government, or the lack of political will to
distribute the wealth equitably and prudentially through sound economic policies -- it partakes
of the sins of injustice.
 There is no justification why any child would have to sleep away hunger because there Answer briefly: 5 points each. Refer to the attach rubric.
is nothing to him feed. It is senseless that anyone should die in a stampede for a raffle ticket that
1. What are the attributes of a human act?
promised the slimmest chance to bring home food.
2. What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic evil.
We often hear people say that they "condemn the sin but not the person” or suspect. The 3. Give an example of conditionally voluntary act.
statement is probably acceptable if it means we should not rush to judge the guilt of a suspect. 4. Give an example of perfectly voluntary act.
But the statement is wrong if it means we should not blame people for their evil deeds, no 5. Give an example of an imperfectly voluntary act.
matter how unfortunate are these acts. This is to condone evil. Parents, for example, are inclined
to be soft towards their children. Instead of being horrified, they are amused that their kids are
EXERCISE NO. 05 Date:
so smart.
Name: Section:
Reading:
A. Answer briefly: 5 points each. Refer to the attach rubric.
Moral Sensibility
1. Should a drunken man be made accountable if he were to accidentally burn a house?
Moral sensibility is our response towards what is right or wrong. Some people have Elaborate on your answer.
strong aversion towards wrongdoings, while some are dismissive of them. Some are intolerant 2. What moral principle is involved when a car driver who is involved in an accident is
and stern, while others are tolerant and accommodating. charged with reckless imprudence causing damage to property?
3. From the Reading, why is it important to cultivate moral sensibility?
Persons who are liberal and open-minded are inclined to accept evil as a normal
occurrence, giving in to such thoughts as “ganyan kasi tao lamang", "kasi bata pa", "kasi walang B. Write a reflection paper after reading the “Moral Sensibility”. Refer to attached rubric
aral", or "kasi masama ang gising".
People who are intolerant and strict are inclined to punish people "para matuto”, “para
di na umulit”, or “para magbago". Moral sensibility may be compared to the sensitivity to pain. Chapter 4: Moral Accountability
Some endure pain longer than others can. Sensitivity to pain is a good thing because it warns us
Overview
about a danger. A moderate moral sensibility may be good to us too. It is moral sensitivity
which objects to an indecent behavior or an obscene movie. It is moral sensibility which protests Human acts, because they are voluntary, are accountable acts. Actions are imputed on
against an act of injustice or cruelty. It is moral sensibility which prevents us from making a the doer as its principal cause and, therefore, deserving of either reward or punishment.
fool of ourselves.
Learning Outcomes:
We use to call moral sensibility as “delicadeza”. When a person is not scandalized by At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
what is wrong, when he does not recoil from what is outrageous, when he is not ashamed of his
vices - he is devoid of moral sensibility, he is “manhig”. 1. Identify the subject of human act
2. Explain the modifiers of human act
A person who lacks moral sensibility is inclined to act accordingly to his self-interest. 3. Reflect on the reading “The Virtue of Temperance”
He would readily steal to enrich himself, or even commit murder to arrogate power. Adolf
Hitler is one such dangerous and wicked person. The Subject of Human Acts
The subject of a human act is any person who is capable of acting intelligently and
freely. Like the ship captain who assumes full responsibility for the ship and its cargo, a person
EXERCISE NO. 04 Date: is accountable for his decisions and actuations. A person is either guilty or innocent, deserving
Name: Section: or undeserving of punishment.
 Business organizations, institutions, associations, or unions which are constituted by work any place in the world, and where he goes, he is recognized for his competence, diligence,
law as juridical person are also subject of human acts. Like the individual person, these and honesty.
organizations can sue and be sued for their actions.
Indeed, the Filipino must stand against poverty. The Ultra stampede that happened
Sanctions and Penalties February 2006, causing death to some 77 Filipinos, would not have happened if many of those
The Filipino needs more than just rhetoric. He needs to show deeper maturity, accepting
his mistakes instead of attributing them to others.
Core Values of the Filipino
Moral maturity is a process of change. It means a new way of thinking, a new
perception of realities. For the Filipino, this growth begins with the fresh view of human
dignity. While the significance of human dignity has always been part of the Filipino tradition,
somehow its true meaning has been lost in the national consciousness of the people.. Today, for
example, people rarely act on the basis of "delicadeza".
Vitaliano Gorospe suggests the education of Filipinos should center on these values,
namely--Truth, Love and Faith; Integrity, Industry, and Social Justice. (Ibid.: 111):
1) Truth, Love and Faith:
One should seek the truth relevant to his circumstances. Applying oneself to research or
seeking the counsel of prudent men leads to proper instruction. On the other hand, listening to
rumors and gossips is always risky.
Love for the good should be the basis of decisions and choices. One should be ready to
choose not on the basis of what is pleasant or unpleasant, convenient or inconvenient, but solely
on the basis of what is objectively good under the circumstances.
Religious faith is needed too. Reason and good intention are not enough. There are
many riddles in life which only faith can answer.
2) Integrity
The word stands for completeness. It connotes perfection, adhering to what is truth and
committing oneself to what is good. It means condemning deceit, cheating, stealing, fraud,
hypocrisy and dishonesty in all its forms, such as “lagay, padulas, areglo, palusot, kaplastikan,
garapalan, and palakasan. It means internalizing values. It means loving oneself.
3) Industry
Filipinos believe in honest work and have qualms about feeding their families through
ill-gotten money. The desire to improve his life and that of the family drives the Filipino to
 Group-thinking is the mentality of the herd. What the group prefers, or what the
dominant figure in a group wishes, becomes the basis of individual choice. Thus, instead of
relying on his personal conviction, a person becomes "sunod-sunoran' "uto-uto ", a blind man
following the lead of another blind.
The other false norm is fear or shame of authority. This is the "don't-be-caught" attitude.
According to this norm, it is alright to do wrong provided one is not caught. Thus, it is alright
for a student to cheat during an exam, provided he is not caught by the teacher. This is the
mentality of palusot, pagkukunwari, or kaplastican.
Re-orientation of Attitudes
The double-standard mentality may be corrected by removing its causes: ignorance,
complacency, and rationalization.
1) The Filipino does not often bother with the complexity of a situation, but plunges
headlong into action propelled by the impulse of "bahala na". The Filipino, therefore,
must not be gullible, and learn how good fortune is the result of thinking and planning.
Instead of putting his hope on luck or "suerte", he must trust himself or seek guidance
from reliable persons, not from charlatans, visionaries, and street-wise preachers. He
must distinguish between the fantasies of the movie and the reality of flesh and blood.
2) The Filipino must free himself from the belief that his life is a matter of destiny, and
everything that happens is “tinalaga ng Diyos”. "Ganyan talaga ang buhay" expresses
resignation to one's misfortunes. But instead of resigning to his fate, one must strive
harder to improve his life.
3) The Filipino must revolutionize his way of thinking. Instead of rationalizing, inventing
excuses for his mistakes, one must accept and correct them. He must assume
responsibility over his actions, and not blame others. Rationalization is making
“palusot” or lame excuses.
Characteristics of a Responsible person
1. A responsible person differentiates between what is essential from what is accidental.
The Filipino must cultivate his moral sensibility so he is able to discern what is good or
bad in a situation. He must be able to see through the actuations of do-gooders so that
he is not deceived by false promises or pretenses.
2. A responsible person internalizes his values. Values must be ingested and digested, so
to speak, so that they become part of your character. An act of kindness, for example,
must come from the heart. And when we say we love God, it is loving God - with all
our mind and with all our soul.
3. A responsible person accepts the consequences of his actions. When the Filipino wishes
to guarantee the truth of anything, he swears by his life, declaring “Mamatay man ako".
The penal laws of the country provide for a system of punishment for wrongdoings,
ranging from fines to imprisonment. The capital punishment or death penalty is reserved for
"heinous crimes".
Unless also prohibited by the laws of the land, no punishments are imposed on immoral
acts. However, immoral acts carry with them the burden of guilt, remorse and shame. The
Scriptures speaks of death as the punishment for sins. It means both physical and spiritual death.
The medical science traces many illnesses to immoralities and spiritual disorientation.
Evil acts and habits cause suffering and unhappiness, not only to the victims, but to the
perpetrator and his relatives. The shamefulness of such actions is shared by all the members of
the family of the guilty. And there is the risk of being ostracized, losing a job, or being
abandoned by loved ones.
The Modifiers of Human Act
A voluntary act is under the control of the intellect and will of person. There are,
however, factors that may influence the intellect and will so that actions are not perfectly
voluntary. These factors are called modifiers of human. Because they interfere with the
application of the intellect and will, they either reduce or increase accountability. The moral
axiom is:
The greater the knowledge and the freedom, the greater the voluntariness and
therefore, the accountability (Panizo: 38)
The following are the modifiers of the human act: (1) Ignorance, (2) Passions, (3) Fear,
(4) Violence, and (5) Habit.
1. Ignorance
Ignorance is the absence of knowledge which a person ought to possess. A lawyer is
expected to know the law; the doctor, the cure of illnesses, and the manager, his business
operations. In the realm of morals, everyone normal person who has attained the age of reason,
approximately seven (7) years old, is expected to know the general norms of proper conduct and
behavior.
