CARIBBEAN EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL

AMENDMENT TO
READINGS IN CARIBBEAN STUDIES

RESOURCE MATERIALS FOR

CARIBBEAN ADVANCED PROFICIENCY EXAMINATIONS (CAPE)
SYLLABUS IN CARIBBEAN STUDIES

Contributors: David Browne

Hamid Ghany
Samuel Lochan
Jeniffer Mohammed
Patricia Worrell
 AMENDMENT TO THE
READINGS IN CARIBBEAN STUDIES

RESOURCE MATERIALS FOR CARIBBEAN ADVANCED PROFICIENCY

EXAMINATIONS (CAPE) SYLLABUS IN CARIBBEAN STUDIES

Please note that the names of Modules 2 and 3 in the current CAPE Caribbean Studies syllabus ","
(CXC A1/U1/03) were revised in 2003.

ORIGINAL NEW
Module 2: Challenges of Development Module 2: Issues in Caribbean Development

Module 3: Conducting an Independent Study Module 3: Investigating Human and Social

Development in the Caribbean

The new names of the Modules reflect the focus of the current Specific Objectives and Content
of Modules 2 and 3 in the revised syllabus.

The text, READINGS IN CARIBBEAN STUDIES: RESOURCE MATERIALS FOR CARIBBEAN

ADVANCED PROFICIENCY EXAMINATIONS (CAPE) SYLLABUS IN CARIBBEAN STUDIES, issued
in October 2000, though containing the original names of the Modules, continues to provide
guidance in critical areas of the revised CAPE Caribbean Studies syllabus.

Western Zone Office

2005/02/08
 Preface
Caribbean Studies is an interdisciplinary subject. It draws from a broad field of
knowledge in dealing with Caribbean issues in a global context. This reader reflects the
interdisciplinary nature having been written by experts in history, geography, sociology,
political science, economics, education, culture and research.

The Caribbean is a highly diverse community and its issues, its behaviours, and its
interactions unfold in different ways across the region. Hence, this reader can only
provide general guidance for both teacher and student, as to how topics can be studied
and the scope of relevant curriculum materials. Teachers and students are encouraged to
apply the understandings acquired from the text, to their own territory. At the same time,
the Caribbean Studies syllabus is premised on the need for widening the awareness of
Caribbean peoples about each other, so that you are also encouraged to apply the
concepts and themes in the text not only to what is familiar but to those parts of the
Caribbean with which you are decidedly unfamiliar.

The text adopts an easy-to-read style, directed at both teacher and student. It broadly
resembles the structure and sequence of the syllabus. Relevant syllabus objectives are
identified as footnotes at the start of each chapter. All the major concepts pertaining to
each topic are boldened in the text and re-appear at the end of the chapter for your
convenience, as a list of key concepts. A list of references is also provided at the end of
each chapter. The list consists of sources used and further readings that can deepen your
exploration of these topics.

There are several student activities throughout the text. These are intended to encourage
active engagement with the ideas, concepts, issues and knowledge within each topic.
They can be used by teachers as examples of class activities or as ideas for further work.
Students can also attempt the activities as tasks that require reflection by individuals on
certain issues.
Finally, the reader provides extensive guidelines for coursework and independent study.
A major intention of the Caribbean Studies syllabus is to enable persons to develop
research which are necessary for analyses of situations in the Caribbean and for charting
a way forward.

This reader should fill the 'gap' that teachers and students have identified in the past in
dealing with this subject which has the Caribbean issues at its core and draws insights
from various disciplines.

Jeniffer Mohammed
October 2000.
 CARIBBEAN EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL
WESTERN ZONE OFFICE

CARIBBEAN STUDIES RESOURCE MATERIAL

CONTENTS

Unit # Title Page

Preface

MODULE 1 CARIBBEAN SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Chapter 1 Society and Culture 1

Chapter 2 Geography, Society and Culture 23

Chapter 3 History, Society and Culture 43

Chapter 4 The Caribbean and the Wider World 68

Chapter 5 Exploring the Concept Development 84

MODULE 2 CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 6 Culture, Environment and Development 109

Chapter 7 Regional Integration and Development 130

Chapter 8 The Arts, Popular Culture, Mass Media 147

and Sports in Development

Chapter 9 Social Justice and Development 173

MODULE 3 CONDUCTING AN INDEPENDENT STUDY

Chapter 10 Conducting an Independent study 191

 CAPE
/ Caribbean Studies

, CARIBBEAN SOCIETY
AND CULTURE

Module 1
 Chapter 1

Society and Culture

Overview

Society and culture are key concepts used to examine the experience of Caribbean
peoples. A study of society and c_ulture reveals the remarkably common traits and
characteristics evident at the societal and cultural levels within the Caribbean Region.
Closer examination also throws up the diversity that at first hand might be hidden from
view. The concepts of society and culture can be studied with reference to countries as a
whole as well as to you as individuals. For it is society and culture which have played a
fundamental role in how you think about life, the choices you have made, and the
communities you have built. In dwelling on the role of culture in your lives, you also
become aware that culture is dynamic and that it is always in the process of change.

Objectives1

By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

1. explain the terms, 'society' and 'culture';

2. use sociological concepts in explaining 'society' and 'culture';
3. appreciate the diverse as well as the common features of Caribbean
society and culture;

4. understand some of the factors shaping Caribbean society and culture;

5. evaluate the relevance of -concepts associated with society and culture to
your roles, values, choices, and behaviours;

6. describe the effects of erasure, retention and renewal on the cultural

practices of Caribbean peoples.

1 These objectives refer to those of Module 1, specific objectives 1,2,3 and 7 of the Caribbean Studies Syllabus
Introduction

The terms, 'society' and 'culture', are often used interchangeably. We will study each
separately in order to recognize their individual meanings as well as their areas of
overlap. In this way we will become more adept at interpreting the terms when they are
used specifically and interchangeably. Sociological concepts will be used to explore the
two concepts. From a general upderstanding of the two terms we move to apply them to
the specific context of the Caribbean. In so doing we will be identifying the
characteristics that put the particular or peculiar stamp Caribbean on our society and
culture. This we can do through an examination of our own lives and the communities in
which we live. Finally, we are led to appreciate the fact that culture does undergo change
through the processes of erasure, retention and renewal.

Society

The definition of society often stresses collectivity - a collection of people occupying a

defined geowaphical area over a long period of time. The area may or may not coincide
with the boundaries of the nation state. For example, the large Cuban community in
Florida, USA, can be still considered as constituting part of Cuba's society. This
emphasis in the meaning of the term sees society as a large group, most times the largest
social group, to which an individual may feel a sense of 'belongingness'. Society, then,
refers to a group of people whose members for the most part occupy a bounded
geographical context.

In the Caribbean, society is often identified with the boundaries of each nation state.
Therefore, for example, for the most part Dominicans will regard the insular boundaries
of the island of Dominica as the limits of their society and their sense of 'belongingness'
is so defined. Over time there is an increased urgency to recognize each constituency as
part of a larger entity - the Caribbean. The success of the Caribbean Community
(CARICOM) is contingent on the extent to which there is a liberation from the
perceptions of what constitutes our land-space and where we feel comfortable in drawing
the boundaries of our society.

2
The sociological understanding of the term, society, stresses interaction amongst its
members. For example, society is thought of as a social system - an arrangement of
interactions and patterns of behaviour that occur between members of social groups,
small and large, in society. The largest social groups making up the social system are
social institutions. They refer to the most fundamental, and the most overarching ways
people in a society have for organizing the important aspects of their existence.

The family, the economy, the polity, as well as, education and religion, are social
institutions. Some cannot be seen. They are not concrete. They exist in the realm of
ideas - the most cherished set of ideas we have for how our social life should be
organized. They are considered to be groups because they involve concrete
manifestations of ideas - that is, social organizations. Thus, the social institution of
education will manifest social organizations such as ministries of education, primary and
secondary schools, parent teacher associations and trade unions.

This notion of society as patterns of interaction within well-defined groups allows the
concept of culture to surface and shows how the two terms are linked. It is the interaction
of, and within social groups, that produces culture. Society then, provides the framework
of interaction in which culture develops.

Society functions through the roles that are assigned to institutions, organizations and
persons. A role is a set of ideas or expectations associated with a certain status or
position. The interaction that has been mentioned above is really the relationships that
occur between members of society carrying out their various roles. For example, there are
different sets of understandings of the role of a teacher and the role of a student, which
allow for interactions that are complementary.

The patterns of interaction in a society over time allow certain ways of organizing life to
become dominant and others to fade. In Caribbean society of not too long ago the
patterns of interaction at the level of the social group (villagers) fostered a particular kind
of culture that came to characterize village life. Today most Caribbean people tend to
cherish modem conveniences as ways of organizing tasks and resp_onsibilities. The
interactions of social groups now are different - more persons are educated, more can

3
afford modem conveniences, even villagers, more live in towns; these changes in
interaction that spawn different behaviours manifest themselves as culture.

Thus, there are two commonly accepted understandings of the term society. The one that
stresses a collection of people occupying a well defined land-space, continued over time,
is relatively unproblematic and sees society in static terms. On the other hand, an
explanation of society as the interaction that goes on in groups, illustrates its dynamic
nature, but also makes it difficult to clearly differentiate between society and culture;
This is because group interaction seems to be based on, and at the same time, produces
culture.

Caribbean Society

In the previous section we have studied general sociological concepts to help us

understand society, and its link with culture. This section focuses on specific attributes of
Caribbean societies.

A major tendency of Caribbean societies is for persons to acknowledge the island or

geographic borders as the limit of their society. Although there are many islands in the
Caribbean, the tendency is, for the most part, for each island people to think of
themselves as a separate society from the neighbouring islands. It is acknowledged that
this way of thinking is an impediment to the success of the integration movement. It also
assumes something of the nature of a problem when certain islands become 'merged'
with each other to form a unitary state.

Consider the islands of Trinidad and Tobago. Trinidad is a multi-religious, multi-ethnic,

multi-racial country with a fast pace of development and rising crime rate, especially
associated with drug trafficking. Tobago is a much smaller island with a more
homogeneous population than Trinidad. In addition, Tobago has a gentle pace to life that
makes it superb as a tourist getaway. Although both islands have been twinned for more
than a century, inhabitants still feel a strong sense of having separate societies. This
experience is not unique. In 1980 the British Government formally recognized Anguilla's
unwillingness to be associated with St.Kitts and Nevis.

4
 Activity 1:1
As students of this course you come from many territories within the Caribbean. It is possible for you then to
further explore the concept of Caribbean society and this trait of singularity or insularity in your own
countries.

• Ask a few persons about their feelings at the thought of including another neighbouring island or territory
with your country to form one state or, disassociating from an already established relationship. You will
need to use credible examples to elicit something of the true nature of their understandings about what
constitutes society in the Caribbean.
• Categorize the reasons they offer as important indicators of how values and attitudes help to shape
behaviours.
Credible examples you can use include - the Grenadines forming their own state or one of the islands wanting
to secede; St.Kitts and Nevis; Antigua and Barbuda; what are the sentiments in Anguilla now?; Jamaica and
the Cayman Islands; Guyana and Venezuela; Belize and Guatemala; or, Barbados and Grenada.

The activity above will probably tend to show a natural distrust of sharing statehood with
another territory. Even the large mainland territories of Suriname, Guyana and Belize
seem to maintain a strong, 'island like' understanding of their society and its borders
although they exist within large landmasses. Each of these territories is very different
from-the states around and they have few ties with them. In each case the borders of the
country signifies the limit to the society.

It would seem that people belonging to a particular society feel that if they became
incorporated into another state, chances are that their way of life would in some way be
adversely affected. Even though they may stand to gain economically from the
arrangement, there is a deep sense in which people value the traditions and cultural
practices of their land and feel that sharing statehood would jeopardize that. Here we get
an understanding that it is not the actual natural island frontier they value as the borders
of the society (though that is important in maintaining separateness), but the cultural
interactions produced by their society, which they deem to be different from other
territories and of intrinsic value.

5
 Activity 1:2
The findings from Activity 1 may have indicated certain traits common to Caribbean people in thinking about
society such as singularity or insularity. In this exercise we would lik~ to unearth differences in perspective to
illustrate the diversity that is also characteristic of the Caribbean. ·
Discuss with your classmates the likely position that Cubans resident in Cuba adopt about Cubans resident in
Florida. Are they likely to still regard them as part of their society? For the Cubans resident in Florida, how do
you think they perceive themselves as members of 'society'?

• Study the situation in islands comprising two states, for example, Haiti and Santo Domingo, and Saint
Maarten (Dutch) and St. Martin (French). Do the typical values of singularity and insularity also
characterize these societies?

• In countries such as Belize, the Maya people are not confined within the borders of the state. They are
also found in Guatemala and Mexico. Find out whether the Belize Maya population feels a strong sense of
'bondedness' with the nation of Belize or the Maya nation. (Note: persons inhabiting complex social
groupings may not be capable of a simple either/ or option).

Culture

Culture is widely regarded as the ways of life of a people. It is often defined as learned
behaviour. A very narrow interpretation of the term refers to forms of cultural expression
- music, dance, art and craft. In the Caribbean Studies syllabus, culture is used in its
widest sense - all forms of organization, ways of interacting, artifacts produced, popular
culture, as well as, typical beliefs, ideas, values and norms. It can perhaps be better
understood as subdivided into material and non-material culture.

Material culture refers to the products of a people such as their styles of architecture,
types of food preparation, economic organizations, and their forms of technology.
Technology is an all-encompassing term referring to any tools or products man has
devised to make his livelihood easier or supply his basic needs. This refers to both his
modem inventions of machines and various types of equipment as well as his use through
the ages of simpler implements. It also includes the application of scientific thinking and
research to practical everyday life - for example, the use of fertilizers (whether natural or
animal), mass production processes resulting in consumer goods, even more realistic
dolls and toys for children as consumers, and more sophisticated musical instruments and
devices. In the realm of education, there is the obvious use of audio-visual aids to support
instruction. However, technology is also apparent in the research-based initiatives that
help us to organize instructional materials according to general and specific objectives,

6
 use graphic and other strategies such as colour, different fonts and layouts, and relate
activities to the stated objectives, all deemed to be more reader friendly.

Non-material culture refers to the cherished ideas, beliefs, values, and norms, which
become tangible in the forms of behaviour and material objects to which they give rise.
All are fonns of learned behaviour. Cultural beliefs refer to what the collective society
feel is true.

Cultural beliefs are important because it is from them that we construct what we
take to be the reality of everyday life as well as not-so-everyday matters such as
spirituality and cosmology. This is particularly true of the beliefs that are
attached to various positions in social systems, assumptions that we use as a
substitute for direct personal knowledge of people we interact with and depend
on every day. We assume that bank tellers in fact place our deposits in the bank
rather than absconding with them for an early retirement; we assume that
people who identify themselves as doctors and display all the appropriate
appearances know what they are doing; ...
(Johnson, 1995, p.24).

Cultural values refer to a set of rankings people in a society confer on to a myriad of

social behaviours. Certain practices are ranked highly if they are perceived as somehow
good or of value to the society. For example, high positive regard is conferred on persons
who demonstrate altruistic qualities, such as heroism, and patriotism, or on those who
have performed great feats such as winning Olympic medals, becoming Prime Minister,
or even being a self sacrificing mother. Forcibly condemned are murder, treason,
adultery, incest, and promiscuity. Not as strongly condemned are being unmannerly or
unclean, lying, cheating and bragging. Values then are shared ideas about how
behaviours or dispositions are to be ranked in a given culture.

Norms are standards of behaviour that are culturally accepted and emanate from the
realm of cultural values that we share. Cultural values form an abstract set of rankings
against which social behaviours, dispositions or attitudes are judged. The importance of
norms is that they invoke a range of rewards and sanctions to be conferred on members of
the society according to their behaviour. In this way norms are tied to social
consequences and give tangible support for the realm of cultural values.

7
From the foregoing description you should realize that culture develops within the
framework of a society. The two terms are therefore related. The interaction of members
who belong to the same society produce culturally accepted ways of organizing their
existence. This refers to the non-material world ofbeliefs and values as well as concrete
material forms.

Culture Creation

In discussing the term culture much emphasis is put on it being created by the interaction
of groups (society). We will now examine this idea about how and why culture is created.
Any arrangements you see about you within the institutions of society, whether in the
economy or religion, health or the family, have come about because our forefathers
thought that such ways were best for the society to survive. In other words, culture allows
the group (society) to organize itself and be perpetuated. These ideas and arrangements
are taught to the younger generation so that society will not fall apart. Culture is the
cohesive force that holds society together.

From time immemorial, all societies have devised ways for the cultural knowledge of the
society to be passed on. Family life and parenting practices, ways of governing,
agricultural and other economic activities, artistic forms of expressions, and the
accumulated store of skills, knowledge and competencies, become the task of one
generation to transmit to the other. The process by which this is done is socialization.

All societies socialize their people into the stock of cultural knowledge that they have
developed. From our earliest years, our family assumes the responsibility of inculcating
in us ways of behaving that are appropriate in our society. For example, along with
teaching us everything else about the culture into which we were born, our family
socializes us to understand gender roles - masculinity and femininity. Gender
socialization is a form of cultural knowledge that may differ across societies. We learn all
kinds of cultural knowledge in the home and at pre-schools through direct instruction but
more commonly through observation, imitation, and the experience of reward and
punishmenQ This early form of socialization, primary socialization, is thought to be a
powerful conditioning that remains with us all our lives.
r
LSecondary socialization begins as we enter formal schooling and continues throughout
our adult ·lifel Our socialization never ends. Society is inculcating in us culturally
appropriate ways of behaving all the time. Schooling is a major socializing experience
and is, therefore, compulsory in most societies. We learn a stock of knowledge that the
society has decided is valuable knowledge. Schools in the Caribbean seem to value in-
depth knowledge of the disciplines - arts, sciences, social sciences whilst, in other
societies equal value is placed on spiritual and moral education, or physical education,
and the arts movement. In the Caribbean then we seem to be socialized into regarding
certain kinds of knowledge as having higher status than others.

At school we also learn from the hidden curriculum attitudes, values, and beliefs, that
are culturally appropriate. The hidden curriculum refers to those experiences students
have, planned and unplanned, that enable them to better understand the social rules for
living. This is transmitted through an understanding of the intent behind the rules of the
schools, or the implicit rules involved in classroom interaction or on the playground, or
those governing teacher student relationships. In short, the hidden curriculum refers to the
messages students internalize about appropriate or inappropriate behaviours. Whilst we
learn positive norms having to do, for example, with respecting private property, we also
are exposed to norms which denigrate others- those who are not academically able, the
poor, the disabled.

In adult life, your socialization into cultural beliefs, values and norms continues in roles
related to work, marriage, and parenting, as well as in your other activities - leisure,
church, charities, extended study. It is felt that we need these constant and diverse
processes of socialization because we are not born with genetic programming to allow us
to know intuitively about the rules for social living. Each society then has developed
forms of interaction, for example, education, to bring about this learned behaviour
(culture).

It is important that we keep in mind the part socialization plays in maintaining a stable
society and culture. However, as we have seen we are not always socialized into values
that uphold civic responsibility and raise our social consciousness. As young people
growing up in the Caribbean being groomed to take up adult roles, we need to be aware
of the in.,;ciious effects of our socialization, and the culture that is reproduced through us.

9
This is effected in how our understanding of our society and culture is made manifest in
the choices we make in our own lives, the roles we play, and how our behaviour impacts
on our communities.

Caribbean Culture

In Caribbean societies we can separate out some specific behaviours (or norms) and try to
relate them to the cultural value that lies behind the behaviour. For example,

• norm: 'dropping in' by friends and family without prior notice.

cultural value: informality/camaraderie

• norm: cooking more than is needed 'just in case' someone drops by

cultural value: hospitality

• norm: having relatives come to stay for extended and undetermined

periods, perhaps to be closer to school or work
cultural value: hospitality/valuing kinship bonds
This exercise of trying to unearth the cultural values deeply buried in behaviour- be it
attitudes, dispositions or beliefs - starting from the isolation of norms, will stand you in
good stead when you reflect on the values which have influenced your own choices and
roles.

Activity 1 :3
Match the norms of behaviour in the table below with the cultural values listed in the second column (these are
not necessarily listed in correct sequence).

Norms
1. children being brought up by grandmothers, for
example, when parents migrate
2. keeping the elderly at home for as long as possible
to be cared for by relatives
3. children living with parents in family households
beyond their 20's
4. A feeling of being apart and different from other
Caribbean territories
5. Giving 'nicknames', satirizing some aspect of a
person's appearance or exploits
6. Importance and emphasis put on race and colour
Values
a. Making fun of people/little importance put on being
polite
b. Uniqueness/superiority/ insularity
c. Kinship/strong family ties and responsibilities
d. Such attributes often tell much about social
standing
e. Family is a support system/ independence not
valued
f. Kinship/strong family ties and responsibilities

You may tend to disagree sometimes with the phrasing of the sentiments involved in
describing the cultural values listed in Activity 1:3. This is because you may see another
value more dominant and giving rise to the particular norm. For example, the practice of

10
giving nicknames in Caribbean cultures can be attributed to valuing our sense of humour
because often the names we create for people have an element of fun or picong in them.
Similarly, the importance placed on race and colour does not have to stem only from our
valuing that knowledge because of the hints it gives as to wealth, status and prestige. It
could also stem from deeper concerns about keeping family members within the present
ethnic bond and to exclude 'outsiders'. Thus, cultural values have their responsible,
socially caring, empowering side and they have their downside such as when racism,
xenophobia and ethnocentrism are allowed to give rise to norms.

Activity 1:4
• Define the terms: racism, xenophobia and ethnocentrism. Reflect on norms that may be found in your
society that stem from cultural values rooted in these dispositions.

Cultural Erasure, Retention and Renewal

No culture is a hermetically sealed entity. All cultures are influenced by and in

turn influence other cultures. Nor is any culture changeless, invariant or static.
All cultures are in a state of constant flux, driven by both internal and external
forces. These forces may be accommodating, harmonious, benign and based on
voluntary actions, or they may be involuntary, the result of violent conflict,
force, domination and the exercise of illegitimate power.
(UNESCO, 1995, p. 54).

We live culture everyday. We have a dialectic relationship with it. Our changing ideas
for ourselves and our societies impact on our present cultural practices, and in tum
culture acts on us. Out of this synthesis, material and non-material forms of culture
undergo processes of erasure, retention or renewal.

