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 BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Dinoflagellates Have two flagella one lies longitudinal and other transversely in
furrow

Euglenoids have two flagella, one short one long.

Basidiomycetes Produces 4 basidiospores in the basidium.

D.J. Ivanowsky 1892 recognized certain microbes as causal organisms of mosaic

disease of tobacco.

M.W. Beijerinck 1898 demonstrated that extract of the infected plant of tobacco
could cause infection and called the fluid contagium vivum fluidum.

W.M. Stanley 1935 showed that viruses can be crystallised.

T.O. Diener 1971 discovered Viroids

 Plant Kingdom
R H Whittaker's 1969 Whittaker's 5 kingdom classification

Algae Habitat: moist stones, soils and wood, fungi (lichen) and animals
(e.g., on sloth bear)

Algae Used as Food: Porphyra, Laminaria, Chlorella and Sargassum

Agar-agar (phycocolloid): Certain species of red algae belonging to genera Gelidium and
Gracilaria.

Hydrocolloids (water Algin (brown algae) and carrageen (red algae)

holding substances):
Plant Kingdom
Example Of Algae:
✓ Microscopic Unicellular Algae: Chlamydomonas
✓ Colonial Algae: Volvox
✓ Filamentous Algae: Ulothrix and Spirogyra
✓ Flagellated and similar sized gamete: Chlamydomonas (Some Species)
✓ Non Flagellated and similar sized gamete: Spirogyra
✓ Isogamy : Spirogyra
✓ Anisogamy: Chlamydomonas
✓ Oogamy: Volvox, Fucus.
✓ Chlorophyceae/Green Algae: Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra and Chara
✓ Phaeophyceae/ Brown Algae: Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum and Fucus
✓ Rhodophyceae/ Red Algae: Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gracilaria and Gelidium.
Plant Kingdom
Example of Bryophytes:
✓ Liverworts (Hepaticopsida): Marchantia, Riccia, Sphaerocarpus
✓ Mosses (Bryopsida): Funaria, Polytrichum and Sphagnum
✓ Hornworts (Anthocerotopsida): Anthoceros, Notothylas, Megaceros
Example of Pteridophytes
✓ Psilopsida: Psilotum
✓ Lycopsida: Selaginella, Lycopodium
✓ Sphenopsida: Equisetum
Plant Kingdom
Example of Pteridophytes
✓ Macrophylls: as in most Ferns
✓ Pteropsida: Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum
✓ Microphylls: Selaginella
✓ Strobili or cones are found in (Selaginella, Equisetum)
✓ Homosporous: Pteris, Adiantum (most pteridophytes)
✓ Heterosporous: Selaginella Marsilea and Salvinia
Plant Kingdom
Example of Gymnosperms:
✓ Cycadophyta: Cycads
✓ Ginkgophyta: Ginkgo
✓ Pinophyta: pine, spruce, fir, cedar, hemlock, redwood, and cypress
✓ Gnetophyta: Gnetophytes
✓ Tallest tree: Sequoia
✓ Coralloid roots: Cycas
✓ Mycorrhiza -Pinus
✓ Branched stem is found in: Pinus, Cedrus
✓ Unbranched stem: Cycas, Zania
✓ Dioecious: Cycas
✓ Monoecious: Pinus
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
✓ Strobilanthes Kunthiana - Flowers once in 12 years. Last flowered during

September -October 2006

✓ Pollen grain measure about 25-50 micrometres

✓ In over 60 percent of angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at 2-celled stage.

✓ Rice and Wheat pollen grain have viability within 30 minutes of their release

✓ It is possible to store pollen grains of large number of species for years in

liquid nitrogen at -196°C

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
✓ Tallest flower of Amorphophallus. The flower is about 6 feet in height.

✓ The oldest seed dormancy is of a Lupine, Lupinus arcticus excavated from Arctic

Tundra. The seed germinated after 10,000 year of dormancy.