Ignorance is either vincible or invincible. Vincible ignorance is one which can easily be
corrected through ordinary diligence. Not knowing the time or the name of a seatmate is
vincible ignorance. Invincible ignorance is one which is not easily remedied, because the person
is either not aware of his state of ignorance, or, being aware of it, does not have the means to
rectify such ignorance. The waiter who serves contaminated food without being aware of the
fact has invincible ignorance. The police may have invincible ignorance about the perpetrator of
a crime.
 A vincible ignorance which is intentionally kept in an effort to escape responsibility is
called affected ignorance. An employee acts with affected ignorance when he refuses to heed
the instruction of his supervisor. A moral axiom that states "Ignorance of the law excuses no
one"
means one should not act in the state of ignorance and one who has done wrong may not claim
ignorance as a defense. A driver who does not know the traffic rules deserves a heavy penalty.
Principles:
1) Invincible ignorance renders an act involuntary. A per son is not morally liable
if he not aware of his state of ignorance. Persons in this situation are said to be
"acting in good faith", and their wrongdoings are regarded as "honest
mistakes". Such is the case of a hunter who accidentally shot a farmer whom he
mistook for a boar.
2) Vincible ignorance does not destroy, but lessens the voluntariness and the
corresponding accountability over an act. Once a person becomes aware of his
state of ignorance, he should make an effort to remedy it. To act without being
sure of relevant facts is to act imprudently. A doctor may be guilty of gross
negligence when he prescribes the wrong medicine to a patient.
3) Affected ignorance, though it decreases voluntariness, increases the
accountability of an act. Because affected ignorance interferes with the
intellect, it decreases voluntariness. But because it is maliciously kept, it
increases accountability. A person who prefers to remain ignorant in order to
escape responsibility does not deserve kindness.
2. Passions
Passions, or concupiscence, are psychic responses. They are either tendencies towards
desirable objects, or tendencies away from undesirable objects. The former is considered
positive emotions, such as love, desire, delight, hope and bravery. The latter are negative
emotions, such as hatred, horror, sadness, despair, fear and anger.
In relation to actions, passions are either antecedent or consequent. Antecedent passion
comes as a natural reaction to an object or stimulus without being aroused intentionally. It
precedes any act, thus it is called "antecedent". It is antecedent passion when we feel happy in
the company of a friend. Consequent passion, on the other hand, is the result of an act which
causes it to be aroused. Reading pornography, for instance, arouses sexual desires.
In themselves, passions are not evil. However, because they predispose a person to act, they
need to be subjected to the control of reason.
Principles:
1) Antecedent passions do not always destroy voluntariness, but they diminish
accountability over an act. Antecedent passion weakens will power without
completely blocking it. Thus, the so called "crimes of passion" are voluntary.
the greatest attribute of a human being. A person must be caring, honest, hardworking, and
respectful of others. He must have an impeccable character. Failing the moral strandard makes a
person masamang tao, and is looked down as "hayop", or "walanghiya' a shameless beast.
Ambivalent Values
Filipino Values are described as ambivalent, because they are either advantageous or
disadvantageous to the person. For instance, the value of family closeness promotes love and
mutual care, but at the same time promotes dependence, lack of self-confidence and initiative
among its members
Another example of ambivalence is pakikisama. Coming from the word "sama", or
company, it means fellowship or caring for another person. But oftentimes it becomes a form of
concession, a giving in or yielding to the will of the leader or of the majority. Thus, "magaling
makisama" refers to one who is disposed to do anything, including that which is wrong, for his
gang or barkada. When he pays for the beer of his gang mates. A "tapat na kaibigan" is one who
is ready to lie for you.
Double-Standard Mentality
It is commonly held, for example, that it is alright for a man to be unfaithful to his wife
because that is what masculinity means – a macho. On the other hand, a woman is expected to
be modest, and pure. It is only in 2006 that the Congress of the Philippines ruled that adultery as
a single act of infidelity by either married man or woman so that either is accountable in the
same manner and degree. Earlier the law was tilted against the woman who could be punished
for a single act of extramarital relation, whereas the man may be charged with the same crime
only when he keeps a mistress.
Another example of double-standard is the situation where the rich gets undue
advantage over the poor in the interpretation of the law. Likewise, the Filipino is not
scandalized that the church where he worships was built by the local drug lord. Neither does it
bother the Filipino that there are pimps, prostitutes, and thugs in the neighborhood, because
these characters are just earning a living "naghahanap buhay lamang". Indeed, the Filipino has a
kind and forgiving soul. He condemns sins but condones sinners. He regards human nature as
inherently weak and, therefore, mistakes are expected "sapagkat tao lamang
False Norms of Morality
The double-standard mentality comes from following false norms of morality.
Paradoxically, Filipinos defines what is right or wrong (1) on the basis of group-centeredness or
"group-thinking"; or (2) on the basis of shame and fear of authority figure".
 Chapter 9: Filipino Values "pagkatao" pagpapakatao. The Filipino moral ideal coincides with what other people of any
culture regard as
Overview
Filipino values are our cultural values. They sum up our responses to the meaning of
human life in the context of the cultural setting. They show our strengths and weaknesses as a
people.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Define Cultural Values
2. Identify the characteristics of a responsible person
3. Reflect on the reading “From the Sweat of the Brow”

Filipino Cultural Values

Cultural values are "our distinctive way of becoming human on this particular place and
time”, says Vitaliano Gorospe (Filipino Values Revisited, 104). The concept of "becoming
human” means "pagpapakatao".
Filipino values spring from our peculiar way of viewing life-its origin, its meaning, and
its purpose. Foremost among our values is pananalig sa Maykapal. The Filipino puts his trust
entirely in God's hand. He believes that his destiny, or suwerte, depends on God's wishes.
The Filipino calls to God when things are bad, when there is a calamity or an epidemic,
or when a friend or relative is sick. He praises God for a good harvest, for passing a Board
exam, for the return of a stolen property, for surviving an illness or an accident, and for living a
long life. He attributes his misfortunes to his sinfulness and he vows to endure physical
suffering in atonement. He entrusts to God any unresolved issues or suffered injustice
---"ipapasa-diyos na lamang". And he swears to God to prove his honesty, swearing "sumpa
man sa Diyos".
The Filipino expresses concern for others through pakikipagkapua, pagmamahal sa
familia, and pagmamahal sa bayan. He believes in himself and in his abilities.
Filipino Moral Ideal
The Filipino believes moral integrity is the essentiality of "becoming human". It is
above the desire for material enrichment - “Di baling mahirap, bastat may dangal".
This moral expectation is similar, though with much lesser significance, with such
concepts as "magpaka-lalaki", or "magpaka-babae", implying that man and woman have
different traits and capabilities. Just as a man or a woman must act in accordance with the
demands of their respective gender, a person ought to live up to the demands of his humanity or
 2) Consequent passions do not lessen voluntariness, and may even increase
accountability. This is because consequent passions are the direct result of the
will consenting to them, instead of subordinating them to the control of reason.
3. Fear
Fear is the disturbance of the mind of a person who is confronted by a danger to himself or
loved ones.
There is a difference between acting with fear and acting out of fear. Some actions which
are difficult or dangerous are done with fear. New experiences such as embarking on a long trip,
being left alone in the dark, or speaking in front of a crowd, make some people nervous and
fearful. These actions are done with fear. It is acting out of fear, when fear causes a person to
act, like to jump from the top floor of a burning building.
Principles:
1) Acts done with fear are voluntary and are accountable.
2) Acts done out of fear, however great, is simply voluntary, although it is also
conditionally voluntary. It is simply voluntary because the person remains in
control of his faculties. It is, however, conditionally voluntary, because if it
were not for the presence of a danger, the person would not have acted.
Intimidating or threatening a person with harm is an unjust act. Legally and morally
speaking, actions done out of fear because an unjust situation are invalid acts. Thus, contracts
entered into by a party because of fear is null and void (Paul Glenn: 41-42).

4. Violence
Violence is any physical force exerted on a person by a free agent for the purpose of
compelling said person to act against his will. Insults, torture, isolation, starvation, and
mutilation are examples of violence.
Principles:
1) External, or commanded acts, performed by a person subjected to violence, to
which reasonable resistance has been offered, are involuntary and not
accountable.
2) Elicited acts, or those done by the will alone, are not subject to violence and are
therefore voluntary.
 Active resistance should always be exerted to ward off any unjust aggressor. However,
if resistance is impossible, or if there is a serious threat to one's life, a person confronted by
violence can always offer internal resistance by withholding consent. This is enough to save
one's moral integrity (Panizo:37).
The Will is a spiritual faculty is not within the reach of violence. There are thousand
martyrs who had suffered death instead of surrendering their will to their tormentors. We may
not be too harsh on those whom we consider villains or weaklings, those who succumbed to the
vile wishes of their oppressors. "Violence of force", says Bernard Haring, "in any instance, if
bound up with the refined cruelty of present-day methods of psychological torture, can
constitute a serious temptation and often also contribute towards a notable diminution of inner
freedom" (Haring: 108).