Cultural erasure often stems from a 'tension' between traditional ways of doing things
and the apparent efficiency and cost effectiveness that seem to characterize 'modem
production. In comparison with modem technologies, traditional practices may be seen as
redundant, too time consuming or laborious, for example, weaving by hand, cooking
preparations that involve long periods of preservation, and story telling versus the
immediate, packaged programming of radio, television, cinema and cable. Additionally,
some cultural practices may die out because they do not seem to conform to 'modem' or

11
 western values and lifestyles. Few persons are electing to live in the country and more are
involved in rural-urban drift. In Caribbean countries with a rich and varied linguistic
tradition, local rural languages are dying out. Schools, which are described as 'modem
institutions' emphasize instruction in standard forms of language that can relate to an
r
internationalized education system. In the home, we can see these processes clearly.
Housekeeping has become mechanized by a proliferation of gadgets and appliances.
Related to that, we also see changes in the non-material culture - a gradual erasure of
women being cast in traditional roles.

The processes of cultural erasure actually arise from a continuing contradiction in

Caribbean society and culture. The folk culture - the cultural traditions of the masses,
particularly those at the grassroots level and the rural areas- is gradually being displaced
by more 'modem' ways. The old cultural traditions are generally considered to be not as
useful as before, at least not in comparison with the material culture of metropolitan
countries which carry with it cultural values of modernization. While we are aware that
culture is dynamic and dialectic, the contradictory element here is that much of the
impetus for change is driven by values from outside. While we value our rich folk
tradition, we seem to value more the trappings of modernization.

Cultural retentio~y occur as a result of a deliberate desire to keep traditions alive

and help some groups to preserve their sense of identity. Small groups may feel alienated
within a larger community and try vigorously to preserve their traditions. The Maroon
community of Jamaica, for example, at Moore Town is distinctive because of its
centuries-long history in rebuffing European values and norms and vigorously retaining
West African cultural practices. Palacio (1995) describes an agreement between the Maya
of neighbouring countries and the Maya of Belize to promote tourism centred on the
Maya," ... both archaeological and the living" (p. 36). Sometimes in efforts to realize the
tourist dollar, distinctive cultural groups are supported in building infrastructure and
provision of materials so that their ceremonies, crafts, and foods can be put on show.

Governments in ethnically diverse countries also try to accord each group certain national
holidays and festivals every year, so that their rituals, stories, images, and cultural
practices, could be celebrated by the national community. In Trinidad and Tobago, the
Christian community (the European tradition) celebrates on four occasions - Good

12
Friday, Easter Monday, Corpus Christi and Christmas. The East Indian community on
three occasions- Arrival Day, the Hindu festival of Divali, and the Muslim festival of Eid
ul Fitr (there are also Black Muslims). The Shouter Baptists celebrate their traditions on
one day in the year. In Belize, Garifuna Settlement Day celebrates the traditions of the
'Black Caribs', descendants of the Caribs and African population (Dunn, 1980).

Cultural retention of folk traditions is a process that should not rely only on the impetus
from tourism or national recognition given by governments, but must certainly come
from the people acting out' their cultural identity. The quote, however, notes some of the
ways persons may self-identify and not necessarily be involved in cultural retention:-

The social pressures against self-identification are generating responses from

aboriginal peoples that need closer examination. Among the Garifuna in Belize
language, among other diagnostics, has been a traditional marker. But with the
mass migration from villages some of these markers no longer apply. In a recent
study completed by the author in Belize City among immigrants from one of the
villages, the informants revealed that they value descent and territoriality as two
crucial markers even more than language. In other words, that one's parent is
Garifuna makes one a Garifuna and especially· if one's parent was born in a
Garifuna village.
(Palacio, 1995, p.33).

Activity 1:5
Engage in a group research project to find out as much as you can about cultural erasure, retention and
renewal among:-
(a) the Garifuna of Belize, originally from St. Vincent, and
(b) the Maroons of Jamaica, and similar groups in Hispaniola and Suriname
• What are the threats to cultural identity for these people today?
• What were your sources of information? Can you relate any problems you might have encountered in
sourcing materials, to cultural values in the Caribbean?

Cultural renewal refers to efforts to salvage parts of our past by fashioning new
practices based on the old. They stem from a feeling that there is much of value in what
we have. allowed to neglect, which may have been almost erased. Certain examples come
readily to mind. Throughout the Caribbean there has been a renewed emphasis on African
folk culture and many countries now observe Emancipation Day to celebrate their
African heritage. Emancipation Day is a national holiday in the following Caribbean

13
countries:- the Bahamas (7th August), Barbados (1st August), Grenada (7th August),
Guyana (7th August), St. Lucia (7th August), Suriname (1st July), Trinidad & Tobago (1st
August) and Jamaica (1st August). Forms of African dress now can be seen on any
occasion - not only connected with Emancipation day. There has been a revival of
interest in African religions too, such as the Orisha faith in Trinidad and Tobago.

This renewal of interest in our African heritage may be a direct reaction to the pervasive·
influence of European culture across the Caribbean. Whatever the renewed forms that
may arise and persist, they are likely to be syncretic. For example, today, worship in the
established Christian churches is often accompanied by African musical instruments such
as the drum, chac-chac, and steelpan.

There is the feeling that the fashioning of renewed cultural forms based on syncretism
with existing ones, leads to the creation of something that is uniquely 'Caribbean'. Thus
the resurrection of African traditions may be only a prelude to them being incorporated
into cultural life as Caribbean creations. It has been suggested that the struggle to
supplant African and European centred cultural forms with syncretic Caribbean ones,
may be a new cultural value (DEC, 1997). This struggle is evident in the movement
known as Negritude associated with the Martiniquan, Aime Cesaire.

Activity 1 :6
Suggest examples of cultural erasure, retention and renewal in your country. You can examine areas that are not
covered in the text, for example, leisure, entertainment, the foreign mass media, competitive sports, the influx of
foreigners coming as settlers, family life patterns, medicines and healing practices, music, carnival, land use,
environmental practices, rise in living standards.

This section of the chapter explored the terms 'society' and 'culture', at first in a general
way, to identify the main sociological concepts upon which the terms are built, then we
investigated the peculiar stamp of 'Caribbean society' and 'Caribbean culture'. The
important terms in the study of society were - collectivity (group), social system,
institution, organization, role, singularity, and insularity.frhe impQitant terms in the study
of culture were - traits, material culture, non-material culture, socialization, beliefs,
values, and norms. In an attempt to represent the dynamic nature of culture the concepts
cultural erasure, retention and renewal were studied. In the next section, students will be

14
given the opportunity to reflect on the relevance of these concepts to the choices they
make as community members.]

Factors Shaping Caribbean Society and Culture

We will first identify the conditions or factors that are believed to be instrumental in
shaping Caribbean society and culture. These factors give rise to some of the dominant
cultural values we have recognized in the Caribbean. As you know by now, from these
values will spring norms. Some factors are listed below. Enough similarity exists within
these interactions and others to lead us to believe that we can speak, to a certain extent, of
a common Caribbean culture.

Some of the important conditions and factors that are believed to be influential in shaping
the values we hold today are:

• the near complete genocide of our aboriginal peoples;

• common experiences of slavery, indentureship and the plantation system;
• cultural diversity, social stratification, and hybridization of our people;
• colonial rule, and the legacy of a pervasive 'colonial mentality';
• continuous resistance in efforts to establish emancipation, enfranchisement, and
independence;
• a fragmented existence as an archipelago and isolated mainland states;
• dependent economies and efforts to diversify;
• a 'culture' of migration to metropolitan countries and positive feelings for 'foreign'
tastes;
• the dissemination of Caribbean cultural art forms to a wide international audience;
• syncretism of Caribbean cultural practices with those of other countries.

The above list is not exhaustive. It merely seeks to provide some examples of 'starting
points' for us to think of common Caribbean cultural values, and the norms of
behaviours, to which they may give rise. This is an introspective and reflective activity.
In this course on Caribbean Studies, the course work for Module 1 focuses on you, the
student, and your ability to reflect on all the concepts you learned associated with society
and culture, that you can in tum relate to your life, your personal experience. You are

15
required to continuously reflect in your journals on the concepts you are encountering,
and to eventually complete an assignment based on the following themes.

• how do you define your roles, values and patterns of behaviour within the
communities of which you are members?
• what are the kinds of understandings you have about society and culture that affect
the choices you make in your own lives?
• what are the responses you have to the policies of institutions in your country or the
actions of individuals in your community?

Reflecting on these Issues

Some guidelines are given below to help you get started. They are posed as scenarios you
may encounter, that you might be interested in reflecting on, using the concepts in the
module. Alternatively, while you may not use any of the specific scenarios, they may
suggest other themes that you prefer.

• Do you encounter in your community norms that can be traced to exclusion, that is,
practices that tend to exclude others by virtue of their gender, race, ethnicity, socio-
economic status, religion, or any other criterion? What has been your typical response
to these norms of behaviour in your community? What has been the explanations or
justifications given by members of the community for this behaviour?

• Are there values among your peers which tend to revere 'things foreign'? How are
they manifested as norms? If questioned about such preferences, what might you or
your friends reply in order to justify such practices? To what extent do you believe
young people reflect on the origins of such values in Caribbean societies and culture?

• Is there a pattern to the political affiliations of people in your country or in your

community? What are the criteria that people use to explain their affiliation? What
cultural values may be associated with such norms? As an individual, how do you sec
your role amidst what may tum out to be an overwhelming point of view?

16
• As a young person you are on the verge of making important choices for your life .
These may lie in avenues for further study or a direct transition to the world of work.
What are your thoughts about your options? Are there social expectations governing
your deliberations as well as 'personal' inclinations? What you decide to study and
where you decide to pursue such studies may have 'social' and 'cultural'
connotations. These need to be examined.

• In some rural communities there are institutional, sometimes governmental policies,

to try to revive agriculture and make it more profitable. What are the sorts of
reactions that such policies receive, especially from the youth of the community?
How do you account for these positions? What socio-historical or socio-cultural
explanations can you offer to justify these norms?

• If you live in a country with a large aboriginal population, reflect on their lifestyles,
their quality of life. To what extent are they on par with other groups? Since they
have the longest continued presence of any other group in the Caribbean, why do you
suppose there is not much interest in their practices and ways of life, in the wider
Caribbean?

• In considering marriage and family life, how 'individual' or 'personal' are your
choices for a mate? Reflect on the types of biases you may have for such a person-
are they only about intellectual and personal characteristics or do they also invoke the
'whole package', and include certain expectations about physical appearance? Reflect
on whether these are indeed cultural values, and how one can account for them.

• Consider any occurrence in your community that surprised you in that it did not seem
to conform to the usual stock of cultural values. Analyze why you were surprised -
what would have been the expected norm? What are the explanations that would have
been used to support such behaviour? What other cultural value is now being
manifest? What are your reactions to the act?

These are some examples of scenarios that you may encounter daily. The purpose of the
assignment is to help you to foster a reflective spirit about your society and culture using
the key concepts provided. This does not only relate to large or grand occurrences. You

17
become extraordinarily perceptive when you are able to see past the minutiae of everyday
life to the values behind it and the patterns to which they give rise. It is also the hope that
the reflective spirit will lead to the promotion of attitudes of civic responsibility and
heightened social consciousness.

Latent and Manifest Functions

In attempting the coursework assignment, there are certain 'tools' that you can use for
developing a 'reflective spirit'. These tools refer to two sociological concepts, latent and
manifest functions. They are to be used by you, the student, to investigate (reflectively)
the sorts of social situations that have been described above.

Every social situation or social act can have more than one consequence. Latent
functions refer to the unintended, hidden or unexpected consequences of an act.
Mani{est functions, on the other hand, refer to the anticipated, open or stated goals of an
act. The point about engaging in this exercise at all is that looking for latent meanings or
consequences can alert you to explanations at a deeper level of analysis than the obvious.
In observing social situations such as the scenarios listed above, you have the opportunity
to delve below the level of cultural acts to search for the hidden meanings that may give
you clues about the cultural values operational there.

An example will illustrate how this can be done. The decision of a government to supply
a rural community with pipe borne water to their houses seems on the face of it to be a
positive move for the community as it will enhance their quality of life. It will be less
arduous for family members to get household chores done and it will probably take less
time. This is an illustration of the manifest function of this act. On the other hand there
are hidden consequences. The social contacts that were forged and maintained through
years of meeting by the standpipe to bathe and wash clothes suddenly declined. These
contacts were especially important to women tied to child minding and housework for
most of the day. The new convenience actually made them more housebound than ever
and removed th~ir main form of respite and recreation.

However, it may not be clear to the women concerned that they have been disadvantaged
in this way because of the cultural values from which they operate. There is a prevailing

18
cultural value in the Caribbean, and other 'developing' countries, that gives
overwhelming support to anything seen to be hri ngi ng about 'modernization'. This has
connotations of 'progress' and 'development'. National governments and the man in the
street seem to he equally vulnerable. Having running water in the house may be a dream
come true for these women. Even if the downside is pointed out to them, chances are they
will still prefer the modem convenience. They may say that not meeting their friends
quite as regularly is a small price to pay for coming into the modem era.

The norms associated with this cultural value will tend to downplay the importance of
social contacts, daily interaction and perhaps, gossip, to the well being of a person.
Having gone this far in reflecting and delving beneath the surface to uncover latent
meanings, you may discover deeper truths about society and culture. On the whole, as the
society takes on more and more of the trappings of modernization - the material culture -
there is less and less opportunities for the emotional, interactional, affirming qualities of
human beings to be displayed. Think about it - modem electronic home entertainment is
a rather passive activity and you can be entertained alone. Using a computer is similar, as
is all the forms of technology we use at home and in our backyards, which preclude us
from going to neighbours to enlist help, or give of it ourselves.

The point is this - it is not that modem technology is necessarily bad for us but, that the
value we have for it is so high that we cheerfully discount the parts of our lives that we
lose when we become 'modem'. We think that we can make up for it, and we probably
can. Perhaps, the more reflective you are about social and cultural processes, the more
alert you will become to both manifest and latent functions, and be better able to assess
what you are gaining, what you are losing, and how you can plan to minimize the loss.

Cultural Relativism

The course assignment for Module 1 will also expect you in your reflections to make
some judgements and statements about the cultural practices of yourself and others. For
example, the first two scenarios above allude to the exclusionary practices of others and
the tastes of others for foreign goods and destinations. The concept of cultural
relativism should be kept in mind as we prepare to analyze social situations involving the
cultural beliefs of others.

19
Cultural relativism stresses that any element of culture is relative to a particular time,
place and set of circumstances. It, therefore, fosters understanding of other groups and
'tolerance' for their practices. Jiowever, tolerance might only extend to respect for
someone else's view, and not to emulate their actions. The concept allows one to search
for, for example, the manifest and latent functions that may be motivating a group to
want to exclude others. Then you can relate those functions to the operational cultural
values and evaluate the act and the values behind the act.

The objective of the coursework assignment is to help you develop attitudes of civic
responsibility and heightened social consciousness, therefore, you must at some point
evaluate the behaviours of yourself and others. However, it would not just be a judgement
from you about others. The point is that it would be a reasoned account, a conscious
selection of arguments, using the concepts of the module about society and culture as
well as the 'tools' for analysis, latent and manifest functions and cultural relativism.

Summary

In this first chapter the major concepts to be used for Module 1, society and culture, were
studied. Relevant sociological concepts such as role and norms, were used to build an
understanding of these key terms. Attention to the specific stamp of Caribbean in society
and culture, led to an appreciation of its diverse as well as common elements. Cultural
erasure, retention and renewal illustrated the dynamism of the concept, culture. Finally,
some guidelines were given for assignments for Module 1.

Further Activities
1. Given the large numbers of Caribbean people living in metropolitan countries, how true is it to say
that the limits to the society in the Caribbean is the geographical boundary? Discuss.
2. What are the origins of the term, 'diaspora'? How relevant is it to speak of a 'Caribbean diaspora' or
an 'African diaspora'?
3. "The pervasive effects of the foreign mass media is reducing the 'Caribbean' element in Caribbean
Society•. Discuss.
4. Distinguish between the terms, cultural identity and cultural heritage

20
Key Concepts

Society Technology Exclusion

Role Socialization Syncretism
Collectivity Cultural erasure Primary socialization
Social system Cultural retention Secondary socialization
Social institution Cultural renewal Hidden curriculum
Social organization Cultural beliefs Cultural relativism
Culture Cultural values Latent functions
Traits Cultural norms Manifest functions
Material culture Non-material culture Folk culture
Modernization Dialectics

21
 References

DEC. (1997). Introduction to sociology (Sy 14G). Social Sciences Study Guide. UWI,
Barbados: Distance Education Centre.

Dunn, J. (1980). The people of Belize. Social Studies Education. No. 16., pp.29-33

Johnson, A. (1995). The Blackwell dictionary of sociology. Oxford, UK: Blackwell

Publishers Inc.

Palacio, J.O. (1995). Aboriginal peoples- their struggle with cultural identity in the
Caricom Region. Bulletin of Eastern Caribbean Affairs, 20(4), p. 25-40.

ill\~SCO. (1995). Report of the World Commission on Culture and Development.

Geneva: VESCO).

Further Readings

Rohlehr, G. (1992). My strangled city and other essays. Port of Spain, Trinidad:
Longmans.

Sylvester, M.,T. (1980). Values, family and our changing society. Social Studies
Education. No. 16, pp.l2-13.

West Indian Commission. (1992). A time for action: report of the West Indian
Commission. Mona: The Press.
 Chapter 2

Geography, Society & Culture

Overview

Chapter 1 dealt with society as providing the framework for culture. Culture, with its
social institutions, organizations, cultural values and norms, develops within a confined
geographical space, called its society. The culture that develops is geography-specific and
the society's material and non-material culture must necessarily relate to the problems
and potentials that are understood by members of that geographic space.

However, culture is not something that can be studied satisfactorily by separating out one
component such as geographic background, even though that is an important component.
One must always be aware that attitudes and responses to the environment, are
historically conditioned. In this chapter, therefore, Caribbean space is understood as
being both geographically and historically configured.

Objectives 1

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. describe how geography, history and human ecology, help us to

understand Caribbean society and culture;

2. appreciate perceptions and conceptions of space on the part of Caribbean

people;

3. explain the cultural responses of Caribbean society to plate tectonics,

landforms, soils, coral reefs, hurricanes, ocean currents and winds;

4. develop an awareness of, and sensitivity to, the fragility of the

environment;

5. recognize that Caribbean identity is shaped by both the diverse and

common cultural responses of people to their environment.

1
These objectives refer to those of Module I, specific objective 4, of the Caribbean Studies syllabus.

23
Introduction

The cultural responses of Caribbean people to various aspects of their environment are
remarkably consistent across the region. Such responses could be thought of as
constituting a basic component of the Caribbean identity. While that may be so, as
Caribbean people we also know that there is a great deal of diversity within the various
societies of the region. We can study these themes- identity, commonality, diversity-
through the relationships that have been fashioned between Caribbean people and their
environment.

The most fruitful way of unearthing these themes is through expanding our geographical
knowledge of the Caribbean. Geography, as a field of study, emphasizes the relationship
between human society and the physical environment. Human society is a product of a
people's history. Thus, the geographic study of any area must incorporate its history.
Human ecology, perhaps, provides us with the best synthesis of how to study the impact
of geography on Caribbean society and culture. Human ecology refers to the
interrelationships that are forged between a people and their environment. The sense they
make of this environment is how they understand the place of people in nature. Human
ecology refers to the lived experiences of a people (Unwin, 1992). It refers to how they
perceive space, their sense of place.

In order to understand the impact of features of the environment on Caribbean society

and culture, the chapter takes into consideration historical and human ecological
influences on Caribbean cultural responses. We should be able to discern commonality
and diversity across the region and so better understand the Cmibbean identity.

l{csponscs to Geographic Hazards

J\n environmental hazard refers to a natural event having the potential to threaten

man's life and property (Nagle, 1998). In the Caribbean, the occupation of a particular
geographic space, makes the region vulnerable to a number of geological and
meteorological hazan.ls. Hazards refer to the threat or the risk of damage to life and
property, whereas an environmental disaster refers to the realization of such a hazard.

24
The human ecology of the region demonstrates how people perceive and respond to
threat and disaster. If we are examining cultural responses (material and non-material),
they must necessarily have occurred over time and, thus, this discussion has an historical
dimension to it.

·\:;;:;

s ATLANTIC OCEAN

20 N
..,...Oominican Republic
·./
-~:'> ~ /
-~
ama1r:a
... "'q. ~
Puerto Rico 'CI

~-
Lesser~
Antilles \J
CARIBBEAN SEA
0
9
.•
d

Venezuela

-Fig. 1 -The Caribbean Plate

Geologic Hazards

The geographical area known as the Caribbean is situated on a geologic feature known as
the Caribbean Plate which has boundaries or margins with other plates nearby (Fig. 1). A
plate is large piece of crust (on which there may be both land and ocean) and it moves in
relation to other plates. largely propelled by currents in the heated mantle below the
crust. On the whole, the surface of the globe is made up of six or seven large plates and
many smaller ones. The Caribbean Plate is a small plate.

25
The theory of plate tectonics is an explanation of how plates move in relation to each
other, thereby, creating certain tectonic activities at their margins. It is generally believed
that plates meet each other at three kinds of margins, each with distinctive characteristics.
These margins are described below.

1. The divergent (or, constructive margin), where magma upwells from the
mantle on to the crustru surface. The plates move away from each other being
pushed by this upwelling and diverging movement from below. This results in
gentle volcanic eruptions and some earthquake activity, but on the whole such
margins are not associated with severe environmental hazards. The Hawaiian
Islands are situated on such a margin. In the Caribbean a very small divergent
margin may be developing west of Jamaica (Sealey, 1992).

2. The transform margin (sometimes referred to as a fault), where plates slide

past each other, generating earthquakes as the rocks move to release the stress
of movement and friction with the other plate. The San Andreas Fault, along
the west coast of North America, passing through San Francisco, is such a
margin. In the Caribbean two major transform margins delineate the northern
and southern boundaries of the Caribbean Plate (see Fig. 1) - note, the
Cayman Trench, the site of many strong earthquakes. A majority of epicentres
are associated with these two transform margins. An epicentre is the point on
the surface of the earth where an earthquake is felt most intensely. This is
because it is directly above the deep-seated origin of the earthquake, the
focus. Earthquakes then pose an environmental hazard to Caribbean countries
along the transform margins.

3. The convergent (or, destructive margin), where plates collide with each other
forcing one back down into the mantle. This margin poses two kinds of
environmental hazards - volcanic and seismic. For our purposes, we will
emphasize the eastern edge of the Caribbean Plate, a convergent margin along
the line of the Lesser Antilles. You will notice from Fig. 1 that the western
edge of the Caribbean Plate lies in the Pacific Ocean and affects Central
America in a similar fashion.