✓ Recent record of 2000 years old viable seed is of the date palm.
OVULE
Polidy in Ovule
✓ Funicle (Stalk of ovule) →2n
✓ Hilum (Scar of funcile) →2n
✓ Chalaza (Basal part of ovule) →2n
✓ Integuments (Envelope of ovule) →2n
✓ Nucellus (Central body of ovule) → 2n
✓ Embryo sac (Female gametophyte) →2n
✓ Egg apparatus → Egg cell (n) Synergids (n)
✓ Antipodal cells → (n)
✓ Secondary nucleus (2n) Product of fusion of 2 haploid (n) polar nuclei
FLOWER
SYNONYMS
✓ Stamen → Microsporophyll

✓ Pollen sacs → Microsporangia

✓ Pollen grains → Microspores

✓ Ovary/carpel → Megasporophyll

✓ Ovule → Megasporangium

✓ Embryo sac → Female gametophyte

✓ Egg apparatus → Archegonium

✓ Egg (Oosphere) → Female gamete

IMPORTANT FORMULA TO DETERMINE PLOIDY
Formula
✓ Ploidy of embryo = ½ ploidy level of male plant + ½ ploidy level of female plant
✓ Ploidy of Endosperm = Total ploidy level of female plant + ½ ploidy level of male plant.
✓ In Gymnosperms, endosperm represents female gametophyte and is haploid. Its ploidy
level will be half the ploidy level of female plant.
✓ 1 meiosis in total produces 8 male gametes.
✓ One meiosis forms 4 pollen grains and each pollen grain produces 2 male gametes.
✓ 1 meiosis forms 1 functional egg.
✓ Number of meiosis required to produce 100 fruits → Number of fruits asked x 1.25.
 PRINCIPLE OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATIONS

Cause of variation is due to sexual Was known from - 8000 to 1000 B.C
reproduction

Gregor Mendel Conducted hybridisation experiments on garden peas

(1856-1863) and proposed the laws of inheritance in living
organisms.

Mendel selected 14 true breeding plant varieties

Monohybrid phenotypic ratio 3:1

Genotypic ratio 1 : 2 :1

Dihybrid phenotypic ratio 9:3:3:1

Dihybrid Genotypic ratio 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1

 PRINCIPLE OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATIONS

Mendel Published his work of inheritance in 1865.

Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri Discovered Chromosomal movement in 1902

Sutton and Boveri Chromosomal theory of inheritance

Honking Discovered structure of Nucleus in I891

Number of chromosome 23 pairs of chromosome out of 22 pairs are autosomes chromosome, 1

pair sex chromo

Mendelian disorders Haemophilia, Cystic fibrosis, Sickle-cell anaemia, Colour blindness,

Phenylketonuria, Thalassemia,
 PRINCIPLE OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATIONS

Haemophilia Sex linked recessive disease

Sickle Cell Anaemia Autosome linked recessive trait, caused by the substitution of Glutamic
acid (Glu) by Valine (Val) at the sixth position of the beta globin chain of
the haemoglobin molecule.

Sickle Cell Anaemia Single base substitution at the sixth codon of the beta globin gene from
GAG to GUG.

Phenylketonuria Autosomal recessive trait, lacks an enzyme that converts the amino acid
phenylalanine into tyrosine

Aneuploidy Gain or loss of a chromosome(s),

Polyploidy More than two paired (homologous) sets of chromosomes.

 PRINCIPLE OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATIONS
Down’s Trisomy - additional of extra 21st chromosome
syndrome

Turner’s Loss of an X chromosome in females 45 with X0

syndrome

Klinefelter’s Additional copy of X-chromosome in males 47, XXY

Syndrome
QUICK TIPS
✓ Quick tip to determine the number of gametes
✓ Formula = 2n, where n = number of heterozygous allele pairs.
✓ Example: Determine the number of gametes in genotype AaBBCcDD.
✓ Solution: In AaBBCcDD heterozygous is Aa and Cc = 2
✓ Formula: 2n; 22 = 4
✓ Therefore, four types of gametes will be formed. These are,
✓ ABcD, ABCD, aBcD, aBCD
CALCULATING RECOMBINATION FREQUENCY
✓ The percentage of recombinant progeny produced in a cross is called the recombination

frequency,

Recombination frequency = Number of recombinant progeny

X 100
Total number of progeny

Map distance = Number of recombinant offspring X 100

Total number of offspring

✓ The units of distance are called map units (mu)