5. Habits
Habit is the readiness, born of frequently repeated acts, for acting in a certain manner.
Habits are acquired through the repetition of an act over a period of time. They are either good
or bad. Habits become like second nature, moving one to do something with relative ease
without much reflection. They are difficult to overcome.
Principle: Actions done by force of habit are voluntary in cause, unless a reasonable effort is
made to counteract the inclination.
Habits are voluntary in cause, because they are the result of previously willed acts done
repeatedly over a period of time. Thus, every action resulting from habit partakes of the
voluntariness of those previous repeated acts. However, when a person exerts consistent efforts
to counteract the habit, the actions resulting from such habit are regarded as acts of man and
therefore, not accountable.
Poverty
Poverty is never an excuse for committing a crime just as wealth does not justify
abuses. But there is a correlation between poverty and crimes. People who are dirt poor and
starving are unlikely to think about their morals.
Nobody deserves to be poor. Poverty is a social evil which must be corrected by the
State. It becomes an act of injustice by the State that fails to look after the welfare of the people,
neglecting their economic needs.
Action and Emotion
Man is not a robot devoid of feelings. Every human act involves a person emotionally.
Thus, we pray fervently, we work earnestly, we play eagerly, we eat heartily, or we live happily.
The Decalogue enjoins us to love God with all our heart and with all our soul”.
The priest smiled in relief, gave the Host and moved to the next communicant. "Amen",
he said again.
And so went the Mass the congregation taking over for the old priest whenever his
memory failed.
The irony of the Rev. Anthony Hofstee's Mass is not lost on his 300 leper parishioners.
"I think it is very beautiful", says Zosimo Pascual, president of the Tala Leper Colony's citizen
advisory council and himself a leper. "Father Hofstee is 81. After 37 years of him taking care of
us, now it is time to take care of him".
Hofstee, a Dominican priest from Seattle, has served the lepers of Tala, northeast of
Manila, since 1947. He first went to the colony in 1946 while a chaplain with the American
military. "We did not have any spiritual leader then and we were all longing for someone to love
us", remembers Pascual.
Philippines primate Cardinal Jaime L. Sin in 1982 awarded Hofstee the Pro Ecclesia et
Pontifice Cross on behalf of Pope John Paul II in recognition of the priest's 50th jubilee and 35
years of service to Tala's lepers. "A lot of people are coming here wanting to write about him,
but he doesn't like it", said Sister Naty de la Cruz, Hofstee's housekeeper. He says "What is the
use of writing it down? God knows what I've done" (Asia's Heroes for Today, Readers Digest,
July 1984).
EXERCISE NO. 14 Date:
Name: Section:
Read "The Story of Father Anthony Hofstee" and discuss the following:
1. What values are exemplified by the story?
2. To what extent would you be willing to serve others?
EXERCISE NO. 15 Date:
Name: Section:
A. Answer the following briefly: 5 points each. Refer to the attached rubric.
1. How are values related to the ultimate purpose of life?
2. Why is the implication of our choice of values?
3. In what sense are values altruistic?
4. What is the relevance of the hierarchy of values?
B. Write a reflection paper after reading the “The story of Father Anthony Hofstee”.
Refer to attached rubric.
 3. Art is the habit of making beautiful things, such as in literature, in architecture, and in "The Body of Christ", replied the leper-scarred communicant after a moment's
the fine arts. hesitation.
4. Wisdom is the habit of the ultimate causes, such as the interdependence of created
things in the ecosystem; or how the negative emotions of man-like hatred, anger, or
sadness- are not signs of weakness but are natural instincts for self-preservation and
growth.
Vices and Character
A vice is the opposite of virtue. Vice is the habit of doing evil acquired through the
repetition of an evil act. One immoral act does not constitute a habit or a vice for that matter.
But it is no less unfortunate. The fact is every single evil act speaks of an evil character.
A vice is evil either because of excess or of defect.
(1) Vices opposed to prudence by excess are — cautiousness, fraud, flattery, trickery;
by defect imprudence, impulsiveness, carelessness, or stubbornness.
(2) Vices opposed to justice by excess are — profligacy, idolatry, fanaticism, and
superstition; by defect are - disrespect to elders, irreligion, and nonpayment of
debts.
(3) Vices opposed to fortitude by excess are - rashness, boldness, recklessness; by
defect --- cowardice, timidity, sensitivity, and depression
(4) Vices opposed to temperance by excess are --- rigorousness, lack of self-confidence,
moroseness, by defect - pride, lust, hatred, gluttony, and vanity.
Moral integrity is man's true worth. With it, a person is distinguished as “mabuting tao".
Without it, a person is "masamang tao.

Reading:
The story of Father Anthony Hofstee
Just before giving communion during the Mass, the elderly American priest stared
blankly at the leper serving as his altar boy.
"I've forgotten what to say next", he whispered.
"The body of Christ", the altar boy whispered back.
The priest, still confused, turned to the first communicant, offered him the sacred Host
and said: "Amen".
Emotions are natural and beneficial. The positive tendencies of love, kindness, humility, A temperate man is one who is master of himself. One in whom passions do not prevail
reverence, and justice express approval of what is good and worthy in an object. The negative over reason, will, and even the “heart”. A man who can control himself. If this is so, we can
tendencies of anger, horror, and hatred express disapproval and repudiation of evil as such. easily realize what a fundamental and radical value the virtue of temperance has. It is even
indispensable,
Refinement of Emotions
Emotions, however, need to be subjugated to reason because unbridled passions could
lead a person to his perdition. One must learn to rein his emotions and work them to his
advantage.
"It is evident", says Bernard Haring, "that education, through proper discipline and
cultivation of emotional life (in which we include the cultivation of the values of character and
disposition), is in many ways more significant than the tense straining of will power” (The Law
of Christ, I-199).
Moral perfection comes from within. Filipinos speak of a good person as possessing
"mabuting kalooban". He is one who is mapagmahal, matulungin sa kapwa, at may-takot sa
Diyos.
Reading:
The Virtue of Temperance
Pope John Paul II
Virtue is not something abstract, detached from life, but, on the contrary, it has deep
“roots” in life itself, it springs from the latter and forms it. Virtue has an impact on man's life,
on his actions and behavior. It follows that, in all these reflections of ours, we are speaking not
so much of the virtue of man as a living and acting "virtuously"; we are speaking of the prudent,
just and courageous man, and finally, precisely today, we are speaking of the "temperate" (or
“sober") man.
The term “temperance" itself seems in a certain way to refer to what is "outside man".
We say, in fact, that a temperate man is one who does not abuse food, drinks, pleasures, who
does not drink alcohol to excess, who does not deprive himself of consciousness by the use of
drugs, etc. This reference to elements external to man has its basis, however, within man. It is as
if there existed in each of us a "higher self and a "lower self". In our "lower self", our “body”
and everything that belongs to it is expressed: its needs, its desires, its passions of a sensual
nature particularly. The virtue of temperance guarantees every man mastery of the "lower self"
by the "higher self". Is this humiliation of our body? Or a disability? On the contrary, this
mastery gives higher value to the body. As a result of the virtue of temperance, the body and our
senses find the right place which pertains to them in our human condition.
in order that man may be fully man. It is enough to look at someone who, carried away by his 2. Values favored by the majority must be preferred over those appealing only to a few.
passions, becomes a “victim" of them - renouncing of his own accord the use of reason (such as, For example, marriage is better than remaining single; wealth better than staying poor.
for example, an alcoholic, a drug addict) - to see, clearly that: to be a man" means respecting 3. Essential values must be preferred over the accidental values. For example, good
one's own dignity, and therefore, among others things, letting oneself be guided by the virtue of reputation is better than being pretty; attending to parental duties better than
temperance. involvement in social gatherings or parties.
4. Moral values must be preferred over the physical values. For example, the practice of
religion is better than sports; feeding the orphans is better than spending money for
EXERCISE No. 6 Date: luxuries.
Name: Section: Moral Habits
Answer briefly: 5 points each. Refer to the attach rubric. Moral character is the sum of man's good habits. Habit comes from the Latin word
1. Why are we accountable for our actions? "habere", meaning to have or to possess. Habits are either entitative or operative.
2. What is the penalty for immoral acts?
3. Who are accountable for their moral acts? Entitative habits predispose man to acquire certain nature or quality, like being healthy,
4. Explain" Ignorance of the law excuses no one". being beautiful, being intelligent, or being rich. Operative habits predispose man to act readily
5. How should we manage our passions? towards a purpose, like singing, dancing, playing basketball, or helping others. The operative
EXERCISE NO.07 Date: habit of doing well is called virtue; that of doing evil is vice.
Name: Section: Virtues pertaining to mental or intellectual operation are called intellectual virtues;
A. Qualify your answer to the following: 5 points each. Refer to the attach rubric. those pertaining to the will are moral virtues.
1. Why is it not advisable for a person to act in the state of ignorance? 1. Moral virtues
2. Is it morally permitted to tell a lie in order to avoid torture?
3. It is alright to disobey traffic rules because there are no policemen around to arrest us? There are four moral virtues: prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance.