26
 '" VJn'""" M•. sown<"
·~
. ~...., BMbeJ03
arfV
CAR!OO!!AH ~EA

ATLANTIC

-->-
MANTLE

WEST EAST
Fig. 2- The Convergent Margin

Volcanic Activity

In direct contrast to the volcanoes created at divergent margins, the volcanoes along the
convergent margins have the potential to be destructive .. Fig. 2 shows how the oceanic
plate is forced down into the mantle, a process known as subduction. This is
accompanied by friction of plate grinding against plate, generating heat intense enough to
melt the rocks back to their original molten form, magma. Through cracks and faults in
the surface rocks, some of this magma bubbles to the surface, to form volcanoes

The lava comprising these volcanoes varies in quality but tends to be much more viscous
than the lava generated at divergent margins. (Once magma cools at the surface to from
rocks, as in the fmmation of volcanoes, it is called lava). Viscous lava congeals quickly
to form rock and seals the volcanic pipe (Fig. 2) so that the upwelling of more magma
from below is blocked. Gases in the upwelling magma develop pressures high enough to
forcibly eject the plug of old lava blocking the pipe. When this happens the situation is
ripe for a disaster. The force of the eruption takes large pieces of the volcano itself into

27
the air breaking up as pyroclastic materials (clouds of hot ash, lava, debris and poisonous
gases), and lava pours out as well to cover the surrounding areas.

The theory of plate tectonics describes the dynamic nature of plate margins as going
through a history themselves. The Greater Antilles were once situated on a convergent
margin and experienced volcanic activity and seismic activity much like the Lesser
Antilles today. Over time the margin changed to a transform margin. Today only extinct
volcanoes occur along the margin of the Greater Antilles.

Active and potentially dangerous volcanoes are Mt. Soufriere in St. Vincent, Mt. Pelee in
Martinique, the Soufriere Hills in Montserrat but there are many other active volcanoes
present in the Lesser Antilles. Kick em Jenny is an underwater volcano off Grenada. It is
believed that volcanic activity may be dying out in the extreme north of the archipelago
(Saba) and the extreme south (Grenada). However, the recent volcanic disasters in
Montserrat may caution us to prefer to think in terms of volcanoes being dormant rather
than extinct.

Activity 2:1
• Consult a geography textbook to find out the range of volcanic phenomena that occur in the Caribbean .
What are the volcanic features which occur in your country? What geological reasons can you offer if
there is no volcanic activity, past or present, in your country?
• Name the countries, the volcanoes, and dates of volcanic eruptions that have occurred in the Eastern
Caribbean over the last century. If possible, find eye-witness accounts of at least one eruption. What was
the response like to this disaster?
• During a volcanic eruption, death and destruction can occur in different ways. Investigate some
of those ways. (Hint: nuee ardente, volcanic bombs).

Seismic Activity
Along the convergent margin of the Lesser Antilles earthquakes are a common
occurrence. Scientists have been able to show that earthquakes originating deep within
the earth (130 km or 80 miles) are felt along the line of convergence, associated with
subduction. Earthquakes in both the Greater and Lesser Antilles have not been
particularly severe, compared with those in Central America along the western margin of
the Caribbean Plate. There, subduction is believed to be occurring at a much greater rate
than in the eastern Caribbean, and both volcanic and seismic activity are more

28
widespread and intense. On the whole though seismic activity represents a continuing
environmental hazard to the people of the Caribbean.

Activity 2:2
• Explain what is an earthquake?
• It is widely known that the Richter Scale is used to record the magnitude of earthquakes. The Mercalli
Scale is used to measure intensity. What is the difference between the two?
• Which Caribbean countries have experienced the most severe earthquakes? When? What are the
responses to such disasters over time?
• Responses to earthquake disasters are often complicated by secondary hazards. Give examples of
secondary hazards.
• Name at least one landform resulting fran'! earthquake activity.

Diversity

If you look closely at Fig. 1 on page 26 you will realize that both Guyana to the south
and the Bahamas to the north are some distance away from the instability associated with
the margins of the Caribbean Plate. In both these areas volcanoes and earthquakes are
virtually unknown. In fact, Guyana is situated on the Guiana Shield - a shield is an area
of very old hard rocks- that underlie parts of Venezuela and neighbouring areas.

Volcanic eruptions are not a feature of life in the Greater Antilles, while both volcanoes
and earthquakes plague the Lesser Antilles. Trinidad and Tobago is influenced by the
transform margin which forms the southern boundary of the Caribbean Plate. The islands
are, therefore, prone to earthquakes.

From this you realize that the perception of risk or hazard associated with earthquakes or
volcanoes will differ from country to country within the region. This is simply because
one becomes aware of a risk or hazard if a disaster has happened before. If it is not likely
to happen in your country, or prediction is difficult, chances are that such hazards are
relegated to the periphery of your awareness. This is an example of the understandings
that spring from human ecology. A specific geographic space is perceived according to
the relationships people forge there and the experiences they have. The perception of
'living' space or place to many Caribbean people is focused on their territory or society.
For example, while the disaster in Montserrat appalled everyone, to many people in the

29
Caribbean living far away from Montserrat, or whose territory is non-volcanic, there was
something of a spectacle about it. The realization that this was a disaster that destroyed a
society and scattered its people, and which continues to be a nightmare, may not have
touched many that closely.

Activity 2:3
• Consider the archipelagic nature of Caribbean islands and the scattered, isolated distribution of the
mainland territories. Do you believe that the study of human ecology can offer insights into the difficulties
of the integration process in the Caribbean?

The diversity of responses to hazards mentioned above can be summarized in the box
below.

Box 1 - How do people cope with environmental hazards?

At an individual level there are three important influences upon an individual's response:

• Experience- the more experience of environmental hazards the better the

adjustment to the hazard
• Material well-being- those who are financially better off have more choice about
the hazard
• Personality- is a person a leader or a follower, a risk-taker or risk-minimiser?
Ultimately there are three choices - do nothing and accept the hazard; adjust to the
situation of living in a hazardous environment; leave the area. It is the adjustment to the
hazard that is of interest. The level of adjustment will depend, in part, upon the risks
caused by the hazard. This includes:-
• Identification of the hazard
• Estimation of the risk (probability) of the hazard
• Evaluation of the cost (loss) caused by the hazard

The adjustment to the hazard includes three main options:-

1. Modify the loss burden- spread the financial burden, for example. insurance,
disaster relief.

2. Modify the hazard event- building design, building location, land-use zoning, flood
relief schemes, seawalls, avalanche shelters and emergency procedures- efforts have
been made to control extreme events including flood relief schemes, seawalls and
avalanche shelters.

3. Modify human vulnerability to hazard - emergency procedures, forecasting,

warning.
Source: Nagle (1998), p. 9.

30
The excerpt in Box 1 is a generalized model used to understand the impact of hazards on
society and culture. Rather than limiting the impact to only material"effects such as life
and property loss, the model attempts to go deeper and probe the options people believe
they have about hazards in their environments. Thus, people are not mere puppets. They
have beliefs, values and experiences, which prompt them to be vigilant, fatalistic or
imbued with a sense of urgency. The impact of a disaster then relates to perceptions,
abilities, and possibilities, operating at both the societal and personal level.

Activity 2:4
Having read the extract in Box 1, analyze the ways in which an earthquake or a volcanic eruption impacts on
society and culture in the Caribbean. You can use a specific occurrence in an identified country.
The following suggestions may help in organizing your answer:-
• What are the typical responses of people in that country to the threat of a disaster? In other words what
are their perceptions of risk? What factors govern this perception of risk? For example, Hthe experience is
that only shallow tremors occur in that country, then the likelihood is they have a reduced perception of
the risk of a major earthquake. This factor is important when discussing the impact of a disaster on a
specific country.

• From such a discussion, you may be able to identify certain cultural values adopted towards the
environment. You could make the point that the understandings and experiences people have of their land
govern their relationships with it, their way of thinking about it. Thus, values underpin the human ecology
of an area.

• However, these values may not be enlightened or enabling. Rather, they could be complacent and
irresponsible. The best examples tend to be places that are at risk but have not as yet experienced a
major disaster.

The model given above can be used to study any environmental hazard, for example, a
hurricane, in its impact on Caribbean society and culture. Again, diversity of experience
may be a significant factor in the eventual impact of a hurricane on a particular country.
While we are all at risk some countries have experienced rather more hurricanes than
others. However, countries near the Equator are not likely to experience a hurricane
because the Coriolis Force is not well developed in this area. From this statement you
understand that to examine the impact of a hazard across the Caribbean, some basic
geographical knowledge about it is necessary.

31
 Conceptions of Space and Place

Landforms

In geography, the study of landforms is referred to as geomorphology. Landforms are

also known as physical features. They refer to familiar landscapes such as mountains,
slopes, valleys, plains, volcanoes, plateaux, and coastal features such as bays,
headlands, cliffs, beaches and coral reefs. Landforms have impacted on society and
culture in the Caribbean largely through their influence on the location of different
systems of production and the siting of settlements.

In the study of landforms and the impact on society and culture we can see clear
historical links. For the most part, the areas settled by the aboriginal inhabitants do not
correspond with the major areas of settlement and production today. Our societal and
cultural forms tend to be overwhelmingly represented in the areas favoured by colonial
authorities. European settlers in the Lesser Antilles preferred the leeward coasts, offering
sheltered locations, coastal plains, and wide river valleys, for the protection of shipping,
the growing of crops and the building of settlements. The mountainous backbone of these
countries became the hiding places and sites of resistance for the aboriginal peoples.

The influence of landforms on systems of production, such as peasant or commercial

farming, displays a remarkable degree of commonality across the Caribbean. Much the
same can be said for settlement patterns. The wide, coastal plains of all countries but
particularly, Jamaica, Trinidad, Belize, Puerto Rico, Cuba and Hispaniola, as well as the
rolling landscape of Barbados, provided ideal conditions for the development of the
plantation system of economic production. Many a traveler in the Caribbean has been
amazed at the sameness in the landscape when visiting the sugar cane fields of Belize,
Guyana or Trinidad. The flat land and coastal proximity ensured that raw materials could
be easily exported to metropolitan countries and manufactured goods imported. Even
today, centuries later the plantation economy continues with its major features intact and
the largest settlements, the capital cities, are mainly the old European ports of call.

32
However, diversity has been introduced. The freed African population often preferred to
cultivate small plots of land for themselves than continue to work on the estates. This was
possible in larger territories where they could retreat to hilly interiors and marginal lands
to escape harassment. In smaller territories, this was not possible. Many islands of the
Lesser Antilles abandoned sugar cane production as conditions had never been ideal there
for plantations. The sugar economy had been forced onto a landscape ill suited to it.
Today they have diversified agricultural production, to suit the hilly terrain by planting
many crops and rearing animals on small plots of land.

Hence, in many territories today there is a strong tradition of peasant agriculture

associated with the production· of food crops. Developing.alongside this, was the. growth
of a free and independent spirit. Thus, it is possible to see in the Caribbean, instances of
where people have wrested back from the Europeans forms of life closer to their ancestral
roots, aided by th~ physical features of the environment. The Maroons are a classic
example. However, equally strong is the European tradition in areas where the landscape
has been judged ideal for the plantation economy.

Aspects of human ecology

It is possible to see in the account above two differing conceptions of land and space. The
European tradition translates into our modern world of increased economic utilization of
resources and urbanization. This is the modernization road to progress that we have
adopted based on the Western model. Relationships with the land are characterized by
exploitative means of production. Land is valued for its economic worth. Land that is
labelled unfit for economic exploitation, is often abandoned, used as a dump, or left
unprotected to the elements. Moreover, little attention is paid to steep, forested terrain
taken over by squatters. We often detect undercurrents of these values when people
describe a place as primitive or 'not developed', actually meaning that it should be put
'right'. These are referred to as mainstream values about the man-land relationship.

On the other hand, small-scale peasant farmers who own land value it for other reasons. It
is tied to family values and inheritance norms. Often it is family land and thus valued,
not as one person's property but as a source of sustainable livelihood for many members

33
of the family, which is eventually given as a productive legacy to the younger generation.
It is valued as a continuing source of independence for a people who had to win it with
struggle. Human ecology helps us to see that peasant farmers' relationships with their
land are bound up with the historical need of their ancestors for freedom (from the
cultural values of the oppressor). And, bound up with the kind of landscapes that were
available to them - lands that were marginal for cultivation, hilly, and in the interior.
Thus, we see again history and geography shaping the human ecology (cultural values
about land) of the Caribbean.

The Caribs and Creoles of Dominica

The cultural landscape seen through aboriginal eyes offers a third and different view. The
aboriginal concept of land and the impact of landforms on their society and culture are
often ignored today and there is the persistent myth that they have been largely
exterminated. But, Palacio in 1995 reported that " ... there are over 75, 000 aboriginal
peoples in the CARICOM countries of Dominica, St. Vincent, Trinidad and Tobago,
Guyana and· Belize" (p. 25). We can learn much about the human ecology of aboriginal
landscapes through a study carried out by Honeychurch (1995) amongst the Caribs and
creoles of Dominica.

As Fig. 3 shows Dominica is sandwiched between, and within sight of, two territories of
France - Martinique and Guadeloupe. Both the Dominican and the French governments
have sought to regularize the sea borders between their states. However, the Caribs of
northeast Dominica for centuries now have established informal trading, smuggling and
family ties with the descendants of the African population, the Creoles, in Guadeloupe,
Marie Galante, Desirade, and Les Saintes. The language, Creole, is spoken on both sides.
The dugout canoe of the Caribs has facilitated fast and easy access across the
international divide as it has done for hundreds of years.

Honeychurch refers to landforms as a crucial consideration in understanding the human

ecology of the Caribs, not only in northern Dominica, but in neighbouring islands as well.
From Grenada to Guadeloupe the islands of the Lesser Antilles are marked by a high,
rugged, central range. This was convenient to the Caribs in their centuries of resistance to

34
 the Europeans. Small pockets along the windward coasts became their strongholds, away
from the Eurocentric economies and settlement patterns developing on the leeward side
of the island. The islands actually came to reflect in miniature the core-periphery nature
of dependent economies with metropolitan countries - modem influences in the capital
cities directly communicating with the metropole, and the wild, isolated, windward coasts
where knowledge dating from pre-Columbian times comprised the folk culture.

6Z 0 W
MOllS( RR~

1\ -

j.
i
~ """'""'
SG;t.t-e ----------------~------------------------------·t-50~
}: J;lSD.ooo i. ;-!.

~" """"""

Fig. 3 Dominica & the Overseas Departments of France

The human ecology of aboriginal society differ from those of the 'Europeanized'
governments of the islands. In the eyes of a hunter, gatherer, fisherman, warrior, basket
weaver, smuggler, the Caribbean was configured very differently. There was no respect
for artificial borders that now officially separated friends, relations customer and kin,
speaking a common language even across the sea. Actually, because the land was so
inhospitable to a sedentary way of life, this particular human ecology developed of
outward looking to others across the channel who were similarly marginalized by the
geography of their own island.

35
The human ecology of aboriginal society encouraged a view of the Caribbean that did not
stop at the sea border because the canoe was an integral part of their culture. They were
more adept on the sea than negotiating the mountainous ridges of their islands. It did not
stop at international frontiers, first imposed by European invaders and then sanctioned by
the newly independent Caribbean states, because those frontiers divided their kith and
kin. "For them the intervening sea channels are a continuous territory which transcends
the physical and legislative confines of landform and nation state; it is the all-
encompassing geocultural space of their wider Creole world" (Honeychurch, 1995, p.
69). The impact of landforms on aboriginal and Creole society and culture in these
islands has been and continues to be fundamental in understanding the human ecology of
the area. It contributes to the diversity of culture in the region.

Accommodations to the Environment

Soils, Winds & Ocean Currents

One way of understanding the human ecology response to the environment is to view it
as accommodating to what the environment· has to offer. We can use this interpretation in
developing an understanding of how soils and winds and ocean currents have influenced
Caribbean society and culture and continue to do so.

Activity 2:5
• Use an atlas to draw a soil map of your country. Find out the characteristics of the principal soil type.
• Contrast the soil map with one showing land use. This term refers to how man has used the land - agriculture,
settlement, roads, unused land -and, therefore, relates to the production of a cultural landscape.
• Analyze the information to explain the influence of soil type on the cultural practices of the society.
• Can you detect the role of cultural values in how soil has been utilized in your country?

In a similar fashion, we can investigate the impact of winds and ocean currents on the
development of Caribbean society and culture. The prevailing wind in the Caribbean
region is the North East Trades. Prevailing winds refer to strong and constant winds
that blow all the year round. The combination of these winds and ocean currents were
influential in bringing the Europeans this far west and led them to believe they had
'discovered' a 'new' world when they landed in the Bahamas in 1492. In the days of sail

36
and only rudimentary forms of navigation, the winds and ocean currents in the Caribbean
region, facilitated European voyages further than they had ever gone before in open sea.

Hurricanes are critical to any study of winds in the region. The north-east trades bring
weather disturbances, formed off the coast of Africa, westwards into the Caribbean.
These may begin as easterly waves and weak tropical depressions. A few will develop
into full-blown tropical storms and intense low-pressure systems known as hurricanes.
Accommodating to the incidence of hurricanes is a feature of Caribbean society and
culture.

Activity 2: 6
• Reflect on the various ways in which winds in the Caribbean have influenced material culture. For
example, in your country are building styles (of roofs and other structures) a response to winds?
• What about settlement patterns on the whole? There is a particular type of rainfall that is caused by moist
winds being forced to rise over coastal mountains. Find out about this kind of rainfall. Does it have the
potential to influence settlement patterns in your country.
• How do fishermen adjust to the patterns of winds and currents near shore? (Hint: consult a geography text
about land and sea breezes).

Attitudes to the Environment

Coral Reefs
Almost all the islands of the Caribbean, and the territory of Belize, are fringed by coral
reefs. The clear, warm, shallow waters allow coral polyps to thrive. The massive
structure of the reef is built up over thousands of years. Fringing reefs and atolls are the
more common reef structures in the Caribbean. However, the second largest barrier reef
in the world is found off Belize.

The complex nature of reefs provides habitats, shelter and food for thousands of species
of marine flora and fauna. This is referred to as the rich biodiversity of coral reefs. They
also offer great potential for producing new forms of medicines. This is because the many
organisms comprising the reef produce different chemicals for self-protection which are
presently being researched by scientists.

37
 Reefs are extensive structures that break the force of waves approaching shore. They
enable coastal harbours and beaches to be protected especially during storms and high
waves. The survival of swamps, mangroves and wetland ecosystems can also be
attributed to the prevalence of reefs.

Reefs are economically valuable to human populations. Fishing is productive because of

the rich biodiversity. Reefs are a major earner of the tourist dollar. They offer varied
underwater experiences such as snorkelling, scuba diving, game fishing, and
photography. They are also visited by many spectators who view the corals through glass
bottomed boats. The corals and shells of the reef have decorative value and are used by
craftsmen to fashion jewellery and other items to sell to tourists.

Threats to Coral Reefs

It is precisely because reefs are so abundant in species and spectacular in themselves that
they have come under direct threat from man. In indirect ways too man has threatened the
life of coral reefs. Not too long ago reefs were threatened only by storm damage and the
unlikely events of volcanic eruptions or climatic changes over vast periods of time such
as the ice a~es.

Activity 2:7
Below is a list of various ways man has threatened the survival of reefs. Collect information about these threats
especially in relation to reefs near you.
• Over-fishing
• Extracting corals, sand and limestone
• Tourist traffic (walking on the corals, fuel from boats, dropping anchors)
• Coastal development
• Pollution
• Bleaching
• Cyanide Fishing

The quote below discusses some interrelationships in complex ecosystems, such as the
coral reef. It shows that a succession of destructive events is put in train when natural
systems are over-exploited by man.

38
 In the Caribbean decades of overfishing has led in many places to very low
levels of grazing fish species. Because of this, herbivorous sea urchins have
played an increasingly important role in keeping algal growth down. In the early
1980's, huge numbers of these urchins succumbed to disease. Without grazing
fish or urchin populations, and spurred on in many areas by organic pollution,
algae quickly dominated the reefs, inhibiting coral settlement and sometimes
overgrowing living corals. In areas such as Jamaica, hurricanes further
compounded the damage, reducing coral to rubble. Formerly thriving reefs were
replaced by low-diversity and low-productivity algal systems.
, (Bryant et al, 1998, p.12).

This proclivity of man to destroy the environment should be studied in some depth.
Interrogating issues such as this ought to go a long way in helping Caribbean people
develop more enabling and empowering attitudes to the land and its resources. The study
described below may be used as a starting point.

Potter (1992) in a study carried out in Barbados, found that people's perceptions of the
environment and land were bound up in its economic importance. He refers to
Lowenthal's (1961) earlier work where he stated that the ... "view that land is valueless
save as commodity persists in many aspects of West Indian life today" (Potter, 1992,
p.236). He goes on to say that - "The reasons given by Lowenthal for the disinclination
to adopt non-economic and non-commercial perspectives on land in the Caribbean,
basically involve the influence of slavery and colonialism. Thus, writing in the mid
1980's, his analysis initially stresses that the Caribbean is a place and not a people, due
largely to the heterogeneity of the population, which it was argued gives rise to a lack of
attachment between Caribbean lands and their inhabitants." (p. 236). In an earlier section
of this chapter we described these attitudes as mainstream.

Activity 2:8
• Discuss Lowenthal's ideas about the instrumental value land and environment seems to have for
Caribbean people. Think of any arguments that show a different side to this analysis.

Potter in his later analysis indicted Caribbean governments, rather than Caribbean
people, in pursuing policies for quick economic benefit. He says that:

39
 ..... what may be described as the basically uncritical promotion of tourism has
occurred in many caribbean territories despite the most visible ecosystem _
degradation, including the destruction of coral reefs, mangroves and wetland
areas, coastal marine pollution and loss of biodiversity (p. 242).

Coral reefs have been incorporated into the cultural activities of Caribbean people as a
source of livelihood and a means of recreation. The wider uses of coral reefs in marine
protection and as a source of medicines have not been generally recognized. Mainstream
attitudes to the environment tend to prevail and there is considerable evidence that
Caribbean governments allow such practices to take place for economic gain. The impact
of coral reefs on Caribbean society and culture then can largely be attributed to the
cultural value of understanding the environment in an instrumental way. Indeed in some
countries it is now illegal to remove coral.

Today there is evidence in most countries that mainstream attitudes to the environment
are gradually being infused with environmentalist values. These relate to an appreciation
of the fragility of the environment, the usefulness of the environment in supporting our
way of life, and the understanding that at even our present levels of technology there are
aspects to the environment that we cannot replace.