✓ They are also referred to as centiMorgans (cM)

✓ One map unit is equivalent to 1% recombination frequency

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 MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
Bacteriophage Φ 174 5386 Nucleotides

Bacteriophage lambda 48502 base pair

Escherichia coli 4.6 x 106 bp

Haploid content 3.3 x 109 bp

STRUCTURE OF POLYNUCLEOTIDE

Phosphate group link 5’ - OH Through phosphodiester linkage

nucleoside

Two nucleotides are linked 3' - 5' phosphodiester to form dinucleotide

In RNA OH group is present At 2' position

 MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE

Friedrich Miescher in 1869. First identified DNA as an acidic substance and named it as
‘Nuclein

James Watson and Francis Crick Double Helix model for the structure of DNA.

Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind X-ray diffraction

Franklin

Erwin Chargaff Ratios between Adenine and Thymine and Guanine and
Cytosine are constant and equals one

Hydrogen bonds Two hydrogen bond between AT and three hydrogen bond
between GC

The pitch of the helix 3.4 nm (a nanometre is one billionth of a metre, that is 10-9 m)
 MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
Per turn of helix 10 bp

Distance between a bp in a helix 0.34 nm

Francis Crick Proposed the Central dogma in molecular biology DNA→RNA→Protein.

Distance between consecutive bp 0.34 nm (0.34×10–9 m)

Length of DNA total number of bp X distance between two consecutive bp

= 6.6 × 109 bp × 0.34 × 10-9m/bp= 2.2 metres.

SEARCH FOR GENETIC MATERIAL

1928, Frederick Griffith Transforming Principle

(1933-44) Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty -Biochemical Characterisation of
Transforming Principle

(1952) Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase proved The Genetic Material is DNA
 MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
Semiconservative DNA Watson and Crick (1953)

Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl E.coli divide every 20 minutes

1958:

Taylor and Colleagues in 1958 Performed Radioactive thymidine experiment on Vicia

faba (faba beans) to detect distribution of newly
synthesised DNA in the chromosomes

E. coli has 4.6 ×106 bp replicates in 20 mins, average rate of

polymerisation 2000 bp per second

RNA polymerase I transcribes rRNAs (28S, 18S, and 5.8S)

RNA polymerase III transcription of tRNA, 5srRNA, and snRNAs (small nuclear
RNAs).

RNA polymerase II transcribes precursor of mRNA, the heterogeneous

nuclear RNA (hnRNA).
 MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
Capping of hnRNA (methyl guanosine triphosphate) is added to the 5'-end of
hnRNA

Tailing of hnRNA Adenylate residues (200-300) are added at 3'-end

George Gamow Genetic code should be made up of three nucleotides

4 nitrogenous bases for 20 amino acids and 64 genetic code

Har Gobind Khorana synthesising RNA molecules with defined combinations of

bases (homopolymers and copolymers)

Marshall Nirenberg’s Cell-free system for protein synthesis

Francois Jacob and a Lac operon

biochemist, Jacque Monod
 MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
Human Genome Project launched in the year 1990

Human genome approximately 3 x 109 bp

Human Genome Project Cost US $ 3 per bp, total cost - 9 billion US dollar

Total number of genes in human Approximately 20,000-25,000 genes in human DNA

genome

Total number of bp in human 3164.7 million nucleotide bases

genome

Human Genome Project 13-year project, completed in the year 2003

Human Genome Project US, UK, Japan, France, Germany, China and others
 MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
Average gene Consists of 3000 bases,

Largest known human gene Dystrophin at 2.4 million bases

Constant DNA sequence in all humans 99.9 percent nucleotide bases are exactly the same in all people

Less than 2 percent of the genome codes for proteins

50 per cent of discovered genes function is unknown

Longest and shortest gene Chromosome 1 has most genes 2968, Y Chromosome has the fewest 231

SNPs – single nucleotide polymorphism, 1.4 million locations has been identified

Alec Jeffreys. Technique of DNA Fingerprinting

VNTR Variable Number of Tandem Repeats