4. Is helping somebody morally wrong if we do not enjoy doing it?
1. Prudence enables a person to know the best means to employ in attaining a purpose. A
B. Write a reflection paper after reading the “The Virtue of Temperance”. Refer to attached
prudent person weighs the pros and cons of a situation and acts with reasonable caution.
rubric
2. Justice inclines a person to give to everyone what is due. A just person pays his legal
debts, honors his elders, observes the laws of society, and worships God.
3. Fortitude gives a person the strength of the will to face dangers and the problems in life.
A person of fortitude is not easily discouraged and is ready to stand by what is right.
4. Temperance moderates a person's instincts and emotions. A temperate person is not
given to inordinate anger, jealousy, desire, or love.
2. Intellectual Virtues
There are four intellectual virtues: understanding, science, art and wisdom.
1. Understanding is the habit or intuition of the first principles, such as the whole
is greater than the sum of any of its parts", or that "doing well is better than
doing bad". This is also called common sense.
2. Science is the habit of proximate causes, why things are such because of their
nature or natural properties. Thus, we have the different sciences on different
field of studies.
 Just as a child grows up with the parents, a human being grows and becomes an authentic
person only in the community with others. This is what God means when he said: "It is not good
for man to be alone; I will give him a helper who will be like him” (Genesis 2:18).
Moral Values
Moral values are those pertaining to the functions of the intellect and the will our
choices, decisions, actions, and habits. Moral values relate to our spiritual growth.
Strictly speaking, only those related to the spiritual growth are moral values. But in the
context of integral perfection, all values whether biological or social, acquire moral
significance. For example, eating becomes the object of temperance, so that over indulgence to
food is gluttony. Again, while eating is a necessity, the act of fasting is also required for
medical, political, religious, or moral purpose. In this sense, every human activity has a moral
dimension and depending on one's motive, an innocent act like working or playing may be
moral or immoral.
Characteristics of Moral Values
Moral values have the following characteristics:
(1) They have intrinsic worth. This means that moral values are in themselves good
independent of our opinion of them. The act of feeding the hungry, for example, is a
good act regardless of the motive for it.
(2) They are universally accepted by all people. None would find fault with helping the
needy, or testifying on the truth of something, or working honestly for a living. The
Bill of Rights is accepted by the community of nations,
(3) They are obligatory. This means that a person, when so capacitated, is duty bound to
do what is good when the situation demands it. Thus, one is duty bound to return to
its rightful owner a lost- and- found property. Likewise, one is duty bound to help
accident victims. This also means that every person is obliged to be honest, to be
respectful of others, to be diligent, and to avoid doing what harms others.
Choosing Values
Since values have relative worth, a person has to choose those which are relevant to
him. These guidelines serve a purpose:
1. Permanent or lasting values must be preferred over temporary or perishable
ones. For example, education is objectively better than leisure; moral habit
better than physical strength.
Chapter 5: The Ends of Human Act
Overview
Man does not act aimlessly. His every action is done for a purpose. The purpose of
human acts is significant because it defines the nature of an act and reveals the moral judgment
of the doer.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Define end
2. Discuss the kinds of end
3. Describe happiness
4. Reflect on the reading “Love: The Greatest Good”
The Meaning of End
The "end" is the purpose or goal of an act. It is either the end of the act itself or the end
of the doer.
The end of the act is the natural termination or completion of an activity. The end of
eating is nourishment; that of reading is comprehension; that of the game of basketball is
scoring a goal, and that of talking is communication. Actions are identified by their natural end.
The act of buying differs from the act of selling, although both involve the exchange of a
commodity. The act of stealing differs from the act of receiving a gift, although both actions put
the doer in possession of something.
The end of the doer is the motive or reason why a person performs an act. A person, for
example, eats either to appease hunger or to indulge his appetite. A housewife saves money
because she wants to buy an appliance or to pay for a vacation.
A person thinks first of a purpose before acting. When the purpose is accomplished the
person ceases to act. Hence, the motive is said to be "first in intention" but "last in execution".
Actions are the means for fulfilling a person's wishes or intentions.
Kinds of End
The end of the doer is either (1) proximate and remote, (2) intermediate and ultimate.
1. The proximate end is the purpose which the doer wishes to accomplish immediately.
The remote end is the purpose which the doer wishes to accomplish sometime later. The
proximate end of eating is the satisfaction of hunger. Its remote end is the promotion of
one's health.
 2. The intermediate end is that which is sought as a means for obtaining another thing. The
ultimate end is that which is desired for its own sake. The intermediate end may either
lead to another intermediate, or to an ultimate end. The ultimate end completes an act
and stops further activity.
A student may think of his graduation as his ultimate purpose. The series of activities which
engage him in school, like attending classes, writing reports, joining a club, and passing tests are
intermediate ends leading to the ultimate end of obtaining an academic degree or diploma.
The ultimate end is the drive that moves a person to act and undertake even difficult and
dangerous tasks. A series of diverse actions finds meaning in relation to the ultimate end. Our
routine daily activities, for instance, are related to our ultimate desire to live.
Action and Motivation
The following principles describe human activity:
1. Every action is performed for the sake of a definite end or purpose. Man is a motivated
animal. For him to act, he must first have a motive. A motive may be instantaneous as
when one stands up to answer the doorbell, or when one picks up something from the
floor. Some motives are modest and inconsequential. Some are significant and
important.
An act done for a purpose is said to be deliberate or intentional. An act done without an
intended purpose is said to be accidental.
2. Every action is intended towards an ultimate end. Every action is a move to accomplish
something. The concept of action implies an ultimate end, which would satisfy the need
of the doer. No sane person would take a bus without wanting to go someplace. Every
traveler has a final destination.
3. Every doer moves himself towards an end which he thinks suitable to him. Man does not
wish anything except that which is beneficial or suitable to him. Hence, every human
act is a tendency towards what is good, because only what is good is suitable to man.
Nobody desires evil for its own sake. The desire for money, for example, induces a thief
to steal. Evil actions are done for the sake of attaining something good.
The End as Good
Man acts in order to obtain something good to himself. Therefore, the concept of good
is synonymous to that of end or purpose. Man does not desire evil for its own sake. Only what is
good could be the end or purpose of an act, either the ultimate end or the intermediate end.
Aristotle defines "Good" as "anything which fits or suits a function". Food is good
either because it suits one's taste, or the need for nourishment, Clothes are good because they fit
the
The Hierarchy of Values
Values are not equal in their respective worth. From the time of the Greek philosophers
to the present, the moral values are held as more important than the others. The hierarchy of
values refers to the ranking of values from lowest to highest. A triangle, with its summit and
middle and base, illustrates how values are ranked. The biological values occupy the base, and
the moral values, the summit. The psychological and intellectual values occupy respectively the
mid-section.
1) The biological values, which correspond to our survival and procreation, are the lowest.
The most fundamental value in this category is self-preservation., or health. The other
values, such as food, exercise, work, pleasure, and sex, are the means of sustaining and
promoting the physical life.
2) The social values corresponding to our psychological growth are the lower middle
values. The fundamental value in this category is love which is the foundation of
friendship, marriage, family, or community.
3) The intellectual values corresponding to our mental growth. Are the higher middle
values. In this category, the most fundamental value is Truth. The values of science,
arts, technology and experience are means of acquiring knowledge.
4) The moral values corresponding to spiritual development rank the highest in the
hierarchy. These values constitute moral integrity.
Social Dimension of Values
The authenticity of values consists in their being shared with others. The higher a value
goes up the ranking the more it becomes altruistic.
The lower values are seen as competitive and egotistic because they tend towards the
accumulation of material possession which man finds difficult to share with others. Thus, man
would not easily share food and would wage war to defend or acquire the source of food. On the
other hand, the psychological value of love lends itself to sharing with others. Friendship, for
instance, is possible only with mutual respect and care.
The nature of intellectual value is also altruistic. People find it easy to talk, to
communicate, and to share news with one another. Knowledge lends itself to sharing. Thus,
thinkers share their thoughts, inventors share their inventions, teachers share their skill, and
artists share their artworks.
 The moral values are even more meaningful because it allows man to live with others in
peace and harmony. The virtues of charity and justice are the foundation of society. No society
would be possible where men do not have goodwill towards one another.
 Anything which enriches our experience of life is a value, such as a person, a
relationship, a feeling, an object, a place, an event, an opportunity, a profession, a work, a
travel, or a state of being. Thus, parents regard their children as their "treasure"; individuals care
about their friendship, and a community values peace and cooperation. One's life and beliefs are
values.
The meaning we assign to events constitutes their values. Thus, we celebrate birthdays,
weddings, graduations, or fiestas. Some other things have their intrinsic worth such as science
and art, technology and machines, customs and traditions, rites and ceremonies, laws and ideals,
history and memories, careers and hobbies, farms and gardens, businesses and religions.
The Significance of Values
Our ultimate happiness in this life, says Aristotle, consists in the sum of earthly goods
essential to us. Accordingly, values relate to our ultimate purpose, to that which would make us
completely happy. In this respect, our actions are significant because they are the means by
which we attain happiness. Good actions are those that bring happiness. Evil actions are those
that bring unhappiness.