Summary

Various disciplines contribute to an understanding of the evolution of Caribbean society

and culture. Geography, history and human ecology provide the main concepts in
developing an appreciation of the perceptions and conceptions of space on the part of
Caribbean people. The areas of emphasis chosen in this chapter to discuss material and
non-material cultural responses to the landscape were plate tectonics, landforms, soils,
coral reefs, hurricanes, ocean currents and winds. We learned that values attached to the
landscape are to a certain extent historically conditioned and that there is much scope for
continuing to develop our awareness of, and sensitivity to, the fragility of the
environment. There is evidence of commonality in the impact of the environment on
Caribbean people's way of life. However, because of differences in history and,
landscape, variations also occurred from place to place in the human ecology response of
Caribbean societies and cultures. This overlay of commonality underlying diversity is
thought to be characteristic of the Caribbean identity.

40
 Further Activities

1. For two identified Caribbean countries describe the relationships between settlement patterns and
agriculture, mining sites and tourism?
2. Explain the formation of easterly waves and hurricanes. Why do hurricanes rarely hit land close to the
Equator?

3. If there are large numbers of aboriginal people in your country, try to find out if their conceptions of land
and space, differ from that of the mainstream population.

Key Concepts

GEOGRAPHICAL:

Geography Space Mountains Slopes

Valleys Plains Volcanoes Plateaux
Coasts Bays Headlands Cliffs
Beaches Coral reefs Archipelago Shield
Plate tectonics Plates Crust Mantle
Seismicity Subduction Pyroclastic Focus
Epicentre Magma Lava Fault
Volcanic pipe Volcanic plug Land use North-east trades
Prevailing winds Hurricanes Depressions Easterly waves
Polyps Fringing reefs Barrier reefs Atolls
Biodiversity Richter Scale Mercalli Scale Divergent margin
Convergent margin Active volcano Extinct volcano Dormant volcano
Transform margin Environmental hazard Environmental disaster

OTHER CONCEPTS:
Commonality Diversity History Identity
Core-periphery Family land Human ecology Mainstream values

41
 References

Bryant, D., Burke, L.. McManus, J .. & Spalding, M. (1998). Reefs at tisk- a map-hased
indicator of threats to the world's coral reefs. Washington, D.C.: World Resources
Institute.

Honychurch, L. (1995). Caribs, c_reoles and concepts of territory: the boundary between
France and Dominica. Caribbean Geography . .Q( 1). pp. 61-70.

Lowenthal. D. (1961). Caribbean views of Caribbean Land, Canadian Geographer, 2. pp.

1-9.

Nagle, G. (1998). Hazards. Surrey, U.K.: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd.

Palacio, J. 0. (1995). Aboriginal peoples - their struggle with cultural identity in the
Caricom Region. Bulletin of Eastern Caribbean Affairs, 20(4 ), pp. 25-40.

Potter, R.B. (1992). Caribbean views on environment and development: a cognitive

perspective. Caribbean Geography, 3(4), pp.236-243.

Sealey, N. (1992). Caribbean world- a complete geography. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

University Press.

Unwin, T. (1992). The place of geography. Essex, U.K.:Longmans.

Further Readings

Hendry, M. (1983). The influence of the sea-land breeze regime on beach erosion and
accretion- an example from Jamaica. Caribbean Geography, vol. 1. (1).

Sealey, N. (1991). The significance of the geography of the Bahamas in reconstructing

Columbus' route in 1492. Caribbean Geography, vol. 3, (1).

Robertson, R. (1995). Volcano surveillance and hazard mitigation m the Eastern

Caribbean. Caribbean Geography, vol. 6, (2).

42
 Chapter 3

History, Society and Culture

Overview

Chapter 2 focused on the interrelationships of geography, society and culture which have
shaped the Caribbean and pointed to the need to examine the imprint of history on the
geographical face of the land. We saw the importance of human ecology, the ways in
which a people have shaped and adapted to their environment over time. This chapter
focuses on the historical processes that have shaped the cultural landscape, both the
material culture and non-material culture of Caribbean people.

While geography gtves you a sense of place, history gives a sense of time, in the
evolution of the Caribbean cultural landscape. Both are necessary ingredients in
developing a Caribbean identity.

Objectives 1

By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

1 assess the impact of certain historical processes on Caribbean society and

culture;

2. analyse the impact of human migration on settlement patterns m the

Caribbean;

3. assess the role forced labour systems, such as encomienda, indentureship,

plantation systems, and slavery, played in shaping Caribbean society;

4. explain the nature of cultural diversity and social stratification in the

Caribbean;

5. analyse the positive and negative effects of Caribbean contacts with the
global community.

1
These objectives refer to those of Module 1, specific objectives 5 and 6 of the Caribbean Studies syllabus

43
Introduction

In 1492, when Christopher Columbus made his intervention into the Americas, he set in
motion a number of processes that have shaped Caribbean society and culture. Two
worlds, European and Native American, sometimes referred to as the Old World and the
New World respectively, collided. The collision resulted in genocide for many groups of
indigenous peoples, who were then replaced by a feeble attempt at white indentureship,
and later by African people. As slavery was dismantled in various places during the
nineteenth century, the former slave owners attempted to maintain hegemonic control
over the former enslaved through various means.

Oppressive legislation and other means to restrict the mobility of the newly emancipated
were put in place. In addition, as the former enslaved population made attempts to
maximize their freedom by controlling their lives through peasant formations and village
settlements, mass immigration was seen as the answer to the labour vacuum that was
created. The importation of labour in the nineteenth century resulted in several racial and
ethnic groups coming to the Caribbean - for example, East Indians, Chinese and
Madeirans.

These immigrant groups brought with them their cultural experiences. And, like the

-
European and African groups of an earlier era, added to the cultural milieu of the
Caribbean. In essence, the cultural diversity of the Caribbean was, therefore, enhanced
m many ways.

Migratory Movements

Human migration has been an integral feature of Caribbean society for a long time. Some
10,000- 13,000 years ago, when ocean levels were lower, and a land bridge developed
between Siberia and Alaska in the area known as the Bering Straits, people of Asiatic
stock crossed from Siberia to North America, Central America and South America in less
than two thousand years.

44
We are unsure of the exact date of early human migration in the West Indies. It is
estimated that the first settlers arrived about 5000 B.C. after a series of migratory waves
lasting for hundreds of years. Perhaps the earliest people to occupy the Greater Antilles
came through Central America, crossing the narrow stretch between Belize and
Hispaniola. Subsequent waves came through South America in the Orinoco region and
migrated via the island chain of the Eastern Caribbean on to Puerto Rico towards the
North. It is believed that this was the route taken by the Taino (Arawaks) and Kalinago
(Caribs). For thousands of years before the arrival of the Spanish, aboriginal people
migrated throughout the region. The artefacts that they left are testimony of their
presence.

By 1492, the Taino settled largely in the islands of the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas.
While the Kalinago, who had always been in a bitter contest for space with the Taino,
occupied the islands of the Lesser Antilles. The settlement patterns of the Taino and
Kalinago were quite distinct before the arrival of the Europeans.

To understand these historical processes ~f migration, we must have a strong sense of the
geographical background against which such processes were taking place. Activity 3:1 is
designed to establish a sense of place in the evolution of the historical Caribbean.

Activity 3:1

1. On a blank map of the world, locate in the following places: Belize, Mexico, Hispaniola, Cuba, Jamaica,
Alaska and Siberia.
2. Draw a circle around the area in Greater Antilles and the Lesser Antilles where the Kalinago and Taino
were located.
3. Draw an arrow indicating Carib and Arawak migration out of South America into the islands of the
Caribbean Sea

Western Europeans who entered the Caribbean after 1492 came as migrants, in search of
wealth and fortune. This dimension of our historical evolution needs to be stressed,.
After Columbus' propaganda about the inexhaustible supply of gold to be found, streams
of European migrants settled in Hispaniola, Cuba and later Central and South America.

45
These migrants came with a special mission to conquer and colonise. The Spanish
conquistadores, in particular, were ruthless in their exploitation of the native peoples.
Later on, there was an inward migration of white settlers who established settlements on
plantations as an economic group exploiting the labour available to them.

As the plantation system developed, especially in relation to sugar cane cultivation -

popularly referred to as the "Sugar Revolution" of the seventeenth century, African
slaves were forcibly brought into the region. The importation of Blacks from West Africa
for more than three hundred years was a different kind of migration. They were involved
in a system of forced migration called the Atlantic slave trade. Even though migration is
considered as a voluntary movement of people from one locale to the next on a temporary
basis, we include the movement of Africans during the slave trade, and white
indentureship, to highlight the culture of migration that appears to be endemic to the
Caribbean. In other words, people are always on the move in the Caribbean, as we have
seen, voluntarily and involuntarily.

Migration and the Evolution of Caribbean Society

To talk of migration, is to talk of the beginnings of Caribbean society. When we speak of

major historical processes in the Caribbean, migration is associated with the evolution of
the society amidst the European powers search for wealth. The history of the Dutch,
French, Spanish, and English Caribbean, begins with the violent oppression and
domination of the original Amerindians. The Europeans settled the conquered areas,

-------
imported labour in the form of slaves, and, later indentured Chinese, liberated Africans,
East Indians and Portuguese in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

It is perhaps the constant movement of people into and out of the Caribbean that led
Richardson (1992) to refer to a "regional migration tradition". This propensity to migrate,
he argued, took off immediately after emancipation in the 1830s when thousands of men
and women, most notably from the smaller islands, migrated to Trinidad and British
Guiana in search of higher wages and better conditions. By 1845, more than I 0,000

46
migrants from small West Indian islands had travelled to Trinidad and over 8,000 others
had gone to British Guiana. Many of these emigrants eventually returned home,
displaying the fruits of their labour. This movement continued for a long time as a feature
of Caribbean people, that is, to move from the small islands of the Eastern Caribbean to
the larger ones in a complex inter-island migration.

Activity 3: 2
By a process of interviewing family members and neighbours try to determine if a culture of intra-Caribbean
migration has been experienced in your country or region.
• Find out approximately when such migration took place. Where were the main destinations? What kind of
work was associated with it?
• Find out also if many of the migrants remained or if they settled in the other Caribbean territory. Do
families then in your area have relatives today in different Caribbean countries?

Caribbean migration continued unabated in the nineteenth century influenced largely,

though not totally, by economic crises, which led to joblessness. Repression on the part
of the planters also played a part. Human migration was as much a response to planter
repression as it was a desire to make a better living in a foreign land. Jamaica provided
the bulk of the labour during the failed French effort at constructing a canal across
Panama from 1881 to 1888. When the Americans took over the task of building the
canal, other West Indians travf'lled there. More than 40,000 Barbadians, as well as men
and women from the Spanish, French and Dutch islands, joined them.

The culture of migration does not only encompass the propensity to move. There are
behaviours attached to the migrant and his relations with home with which all Caribbean
people can identify. There is a common feeling among us to think of our migrant family
members abroad as "doing well". Closely related to that is the expectation that some of
that good fortune should come back to "help out" the situation at home. This could be as
foreign currency (remittances) or gifts. In the activity below we explore further this
aspect of our culture and society that has been spawned by our culture of migration. We
begin with an extended quote that describes some of these behaviours.

47
 "The faithful sending home of money and gifts from Caribbean peoples abroad
is neither an irrational fetish nor indicative of a preoccupation with the
commercial gimcrackery available in metropolitan department stores.
Remittances of money and gifts play a functional role for the migrants
themselves, especially if external circumstance force them to return. Young men
or women who have regularly remitted money in their absence invariably
receive warmer homecomings than those who have not. The legendary
faithfulness of migrants is, moreover, spread by stories circulated at home,
stories that reinforce such faithfulness. Every small Caribbean island has similar
stories which often tell of loyal returning migrants sewing money into their
clothing to avoid currency regulations or smuggling expensive goods home to
benefit their families."

(Richardson, 1992, p.lSO)

Activity 3:3
1. Explain what the write meant by "commercial gimcrackery" (line 3)?
2. How serious today is the expectation that migrants ought to send back home gifts on a regular basis. How
does that benefit the migrant?

When the Panama Canal was completed in 1914, hundreds of West Indian migrants
continued the outward trend to the new American banana plantations in Honduras and
Costa Rica. Many others joined the British West India Regiment and served in Europe
during World War I. It was largely members of the British West India Regiment who
were involved in the mutiny at the Cimino Camp, Taranto, Italy. Out of this experience,
many West Indian leaders returned to the region with a heightened consciousness and
took an active part in many political organizations, campaigning for change. In essence,
returning war veterans played an active part in the anti-colonial struggle that eventually
led to a strengthening of the regional integration movement.

Migration of West Indians outside of the Caribbean continued through the twentieth
century. Their search for freedom and economic independence was pursued with vigour
and enterprise. The outbreak of World War II provided short-lived relief, especially to the
United States. Two special agencies, The War Food Administration and The War

48
Manpower Commission, were set up by the US Federal Government to perform the
distinct task of filling the vacuum left by the thousands of young men engaged on the war
front mainly in Europe and the Pacific. About 40,000 West Indians seized the opportunity
to be employed in the United States for the duration of the war. The construction of
military bases in the Caribbean region during the Second World War also provided
opportunities for inter-island migration. Jobs were created on US military bases in
Trinidad, Antigua, British Guiana, St. Thomas and St. Lucia.

The need for skilled labour in Britain after 1945 resulted in massive emigration of British
West Indians to the UK in the 1950s. Most West Indians, and indeed almost every
Barbadian family, can boast of having at least one relative in the UK. Between 230 000,
and 280 000 Caribbean migrants entered Britain between 1951 and 1961.

Activity 3:4
a) Read one of the following novels: Samuel Selvon's, The Lonely Londoners OR George Lamming's, The
Emigrants.

b) What difficulties, according to these writers, did West Indians experience in a modern European city like
London?
c) Read Chapter 6 "Human Migrations" in Bonham Richardson's book, The Caribbean in the Wider World
1492-1992.
d) How are the narrative accounts of the novel (in 'a' above) different and/or similar to the facts and
opinions of the historian (in 'c' above)?

The trek of West Indians to Britain and to North America during the 20th century, has
occupied the attention of many scholars for a long time. Husbands and fathers sending for
their families after establishing a foothold in the adopted country is the subject of many
fascinating narratives. But more importantly, West Indian migrants, whether in New
York or London, established cultural enclaves in the host countries. Notting Hill carnival
in England and May Day mas' in New York, have become major West Indian cultural
expressions in England and the United States. In short, West Indian migrants have
introduced their culture to peoples outside the region in a way that cannot be ignored.

49
Summary

There have been different modes of migration shaping patterns of settlement in the
Caribbean. Early man, over hundreds of years ago, settled throughout the region - our
concern here is largely with the Taino and Kalinago. They established island
communities ruled by caciques in the various islands. European invaders, bent on
exploration and conquest, displaced the Native American through genocide, strange
European diseases and wars, took their land and transformed it into plantations, haciendas
and mines.

There was a forced migration of West Africans into the region for more than three
hundred years. Inter-island migration during the late nineteenth century and the early
twentieth century then took place. Not exactly forced, but a large coercive element was
part of Asian immigration into the Caribbean. We then witnessed an outward migration
from the Caribbean mainly by labouring classes to Panama, Costa Rica, the United
States, Canada and England.

Systems of Production

The encomienda
Once the conquest of the indigenous people of the Caribbean was completed, the next
task of the Europeans was to exploit their labour. The Spanish settlers, for example,
instituted the encomienda system in the West Indies as early as 1503. The indigenous .
population of a certain district was placed under the rule of a Spanish overlord who was
expected to Christianise them and teach them the Spanish culture. They, in tum, were to
work part time for him as well as contribute to their Spanish overlord a share of the crops
they raised for themselves. ")3_artholomew de Las Casas exposed the abuses of this system
by the Spanish settlers. Although the Spanish government always insisted that the Native
American population were free citizens, they were treated inhumanely, being bought and
sold, and worked literally to death.

50
They fared no better under the labour institution of repartimiento. A percentage of the
male population of any village between the ages of eighteen and sixty could be recruited
to work for a Spaniard desiring their services for a week or fortnight. Again, even though
the Spaniards usually agreed to pay wages and treat the native peoples well, the system
was subject to abuse, as the former seldom lived up to their end of the bargain.

In some cases, their desire to exploit the land for the growing of crops, rearing of cattle
on haciendas, or mining, ignored the cohesive communal arrangements of the indigenous
peoples worked out over many generations. Cattle, horses, pigs, goats and sheep,
introduced by the Spaniards, trampled their fieWs and destroyed growing crops of the
Native Americans. To a large extent, the process of food production adopted by the local
people was destroyed as a result of European intervention. Many Native Americans
starved or, for the most part, struggled to survive. In the extract below, Bartholomew de
las Casas, the Defender of the Indians, writes about their treatment at the hands of the
Spanish.

After all the Indians of this island [Cuba] were reduced to servitude and
misfortune like those of Hispaniola, and when they saw they were perishing
inevitably, some began to flee to the mountains, others to hang themselves,
together with their children, and through the cruelty of one very tyrannical
Spaniard whom I knew, more than two hundred Indians hanged themselves. In
this way numberless people perished.

There was an officer of the King in this island, to whose share three hundred
Indians fell, and by the end of the three months he had, through labour in the
mines, caused the death of two hundred and seventy; so that he had only thirty
left, which was the tenth part. The authorities afterwards gave him as many
again, and again he killed them, and they continued to give, and he to kill, until
he came to die, and the devil carried away his soul.
(Las Casas, 1552 in Benjamin Keen, 1986).

Activity 3:5
1. What evidence in the extract suggests the author is opposed to the Spanish treatment of the indigenous
peoples?
2. What light does the extract shed on the reaction of indigenous peoples to Spanish bondage?
3. What does the extract reveal about the encomienda system.

51
White lndentureship

With the decimation of the aboriginal people and the lobbying of Las Casas,
indentureship introduced an alternative system of forced labour. White indentured
servitude was an arrangement whereby white settlers in the French and English colonies
in the Caribbean entered into written agreements with their white counterparts in the
metropolis, to work five to seven years usually without pay. The settlers were responsible
for looking after the white indenture who, at the end of his service, should receive a
passage back home, a sum of money or a piece of land. Much guile and trickery played a
part in these agreements. It is known that many people in a drunken state were kidnapped
and shipped against their free will to the Caribbean. Deprived whites, many of them
political prisoners and criminals, contributed to the white indentured population.

Between 1654 and 1658 ten thousand indentured servants sailed from Bristol alone,
chiefly for the West Indies and Virginia. It has been estimated that more than a quarter of
a million persons were of this class during the colonial period in the thirteen colonies of
North America. In Barbados, which had the highest numbers of indentured servants in the
British West Indies, some 12,000 arrived between 1644 and 1655. Even though they were
not slaves, their harsh treatment resembled that of a heinous system of exploitation more
akin to bondage than freedom. Many died before completing their contracts, no doubt an
advantage to their employers who were released from their obligations under the signed
agreements.

Descendants of these white indentured servants can be found in some rural districts of
Barbados. How aware are you of similar groups of people in your society? For example,
was white indentureship experienced in your country?

The following activity explores these issues.

52
 Activity 3:6
a) Descendants of indentured servants are often labelled differently to well-to-do whites in our societies.
Identify the labels that may be used in your country. Poor Whites, red-legs, Backra Johnnies are terms
used in the Eastern Caribbean. Reflect on the derogatory nature of these labels. Why are such people so
described?
b) Discuss why indentured servitude, even though it was beset with harshness, still cannot be classified as
slavery.

The system of white indentureship in the British and French colonies was eventually
abandoned. It was becoming increasingly difficu,lt to supply the planters with labour, as
indentured servants were not forthcoming in sufficient quantities to replace those who
had served their terms. Plantation owners went to great expense to recruit labour, which
could only be exploited for a five to seven year period. In addition, some indentured
servants made life difficult for their employers by resorting to legal proceedings
whenever they were mistreated. And, moreover, public opinion in England was turning
against the harsh treatment of white servants.

Slavery & the Plantation System

For more than three centuries, slavery was to remain the principal system of unfree
labour in many areas of the Americas. Approximately, 9 million Africans were brought to
the Americas: 1,665,000 to the British Caribbean; 1,600,000 to the French Caribbean;
500,000 to the Dutch Caribbean; 28,000 to the Danish Caribbean, and an estimated
809,000 to the Spanish Caribbean.

One cannot underestimate the demographic catastrophe and human suffering brought on
African peoples as a result of chattel slavery. Its true exposure raises legitimate claims
for reparations by Africans in the diaspora. The journey of slave ships between West
Africa and the Americas (the Middle Passage) was wrought with horror, waste of human
life and was characterized by high mortality rates. Life on the slave plantation in the
Americas, especially the sugar plantation, was a living hell for most black enslaved
persons. To live as a slave was to live a life of humiliation. Through it all, African people
survived, to forge a society and culture in the Caribbean.

53
Like all oppressed peoples, enslaved Africans in the Caribbean demonstrated a
remarkable capacity for survival. They explored the flora of the region and used the
familiar plants in their cuisine and folk medicine. A rich folk medicine has survived in
many Caribbean societies. The black enslaved created institutions like the Susu (or, sou-
sou), and in the urban areas some were thrifty higglers, traders and innkeepers. They
worked their provision grounds and sought manumission (buying of their freedom) on
every occasion. Many African words survived in the syntax of the dialects of many
territories. The slave family became the linchpin of the slave experience. Slave social and
cultural independence were very much evident throughout the region. African burial
practices, folklore, customs and child-rearing practices were kept alive everywhere. The
historical literature suggests that musical creations loomed very large in the slaves' lives
everywhere. In the Caribbean, on the plantations and in the urban centres, slaves held
their own dances on holidays and off days.

Enslaved Africans in the Caribbean showed a remarkable adaptability to the violence

perpetrated on them. Like any forced migrant group, Africans had to conquer their
environment to build a life in a transplanted society. They openly resisted when the
opportunity provided itself, and accommodated when it suited them. In essence, they
demonstrated a very sophisticated understanding of the precarious position they were in
and responded with an equivalent sophistication.

Activity 3:7
• In this chapter the African population in the Caribbean during the period of slavery are referred to as the
black population or the black enslaved or enslaved Africans. Care has been taken, as far as possible, not
to label them as slaves. Reflect on the reasoning behind such a decision?

Africans, in essence, had survived acts of violence from their capture in Africa to life in
their homes on the plantation. The threat of the whip, for example, was ever present or
torture and mutilation awaited them for serious acts of defiance or rebellion. Not
surprisingly, they fought back. Every day they adopted a variety of non-violent means to
resist their enslavement. Destruction of animals, tools, machinery and arson of cane
fields, hit the planter class hard. In short, most of the enslaved were naturally "rebellious"

54
and sought to free themselves, physically and/or psychologically, from the harsh regime
of slavery. Therefore, to suggest that the black enslaved peoples of the Americas, and
even the Caribbean, acquiesced under the inhumanity of slavery is to deny them dignity,
pride, even humanity.

Activity 3:8
(a) One historian, Stanley Elkins, has argued that the mental stress of slavery forced the enslaved to adopt a
Sambo personality. Research what Elkins meant by a Sambo personality.

(b) Organize a class debate to discuss the statement that : -the most "... non-violent methods of resistance
among slaves were more effective than revolts".

Slave Resistance

The most spectacular act of rebellion and defiance was in St. Domingue (Haiti). St.
Domingue, by the 1790s was the richest slave colony in the Caribbean with an enslaved
population of more than 480,000. A colony influenced by the debate of rights emanating
from the French Revolution, exploded in defiance of the local planters to rule from the
metropolis. Slaves organized themselves into a formidable fighting force under the
leadership of Toussaint l'Ouverture, Henry Christophe and Jean-Jacques Dessalines,
brushed aside plantocratic control, threw out the French and destroyed a British invading
army and, in 1804, declared the independence of the first Black republic in the Western
Hemisphere.

However, the basis of Haiti's wealth in the sugar and coffee industries was destroyed.
And the downward spiral continued largely because of diplomatic isolation, inept leaders
and the need to pay reparations from an already exhausted economy. The fact that Haiti is
today's poorest country in the Western Hemisphere has historical antecedents that are not
always fully ventilated in the European literature and the press.

The Haitian Revolution, however, was a grim reminder to other slave societies in the
Caribbean of the potentially awful power of slave resistance. Those who fled from Haiti
spread the word of horror, a reminder of planters' predictions of what could happen if the

55
enslaved were not controlled with vigilance. In addition, the debate over rights inspired
slaves elsewhere to approach rebellion with deep philosophical and ideological positions.
In a way, planters lived in the shadow of permanent slave revolt after the success of the
revolution in Haiti.

The plantocracy's feeling of unease was aggravated by the escalation of slave rebellions
in the British Caribbean in the early nineteenth century. Rebellions had been a regular
feature of slave society in the Caribbean from the early days of settlement. Slave
resistance was endemic to Caribbean slave societies.

Activity 3:9

a) Was there ever a slave revolt in your territory? If so, visit the local archives and research how the
plantocracy reacted to the uprisings. Was it a local affair or did it spread throughout the territory?
b) Discuss the view that Haiti's poverty today is a result of its severance of its ties with the imperial power.

Marronage

Maroons were the runaway slaves who established communities in the hilly terrain of
many areas of the Americas. Marronage was not always an option in island communities,
but existed in large territories where the hilly terrain was ideal for settlements. The most
famous Maroons in the Curibbean were found in Suriname, in the Blue Mountains and
the Cockpit Country of Jamaica and in Las Villas in Cuba. Many savage wars were
fought between the Maroons and the planters, with the former adopting remarkable
guerrilla tactics in order to defend their liberty. So successful were the Maroons in
Jamaica in defending their liberty and territory, that the British were forced to sign a
treaty of peace conceding Maroon independence in 1739.

Marronage, and the restlessness of the enslaved blacks in the Caribbean during the
nineteenth century, played a big part in speeding up the emancipation process. A
growing sense of unease prevailed in the British Caribbean as Barbados (1816),
Demerara (British Guiana) (1823) and Jamaica (1831) all exploded in slave revolts in the
last days of slavery in the British Empire, a grim reminder of impatience with the system

56
of oppression. Slave rebellion and the constant rum0urs of rebellion were exposing the
fragility of the system of slavery. Slavery as an institution had to go, it was just a matter
of time.

Personal freedom from slavery eventually prevailed in the nineteenth century. The
British Emancipation Act of 1833 made provision for an apprenticeship scheme from
1834, and this ended prematurely in 1838. Danish and French slaves received their
freedom in 1848 and Dutch slaves in 1863. An Emancipation Proclamation, in the midst
of the Civil War, freed the black enslaved in the United States in 1863. In the Spanish
islands, slavery was ended in Puerto Rico in 1873 and in 1886 in Cuba. Except for Haiti,
which experienced a violent, successful slave revolution, the transition from slavery to
freedom in the Caribbean was gradual, and guided by imperial legislation.

Struggles for Independence

Apart from open protest in the form of riots in the nineteenth century, the newly
emancipated resorted to means of defining their freedom. One way was to establish new,
and continue old, informal social networks and economic institutions. The Susu, for
example, became even more entrenched in the post-emancipation era. It has survived to
this day in Barbados as the meeting tum and in Antigua as the box. Friendly Societies,
Lodges and various native churches also played a role by assisting the poor in surviving
the hostile economic climate of the late nineteenth century.

But more central to the struggle of the newly emancipated blacks to survive was the
establishment of village settlements, popularly referred to as the independent villages. In
any agrarian economy, such as existed in the British Caribbean in the nineteenth century,
land was a crucial economic resource. And the class that controlled access to land had an
excellent opportunity to exercise hegemonic control over the society. So whereas the
planter class, as a rule, conspired to deny blacks land in any great quantity, blacks
struggled to acquire it. Ownership of land provided blacks with a degree of
mdependence, and immunity, from the caprices of the plantation system.

57
Dynamism of the Former Enslaved

Large numbers of village settlements emerged in almost every British Caribbean

territory, especially the large ones of the Greater Antilles and the mainland of South
America. With the assistance of the Baptist missionaries, many Blacks in Jamaica were
able to obtain land and establish free villages. In Guyana, communal villages were
established as Blacks pooled their financial resources, bought entire estates and then
subdivided the land among them.

In the independent village settlements, Blacks continued the activities that they adopted
as proto-peasants during slavery (proto-peasants is a term that was applied to the
enslaved Africans on plantations who worked their provision grounds and learned the
skills of crop husbandry and marketing). In essence, the skills the former enslaved
learned through working their provision grounds as slaves were put to good use as
peasants later. As Woodville Marshall (1968) has demonstrated, the peasants who
occupied the free villages contributed much to the economy of the British Caribbean
through their dynamism and innovation. They were the pioneers of non-sugar agriculture,
introducing new crops and re-introducing old ones. The plantocracy remained
conservatively wedded to the sugar industry, ever imploring the metropolitan government
to continue price support and financial assistance. The black peasant, unlike the
plantocracy, had no agency to lean on and had to rely on his own innovation and devices.
Many village communities in contemporary Caribbean society can trace their ancestry
back to the struggles of the nineteenth century and, like the Maroons, are proud of their
heritage.

Activity 3:10

a) Is the "Susu" still vibrant in your territory? By what other name is it called?

b) Find out two ways in which the Susu is different from the Friendly Society.

c) Interview some elderly folk in your community to ascertain whether they were ever members of a Friendly
Society.
d) Reflect on the role that credit unions play now among the poorer sectors of the population. Is there some
similarity to these older forms of savings?

58
Other than these forms of savings as a means to ensure their independence, village people
developed a strong culture of co-operation and extending help to each other largely
because of the precariousness of their existence. In villages today people have much
stronger sense of community and neighbourliness than in the urban areas. Although we
are quite familiar with these aspects of our culture and society, often we do not reflect on
how they came to be. Here we see the seeming friendliness and helpfulness of village life
coming down from a century of knowing that co-operation among themselves was the
surest way of preventing the encroachment of the planter class back in their lives.

Plantation Society and Social Stratification

In the British Caribbean, and more particularly in a territory like Barbados, the plantation
came to play a dominant role in the economic, social, political and cultural life of the
region. The Caribbean plantation, in many instances, dominated not only the physical
landscape, but also spread its influence into all aspects of Caribbean life. Hence, scholars
refer to a plantation society.

Caribbean historians have argued that the plantation placed hegemonic control over our
societies for centuries. Moreover, the plantations' effects in all spheres of life in the
Caribbean lasted well into the twentieth century. One prominent scholar, George
Beckford (1983), like many others, perceived the plantation as a total economic
institution. He argued that the "plantation economy" is applicable to "those countries
where the internal and external dimensions of the plantation system dominate the
country's economic, social and political structure and its relations with the rest of the
world''.

More recently, Jay Mandie (1973) has linked the debate on plantation society to the
transition to capitalism in Europe. The plantation economy, he argued, not only coerced
labour, but also required that the plantations themselves be intensely profit-oriented,
commercial enterprises that responded readily to changing international market signals.
As a result of these features, a plantation society and economy is rife with inequalities

59
and dominated by a market-oriented ruling class. It was a production machine. People
were separated by race, colour, status, occupation and cthnicity and the glaring system of
social stratification along these lines was quite wide everywhere. One social scientist
sums up the situation in the Caribbean:

In societies whose social arrangements have been laid partly on racial

grounds, as is the case for many societies of the Caribbean region, the
crucial social criteria are still social rather than biological. The social
structure is predicated upon a distribution of statuses, life opportunities,
and prestige allotments associated with ... ascriptions.
(Padilla, 1978)

Plantation, Society and Culture

Despite many differences - for there are sugar, coffee, cocoa, coconut, and sisal
plantations scattered throughout the Caribbean - the Caribbean plantation has displayed
distinct features. Plantation is a "capitalist" type of enterprise in which land is treated like
a commodity. Plantations historically have opened up previously uncultivated land and
resorted to coercion in the form of slavery and, later, white and Indian indentureship, to
secure adequate labour supplies. Control of the plantation has been centralized, exerted
either directly by the owner or his attorney. Absenteeism has been an annoying feature of
most Caribbean plantation societies. A substantial importation of technology and
equipment has also been a feature of the Caribbean plantation. Plantation has not only
been a product of metropolitan capital, as already stated, but has also produced
monocrops for an overseas market. As a result of this key role in our development,
certain features of the Caribbean should be noted:

(a) the prevalence of monocrop agriculture;

(b) marginalisation of the peasantry due to hostility from the plantocracy;
(c) dependence on foreign capital and enterprise as the main investors;
(d) dependence on foreign markets for our crops;
(e) forced labour systems from early settlement to the twentieth century;

60
 (f) a taste for foreign products;
(g) social stratification based on the gradations of colour and race;
(h) lack of democratic tradition because of the long existence of slavery.

The circumstances under which these societies in the Caribbean were formed five
hundred years ago led to a struggle for freedom and have woven a common thread of
conflict throughout our history. Exploitation of Amerindians led to genocide but met
much resistance in the Eastern Caribbean from the Kalinago. White indentured servants
were known to put up resistance to their servitude in Barbados. Slavery in the Caribbean
was beset by rebellion throughout its existence. After emancipation, riots, disturbances
and labour protests, like the slave revolts of the slavery era, punctuated the British West
Indies. The most explosive riots during the nineteenth century can be mentioned here to
highlight the significance of them to the social transformation of Caribbean society. The
Guerre Negre riot occurred in Dominica in 1844, the Angel of Gabriel riots in Guyana in
1856, the Vox Popular riots in St Vincent in 1862, the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica
in 1865 and the Confederation Rebellion in Barbados in 1876.

Activity 3:11

a) What are the differences between riots, rebellions and revolutions?

b) Caribbean people are always accused of having a "dependency syndrome". Is this a fair judgement on
our people: if you think it is true, where did it originate? What can Caribbean leaders do to break out of
this dependency syndrome?
c) Write an essay of about 2000 words explaining how the plantation system in the Caribbean contributed
in any way to a feeling of dependency in the region.

Plantation System and Cultural Diversity

The plantation system brought about complex systems of social stratification, especially
in colonies that experienced the arrivals of large numbers of varying ethnic groups.
Guyana, Trinidad and Jamaica readily come to mind for they experienced considerable
immigration of large numbers of people from outside regions, especially East Indians and
Chinese. Between 1838 and 1917, more than half a million Asian indentures entered the
region. In these colonies, the emergence of colour, race and class divisions became

61
pronounced. Hostility developed between Blacks and East Indians over space and wage
rates.

Nevertheless, the new immigrant population also brought their cultural traits and values
to add to the cultural richness of the region. East Indian cuisine has spread through the
region. In Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana, there is the Hindu and Muslim festivals such
as Divali, Phagwa and Eid-ul-Fitr, and the holy days recognised by this community, all
existing alongside Christianity with its festivals and religious ceremonies. Over a period
of time cultural hybridisation occurred as well. This process has been referred to as a
unique form of creolisation, that is, mixing of cultural traits and exchange of values.

What has also occurred in the Caribbean was a process of racial admixture. Whites and
Blacks produced an offspring of mul~ttoes and this racial mixing occurred from as early
as the slavery era. Blacks and Indians produced a racial mixture called the dougla. The
emergence of groups as a result of racial mixing has created a bewildering number of
skin colours and features that are unique to the Caribbean.

A specific kind of cultural milieu evolved with the adaptation to the specific environment
of the plantation economies in the Caribbean. Food, dance, music, language and family
all adapted in their specific setting. It is this adaptation that has created the remarkable
cultural variations seen in the region and which are developed as tourist attractions
around the Caribbean. Carnival, limbo dancing, calypso, steel pan, are examples of our
cultural riches. Some scholars have argued that, in many ways, a combination of
European and African cultural practices adjusted to the new circumstances to create
Creole culture expressions in the Caribbean.

The Shango religion in Trinidad and Tobago and Pocomania in Jamaica are examples of
such cultural expressions of creolisation. Many West Indian "dialects" show evidence of
mixing of African and European linguistic influences. St. Lucia, Dominica and Grenada
have standard and non-standard forms of English and a French-based Creole. The
Netherlands Antilles has Dutch and Papiamento. In Haiti and the French West Indies,

62
French and a French-based Creole coexist. Trinidad and Tobago has standard and non-
standard forms of English, Bhojpuri and Urdu, and a French-based Creole and Yoruba
are still used by small segments of the society.

Activity 3:12
• Research the concept of cultural pluralism. Describe the relationship between the plantation system,
pluralism, social stratification and cultural diversity in the Caribbean.

The Aftermath of Plantation

The Tumultuous Thirties

During the early twentieth century, the culture of oppression and conflict from an earlier
era persisted. Severe material deprivation and poverty remained with the majority of the
working population well into the 1930s. Labour rebellions occurred in almost every
colony in the British Caribbean, commencing in Belize in 1934 and culminating in
Jamaica in 1938. The fact that social upheavals should have occurred in a short span of
four years in colonies separated by hundreds of miles of Caribbean Sea suggests that
there was widespread discontent among the masses in the Anglophone Caribbean.

Various local commissions that inquired into the causes of the social rebellion, such as
the Deane Commission ( 1935) in Barbados and the Forster Commission ( 1935) in
Trinidad, exposed a sad state of decay and crisis in West Indian society. The British
Government, ever alarmed at the regularity of social unrest during the 1930s, dispatched
the Royal Commission (Moyne) in 1938 to investigate the social conditions. The findings
of the Moyne Commission were an embarrassment to the British Government. Some of
the most disgusting forms of poverty existing anywhere in the British Empire were
revealed by the investigations. The British Government, fearful that the Nazis would use
the conditions of the British Caribbean as propaganda against them, released the evidence
after 1945 when the Second World War was over. The social rebellions, however, were a
watershed in the political history of the region upon which contemporary Caribbean

society is built.

63
Out of the social rebellions of the 1930s emerged trade unions and the rise of political
parties. This was the era of mass politics and the gradual political enfranchisement of
the working classes. As early as 1943, the Jamaican working classes had achieved the
right to vote. The process continued in a gradual fashion until 1951 when most of the
colonies in the Caribbean had achieved adult suffrage. But, more importantly, the new
political leaders, in almost every territory, started a process of social and political
transformation designed to correct the ills that led to the labour rebellions in the first
place. It is in the post-1930s era that we experienced the building of truly democratic and
modem societies in the Caribbean through the promulgation of radical social legislation.

The right to self-government also featured prominently in the Caribbean. The days of
Crown Colony government were also numbered. The West Indian Federation and,
later, constitutional independence during the 1960s and 1970s, became the means by
which the British Caribbean severed ties with their former colonial masters. The French
Caribbean islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe chose to remain French Departments. In
the Dutch colonies, a special arrangement under the Dutch Tripartite Kingdom was put in
place. In short, some Caribbean nations chose to sever ties with the imperial powers,
while others agreed to remain in various constitutional arrangements.

Activity 3:13
a) The labour rebellions of the 1930s in the British Caribbean were triggered by a number of social, political
and economic factors that impacted negatively on the Caribbean. Interview an elderly person who lived
through the period to obtain a firsthand account of living and working conditions, housing and wage rates
in your territory. To what extent did your findings concur with what you discussed in your class?

b) Build up a profile of two persons in your society who were pioneers of the labour movement or founder of
a major political party in the decades of the 1940s.

64
Summary

The major historical trends that have shaped Caribbean society and culture exposed a
region in turmoil and conflict and the emergence of the dominant form of economic and
social organization known as the plantation system. The legacies of this system,
particularly social stratification and cultural diversity, have continued to shape our
society and culture. The plantation during all its phases of development relied on some
form of forced labour. The importation of labour from many societies outside the
Caribbean region threw various people into a cultural pot. The plurality of ethnicities and
racial groups has resulted in a cultural diversity that is unique to the region. All the racial
groups, especially those that entered the region by force, had to reconstruct elements of
their culture in order to survive. This was very evident among African peoples who found
their culture under constant threat by the dominant white plantocracy. In many instances,
the oppressed groups had to adapt, assimilate, innovate, resist and openly rebel in order to
survive. It was this cultural tussle, the constant struggle for freedom, which has
contributed to cultural diversity in the Caribbean and the forging of a cultural identity.

Further Activities

1. Oppression has been part of the Caribbean's historical experience. Discuss some of the ways in which
Caribbean people, past and present, have responded to the problem of oppression.

2. In your opinion, does cultural diversity threaten national unity and stability? Provide examples of
Caribbean culture and society to support your view.

3. "There is no cultural diversity within the Caribbean. There are only micro-differences as one moves from
country to country." Discuss this statement with reference to at least THREE Caribbean countries.

4. Choose a country in the Caribbean with which you are unfamiliar, that is, you know very little about its
history, society and culture. Engage in a research project to highlight that country- from its earliest history
of migration, production systems, responses to oppression and movements towards independence. If any
of these categories do not apply, reflect on why that is so.

65
 Key Concepts

Hegemonic control Plantocracy Atlantic Slave Trade

Slavery Chattel slavery Middle Passage
Encomienda Repartimiento Intra-Caribbean migration
Indentureship Immigration White indentureship
Genocide Remittances Cultural diversity
Artefacts Conquistadores Social stratification
Manumission Free villages Cultural pluralism
Plantation society Emancipation Cultural hybridization
Aboriginal people Monocrops Sugar revolution
Diaspora Reparations Creolization
Mulattoes Dougla Culture of migration
Riots Revolution Anti-colonial struggle
Rebellion Revolts Regional integration
Marron age Trade unions Enfranchisement
Adult suffrage Political parties Self government
Crown colony W.l. Federation Constitutional independence

References

Bannon, J. F. (1982). The colonial world of Latin America. StLouis: Forum Press.
Chapter 1
Beckford, G. (1983). Persistent poverty: Underdevelopment in plantation economies of
the Third World. London: Zed Books. Pp. 84-110

Deosaran, R. (ed.) (1995). Cultural diversity, politics. education and society in Trinidad.
St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago: The Ansa MeAl Psychological Research Centre. Pp.
14-61

Fagan, R. L. (ed.) (1995). Spain. Europe and the Atlantic world. Essays in honour of
John H. Elliott. New York: Cambridge University Press. Chapter 12

Gmelch, G. (1992). Double passage. The lives of Caribbean migrants abroad and back

66
home. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. Chapters 14, 15

Mandie, Jay R. (1973) 'The Plantation Economy: An Essay in Definition" in Eugene D.

Genovese (ed) The Slave Economies: Hist01ical and Theoretical Perspectives, New York:
John Wiley & Sons. Inc.

Marshall, W. (1968) "Notes on Peasant Development in the West Indies since 1838:_:
Social and Economic Studies Vol. 17.

Palmer, C. A. (1995). The first passage: Blacks in the Americas 1502- 1617. New York:
Oxford University Press. Chapters 1, 3

Richardson, B. (1992). The Caribbean in the wider world, 1492- 1992: A regional
geography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chapters 3, 5, 6, 7

Simpson, L. B. (1966). Spanish Utopia. In J. F. Bannon (ed), Indian labour in the Spanish
Indies: Was there another solution? Boston: D. C. Heath.

Smith, M.G. (1994). Culture, race and class in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Mona,
Jamaica: Department of Extra-Mural Studies. Chapters 2, 3

Thompson, A. (1997). The haunting past: politics, economics and race in Caribbean life.
New York: M. E. Sharpe. Chapters 1, 7, 8

Vertovec, S. (1992). Hindu Trinidad religion. ethnicity and socio-economic change.

London and Basingstoke: Macmillan. Chapter 2

Further References

Fiet, L., & Becerra, J., (eds.) (1998). Caribbean 2000: Regional and/or national
definitions. identities and cultures Faculty of Humanities, University of Puerto Rico.

Neinecek, S. (2000). Who were the first Americans? Scientific American.

67
 Chapter 4

The Caribbean and the Wider World

Overview

Previous chapters dealt with some central concepts necessary for understanding society
and culture and, in particular, the impact of geography and history on Caribbean society
and culture. This chapter deals with the Caribbean in terms of its interactions with the
wider world, the influences the outside world is having in shaping Caribbean society and
culture today and the impact that Caribbean society and culture seems to be having in
metropolitan countries. At the same time, we realize that the interactions with the wider
world cannot be similar in frequency and impact. The strength of any interaction is a
function of the perceived power or acclaim of each region.

Objectives•

By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

1. describe how interactions between the Caribbean and the wider world
have shaped aspects of Caribbean society and culture;

2. appreciate that the pervasive image of metropolitan countries is a

problematic aspect of this interaction;

3. evaluate the impact of Caribbean society and culture upon aspects of the
politics and the economics of the wider world;

4. apply an understanding of the differences in power between the Caribbean

and the wider world to the nature of their interactions;

5. analyze the impact of Caribbean society and culture upon aspects of the
cultural practices of countries outside the Caribbean region.

1
These objectives refer to those of Module 1, specific objectives 8,9 and 10 of the Caribbean Studies
syllabus

68
 Introduction

The Caribbean, for the most part, welcomes interactions emanating from metropolitan
countries in the form of trade agreements, education opportunities, global information
and communication networks, for modernization and progress. On the other hand, the
practices of Caribbean people, while being increasingly represented on the world stage,
have met with mixed reactions abroad. You should keep in miud though that what you-
are witnessing is the meeting of different cultures and it is interesting to reflect on the
conditions that allow for cultural domination, assimilation and or accommodation.