Morally good actions are authentic values, while immoral actions are "apparent values”,
that is, evil disguised as good. While these evil acts often promise pleasure or profit, they lead to
pain and misery. Immoral actions do not fit human nature and, thus, we say they are contrary to
natural law. ..
To sum up: (1) Values enrich our experience of life and bring happiness; (2) Actions are
values because they are the means we employ to attain happiness, and (3) Morally good actions
bring happiness, while immoral actions bring unhappiness.
Kinds of Values
1. Biological values are necessary to the physical survival and growth of man such as
food, shelter, work, pleasure, sex, sports, career, health, and medicines.
2. Psychological values are necessary to the psychological maturation of man such as
companionship, friendship, marriage, family life, and social interaction.
3. Intellectual values are necessary to the mental fulfillment of man, such as truth, science,
art, and religion.
4. Moral values are necessary for the development of character.
We also speak of cultural values those that are shared in a community such as ideals, laws,
customs, beliefs, rituals, and ceremonies. Some values are described as religious, economic, or
aesthetic.
personality of the user, or they provide comfort. In a higher level, actions are good when they fit
the moral integrity of a person.
Those acts which fit human nature are said to be good. They are "maka-tao". Those acts
which are unfit to human nature are evil. They are "hindi maka-tao".
Aristotle teaches that because it is the soul which constitutes the essentiality of rational
nature, the good that truly fits man is that which fits the function of the soul. This means that
human acts are good when they are consistent with reason. Accordingly, we speak of actions as
being in accordance or not with the "dictate of reason".
Evil which is presented to the mind as something good is called an apparent good. For
example, stealing is desired as good because it is an opportunity for the thief to have something
of value for himself. Crimes are committed, because the criminals regard their evil acts as
instrumental to getting something good. Thus, a student would cheat during an examination in
order to pass the subject. A politician would wish his rival candidate murdered because he wants
to win the election.
Kinds of Good
1. Essential and Accidental. An essential good satisfy the need of person as a human
being. Food, clothing, shelter, tools and education are essential goods. Accidental good
is that which satisfies the want of a person because of his particular situations.
Expensive clothes, big house, a flashy car are personal wants of a rich man.
2. Real and Apparent. Real good is anything which has intrinsic value. These could be
things, activities, relationships, or persons. An apparent good is an evil which is viewed
subjectively as something of value, such as cigarettes, prohibited drugs and vices.
3. Perfective and Non-perfective. Perfective good is that which contributes to integral
growth or development of a person, such as education, virtue, food, sports, and
medicines. Non-perfective good is anything which merely contribute to the external
appearance or convenience of a person, such as expensive clothes, money, title, or car.
4. Perfect and Imperfect. Anything lacking in some qualities is imperfect. All material
things are imperfect. A perfect is a real good endowed with all essential qualities
needed to satisfy a need.
Perfection is either absolute or relative. An absolute perfection means complete in all
aspects, which is what we mean when speaking of a perfect circle or a perfect score. A relative
perfection is complete only in some aspects.
The Greatest Good
Every human activity is a tendency towards the attainment of something good. Not only
individual actions are tending towards the acquisition of good, but human life itself, which is the
sum of all activities, is a movement towards the possession of the greatest good. The greatest EXERCISE NO. 12 Date:
good, or the "summum bonum" in the words of Scholastic philosophers, is that which is perfect Name: Section:
in itself and capable of satisfying all human desires. It is also the ultimate good, because it is the
Explain briefly the following: 5 points each. Refer to the attached rubric.
absolutely final thing which is sought for its own sake.
1. What is the basis of moral judgment?
The purpose of human existence is the attainment of the greatest good. The greatest
2. What is the difference between formal and material norm?
good, according to Aristotle, is happiness. He writes: "By absolutely final, we mean that which
3. What is the meaning of “right reason"?
is sought for its own sake, and never as a means to something else. Happiness seems to be
4. What are the functions of conscience?
something of that sort, We also pursue that for its intrinsic value, never as a means; whereas we
pursue honor, pleasure, wisdom, and all the virtues, both for their own sakes (we would want
them even if they lead to nothing further) and for the sake of happiness, since we think we shall EXERCISE NO. 13 Date:
attain happiness by means of them. But no one wants happiness as a means to these other things, Name: Section:
or indeed as a means to anything else at all (ibid: 292).
A. Qualify your answer to the following:
The Meaning of Happiness 1. Does the act of killing a man constitutes an moral wrong?
2. What possible motive, if any, may justify cheating in an examination?
Happiness is either objective or subjective. Objectively, happiness refers to something
3. From the reading, is doing good the same as having a good character?
having intrinsic value and capable of satisfying a human need. Subjectively, it is the
psychological state of feeling contented resulting from the attainment of that which is good in B. Write a reflection paper after reading the “Moral Pretension”. Refer to the attached rubric.
itself. The toy (objective) makes the child happy (subjective).
Happiness contributes to the perfection of a person. Hence, happiness is not just an
emotion or something of value but a state of being. It is the state of perfection arising from the Chapter 8: Human Values
possession of what is good. Just as the possession of wealth makes an individual a rich man, the
possession of the greatest good makes a person perfectly happy. Overview

Now, which is the greatest good that would completely fill up all of man's longing and
desires?
What People Desire
1. Some people regard money or the acquisition of wealth as the ultimate aim of their life.
While the desire is legitimate, money does not satisfy human desire completely. The
inordinate desire for riches makes one avaricious and greedy. Wealth is a cause for
worry for them who fear losing it.
2. Some people regard health and physical beauty as foremost in importance. Health, of
course, is necessary because it is a prerequisite to a productive life. But health and
physical beauty are easily lost to illness and age.
3. Some people indulge themselves in worldly pleasures. But pleasures in themselves are
limited by our natural capacity for them. They do not last for long and often lead to
unhappiness. Eating so much causes stomach ache if not unwanted weight or obesity.
Imprudent indulgence in liquor, tobacco, drugs, or sex exposes one to illness and death.
The ultimate good of man, according to Aristotle, consists of an aggregate of goods
which would help him attain happiness in this life. Anything which contributes to man's
development, comfort, and well-being is a value.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Define Value
2. Discuss the importance of value
3. Explain the hierarchy of values
4. Reflect on the reading “The story of Father Anthony Hofstee”
The Meaning of Values
A value is anything which satisfies a human need. Value is identical to that which is
good defined by Aristotle as "fitting a function":
creatively intervene in a reasonable way to direct the order of nature in way that would be truly that mental distractions would not invalidate the merits of our act. The opposite is true. A single
human" (Gula: 41) act of generosity does not make an avaricious person a kind person.
The Order of Reason
Every living thing acts in accordance with its nature. Man acts in a way proper to him
through the use of reason. "In a morality based on the order of reason", writes Richard Gula,
"the human person is not subject to the God-given order of nature in the same way the animals
are. The human person does not have to conform to natural pattern as a matter of fate. Rather,
nature provides the possibilities and potentialities which the human person can use to make
human life truly human. The given physical and biological order does not provide moral norms,
rather, it provides the data and the possibilities for the human person to use in order to achieve
human goals (Ibid. 41)
In the encyclical Populorum Progressio (1967), Pope Paul VI states:
In the design of God, every man is called upon to develop and fulfill himself, for every
life is a vocation. At birth, everyone is granted, in germ, a set of aptitudes and qualities for him
to bring to fruition. Their coming to maturity, which will be the result of education received
from environment and personal efforts, will allow each man to direct himself toward the destiny
intended for him by his Creator. Endowed with intelligence and freedom, he is responsible for
his fulfillment as he is for his salvation.
Reading:
Moral Pretension
Action flows from character like water flows from the spring. If the spring is
contaminated, the water coming from it is also polluted. If man has an evil character, his actions
are likewise evil.
It is, however, possible for a person to do good without having a good character. People
do laugh while deep inside they are hurting and unhappy. The receptionist greets you with a
most beautiful smile without a bit of respect for you. This means an evil person can pretend to
be good.
Ethical standard requires that we have a clean mind and a pure heart. This is how moral
laws bind the whole of being-our senses, our emotions, our thoughts, our desires, and our
actions. And so we say that the authenticity of a good act comes from the soul. If our soul is
untainted, we may pretend to do evil but still remain good.
Because we could kneel in church and mumble a prayer before the altar without
thinking of God, moral standard requires that we have had developed the habit of praying so
 4. Some people seek fame and power. But these things are as perishable as the admired
flowers in a vase. Fame and popularity can easily be tainted by a rumor of indiscretion.
Power change hands as quickly and as often as the direction of the wind.
5. Some people would want to dedicate themselves to the cultivation of science and arts.
This is a worthy pursuit which leaves a mark in the lives of other people. But
knowledge is not useful unless it becomes an instrument for helping other people.
6. Some people would consecrate themselves to the religious life. But the practice of
religion and the cultivation of virtues are aimed at attaining spiritual perfection.
Natural and Supernatural Happiness
Natural happiness is that which is attainable by man through the use of his natural
powers. Supernatural happiness is that which is attainable by man through his own powers aided
by the infusion of grace from God.
Aristotle does not go beyond earthly life in his dissertation on the ultimate end of man.
Christian philosophers, notably St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas, teach that since man's
desire and tendency towards happiness is unlimited, nothing short of the Absolutely Perfect
Good can satisfy it fully. Therefore, only God in his infinite goodness is the greatest good, the
"summum bonum" of man. Man's heart is restless until it rests in God, says St. Augustine. But
perfect or supernatural happiness is possible only in the afterlife.
"Natural happiness", says Joseph Buckley, "consists in the perfection that can be
attained by man through the employment of his body and soul and the powers inherent in them:
intellect, will, internal and external sensory powers, sense appetites, locomotion, nutrition, and
growth" (Mans Last End, 82).
The Ultimate Purpose
The ultimate purpose of human life is the possession of the absolutely greatest good.
For Aristotle the object of natural happiness is not a single good, but an aggregate of all the
goods that fit the nature of man as such. The greatest good in this earthly life consists of all
values, both material and spiritual, which contribute to man's development as a human being.
Because these goods are multiple and varied, man has to ranked in a hierarchy, from the lowest
to the highest (Ibid., 297).
The highest good, according to Aristotle, pertains to the intellect. Thus, he proposes that
the ultimate purpose man in life is the contemplation of truth. The fullness of knowledge is
attainable through the practice of virtue. Aristotle states that "Even if happiness is not sent from
heaven, but comes through virtue and learning or training, it seems that it is one of the most
godlike things. The prize and end of virtue appears to be the best thing, something godlike and
blessed. Happiness will also be within the reach of everyone, since through learning and
exercise, it can be obtained by all who are not totally corrupted as regards virtue (Ibid., 296).
It follows that perfect happiness which is absolute and lasting is not possible in this life,
since man's natural powers are inadequate to fulfill his needs. The power of the human intellect
fails to grasp the glory of God. But man may approximate and anticipate perfect happiness by
keeping faith, by loving God and by neighbor, and by practicing virtue. Doing good is happiness
in itself.
Ethical Theories
The inquiry on the ultimate purpose human life is a central theme in Ethics. Some
theories include:
1. Hidonism is based on the teachings of Epicurus who regards pleasure as the ultimate
good of man. According to him, pain is an evil to be avoided. And because some
pleasures may also cause pain, one must be choosy about his pleasure. Contrary to the
popular notion, Epicurus does not recommend indulgence in sensual pleasures. But the
word "hedonist" is descriptive of a pleasure-seeking individual, "a low-life".
2. Aristotelianism proclaims the supremacy of reason over man's lower appetites. Thus,
the highest good of man is the contemplation of divine truths. The reasonable life is that
which is in accordance with temperance, nothing by excess and nothing by defect. This
is the Golden Mean.
3. Thomism is based on the teachings of St. Thomas Aquinas. It holds that the ultimate
purpose of man consists in the Beatific Vision of God which, however, is possible only
in the next life and only with the aid of supernatural grace.
4. Utilitarianism defines pleasure as that which gives the greatest happiness for the
greatest number of people. John Stuart Mill, for example, says that pleasure itself is
good, but even better when it experienced by the most number of people.
5. Evolutionism proceeds from the biological theories of Charles Darwin. According to
him, the greatest good is the rearing of the greatest number of individuals, with perfect
faculties, under given circumstances. Accordingly, moral values are factors of survival,
either of the individual or that of society. Inspired by this theory, Communism looks
forward to the evolution of a "classless society".
6. Existentialism laments the inadequacy of reason to guide man in the complexities of
life. The attainment of personal fulfillment which is the ultimate purpose of one's life
depends largely on one's faith and personal conviction. Existentialism is either theistic
or atheistic. Notable existentialists are Blaise Pascal, Soren Kierkegaard, Karl Jaspers,
and Jean Paul Sartre.
 The formal norm about being respectful of parents is explicit and relevant at all times. While seemingly opposed, these theories are not irreconcilable. Reason, if it must be
But it may be asked whether a child does wrong by disobeying an unlawful command of the "recta" has to accept the reality of man's biological tendencies. Physicalism, on the other hand,
parents. To answer this question the materially of the act of disobedience needs to be examined has to submit that biological tendencies needs to be regulated by reason. In fact, man "can
with regards to its nature, motive, and circumstances. The basis of this evaluation is provided by
the formal norm, but once the materiality of an act is determined as intrinsically evil, such an act
cannot be justified by whatever reason. Hence, an act which is declared "a murder", "genocide",
"a rape", or "an adultery - can never be good under any circumstance.
The directives of formal norms are permanent and unchangeable because they are the
requirements of natural law. The directives of material norms are temporary and changeable
because they are the result of rational evaluation.
Moral Relativism
Moral relativism is possible because the human mind, being finite and limited, does not
always grasp the moral significance of certain acts or events. Thus, debates would continue on
whether death penalty, divorce, abortion, gay marriage, or euthanasia is morally permissible.
Moral relativism is also descriptive of cultural differences.
However, the differences in the moral practices of people do not prove that there are no
absolute truths and principles of morals. That man seeks the good that fits his nature is a
universally accepted truth. That man ought not to do to another what he does not want to be
done to him is another universally accepted truth. That man deserves to be punished for his evil
deeds is yet another universally accepted truth. The trouble is that people may not agree how
these truths apply.
Physicalism vs Personalism:
There are two viewpoints on how moral acts are to be judged on the basis of Natural
Law.
Physicalism suggests that the physical and biological nature of man determines
morality. Morality is in accordance with the natural order in the universe. Anything opposed to
man's physical, physiological, or biological tendencies is wrong and immoral. It maintain that
the criteria for moral judgment are written in man's nature and all that is required is for man to
read them off (Gula:35).
Personalism suggests that reason is the standard for moral judgment. Right reason, or
"recta ratio, is the dynamic tendency in the human person to know the truth, to grasp the whole
reality as it is. Morality is in accordance with the order of reason, or the dictate of reason.
 correct conscience is the result of sound upbringing, education, good habits, and
intelligent laws.
2) Erroneous conscience sees evil as something good. Erroneous conscience comes from
malice, ignorance, bad habits, and bad influence.
3) Doubtful conscience is a vacillating conscience, unsure of itself.
4) Scrupulous conscience is overly cautious, meticulous, and fearful of committing a
mistake.
5) Lax conscience is indifferent, unmindful of right or wrong.
Compulsory Conscience
"Our bond with the natural moral law", write Bernard Haring, "is an exalted
participation in the eternal law of God manifested by our conscience whose natural function it is
to reveal our likeness to God" (Law Of Christ: 1-147).
When conscience operates in the realm of truth and sound reason, it is compulsory to
listen to it. It is only when conscience urges us to act according to our rational insights that it is
aptly the "voice of God". But when conscience deviates from the norm and urges us to do what
is unreasonable, it is "our own evil work" (ibid: 148).
Conformity and Non-conformity
The conformity or non-conformity of a human act with the norms constitutes morality.
We recall the definition of Aristotle of the good as that which fits the function. For example, it
fits the function of a talented singer to sing well. Similarly, it fits the function of a decent and
honorable person to do what is honorable.
The same may be said of evil actions. Some actions do not fit the dignity and nobility of
man as man. Like the junk food does not fit the health of a person, immoral acts do not fit the
human soul.
Formal and Material Norms
We distinguish two aspects of the moral norm: the formal and the material norms.
Formal norms relate to formation of character, what kind of person we ought to be.
These consist of such directives towards character development, such as "be honest", "be
direct", "be respectful", etcetera.
Material norms relate to actions, what actions we ought to do. Material norms determine are
whether an act on account of its nature conforms or does not conform with the formal norms.
Reading:
Love: The Greatest Good
Surrounded by one and thousand choices, we are a child lost inside a candy store. The
philosophers tell us to go ahead, pick a jar of goodies, and live happily ever after. But they
would not tell us which is the sweetest candy, the most delectable to take home.
The goods of this earth are plentiful and varied. God made them all bright and beautiful.
As it goes, every desire is valid, and every choice is an affirmation of the self. We can never go
wrong on this, so we learn to respect the opinions, wishes, and choices of others. Everything is
possible for us, except that we abuse our powers and start kicking dogs and people around.
Love is the greatest good. It is that which gives meaning to our life. Christ made it the
mark of his disciples, saying it should include the poor, the stranger, and the enemy.
Muhammad, Buddha, Confucius, and all the good teachers of the world planted its truths in the
hearts of people. It showed brightly in the lives of Mahatma Gandhi, Mother Teresa, and Pope
John Paul II. It smiles in the innocent face of a child. It soothes the pangs of hunger of the
worker, spurring him to work even harder for the sake of the family.
Aristotle proposes that the intellect is the highest faculty of the soul. I would say it is the
heart which makes a man truly wise. Not everyone is gifted with intelligence. But each person
has the capacity to love. And because love thrives in the heart, love is everywhere and is free for
everyone.