GLOBAL INFLUENCES ON CARIBBEAN CULTURE AND SOCIETY

History is the major determinant of the strength of the influences we experience today
from the wider world. The Caribbean has been forged in a contest between superpowers.
We all belonged to them for periods of time. During those periods we experienced
cultural domination, as the major one-way influence, from metropolitan countries. Now
that much of the Caribbean is independent, we should examine the kinds of arrangements
or influences that are maintained with the former imperial powers and reflect on their
impact on Caribbean society and culture today.

As a result of our colonial experience, we have countries in the Caribbean with a range of
arrangements with their former imperial powers. These are mostly independent countries
in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Montserrat, Anguilla, the Cayman Islands, the British
Virgin Islands and the Turks and Caicos are still colonies of the United Kingdom.
Guadeloupe, Martinique, and St. Martin are departments of France and some Dutch
islands are still colonies of the Netherlands. These countries have strong ties with the
imperial power.

Thus, in some Caribbean countries the influences of the metropolitan country remain as
strong as ever. The cultural ties of those countries are directed northwards to the
Netherlands, England and France. These arrangements seem to have remained in place
because it appeared to be in the best economic interests of the islanders. This is an aspect
of Caribbean society and culture where there is much tension. While Anguilla opted to

69
remain under the control of Britain, the continuing heavy hand of France in her overseas
departments is causing considerable local opposition. However, amidst the wider
Caribbean, these countries represent living outposts of metropolitan lifestyles and valu~s.

Independent Caribbean

The independent Caribbean countries that have assumed self-responsibility and

sovereignty have a different relationship to the metropole than do the non-independent
territories. Although independent, the ties with the colonial power through investment,
monetary arrangements, educational connections, traditions of government and law,
enable us to benefit from contacts with certain centres of influence in Britain, France or
Spain.

In the case of the Commonwealth Caribbean we benefited from belonging to the

Commonwealth. Britain, even after giving independence to territories, still accepted
some responsibility for their welfare. Aid and other forms of technical assistance were
made available and the Commonwealth Secretariat was set up for this specific purpose.
Development assistance and research are offered to former territories in areas of
education, business development and other technical fields.

The whole range of goods and services which we import came at first from the U.K. and
then the USA and Canada. Both consumer items and capital and intermediate goods are
imported in vast quantities throughout the Caribbean. Cultural imports in the form of
music, fashion, foods and mass media, are voraciously devoured in the Caribbean.{:his
potential benefit that we enjoy can be to our detriment as the possibilities for generating
alternatives are destroyed by our affinity to imports.

We have also benefited from preferential trade agreements. Caribbean bananas and sugar
have been allowed special protection by European countries under the Lome agreement.
Trading within a given language zone with a similar legal system and a financial system
into which we were already integrated proved advantageous.

70
 Activity 4:1
Recently the banana industry of the Windward Islands was affected by a dispute between the World Trade
Organization (WTO) and the European Union (EU).
• Find out about preferential agreements between the Caribbean and the European Union relating to
bananas.
• Explain the role played by the World Trade Organization in this issue.
• What has been the outcome of the dispute?

In the case of the Commonwealth, Britain was an early outlet for migration and higher
educational opportunities. The first set of West Indians studying abroad went to the UK.
In addition, through migration, sizeable West Indian communities developed in the UK
and later the USA and Canada. Our heroes in cricket and football have honed their skills
in British clubs that accepted them as professionals. These opportunities contributed to
our dominance in world cricket for more than a decade.

The interactions and opportumties described above cannot be interpreted as merely

mutually advantageous arrangements between equals. Caribbean nationals benefited
because they were able to take advantage of what the metropole had to offer. Even in
institutional arrangements we merely cany on the legacy of the colonial power. For
example, our legal and education systems mirror those of industrialized countries,
because we envision working and or studying abroad and value certification from that
quarter. In any event, thert> is a definite preference for internationalized systems - of
business, law, education - so that we can better articulate with developments in foreign
countries.

In a very real way keeping abreast of how things are done in the metropole, signifies
whether you are knowledgeable about, and au courant with, your field of endeavour. Up
to now the metropole represents the standard, the cutting edge of education and research,
and as responsible people we actively participate in this interaction. Here we see elements
of a dilemma for Caribbean people. How do we maintain a commitment to our Caribbean
cultural heritage and at the same time admit that the modem, eurocentric ideas emanating
from developed countries are what we truly uphold as progress.

If you reflect on this tension in our societies, you will find that we have relied on the
metropole to do a lot of our thinking for us. For example, the premium we put on an

71
education abroad not only socializes us into the usual array of norms and values but,
fashions how we think even about our Caribbean problems and what we allow ourselves
to entertain as solutions. We will now examine contemporary interactions that stem
largely from North America and could be construed as another wave of cultural
domination or cultural imperialism.

Cultural imperialism

In the world today, given the improvements in communication, images can be transported
worldwide. Print, audio and visual images can be easily accessed in homes, schools and
businesses. While the potential for good exists in small countries in search of identity
and self-definition, the continuous penetration of foreign images, views of the world and
lifestyles could inhibit the development of small countries. The very capacity to
recognize their own problems and set priorities, is affected by the psychological
conditioning of the mass media. Approaches to consumption, sexuality and leisure are all
sold on the screen. The preference for basketball over cricket or fast foods over local
foods has implications for local industries and jobs.

The fact of the matter is that the dominant images in the Caribbean continue to be those
of the metropole. Although location of metropole has changed and our governance
arrangements also - we ar~ for the most part independent and no longer colonial outposts-
we continue to be flooded with patterns and lifestyles of foreign countries. Activity 4:2
deals with this dilemma that is part of the Caribbean cultural experience.

Activity 4:2
1. Consider instances of your country's relationship with any major metropolitan country, be it financial,
commercial, cultural, technological, or educational, and determine whether the needs and interests of
your country are satisfactorily dealt with.

2. Why are the international fast food chains growing so rapidly in the Caribbean? What values are being
challenged by the proliferation of fast food outlets?

This section explored the cultural domination that the metropolitan countries enjoy in the
region. It is directly related to our historical experience. Today it continues because of
our small size, limited resources, and little power. In order to accomplish most of our
goals as a people and as individuals, we find that we have to adopt and adapt to cultural

72
practices originating in the metropole. While some may say this encourages dependency,
others say we have little choice in the matter, it is life in the real world.

THE IMPACT OF CARIBBEAN CULTURE ON POLITICS AND

ECONOMICS OUTSIDE THE REGION

There are sizeable communities of Caribbean people in the largest cities of the developed
world and they impact in various ways on the politics and economies of those countries.
Large numbers of Caribbean populations live and work in cities like New York, Toronto,
and Miami as well as London, Paris and Amsterdam. Their influence has led to cultural
innovations in the fmm of Carnivals, music and other festivals. In all of these cities their
political relevance is growing as their populations grow. This will be important to the
development of a Caribbean identity as the social pressures of metropolitan societies
cause immigrants from the Caribbean to either undergo assimilation or assert their own
identity and sense of Caribbean self. It is interesting to study the impact our migrant
communities are having in the metropole. For example, do we see examples of cultural
assimilation on their part and cultural accommodation within foreign societies?

Politics

The huge presence of Cubans living in Florida form a powerful lobby to pressure the US
government to formulate policies designed to destabilize the communist regime of Fidel
Castro in Cuba. The controversy over a home for the little boy, Eli an, a refugee fleeing
from Cuba, became international in its intensity. The Cubans in Florida have taken up
residence as close to Cuba as possible so as to remain a political force and see the
overthrow of Castro's government. Their interests become part and parcel of the South
Florida political scene, particularly as the US will not be averse to seeing the removal of
what they consider a communist dictatorship from their doorstep.

The presence of large numbers of Haitians in Florida also represent a Caribbean force in
the US which has compelled the latter to step up immigration surveillance measures in an
effort to halt the flow of boat people attempting to get into the country illegally. The
treatment of these political refugees sometimes erupts onto the international media and
forces the US government to take cognisance of its role as a superpower in close
proximity to one of the poorest nations of Earth.

73
In similar ways the large Caribbean populations in New York, Toronto and London, find
their concerns cropping up on the political agenda in relation to immigration policy,
refugee status, deportations, work permits and the like. The aspects of politics they
impact upon have much to do with being migrants. Recently, Canada's immigration
policy changed in response to large numbers of citizens of Trinidad and Tobago
overstaying their welcome. Now an expensive visa has to be obtained and an interview
conducted when previously there were no such strictures.

Activity 4:3
• Brainstorm the kinds of ways, not mentioned above, in which Caribbean people impact on the politics of
countries outside the region.

• A continuing problem, around which you may focus your discussion, is the clash of cultures and prejudices
in big cities. What political repercussions and accommodations result from such incidents or interactions?

Politics and economics

In the following section we will explore some hard to define ways in which Caribbean
society and culture impact on the politics and economies of metropolitan countries. We
will do so by examining how controlling forces in the economies of metropolitan
countries have manipulated aspects of Caribbean society and culture for economic gain.
We will also notice that it was co-operation between the political machinery of the
metropolitan countries and the Caribbean, which was responsible for exposing these acts.

One of the scourges of developing countries has been their inability to cope with
corruption in governmental circles (both at the level of the political directorate and the
public service). Some leaders ha~(! been corrupt and many of their ministers and other
officials have also been corrupt. :]he abuse of influence and power for personal financial
gain is a common denominator.' In many countries there are millions of people who
'
cannot enjoy a decent quality of life because the resources have not been properly
managed or the benefits for the population have had to be sacrificed in order to
accommodate bribes, sweetheart deals, and kickbacks.

Countries outside the region have through their democratic institutions and judicial
systems, unravelled ways in which big business has courted and taken advantage of
political players in the Caribbean. Why has the Caribbean been so vulnerable to
corruption amongst its highest officials? Probably, because in Caribbean countries the

74
state has played a dominant role in the economy and this has contributed to a dependency
syndrome. Many people are, therefore, dependent upon the largesse of the state. Political
parties and leaders have also a assumed a role in determining the personal circumstances
of individuals based on their loyalty to one political party or another. Erring politicians
resist being held accountable, especially if they arc supported by the maximum leaders, -
powerful political heads of state who have enjoyed extended stays at the helm. ~hus, the_
political culture in many of the new democracies in the Caribbean encouraged the forces
of big business from outside the region to obtain lucrative contracts through bribery of
public official~

The quote below puts the issue in perspective.

The Caribbean Basin was one of the first parts of the globe to experience
colonization and the region where British imperialism survived longest; it
remains an area which the most powerful nation in the contemporary system,
the US, defines as crucial for its national security; and as a region made-up of
small peripheral states, it is vulnerable to a variety of outside pressures in
policy-making. These factors combine to give external agents an unusual degree
of influence over politics in the region and to raise doubts about the sovereignty
in the area.
(Grugel, 1995, p.84).

International crime in Caribbean countries also impacts on the politics and economies of
countries outside the region. Issues such as money laundering, drug trafficking, gun
running, and cross-border crime, pose problems beyond the capabilities of small
developing countries and are usually based on influences from other metropolitan centres
of the world. For example, the enormous cocaine industry in South America is a response
to the great demand for it in North America.

As a result, Caribbean states have to look towards forging alliances with the major
powers of the world in order to deal with problems of international crime in a realistic
manner. In doing so, the issue of dependence on former colonial powers will arise. Small
Caribbean countries cannot fight these cross-border problems on their own and they need
developed countries to assist them. In many instances, there are mutual interests involved
in fighting these problems.

Activity 4:4
Identify one area of international crime that is of concern in your country. What forms of co-operation exist to
help your country deal with this situation?

75
IMPACT OF CARIBBEAN CULTURAL PRACTICES ON
COUNTRIES OUTSIDE THE REGION

Why have they migrated? And what, if any, are the peculiar pleasures of exile?
... In the Caribbean we have a glorious opportunity for making some valid and
permanent contributions to man's life in this century. But we must
stand up, and we must move.
(Lamming, 1960)

You have already seen how, throughout the twentieth century, the people of the
Caribbean have been migrating to North, Central and South American countries, and to
many countries in Europe, especially Britain. In addition, our presence is felt in various
countries of the world as new communication technologies continue to erase the
boundaries between countries. As Thompson ( 1995) noted:

We must not lose sight of the fact that, in a world increasingly permeated by
the products of the media industries, a major new arena has been created for
the process of self fashioning. It is an arena, which is severed from the spatial
and temporal constraints of face-to-face interaction, and ... is increasingly
available to individuals worldwide (p. 43).

The works of our artists and our national festivals have perhaps been made especially
visible thwugh the mass media.

The tourist trade has also meant that visitors from the Caribbean go to other countries of
the world, while the people of those countries come to us, so that aspects of our lifestyle
have become accessible to people of other countries on an ongoing basis. First the
colonial governments, and then our own leaders of state, have continuously attempted to
market our goods and services to the people of other countries.

The cumulative result of migration, trade and the mass media has been that our own
society and culture have contributed to patterns of cultural contact and exchange
worldwide. And, whether those life ways have been welcomed or resisted, they have
nonetheless made an impact on cultures and societies outside the Caribbean, for example,
our national festivals.

76
The impact of our National Festivals

The excerpt below illustrates how one such cultural expression, the Trinidad Carnival,
became part of the way of life of the people of England, through the Notting Hill
Carnival. The process was not always a smooth one. In fact, the excerpt illustrates how
the influence of other cultures may be exerted in a context, which sometimes comes to be
characterized, by conflict and even violence. The passage represents the interpretation of
one member of the Black community in Britain about how the Notting Hill Carnival
evolved in the thirty years it has been celebrated in Britain.

The Notting Hill Carnival started within the framework of culture - it was a
cultural event. What it emphatically did not start as was potentially
challenging culture. .. . And so, for the first years of its life, the Notting Hill
Carnival was left alone. Why was that so? A number of reasons. The police
participated, incidentally in Netting Hill Carnival for all those years, and they got
enormous propaganda out of it: reassurance to the black community that they
were nice people ... reassurance to the white public that they were .. . relating
enjoyably to black people ... The early black organisers were men and women
who were black culturalists ... Carnival was about two things, really. First,
African bands like Ginger Johnson played an important part, and secondly steel
and costume bands from the Eastern Caribbean, particularly Trinidad ... And, as
long as the Carnival continued to be culturally about the two modes of music,
everything was 'cool', 'wonderful', 'beautiful', and allowed for 'dose vibes' ... and
then Palmer decided that he would do something to appeal to a different
element ... Palmer introduced reggae music, the music that moves the vast
majority of the young people, - and, if you check the "blues parties" the old as
well - from the Caribbean. In this country ... And he had massive publicity
before hand. Naturally, five hundred thousand people, or thereabouts, attended
the Carnival .. . Once that happened, the Carnival entered the domain of
threatening culture, because it was their mass culture, active mass culture,
and had to be suppressed.
(Gutzmore, 2000, pp. 338-341).

Over the years, the Notting Hill Carnival has been marked by clashes with the police as
well as by much calmer enjoyment. It was stopped for some years because it was
perceived as threatening. Nonetheless, it has continued and has grown, and become a
tradition in the area. As has happened with the Caribana festival in Toronto, and the
Brooklyn Labour Day celebrations, elements of the society in these countries have
sometimes resisted these celebrations. However, partly because they have contributed to
the economies of these countries, and partly because the West Indian communities have
fought for their inclusion, pointing out, for example, that Caribana has earned millions of
dollars for metro Toronto, Carnival has started to take root in these countries, and become

77
part of their cultural practice. Indeed the Notting Hill Carnival has now become one of
Europe's largest street festivals. As the excerpt suggests, one of the distinguishing marks
of the festival in Europe is the merging of inputs from different Caribbean countries.

The adoption of our music

The Steelband

With the influx of pannists or steelband men into these countries, too, the steelband as a
musical instrument has become increasingly popular. Steelband men came to these
countries to play mas and often settled there. They have now started teaching the citizens
of these countries to play the pans and to tune them. Today, steel band music is on the
curriculum of some schools in North American countries, and the fashioning of pans is a
growing skill which has the potential to contribute to the economies of countries, both
there and in Europe. In fact, in October 2000, when the International Steelband Festival
was held in Trinidad and Tobago, more than 600 pannists, playing in steelbands from
countries of Europe and North America, as well as from the Caribbean, participated in the
festival. One Association, Pan European, is increasingly assuming the responsibility for
creating a network to promote the development of pan in Europe. The steelband has, in
fact, taken root firmly enough that in Europe it is now being incorporated on a small scale
into other forms of music, like rap.

The impact of Reggae

Just as Carnival has caught on in parts of Europe and North America , the Jamaican
Reggae Sunsplash festival, which started in 1978, was for years a premier international
reggae event, with people coming from all over the world to take part. The popularity of
the festival is just one small indication of how reggae has taken root in countries
throughout the world. In fact, the Washington Post, describing the popularity of the
festival, described how among the audience were Japanese kids with com rows, and
WASPafarians from the USA. (WASP is an acronym meaning White Anglo Saxon
Protestant. It suggests a group whose values would traditionally have been opposed to all
that reggae and Rastafarianism represents).

78
Today, reggae has also started to be incorporated into the music of other countries
throughout the world. In Japan, for instance, a well-known female vocalist Sayoko, has
cut a reworking of the Japanese pop classic Ue 0 Muite Aruko (Sukiyaki) as an extended
CD single that includes both the Japanese and English versions of the song, set to a
reggae beat. And, in Nicaragua, the band Good Vibrations wrote a reggae protest song,
Election Time, to protest the political victory of President Chamorro, who opposed the
revolutionary Sandinistas. And in Zambia, Rastafarians and reggae artists and fans
shaped their own Sunsplash outside Lusaka every year since 1990.

Perhaps one of the surest signs of how reggae is taking root in the United States is that
Madison Avenue is using the music to market products- Shaggy's Boombastic has been
used to sell jeans for Levi Strauss. Furthermore, reggae is also being incorporated into
other music forms - one punk rock group in the USA, for instance, now produces a kind
of crossover reggae they call Jah rock. In fact, so much is the music now recognized as a
significant part of popular culture in the United States that the University of Vermont has
advertised a course in The Rhetoric of Reggae on the Web. Apparently, it was one of the
more popular courses in the year it was first offered too!

The impact of Rastafarianism

Even though Rastafarianism initially caused uneasiness in the countries where it was
introduced, the popularity of Bob Marley, is one factor that has also helped to maintain
interest in the practices of Rastafarianism. Marley became almost an idol for young
people all over the world, and his music continues to be popular years after his death. This
interest manifests itself today in the growing practice of Rastafarianism in other countries
of the world. The Rastafarian dreadlocks are now adopted by many African-American
who are not themselves Rastafarians, but who say they use dreadlocks as a manifestation
of deeply held beliefs which they share with Rastafarians. Chevannes (1995) has shown
how Rastafarians in the USA have so made the religion their own that some have started
modifying it to make it more in harmony with their own cultural values as Americans.
Thus, they have exchanged discourse about a purely black brotherhood for a wider
concept of brotherhood that includes all races in the USA.

79
Another way in which the music helped to make Rastafarianism influential with the
cultures of other countries was that the language and ideology that underpin Rastafarian
black consciousness - the words of Marcus Garvey and Franz Fanon, for instance,
became familiar to people from other countries through people like Marley. Interestingly
too, given that part of reggae's attraction at first was as protest music (I Shot the Sheriff,
But I Swear It Was in Self Defence), the messages of peace that were also part of the
content of Marley's music were incorporated into the calls for peace in the world. The
youths of North America used these messages in protesting the United States'
involvement in Vietnam. Thus, some beliefs and expressions of Rastafarianism found
acceptance partly because at first the music articulated what people in these countries felt
in a time of turmoil and transition, but they have now permeated the discourse of those
countries.

Changes within social institutions

Even when, as described in the narrative about the Notting Hill Carnival, the response to
cultural influences from the Caribbean has produced discomfort and a sense of conflict
in other countries, you will find that attempts to reconcile this perception of conflict have
themselves helped to create some measure of change in cultural practices and social
institutions.

Establishment of structures to deal with conflict

As our people and our cultural traditions have taken root in countries throughout the
world, those countries have had to acknowledge that the meeting of different cultures can
give rise to conflict and disruptions to accepted patterns of social behaviour. As a result,
they have been led to develop laws and policies, and to make various arrangements to
minimize the possibility of conflict and accommodate these cultural practices.
Chevannes (1995) relates, for instance, how in 1990, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a
1986 ruling by the New York State Appeal Court that New York State prison officials
could not constitutionally require inmates who adhere to the Rastafarian religion to cut
their own hair.

80
Changes in education

The growing presence of the children of Caribbean immigrants in schools in North

America and Europe has also made an impact on the education process. For Instance, the
dominant language in many countries is no longer the only one to find an accepted place
within the oral and written texts in classrooms. Now various languages, including our
Caribbean Creoles, have been explicitly accommodated within many national curricula.
Courses like Cultural Studies have also been included on the curriculum to encourage
awareness of, and respect for, diverse cultures, including our own. As you have learned,
education is an important means of socialisation of young people into culturally
appropriate ways of behaving. Such changes in the curriculum, therefore, suggest that
some influences from our cultural practices are now being systematically incorporated
into the cultural practices of countries throughout the world, through the education of
their children.

Activity 4: 5
Research Project: For any major festival in your country, investigate how the festival is being promoted
abroad, and about the influx of tourists into your country at the time when it is staged.

1. How many tourists from outside the Caribbean visit yearly at the time of this festival?
2. What opportunities for learning about, and taking part in, important cultural practices do they have when
they visit?
3. Draw an illustrated map. Locate tourist destinations in your country where tourists can take part in major
cultural events.

Activity 4:6
For any one major form of popular music or one national festival in the Caribbean, summarize:
i) What information about it is available on the Web?
ii) What arrangements are made to market it internationally?
iii) What evidence is there of its growing popularity in countries outside the Caribbean?

Summary

In this chapter our focus was on interactions. We were interested in finding out what was
the nature ofthe interaction like between the Caribbean and the wider world. We saw the

81
impact of metropolitan societies on our region in terms of cultural domination and saw as
problematic the pervasive image of those societies in the interaction. In examining our
impact on metropolitan countries, we noted that cultural contact has been marred by
----
conflict and violence, even corruption. Such occurrences could be attributed to the
differences in power between the two societies. However, there were also elements of
accommodation on the part of the host society and assimilation on the part of migrants in
the metropole.

Further Activities
1. On the bulletin board in your classroom, or on any other convenient space, design an exhibit showing
evidence of how people in other countries of the world are beginning to adopt elements of our culture, for
example, Caribbean restaurants in cities abroad or posters advertising shows and festivals.