Although realized differently, love is the same for both the child and the adult, the
ignorant and the learned, the rich and the poor, the woman and man. The hearts of people are
cups to contain love. Each one carries his own size of cup and love fills it accordingly. Every
cup fills to the brim with love, and each one is happy with what he has because his cup is full.
Love is the only consumable things which is not consumed and exhausted. The more we share
love, the bigger it grows. Love is eternal. Love is God.
EXERCISE NO. 08 Date:
Name: Section:
A. Identify the following:
__________1. Evil viewed as good
__________2. The good that fits a natural need of man as man
__________3. A good contributing to perfection
__________4. what a doer wishes to attain by his action
__________5. what everyone wants in all his actions
__________6. what philosophers call the greatest good
__________7. the natural termination of an act
__________8. Perfection possible by man's powers
__________9. What we want as a means towards another goal
__________10. An end desired for its own sake
__________11. That which is suitable to man
__________12. The reason why we act
__________13. something described as "want"
__________14. The good that fits man's rational soul
__________15. Happiness possible with God's help
__________16. The quality making things desirable
__________17. The means by which attain the good
__________18. something which is good in itself
__________19. what we need biologically
__________20. what avaricious people regard as greatest good
EXERCISE NO. 9 Date:
Name: Section:
A. Answer briefly: 5 points each. Refer to attached rubric.
1. Why is the end the same as that which is good?
2. What is the significance of our actions in relation to the ultimate end?
3. How does Aristotle explain happiness as the ultimate purpose of human existence?
4. Why do people work and struggle hard even when they know they cannot be completely
happy in this life?
5. How do our moral acts relate to the ultimate purpose of life?
B. Write a reflection paper after reading the “Love: The Greatest Good”
morally good act contributes to the integration of a person, the morally evil act causes its
disintegration.
Characteristics of Natural Law
1) It is universal - because it is the human nature which is shared by all men, though
realized differently according to their respective cultures.
2) It is obligatory - because the tendencies of our human nature are the laws of our desires
and actuations which we cannot ignore without dire consequences.
3) It is recognizable because man, being self-reflexive, is aware of his nature, of what he is
and what he is capable of and what is expected of him by his own kind.
4) It is immutable and unchangeable - because, although change is a rule of life, human
nature in its essentiality and substantiality remains permanent and unchangeable.
3. Conscience
While natural law is the tendency towards good in general, conscience is the choice of a
particular good in a given situation. People refer to conscience as the voice of God" a whisper of
admonition.
Conscience is the practical judgment of reason telling us what should be done because it is
good, or what should be avoided because it is evil. The judgment is practical" because it leads to
a course of action.
Conscience is “judgment of reason" because it derives from our understanding of what
ought to be done as good and what ought to be avoided as evil. This is how actions are said to
be in accordance with dictate of reason.
Moral decisions may sometimes require serious study and deliberation. But the urging of
conscience is often spontaneous and instantaneous. Thus, conscience is considered as the "voice
of God".
Conscience has two functions. Before the commission of an act, conscience directs towards
that which is good. After the commission of an act, conscience either approves or reproves the
act. A reproaching conscience punishes the doer with remorse. An approving conscience
rewards the doer with "peace of mind”.
Types of Conscience
As an intellectual faculty conscience needs education and training.
1) Correct conscience sees the good as good, the evil as evil. Correct conscience comes
from enlightenment; from refined moral sensibility, or from the habit of doing good.
The
 The phrase "criteria of judgment" implies the use of reason in determining the quality Natural law is the tendency of human nature towards growth and self-fulfillment. Accordingly,
being measured. The norm of morality is not a blueprint for action, nor a set of laws, like the anything contributing to the actualization of man's potential is morally good; and anything that
Ten Commandments. It is a rational assessment of the worthiness or unworthiness of a person or contradicts the self-realization of a person as person is morally evil. While the
an act on the basis of the given standard or criteria.
Basis of Moral Judgment
Moral judgment is based on of norms of morality -- the eternal law, natural law, and
conscience. Eternal law is the ultimate norm, Natural law is the remote norm, and Conscience is
proximate norm of morality. Since both natural law and conscience are derived from Eternal
Law, there is only one and ultimate basis of morality - God who created all creatures.
1. The Eternal Law
Eternal law is the plan of God in creating all creatures, both animate and inanimate, giving
to each of them its respective nature. The Book of Genesis tells the story of creation.
St. Thomas Aquinas refers to eternal law as "the exemplar of divine wisdom as directing all
actions and movements" (I-II, 93:1). St. Augustine defines it as "the divine reason or will of
God commanding that the natural order of things be preserved and forbidding that it be
disturbed" (Contra Faustum Manicheum, 22:27)
The concept of Eternal law is inferred from the order and harmony in the of the created
universe. The ancient Greeks referred to the universe as "cosmos" (beauty) and spoke of
"cosmic order". We use the term natural order to refer to the harmony present in the material
universe. In the natural order, every creature acts and reacts according to the demands of its
nature.
2. The Natural Law
Natural law refers to the operational tendencies of the human nature the chemical,
biological, physiological, psychological, and rational properties of man as an organism.
St. Thomas Aquinas says that the natural law is nothing else than the rational creature's
participation of the eternal law" and "provides the possibilities and potentialities which the
human person can use to make human life truly human".
Paul Tillich refers to the natural law as "the inner law of our true being, of our essential
created nature, which demands that we actualize what follows from it". Pointing to it as the
"will of God”, he explains it to be the command to become what one potentially is, a person
within a community of persons".
Chapter 6: Determinants of Morality
Overview
An axiom says - "Bonum ex integra causa, malum ex quocumque defectu", that is, a
thing is good from the perfection of its parts, evil rom any defect of its part. A human act, in
order to be morally acceptable, must be morally perfect in all its aspects.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Identify the determinants of Morality
2. Define Law
3. Discuss the Kinds of Law
4. Explain the properties of law
5. Reflect of the reading “The Reality of Evil”
The Determinants of Morality
The determinants of morality are so called because they are the basis for judging
whether an act is good or evil, moral or immoral. They are the following: (1) the end of the act
itself, (2) the end of the doer, and (3) the circumstances of the act.
1. The End of the Act is the natural termination or completion of an act. The end of the act
of eating is appeasing hunger, the end of playing basketball is scoring a point, and the
end of medication is curing illness.
The end of the act determines whether an act is intrinsically or extrinsically
good or evil. Any act which is consistent with the natural tendencies of human nature is
intrinsically good. But those that are contrary to reason are intrinsically evil, such as
murder, abortion, kidnapping, robbery, and rape. We speak of these acts as being
contrary to natural law.
Actions which are neutral or indifferent to the norm of morality are extrinsically
good or evil. These actions are either good or bad, not on account of their nature, but
because of factors or circumstances concomitant to them. The act of eating, for
example, is an amoral act and is neither morally good or bad. But either over-eating or
excessive dieting could be unhealthy and therefore, morally objectionable.
Actions which are intrinsically evil are prohibited at all times. Actions which
are extrinsically evil may be permitted when the factors which render them evil are
removed or corrected. It is a fact that some actions entail pain and suffering, while some
do bring pleasures to their doers. Pain or pleasure do not define whether an act moral or
immoral. The sexual act, for example, could either be moral or immoral regardless
whether it is a painful or pleasurable experience.
2. The End of the doer is the purpose or motive which the doer wishes to accomplish by
his action. Without a motive, an act is accidental and involuntary. A good motive is
truthful, prudent, temperate, and just. It is the most equitable for the most number of
people, or in the words of the existentialist "the most loving of all in a given situation".
"The End does not justify the Means" is a fundamental moral principle. It
affirms that one should not do wrong (means) in order to attain a good purpose (end).
The motive of a person, no matter how noble, does not excuse an act which is
intrinsically evil. The desire to pass a subject does not justify a student who for cheats
in the examination. Likewise, the need to feed a family does not justify stealing. The
desire to know the truth does not justify torture of a suspect by the police. The rule is -
don't do wrong even if this will result in something good.
Motive and Action: The correlation between motive and act is defined in the
following principles (Glenn: 111-113):
1. An evil act which is done on account of an evil motive is grievously wrong. In
other words, a bad action and a wrong motive make for a dangerous
combination. Stealing in order to buy "shabu” means double trouble. Don't try
it.
2. A good action done on account of an evil motive becomes evil itself. This means
that something nice and sweet may turn ugly and sour because of a bad motive.
Don't be a hypocrite!
3. A good action done on account of a good purpose acquires an additional merit.
This means you go ahead and do the right thing. You can never go wrong on
this one.
4. An indifferent act may either become good or bad depending on the motive.
This means you be careful of what you eat or what you say.
3. Circumstances of the Act are the historical elements surrounding the commission of an
act, such as the status of the doer, the place, the time, or the intensity of an act. The
circumstances are hinted by the interrogative pronouns who, what, where, with whom,
why, how, and where.
1. "Who” refers either to the doer of the act or the recipient of the act. It has to do
with the age, status, relation, schooling, social standing, an economic situation
of those involved in an act. In this regard, we note the following:
(a) The moron, insane, senile and children below the age of reason are
incapable of voluntary acts and are not morally accountable.
(b) Educated persons have greater accountability than those with less or without
education.
(c) Persons constituted in authority have accountability for the actions of those
under them. This is the meaning of "command responsibility". Thus, parents
 have command responsibility over their children who are minors; employers, The word "ought" implies a duty or obligation. It means that a person or his action
over the should possess a certain quality or it falls short of the standard.

Chapter 7: Norm of Morality

Overview
This is what we have learned about the human act: 1) They are voluntary acts. 2) They
are accountable acts. 3) They are motivated acts. 4) They are either moral, immoral, or amoral.
This chapter examines the rational basis of the morality of human actions.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Define Norms
2. Discuss the basis of moral judgment
3. Explain the types of conscience
4. Reflect on the reading “Pretension”

The Meaning of Norms

A norm is a standard of measurement. We measure the size, the weight, the length, the
duration, the intensity, the quantity, and the depth of something. We measure objects, events,
emotions, and persons.
We make a value judgment when we measure the quality of a thing. The physical
qualities of objects are measured with the use of a device such as clock, ruler, speedometer, or
thermometer. The moral qualities of human acts are measured with the use of a norm or
standard to support a judgment. The judges of a beauty contest, for example, uses a criteria for
scoring the contestants as to their physical appearance, stage presence, costume, and
intelligence.
The Norms of Morality
The norms of morality "are the criteria of judgment about the sorts of persons we ought
to be and the sorts of actions we ought to perform" (Richard M. Gula:1). Moral norms are the
criteria for judging (1) the quality of character, what sort of person one ought to become and (2)
the quality of an act, what sort of action ought to be done.
It is significant that in the definition the quality of character takes precedence over the
quality of actions, because actions are only the product of character. The kind of person we are
determine the kind of action we do. An evil-minded person will do what is wrong. A well-
intentioned person will do what is good. In this sense, action reflects character.
Reading: B. Write a reflection paper after reading the “The Reality of Evil”
The Reality of Evil
There are good actions and there are evil actions. Their realities do not come from the
mind in spite of some people saying "evil is all in the mind".
Some people do not see evil, accept it as something "normal", or identify it as
something else. Some, for example, would regard pornography as an art. Some think of
gambling and prostitution as means of livelihood. A terrorist believes that murdering
unbelievers is fulfilling God's Will. A government official believes accepting bribe is a privilege
of his office.
A pile of garbage is garbage even if a scavenger were to say it is good. Garbage
represents what is ugly, dirty and bad in the surrounding. In contrast, a rose garden stands for
what is clean, beautiful, and wholesome. Therefore, only he who is intellectual dishonest would
claim "evil is only in the mind”, implying that evil is something imaginary, an illusion.
The expression “ang masama ay nasa isip lang" should not mean that evil is a fiction. It
should mean rather that an evil act begins in the mind as an evil thought and is translated into an
immoral act. Indeed, the mind is "the devil's workshop".

EXERCISE NO. 10 Date:

Name: Section:
Answer the following briefly: 5 points each. Refer to the attached rubric.
1. What factors determine the moral quality of an act?
2. When is an action a “just act"?
3. Explain the end does not justify the means".
4. Why do we need laws?
EXERCISE NO. 11 Date:
Name: Section:
A. Explain the following terms: 5 points each. Refer to the attached rubric.
1. moral law
2. common good
3. command responsibility
4. negative law
5. affirmative Law
 actuations of their employees, and superiors, over the acts of their subordinates.
The law on sexual harassment is based on the doctrine of command
responsibility. (d) The legal or blood relation of people involved in act may
modify the nature of such act. For instance, killing of a parent changes
homicide to parricide.
2. "What” refers to the act itself, or to the quality and quantity of the results of
such act. In robbery, for instance, what is stolen and how much is stolen are
aggravating factors. Likewise, the number of victims determines the seriousness
of the murder.
3. "Where” refers to the place where the act is committed. A crime inside a church
is more scandalous than that committed in a secluded place. Murder in a
marketplace is more heinous than that done in a mountain trail.
4. "With whom” refers to the companion or accomplices in an act. The more
people are involved in the commission of an act, the more serious is the crime.
5. "Why" refers to the motive of the doer, as discussed earlier.
6. "How" refers to the manner the act is perpetrated. Homicide committed with
much cruelty is a heinous crime.
7. "When "refers to the time of the act. A murder committed when the victim is
sleeping is more offensive than the one done when the victim is wide awake.
Observations:
Circumstantial factor:
1) Circumstance may either increase or decrease the wrongfulness of an evil act. The
killing of innocent people in the case of terrorists exploding a bomb in public places
constitutes a serious crime against humanity. On the other hand, killing a tyrant who has
long oppressed the assailant accepts a mitigating factor and, therefore, is less evil.
Nonetheless, the act remains an evil act and the perpetrator of such act is accountable
and punishable.
2) Circumstances also may either increase or decrease the merits of a good act. Helping
another at the risk of one's life is an act of heroism. Helping another in expectation of a
reward or fee is a business transaction.
3) Circumstances may exempt temporarily someone from doing a required act. A debtor
may not pay his debts when he does not the money, or if paying up would cause him
great hardships.
4) Circumstances do not prove the guilt of a person. The presence of a person when a
crime is committed does not prove he is the criminal
The Morally Good Act
A morally good act is that which sound in all aspects - in its nature, motive, and
circumstances. In the Scriptures, the morally upright is a just man, one who weighs his actions
in relation to what the law demands, to what the circumstances would allow, and to what fits his
stature as a rational being. A morally good action, therefore, is a just act - "makatarungan".
We also speak of it as "maka-tao", or "maka-Diyos", indicating that such action is fair
to the other person and in accordance with the Will of God.
The Relevance of Laws
Laws mandate some actions as prohibited and others as permitted and required. We may
therefore consider laws as determinants of human behavior. Some people do not do what is
good unless they are forced to. St. Thomas points out that laws are made for those who are weak
in character.
Society adopts laws to protect its members from themselves or from those who might
want to hurt them. By prescribing punishments for transgressions, laws encourage and compel
people to act for the good of all. Everyone should obey the law or risk being punished. As
authorities would put it - "dura lex, sed lex", the law is harsh, but it is the law - and everyone
must obey.
The Definition of Law
Law, according to St. Thomas Aquinas, is an ordinance of reason, promulgated for the
common good by one who has charge of society.
Laws are "ordinance of reason" because they are results of serious study, deliberation,
or public debate. They are "promulgated" because they are made known to the people who are
bound to observe them. They are "for the common good" because the purpose of the law is the
general welfare of the people. They are enacted by who has charge of society" because only
those who have legitimate authority to govern may pass laws.
Kinds of Law
1. Divine Positive Laws are those made known to men by God, like the Decalogue (Ten
Commandments) given to Moses. We also call them moral laws because they are
concerned with moral acts. Violation of these laws constitutes a sin.
2. Human Positive Laws are those made by legitimate human authority, such as the laws
enacted by the State or the Church. Human positive laws are intended to preserve peace
and order and to direct members to work towards the common good. They may also
have as their object the moral acts. Violation of these laws constitutes an illegal act. The
Constitution and the Civil Code embody the laws of the Philippines. Canon Law
embodies the laws of the Catholic Church.
 3. Affirmative and Negative Laws: Both divine and human positive laws are either
affirmative or negative. Affirmative laws are those that require the performance of an
act, like that of giving respect to parents and that of paying taxes when due. Negative
laws are those that prohibit the performance of an act, like the prohibition against
smoking in designated public places.
Binding in Conscience
Moral laws are those derived from natural law. They are the inherent and essential
tendencies of human nature so that they are thought as being "written" in the hearts of men.
They regulate thoughts and feelings. Moral laws are enforced by personal commitment in the
absence of the threat of corporal punishments or sanctions. Moral laws are said to bind in
conscience, because they impose upon the person a moral obligation to accept the law and
comply with it.
Moral laws then are enforced by personal conviction rather than by the threat of
corporal punishment. On the other hand, human laws regulate only the external acts when these
are manifested and observed. They do not regulate thoughts and feelings so that, for example, a
person may not be arrested for wanting to commit murder until such time when he actually
attempts it. Human laws do not bind in conscience and are purely penal, that is, they are
enforced by police powers and justice is served when the culprit suffers the punishment.
Properties of a Just Law
A human law, in order to be accepted as just, must have the following properties:
1) A human law must conform with divine laws. This is because all legitimate authority
comes from God. Therefore, no human authority may contradict God's will as
manifested in the natural law or divine positive laws.
2) A human law must promote the common good. The common good is the communal
benefit, material and spiritual, necessary for the promotion of human life. The common
good consists in economic prosperity, peace and order, health, education, and moral
instruction of the members of society.
3) A human law must not discriminate against certain individuals or groups. It must apply
proportionately to all members of society so that the needs of each one are served.
4) A human law must be practicable. A law which imposes undue hardships and sacrifices
in its compliance is not just.
5) A human law must be flexible. It must provide limits and define the basis for
exemptions. Laws are for the benefit of man, not for his destruction.
6) A law must be amendable. The conditions and reasons for a law do change. Therefore, a
law should be amendable and changeable.