2. Read the excerpt from the Gutzmore article again, and suggest reasons why people may have come to
perceive the Notting Hill Carnival as "threatening", based on your understanding of how cultures and
societies evolve. What are some other more posnive ways in which people of other countries have
responded as our cu~ural practices started to make significant inroads there?

3. How would you respond to people who say that the region needs to beware of how important aspects of
its cultural heritage are being taken over by countries outside the Caribbean.

You may wish to consider the following- specify some of the consequences they fear; suggest ways in which
the process accords with what you know about what happens when cultures interact; and, suggest policies
which you believe may help to prevent important features of our cultural heritage from being lost to us in the
process.

Key Concepts

Interaction Metropolitan Modernization

Dependency Commonwealth Lome Agreement

Identity Cultural accommodation Cultural assimilation

Politics Cultural domination European Union

Economics World Trade Organization Rastafarianism

Reggae Cultural expression Communist

Ganja Black consciousness Carnival

Steelband Dreadlocks Largesse

Corruption Cultural contact Lobby

82
 References

Chevannes, B. (1995). Rastafari: roots and ideology. Syracuse, N>Y>: Syracuse

University.

Grugel, J. (1995). Politics and development in the Caribbean Basin. London: Macmillan.

Gutzmore, C. (2000). Carnival, the state and the black masses in the United Kingdom. In_
K. Owusu (ed). Black British culture and society: a reader. London Routledge.

Lamming, G. (1960). The occasion for speaking. The pleasures of exile. London:
Michael Joseph.

Thompson, J. (1995) The Media and Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Further Readings

James, C.L.R. (1963). Beyond a boundary. London: Hutchinson & Co. Ltd.

Manley, R. (1996). Drumblair: memories of a Jamaican childhood. Kingston: Ian Randle.

83
 Chapter 5

Exploring the Concept, Development

Overview

Since development will be the focus of our discussion for subsequent chapters, we will
explore the concept in this chapter to first get a good understanding of its dimensions and
interrelationships. Development is a challenge for the Caribbean. To be better able to
make a contribution to development, we need to educate ourselves about the potential of
development. We will see that various approaches to development have been tried and
abandoned, or are followed without consideration of alternative approaches. This chapter
attempts to clarify the concept of development.

Objectives•

By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

1. distinguish between economic growth and development;

2. apply and use indices of economic growth;

3. compare and contrast older and contemporary notions of development;

4. articulate the development challenge facing Caribbean societies;

5. define and use measures associated with human development.

1
These objectives refer to those of Module 2, specific objectives 1, 2, 3, and 10 of the Caribbean Studies Syllabus.

84
Introduction

Dominant ideas on development have tended to follow an economistic model. More

recent understandings emanating largely from the UN have stressed a people-centred
approach. To fully appreciate recent concept of development, we will explore models of
development that we have inherited. These include various versions of the plantation
system, industrialization according to the Puerto Rican model and experiments with
economic ideologies. Finally, no explanation of the concept of development, will be
relevant without some idea of its interrelationships with technology, especially in this
world of increasing globalization.

What is development?

Up to the middle of the twentieth century and perhaps a little later, the development of
countries was conceived in mainly economic terms. The indicators used to assess
development were growth in national income, per capita income, levels of diversification,
levels of personal income, levels of investment and levels of infrastructure. Other
supporting measures of a strategic nature included fiscal balance, trade balances, levels of
unemployment and inflation.

Moving away from the economistic approach

While the above economic measurements are still relevant indicators of the well-being of
a country, the thinking on development has shifted away from solely material factors to
include non-material factors. Development today is much more people- and process-
centred. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) defines development, for
instance, as the enlargement of peoples' choices. Today there is a strong consciousness
in development thinking that development is for people and that people must be equipped
to carry out the processes themselves.

85
Environmental concerns

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, human beings on planet earth have become conscious
of the need to conserve the environment. It is now common knowledge that our quest to
produce more goods and services can destroy the atmosphere, pollute the ocean and
rivers and destroy precious ecosystems that in tum combine to reduce the quality of life
for all. So environmental concerns were put squarely on the development agenda and
people began talking about sustainable development. Environmental impact
assessments are now standard requirements for any significant project. In fact, a whole
new ar~a of knowledge known as environmental science has evolved as well as a whole
new legal framework to support conservation efforts in commercial and industrial life.

Activity 5:1

1. Identify crucial infringements of good environmental practice by any agency in your country as well as in
another Caribbean territory.
2. Identify the present beneficiaries, and the long-term losers, from this malpractice.

3. Suggest ways to deal with this problem immediately and in the long run.

Gender, minorities and development

The late decades of the twentieth century brought gender and issues relevant to minority
groups squarely onto the development agenda. The world became conscious of the
valuable and undervalued role women played in society. Women as leaders m
households, purveyors of culture who could contribute fully to the improvement of
societies if they were brought into the mainstream of education and economic and
community life. Inclusiveness became a valued factor in the development process. This,
therefore, meant that the development process should also include minority groups within
any audit. Inclusiveness made for greater participation and equity which ensured greater
sustainability in the long run.

86
 Activity 5:2
1. Describe any plan, programme or project in your country in which you can identify the exclusion of any
relevant stakeholders.
2. How can this affect the future success of this project/plan/programme?
3. Suggest approaches and identify difficulties in dealing with such exclusion.

Participation and development

Development should not bypass the processes by which a community of people learn to
set goals and arrive at consensus. Processes of participation ensure sustainability by
actively involving those who have to implement and use certain facilities. It ensures that
they are involved at all stages in the decision-making in planning and implementation.

People-centred development

Today it is recognised more than ever that the productivity of a nation has to do with the
skill and education of its human resources. In the age of information technology the
production of wealth requires individuals with problem solving and information
management capabilities in order to harness the technology in both new and old
endeavours. This means that investment in people is important, that is, in their education,
training and retraining as well as in their health.

Development and culture

Another major departure (although not entirely new) in thinking about development is the
emphasis on culture. UNESCO called the last decade of the twentieth century the decade
of culture. The concern was that the culture of a people reflects their natural strengths,
values, tastes, technologies and use of resources. To the extent that plans, programmes,
projects in a community begin from the point of recognition of these natural strengths and
build on them, then the development process is highly likely to bring valuable, fruitful,
sustainable results. Of course, this recognition of culture would encompass and inform

87
all the other concerns here stated about environment, gender, community participation
and people-centeredness.

Activity 5:3
Read the extract below about a technological innovation in Sri Lanka that was designed to spur on economic
development in the region. Then attempt the following questions.
1. How did the society gain from the new arrangements?
2. How did the society lose?
3. Did this strategy respect culture and encourage community empowerment?
4. Could you identify and similar case in your country?

A cautionary tale from Sri Lanka

From the 1960s to the mid-1970s, 2000 inboard motorcraft were brought into
fishing villages of Sri Lanka to improve yields. Costing each about 10 to 15
years' of a village family's income, the boats were introduced under a hire-
purchase scheme. Few of the fishermen thus precipitated into a cash economy
had any savings. Wage costs plus loan repayments placed their new income
under considerable strain. With no margins to draw on, many of the fishermen
went bankrupt. The critical, unforeseen expenditure was for repairs, nothing in
their past experience having prepared them for the task of maintaining
Norwegian boats equipped with Japanese engines. When a boat broke down
and the owner could not fix it, it lay idle, thus preventing the continued
repayment of loans. This allowed wealthier owners to acquire the second-hand
boats, and build up fleets that increased their advantage over the previous
"inefficient" canoe-based fishing system.

Fishing output in one village rose by 7 to 8 times in 15 years. Meanwhile the

total number of people employed in fishing decreased by 50 percent, and
unemployment reached the point where 35 percent of males under 25 had no
job at all. Formerly, there had been a very small elite of one or two families and
a large class of free peasants; now there was a somewhat larger elite of ten to
fifteen families, while about 200 families lived close to, or below, subsistence
level.

Finally, traditional obligations of village life disappeared as a result of the

erosion of traditional social relations governing production, and the fish, which
had once been eaten in the village, was now exported 210 kilometres away to
Colombo.

Report of the World Commission on Culture and Development.

UNESCO, 1995

88
Redefining development

The economic approach to development emphasizes the material, that is the goods and
services, consumed by people. The output of the nation's economy was, therefore, the
key significant indicator. If the econ9my grew it was assumed that people would be
better off.

Growth without development

This material conception of development was long ago recognised as insufficient,

especially in cases where there was the "growth without development syndrome" and the
"quality of life" argument. Countries like Trinidad and Tobago in the 1970s experienced
rapid growth in the.nation's output, but the country became ever more dependent on the
single export - oil. This prosperity was not sustainable as the price of oil tumbled in the
early 1980s and the country was forced to tum to the IMF.

Gr~wth with declining "quality of life"

A country's output of goods and services can grow, but the process generates
accompanying ills that reduce people's capacity to enjoy life, for example, pollution,
crime, destruction of family life, traffic congestion, ill health and rise in the cost of living.

Defining the modern conception of development

From the preceding discussion of development as a process that deals with culture,
gender, environment, community power, and people-centredness, one can discern a sharp
contrast to the economistic approach to development. At the end of the twentieth
century, within the UNDP, a new paradigm of development evolved called the Human
Development paradigm.

Development in this new approach is defined simply as the enlargement of people's

choices. This paradigm is based on four main pillars: equity without which the process is
P0t socially sustainable; sustainability that emphasizes the need for longevity of the

89
project or programme; productivity that emphasizes investment in people; empowerment
that emphasizes the need for people in a community to have autonomy and control.

Enlarging people's choices raises many issues. It is not only about goods and services: it
also involves leisure, health, education and various needs of human beings, including
freedom and security. Issues also include the human capability to produce, the freedom
to participate and the autonomy that comes from reduced centralised control.

Indicators of development

A whole range of indicators of development is now possible. The economic indicators

still have their place. They are still worthwhile measures of material changes in output.
Output and material growth have not been abandoned but they are now recognised as
necessary, but not sufficient, indicators of development.

Economic indicators

GNP/National Income - the sum total of goods and services, the value of which
accrues to nationals of a country in a given year.
Per capita income- National income divided by total population.

Levels of diversification- Sectoral component of GNP divided by total GNP.

Level of investment/domestic capital formation - level of investment by the

government and private sector in a given year.

Unemployment level - the percentage of the labour force willing to work and
unsuccessful at finding work.

Inflation rate- percentage increase in the level of prices in a given year.

Fiscal balance - the difference between proposed expenditure and revenue in a

given year by the central government.

Trade balance - the current account balance is the difference between the
exports and imports of goods and services in a country for a given year.

90
 Non-material indicators

By contrast, non-material indicators have become more important with the evolution of
the human development paradigm that defines development as the enlargement of
people's choices.
(1) Level of social services- health, recreation, sports.

(2) Level of educational opportunities.

(3) Sophistication of the public services- civil services.

~-
(4) Media freedom.

(5) Level of environmental conservation/pollution.

(6) Treatment of women, children, the marginalised.

(7) Level of civic consciousness and participation.

(8) Levels of crime.

(9) Housing.

Relevance to the Caribbean

Given the historical legacy of the Caribbean, with countries being organised for
production by some metropolitan interests, a key development challenge is how to
reorganise production and exchange to suit the needs of an independent society. Most, if
not all, Caribbean societies have the legacy of mono-crop dependence on foreign capital
and entrepreneurship, narrow market dependence and lack of development of local
resources and technology. In the quest for transformation of these societies, the non-
material indicators are extremely important. We have to aim at the diversification of
these economies, away from dependence on oil and bananas and bauxite. We have to
remove inequities internally, develop our educational capability, increase civic-
mindedness and political participation. The economic transformation, which we seek,
can result only from a holistic transformation of our societies involving education and
training, gaining commitment to societal goals through increased social commitment and

91

\
 •I

ECONOMIC STRUCTURE

Annual Indicators
1
1tH 1818 1917 1191 1919
GOP at market encea (J$ m} 170,133 203,109 2201556 251,122 262,410
GOP (US$ bn} 4.8 5.5 6.2 6.9 6.7
Real GOP growth (2il 0.5 -1.8 -2.4 -0.7 -1.1
Consumer (!rice inflation (av; %} 19.5 26.3 9.5 8.7 6.0
Poeulation (m} 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.6
Merchandise e~orts fob (US$ m} 1,796 1,721 1,700 1,613 1,447
Merchandise imeorts fob (US$ m) 2,625 2,715 2,833 2,710 2,589
Current-account balance (US$ m} -74.1 -111.6 -312.3 -255.3 -220.7
Reserves excl gold (US$ m) 681 880 682 710 560
Total external debt (US$ bn} 4.3 4.0 3.9 3.8 3.8
Debt-service ratio, eaid (%) 16.3 16.3 15.2 13.1 14.7
Exchange rate (av; J$:US$} 35.1 37.1 35.4 36.6 39.1

January 28th 2000 J$42.3:US$1 ....

!
i

Origins of gross domestic product 1998 %of total Components of gross domestic product 1998 %of total I
'

Agriculture & fishing 7.3 Private consumetion 66.5

Mining & guar~ing 10.1 Government consumetion 17.8
Manufacturing 17.3 Fixed investment 28.9
Electricit~ & water 5.5 Stockbuilding 0.2
Construction 8.4 Exeorts of goods & services 42.7
Distribution 22.9 lmeorts of goods & services -56.0
Transeort, storage & communications 15.8 GOP at market erices 100.0
Financing & insurance 12.2
GOP at factor cost incl. others 100.0

Princieal exeorts 1998b US$m Princieal imeorts 1998b US$m

Alumina 575 Raw materials (excl. fueQ 1,224
Sugar 81 Consumer goods (incl. food) 922
Bauxite 95 Caeital goods 551
Bananas 33 Fuels 295
Total incl. others 1,316 Total incl. others 2,992

Main destinations of exports 1998 %of total Main origins of imeorts 1998 %of total
us 39.5 us 47.7
Canada 15.6 EU excl UK 12.8
UK 13.4 Caricom 10.2
EU excl UK 17.1 Latin America 6.7
1
EIU estimates. bCustoms basis.

Table 1: JAMAICA (source: Economist Intelligence Unit 2000)

EIU Country Repon 1" quaner 2000 C The Economist Intelligence Unit Limited 2000
through institutions, which promote participation at all levels. These are fundamental
pillars for sustainable living standards.

Activity 5:4
From Table 1 for Jamaica, comment on the following, making calculations where necessary:
1. How has the Jamaican GOP grown over this period? What are the implications?
2. Comment on the rate of inflation in Jamaica.
3. Comment on trade pos~ion?
4. Which are the most important sectors in the Jamaican economy?
5. Compare the nature of Jamaica's exports to its imports.
How diversified are Jamaica's exports markets?

The Human Development Index

Since 1990 the UNDP (the United Nations Development Programme) has produced a
Human Development Report annually. This report gives indices of development of
different countries and provides a ranking in terms of development for the different
countries of the world.

Table 2 gives the last ranking for 1998 done in its year 2000 report. Barbados ranks
number thirty ahead of all the other Caribbean countries. Canada is ranked number one
and Sierra Leone is last in line. Where is your country placed in this ranking?

The Human Development Report measures average achievements in basic human

development in a simple composite index. The statistical procedures and techniques may
be controversial. The measures taken into consideration include per capita national
income as well as life expectancy, adult literacy rates, and school enrolment.

Background to the economic concept of development

If we view Caribbean economies historically, then we begin with pre-Columbian

economy and society where trade would have been based on barter, technology was
simple, life was communal and a whole ethos of existence based on a different way of

92
- L

TABLE 2
HOI ranks, 1998 TABLE 2: (source: UNDP (2000), pp.149).

1. Canada 45. United Arab Emirates 89. Maldives 133. Papua New Guinea
2. Norway 46. Estonia 90. Azerbaijan 134. Cameroon
3. United States 47. Saint Kitts and Nevis 91. Ecuador 135. Pakistan
4. Australia 48. Costa Rica 92. Jordan 136. Cambodia
5. Iceland 49. Croatia 93. Armenia 137. Comoros
6. Sweden 50. Trinidad and Tobago 94. Albania 138. Kenya
7. Belgium 51. Dominica 95. Samoa (Western) 139. Congo
8. Netherlands 52. Lithuania 96. Guyana 140. Lao People's Dem. Rep.
9. Japan 53. Seychelles 97. Iran, Islamic Rep. of 141. Madagascar
10. United Kingdom 54. Grenada 98. Kyrgyzstan 142. Bhutan
11. Finland 55. Mexico 99. China 143. Sudan
12. France 56. Cuba 100. Turkmenistan 144. Nepal
13. Switzerland 57. Belarus 101. Tunisia 145. Togo
14. Germany 58. Belize 102. Moldova, Rep. of 146. Bangladesh
15. Denmark 59. Panama 103. South Africa 147. Mauritania
16. Austria 60. Bulgaria 104. El Salvador 148. Yemen
17. Lexembourg 61. Malaysia 105. Cape Verde 149. Djibouti
18. Ireland 62. Russian Federation 106. Uzbekistan 150. Haiti
19. Italy 63. Latvia 107. Algeria 151. Nigeria
20. New Zealand 64. Romania 108. VietNam 152. Congo, Dem. Rep. of the
21. Spain 65. Venezuela 109. Indonesia 153. Zambia
22. Cyprus 66. Fiji 110. Tajikistan 154. Cole d'lvoire
23. Israel 67. Suriname 111. Syrian Arab Republic 155. Senegal
24. Singapore 68. Colombia 112. Swaziland 156. Tanzania, U. Rep. of
25. Greece 69. Macedonia, TFYR 113. Honduras 157. Benin
26. Hong Kong, China (SAR) 70. Georgia 114. Bolivia 158. Uganda
27. Malta 71. Mauritius 115. Namibia 159. Eritrea
28. Portugal 72. Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 116. Nicaragua 160. Angola
29. Slovenia 73. Kazakhstan 117. Mongolia 161. Garnbia
30. Barbados 74. Brazil 118. Vanuatu 162. Guinea
119. Egypt
31. Korea, Rep. of 75. Saudi Arabia 163. Malawi
32. Brunei Darussalam 76. Thailand 120. Guatemala 164. Rwanda
33. Bahamas 77. Philippines 121. Solomon Islands 165. Mali
34. Czech Republic 78. Ukraine 122. Botswana 166. Central African Republic
35. Argentina 79. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 123. Gabon 167. Chad

36. Kuwait 80. Peru 124. Morocco 168. Mozambique

37. Antigua and Barbuda 81. Paraguay 125. Myanmar 169. Guinea-Bissau
38. Chile 82. Lebanon 126. Iraq 170. Burundi
39. Uruguay 83. Jamaica 127. Lesotho 171. Ethiopia
40. Slovakia 84. Sri Lanka 128. India 172. Burkina Faso

41. Bahrain 85. Turkey 129. Ghana 173. Niger

42. Qatar 86. Oman 130. Zimbabwe 174. Sierra Leone
43. Hungary 87. Dominican Republic 131. Equatorial Guinea
44. Poland 88. Saint Lucia 132. Sao Tome and Principe
relating to time and space existed. This civilization was wiped out by the capitalist,
materialist march of the European powers.

Plantation Economy

The model of plantation economy helps to set the framework for the emergence of
Caribbean economy and society. In the early 16th and 17th centuries, islands like
Barbados, Jamaica, Antigua and Dominica were places where Britain found it convenient
to grow sugar for export. Some core features of pure plantation economy in its earliest
phase are given below:

(1) the dependence on foreign enterprise, skill and capital;

(2) the complete specialisation of the island in the export crop;
(3) importation of all necessary inputs;
(4) technology wholly imported;
(5) a total institution, completely reg~lated internally.

Plantation Economy Modified

At emancipation the society was modified, as slaves were set free. From 1834 to the
early 20th century, the evolution of society took place with developments in education,
changes in government, rise of a black middle class, rise of a black peasantry and the
development of trade and commerce to facilitate the needs of a free society.

However the legacies of the pure colonial economy proved hard to unravel. These
countries governed from abroad still depended on sugar as the main support of the
islands. There was no significant development of any local resource and the societies
remained largely agrarian and dependent on the imperial power for aid and trade. The
colonial economy in the Caribbean exploded in the 1930s, as the economy was unable to
provide for the needs of the growing population.

93
Plantation Economy Further Modified

The twentieth century saw self-government, labour movements and adult suffrage but the
colonial economy remained intact up till the 1950s. A local private sector developed,
engaging in commerce and distribution but the economies were still undiversified,
dependent on sugar, bauxite or bananas. Some countries developed new sectors such as
tourism or oil, but these were completely in the hands of foreigners and so the syndrome
of dependency on foreign capital enterprise continued, with the lion's share of profits
going abroad. After the Second World War, the Moyne Commission from London said
that, to all intents and purposes, these islands were good for agriculture and nothing else.
..
Industrialisation

In the 1950s, following the Puerto Rican model, countries throughout the Caribbean and
Latin America began earnest attempts at industrialisation. The argument ran like this:
since these countries did not possess the relevant technology, enterprise capital and
market conne~tions, then it made sense to invite special firms to set up in production
within our territories. The firms would have all the capital and market connections.
Certain incentives would be offered to these firms such as tax-free holidays, exemption
from taxation on raw materials and equipment, and free factory shells. The idea was that
local investors would learn the tricks of the trade, investors would reinvest and the
process of economic growth would take off.

· This strategy was aimed at developing a manufacturing sector. The results of these
policies were not very encouraging ten years later. By the late 1960s, the effects on
employment and increased industrial activity were very limited. Most firms engaged in
screwdriver-type industries for which the employment effects and the generation of
linkages were minor. Some firms folded after the tax holidays were over.

So, while some economies have a small manufacturing class, it is not significant enough
to generate sufficient foreign exchange or employment. Most economies are still
dependent on single exports to narrow markets for survival. But, while "industrialisation

94
by invitation" was seen to be unsuccessful by the 1960s, it remained, strangely enough,
the main strategy in the Caribbean until today, as many of the biggest countries see their
survival as tied mainly to their ability to attract direct foreign investment.

These territories still see themselves as having to import technology, lock, stock and
barrel, even when local producers are attempting to set up shop. Not that there is not a
need to do so. But we have not reached very far in devising ways to use local resources
to produce goods that we can sell abroad. We have not as yet learnt to build markets or
promote local goods. The legacy of foreign tastes and lack of acquaintance with
technology are continuing constraints.

Economic Ideologies

The Caribbean offers experiences of a range of ideologies. Cuba in 1959 took the
socialist option and has survived till today. Grenada took the socialist option that did not
last. Jamaica took the socialist option and retreated. Guyana took up a variant of
socialism and suffered. The other countries of the Caribbean remained with the
conservative and approved options but even the wealthier countries in the region, such as
Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados and Jamaica, ended up in the hands of the IMF in the
latter part of the twentieth century.

The Socialist Option

The socialist option always proved difficult given the geopolitical context of the
Caribbean vis-a-vis the needs of American society. With the existence of socialist Cuba,
the USA was not prepared to permit another rival ideology to exist in the Caribbean.
Any other socialist country would have suffered all the possible sanctions of trade, aid,
and technology that could have been brought to bear on such a country. Secondly, while
such an approach to governance may give power to the state, it does not solve the central
problem of shortage of enterprise, technology and generation of local goods and services.

95
Statist Policies

From the period of the 1950s to the late 1970s, the attempt by the state to control the
"commanding heights of the economy" was the key ideology. Most of these economies
were mixed with a strong state sector and a weaker private sector. Governments saw
themselves as the prime movers with the responsibility to produce employment and a
better standard of living for all. Not only were governments seen as managers of the
economy, but also as owners of enterprises. Large state sectors developed in countries
like Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica. Na~onali~_~tion was a respected word even up to
the late 1970s.

,.
Liberalisation

With the fall of the Eastern Bloc countries and the dismal experience of state enterprises
in other parts of the world, countries entered an era of free market capitalism in the last
two decades of the twentieth century. The rise of information technology and its
application tQ trade and commerce made the world into one marketplace. This meant that
protection of home markets could not be sustained in the future. Under the aegis of the
World Bank and the IMF, countries were forced in the direction of free market capitalism
with the implications listed below.

1) Removal of restrictions against foreign goods.

2) Removal of restrictions against financial flows.
3) Privatisation of state companies.
4) Reduction of state subsidies to industry.
5) Reduction of state involvement in economic activity generally.

Caribbean countries have all gone down this path. The danger is that we are now more
than ever inundated with foreign goods, culture and tastes. We still have un-diversified
economies and, in the case of bananas, we are facing the consequence of losing
preferential markets. In the context of the information age, we are challenged to educate

96
and train m order to obtain local entrepreneurs who can develop other areas of the
economy.

The challenge of technology and the new Information Age

Throughout our history, we have been dependent on technology from abroad. The nature
of any technology, however, is its cultural heritage. Every process or tool implies the
use of certain kinds of resources to produce certain kinds of outputs to satisfy certain
needs and wants. The plantation experiences gave a limited exposure to technology, but
one that could be built on by freed slaves. The manufacturing class that subsequently
evolved imported all technology from abroad. In order to reduce this technological
dependence considerable technology research and innovation are required.

The development of computer technology and the application of such to production, trade
and exchange, presents a new technological environment within which countries have to
survive. E-commerce is the new buzzword of the day and the use of the Web and digital
technology is radically changing banking, education and distributive trades. In this era,
the skill and depth of human resources will determine a country's ability to survive.

Unequal Distribution of Income

Inequality of income distribution is a distinct heritage of the colonial economy and

society. Immediately after emancipation, there existed a large-scale agricultural sector
alongside small-scale peasant agriculture. The peasant sector was starved of support and
infrastructure in the 19th century while the large-scale sector controlled major land
resources and benefited from better infrastructure. Structurally, inequality was built into
the society. The lack of success in diversifying the economy also meant that the
traditional lead sector gave higher wages while other sectors gave low wages. Also, as
these populations grow, unemployment increases as economic activity does not increase
in scope. This could worsen the distribution of income.

97
 Activity 5:5

1. Identify some local entrepreneurs in your country.

2. Describe the area of involvement and the extent of involvement of locals in business

3. Comment on observable patterns.

Activity 5:6
1. How diversified is the economy of your country?
2. How have attempts at diversification fared?
3. What suggestions for future diversification do you have?

The political process and development

A crucial requirement for development is to include people both as beneficiaries of the

process and products of the political system.. How are the political processes crafted to
encourage participation of the widest sort? Genuine participation involves people in
decision making at all levels so that the setting of priorities and use and distribution of
resources have consensus and commitment.

Corning out of a system of direct rule from abroad, the British Caribbean has had a
problem of crafting political institutions that reflect and incorporate people in the
development of their countries. The two most important developments in this direction
have been the size of the labour movement and political parties.

Trade Unions

As chapter 3 showed, trade unions were the first organisations that won rights and
freedom and struggled to improve the living standards of citizens. This was the
experience in Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago as well as in some of the.
smaller islands. Union leaders like Uriah Butler in Trinidad and Tobago, Bustamante in
Jamaica, Clement Payne in Barbados, Antonio Soberanis and T. A. Marryshow, were all
struggling for better living conditions for people before there was universal adult

98
suffrage. Trade unions are still significant in the political life of many Caribbean
territories.

Activity 5:7
1. Name a few trade unions 1n your country.
2. Examine critically the functions and activities of these unions.
3. How have they contributed to the development of your country?
4. /ve unions in your country growing or declining in strength? Give reasons.

Political parties and nationalist government

The growth of nationalist politics, the granting of universal adult suffrage from the
1950s brought advantages to the general citizenry. The formation of political parties
meant a lifting of' national consciousness and the coming of independence meant that
Black people now occupied the higher echelons of the entire civil service. The control of
public policy with national governments in charge meant that a concerted effort was
made to improve the livelihoods of ordinary citizens.

Today, however, many of the independent countries are questioning whether or not the
Westminster model of democracy is working in a way as to include ordinary citizens in
the decision-making process. This may mean that decisions made by those in authority
may not have the commitment of the masses. Also, the political process may not be
appropriate for expressing the needs and interests of the population. For example, many
people feel that they only 'participate' in their country's government once every five
years at election time and after that they are not included in the process of decision
making.

Globalization and the influence of global markets

The Caribbean has always been integrated into the north, as we have already seen in this
chapter. From the early sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we became incorporated

99
into the world economy and Europe was the leading power in that world economy. We
were already involved in a global system. We supplied Europe with some form of raw
materials; all our needs were supplied from Europe; people were transplanted from
China, India, and Africa and from Europe to a lesser degree.

Of course, the global system had to use sea transport as the only form of cross-border
communication. The technologies for transporting goods and making financial
transactions were limited and in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, each European
power sought to protect its trade with its colonies from other countries through
navigation laws. This form of protectionism was referred to a mercantilism.

The global system today has changed. Besides the improvements in air and sea transport,
the application of digital technology to telecommunication has revolutionised the
transmission of print, audio and visual data. Protectionism is now not possible in a
borderless world. Goods and services can be transmitted anywhere and payments can be
made once a source of power exists along with an efficient mail system.

In addition, as has been explained earlier, the dominant ideology in the world today is
free market capitalism that is facilitated by information technology. International
agencies like the World Trade Organisation, International Monetary Fund and the World
Bank set out to reduce trade barriers, free up the international movement of money and
reduce governments' involvement in the economy.

Dependence

In this kind of global economy the leaders in technology will be able to dominate the
globe in a more complete way than ever before. Countries like the USA will be able to
literally sell their culture freely to the rest of the world. Small countries with weaker
cultures may find themselves inundated with images from the north that are so
compelling and consistent that these countries may be kept dependent as their citizens
adopt foreign lifestyles and purchase foreign goods.

100
As technology improves in the northern countries, the gap in living standards between the
European and North American countries and the poorer countries of the south will widen
even further. As technology improves also and new techniques are discovered for
making products, certain resources from the poorer countries may no longer be needed.

Technological dependence would be reinforced in the future as we seek to improve

production in the fields that the developed countries have charted. The range of our
imports from them will increase and will be of less significance to them.

Activity 5:8
1. Compare the situation of a sixteenth-century planter importing a commodity from Europe to that of a
producer today making a similar import.
2. Identify positive and negative ways in which the process of globalisation has begun to affect your country

International Firms
The Plantation

The first international firm that came to the Caribbean was the plantation. It was set up
with foreign capital, enterpri~c and technology. It produced for a foreign market abroad
and purchased all of its inputs abroad. And, through a process of transfer accounting and
book transfers, it could settle all its accounts in the UK. The plantation was a total
institution. It had no production links with other plantations on the islands and catered
to the needs of all its residents. Plantations, therefore, do not generate inter-industry
linkages, the lion share of profits are repatriated and it decides the parts of the production
process it wishes to hold abroad and so its impact on the economy is limited to wages and
taxes.

Transnational Corporations/Multinational Corporations

Essentially a TNC pulls together the factors of finance, technology, supply of raw
materials, manufacturing, distribution and marketing in one organisation. This
kind of organisation is privately owned and controlled in one country but draws

101
 upon the resources of as many other countries as are necessary to secure an
operation which flows in an integrated way, from raw materials through
processing and manufacturing to final market. It represents, therefore, the
highest phase in productive organisation because it extends the principles of
vertical integration beyond national boundaries to a global theatre of operations.
(Manley 1987, p. 194)

The plantation, therefore, was the forerunner of the transnational corporation that was to
dominate the main sectors of some countries in the Caribbean: oil in Trinidad and Tobago
and bauxite in Jamaica and Guyana. The impact of these types of firms can be limiting to
a country in the following ways:

1. the firms can restrict the transfer of technology and management skills to the host
country;
2. the firms can repatriate the lion's share of profits;
3. it may not be in their global interests to reinvest in the host territory;
4. the firms may not operate in conformity with national development plans;
5. the firms can use their leverage to indulge in restrictive business practices.

The modem transnational is now more footloose than the transnational of two decades
ago. Given the new information technology and efficient communication and power
supplies, essentially any set of activities can be networked to produce in any chosen
location. Especially in high-tech operations and in the information technology industries,
firms may simply go where the labour force is well trained. Such industries can change
location very quickly and may have negative consequences for small countries.

Activity 5:9
1. Examine any TNC operating out of your country and assess the negative and positive impact on your
country.
2. Do TNCs still have a role to play in the development of small countries?

Strategic Alliances

International firms may penetrate the economy of another country by forming

partnerships with local companies. Many such strategic alliances are being formed today

102
between insurance firms, accounting firms and banks. In this way, the foreign firm enters
that country through the connection with the local partner. Both may benefit from the
alliance. In the present liberalised environment, this has become an increasing practice as
local firms seek to become internationally competitive.

Licensing Agreements

Licencing agreements are not new. Locals own KFC, MacDonald's, and many
international brand name companies' franchises. The locals get permission to use the
brand name under a specific contractual agreement. The foreign firm may sell them the
equipment and raw materials, train workers and do regular quality control audits. This
was a preferred strategy when we had protected markets. Today, foreign firms can come
in directly if they so wish.

Multilateral Agencies

Historical Evolution

At the end of the Second World War, in order to manage the international system of trade
and payments, three key institutions were formed: the International Monetary Fund; the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD); and, the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The latter has now been transformed into the
World Trade Organisation (WTO).

The International Monetary Fund

The IMF was set up in 1947. Each member of the IMF is required to contribute a quota
of money to the Fund dependent upon the size of the natiqnal income of the country and
its share of world trade. The purpose of the IMF is to stabilise exchange rates across the
globe by providing balance of payments support for countries experiencing trade and
payment difficulties. There are various loan facilities available.

103
Policies of the IMF

A central concern is the nature of the economic philosophies that the IMF practices and
the conditionalities it uses for the disbursement of funds.

Conditionalities

Fund lending to any country has to be repaid at a given rate of interest. Loans negotiated
are released to the central bank of a country as the country passes certain 'fitness' tests.
If the country does not meet certain targets within given timeframes, money is not
released and that country is unable to obtain. Targets set may include reduction of the
public sector, removal of state subsidies or removal of barriers to trade. The nature and
speed of these targets are of concern to developing countries.

Economic Philosophy

The IMF operates within the paradigm of laissez-faire free market capitalism and seeks to
invoke the market as a cure for the payments problem. Its main objective is to deal with
the balance of payments. The Fund's actions pivot around three main tools: the rate of
exchange, the level of wages and the rate of interest. Also, the Fund seeks to reduce state
activity and encourage private-sector activity.

Devaluations

Devaluation is a key tool, since the orthodox economic argument suggests that it will
increase outflows of money and increase inflows. But in societies like ours where we
import such a range of essential items both our cost of living and our productive capacity
are negatively affected.

Monetary Policy

Rates of interest are pushed upwards to reduce domestic expenditure generally in order to
reduce the purchase of imports, to curb state borrowing and even to attract funds from

104
outside. However, the latter effect never occurs in this part of the world. And business
activity may also suffer from high rates of interest.

Wage Rates

Declining wage rates in order to reduce the demand for imports and to reduce the local
costs of production are seen as desirable.

Every action the government took over the period was influenced by the
anticipated reactions of the IMF or the perceived impact, which it could have on
the conditions of the agreement in force. Government actions were guided only
by what would seem to be the most relevant section of the current agreement
... long term economic planning became more remote ... the official socio-
economic plan was never used in guiding policy at any stage ...
(Davies, 1986, p. 87)

Activity 5: 10
Read the above quotation describing the Jamaica situation.
1. What does it suggest about the role of the international agency vis-a-vis the government?
2. What does it suggest about the priorities in pul;>lic policy?
3. What are the implications for development?

The World Bank

The World Bank was set up in 1947 as the sister organisation of the IMF. Its original aim
was to make loans to develop the war-shattered economies of Europe. It subsequently
began to finance projects and programmes of developing countries on a long-term basis.
Most World Bank loans are used to finance infrastructure investment in transportation,
electric power, agriculture, water supply and education.

Policies of the Bank

While IMF programmes govern macro-economic variables, with special emphasis on
reducing the availability of domestic credit to the public sectors, the structural adjustment
programmes of the World Bank address "economic efficiency" at the micro-economic
level. Public enterprises are forced to operate on a profitability criterion- showing profits

105
and reducing costs. Wherever possible, they should be practised or divested.
Government should not operate. Additionally, emphasis has been placed on the lowering
of all protectionism in trade. The principal thrust of the micro-economic policy of the
Bank is toward the liberalisation of trade and payments. As with the IMF, failure to
comply will result in refusal to lend.

World Trade Organisation

At the same time that the World Bank and the IMP were formed, another organisation
called the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was formed. GATT was converted
into the WTO in 1995. The purpose of GATT was to promote free trade by consistently
bargaining with countries for the reduction of tariffs and encouraging countries to adhere
to trade agreements.

While GATT did have some success in reducing tariffs, GATT did not include trade in
agricultural goods, or services. The latter has increased in significance in world trade and
raises a whole range of issues about copyright and intellectual property. WTO was
formed in 1995 and has taken the latter two areas into its portfolio. WTO has a much
tighter dispute settlement procedure and a new trade policy review mechanism.

Activity 5:11
Some common criticisms of stabilisation and adjustment programmes are:
• they do not recognise that each country is unique in its economic, social and political structure;
• the timeframe for adjustment is usually too short;
• the mechanisms are counter-developmental and actually prevent what they set out to achieve .
• What are the consequences for development in countries in the Caribbean of these findings?

Summary

In this chapter the economic model of development was explored because it remains a
dominant concept of development in the minds of people. The Human Development
Model was also offered as a more holistic concept of development that we should

106
embrace. Attention was paid to the many dimensions and interrelationships that are
inherent in the development process.

Further Activities
1. What is the role of the state in the economy of your country?
2. Do you advocate a greater role for the private sector? Give your reasons.
3. What kinds of technological processes and skills are required for new areas of production? Are the
arrangements for education and training suitable and sufficient?
4. Are there foreign firms in your country? Are they the dominant firms? Why?

Key Concepts

Sustainable development lnclusi veness Diversification

Non-material indicators Cultural heritage E-commerce
Adult suffrage Westminster model Navigation Laws
Protectionism Mercantilism Market capitalism
Total institution Footloose Devaluation
Transnational corporations Economic ideologies Statistical policies

107
 References

Beckford, G. (1972). Persistent poverty. Oxford University Press.

Girvan, N., & Jefferson, 0. (eds.) (1974). Readings in the political economy of the
Caribbean. Kingston, Jamaica: New World Group.

Manley, M. (1987). Up the down escalator. Andre Deutsch. OECS London: The
Economist Intelligence Unit.

The Economist Intelligence Unit (2000). Country Report. Jamaica. Belize.

Todaro, M. (1985). Economics for a developing world (2nd ed.).Longman.

Notes: Read Chapters 5, 6, 7. Later edition may be available

UNDP (2000). Human Development Report New York; Oxford: Oxford University
Press.

UNESCO. (1995). Our creative diversity. Report of the World Commission on

Culture and development. Paris: UNESCO

Further Readings

Dunn, H. S. (ed.). (1995). Globalization. communications and Caribbean identity.

Kingston: Ian Randle.

Girvan, N. (ed.). (1995). Rethinking development. Kingston: Consortium Graduate

School in the Social Sciences.
 CAPE
Caribbean Studies

CHALLENGES OF
DEVELOPMENT

Module2
 Chapter6

Culture, Environment and Development

Overview

Chapter 5 examined different emphases in meaning of development over time. Today we

are still to a great extent enmeshed in an understanding of development with an economic
emphasis. Yet, we are receiving strong signals from the United Nations and other world
bodies committed to sustainable development that economic development is merely one
component of a larger human development conception of development.

This chapter examines some human behaviours that affect the environment. Those
behaviours will be analyzed in order to identify the impact on the development process -
· a process leading towards human development.

Objectives 1

By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

1. explain the concept of development enshrined in the human development

paradigm;

2. describe some human behaviours associated with an understanding of

development as economic development;

3. assess the effects upon the environment of those human behaviours;

4. appreciate that other forms of learned behaviour can positively affect

efforts towards the realization of human development.

1
These objectives refer to those of Module 2, specific objective 4 of the Caribbean Studies syllabus.

109
Introduction

The human development paradigm rests on four pillars - equity, productivity,

empowerment and sustainability. This notion of development is considered to be more
holistic, and thus more appropriate, than a notion with an emphasis on economic
progress. We can better understan,d this if we study examples of cultural behaviours such
as those leading to rising population growth, urbanization, and patterns of agricultural
land use, and examine the reasons behind such behaviours. These cultural behaviours can
lead to adverse effects on the environment and eventually jeopardize development.

The Human Development paradigm

The human development paradigm focuses on the human being. People are looked at not
as means to an end but as both the means and ends of development. In other words, the
people of a country are given the broadest possible opportunities and choices to upgrade
their capabilities in order to enable and empower them to take the development process
forward in self-sustaining ways.

The human development process begins with the pillar of equity which refers to fairness
and justice to all groups within the society. Exclusion, such as excluding any group from
accessing efforts to improve their lives is considered to be sabotaging the development
process by gatekeepers. One example that can clarify this is easily seen in education.
Although in many Caribbean countries there is universal primary education, secondary
education is still allocated as a prize to those who seemingly demonstrate the most
progress in academic abilities. At the tertiary level, exclusion is a major preoccupation.
What this means is that only some people are invested in certain skills, knowledge and
capabilities for personal and national progress. Marxists sociologists claim that those
privileged to obtain an education are largely the children of the elites, who will now
become eligible for the better jobs on the labour market.

The human development paradigm criticizes these assumptions. The human development
paradigm only accepts an education system (formal, informal and non-formal) as serious

110
about development, if there is equity of access to all levels, and if the choices of
programmes are broad enough to interest people in all walks of life. Thus, tertiary
education cannot be restricted only to universities or community colleges, but to all forms
of specialist knowledge.

Equity is envisaged as occurring in all aspects of social life, not only education. It is
described this way by one of the architects of this development paradigm:

Equal access to opportunities is based on the philosophical foundations of the

universalism of life claims of everyone. The human development paradigm
values human life for itself. It does not value life merely because people can
produce material goods - important though that is. It values life because of its
built-in assumption that all individuals must be enabled to develop their human
capabilities to the fullest and to put those capabilities to the best use in all areas
of their lives.
(UIHaq, 1995, p. 17)

You must have realized then that for a society to become more equitable in affording all
its citizens access to opportunities, all aspects of that society have to come under scrutiny.
Thus, access to employment opportunity, credit facilities, lands for agriculture and
housing, participation in political and community affairs are all bound up in equity. The
thinking of human development is that no person should be left out of the development
process. This is the first step, on which productivity depends.

Productivity is a familiar concept as it occupies a central position in the understanding of

development as economic progress. It relates to efficiency and cost effectiveness in the
production of ever more goods and services. It is hinged on linear logical thinking in
developing the cheapest and most timely route from raw material to finished product.
Productivity of this kind is easily spoken of in numerical terms as its central concepts
(efficiency, cost effectiveness, and production totals) are easy to quantify. The bottom
line is understood only as profits in dollars and cents. The economistic idea of
development then values figures and quantifiable data that make comparisons from year
to year and across countries.

111
On the other hand, the human development paradigm deals with productivity in less
easily defined ways. Productivity is considered in terms of achievement of maximum
potential, by persons enjoying equity of access to all kinds of opportunities. These
persons experience enabling conditions in their work and, thus, feel a sense of efficaby
about their lives. For example, let us suppose that in a society serious about implementing
the human development model, citizens will have equity of access to a broad choice of
educational and occupational opportunities. They choose freely the areas of productivity
they enjoy and for which they feel they have an aptitude. Moreover, at work they are
valued as human beings rather than as mere cogs in a wheel of industrial production.
Recently, we have become aware of attempts to implement worker-friendly strategies by
some firms to ensure commitment to the workplace, to generate a sense of ownership
about the work and, generally to improve the quality of people's work lives.

Activity 6:1

List as many examples as possible of strategies that you know which are designed to ensure worker
satisfaction and thus productivity. How prevalent are these practices in your own country?

Empowerment is built on a foundation of equity and productivity. The assumption is

that if persons enjoy equity in life chances and opportunities and a deep sense of
involvement in their work, then the likelihood is that such circumstances will encourage
feelings of efficacy and self worth. Persons will tend to act from a reaso!led
understanding about the world and a desire to be responsible towards it. In other words,
empowerment is really about taking responsibility and not giving up your power to
others. We can see this easily in terms of the environment.

In societies where the power lies with the rich, the elites and the gatekeepers, people
experience difficulties in earning a living. In such society inequities abound in every walk
of life, and marginalized groups eke out an existence. These elite often comprise the
government, the leaders, and the captains of industry and it is not difficult to see that
society's problems, for example pollution, are not taken on board by its citizens in any
individual way, as a challenge that a single person could do something about. If it is ever
thought of at all, the consensus is that such matters be left to the people with the power.
Everyone else is having a hard time just existing.
112
In the human development paradigm, however, development is understood to be the
r

responsibility of everyone(Through a sense of empowerment people feel that they can

make a difference to issues that matter to them)They, thus, participate widely in all
manner of developmental activities such as political meetings, community groups,
demonstrations for the recognition of national issues and, educating younger ones about
the value and fragility of the environment.

Through equity, productivity and empowerment, it is felt that any country's

developmental efforts are characterized by sustainability. The components of a
sustainable project will have been in-built by high levels of awareness and public
participation. It would have been in-built through attention first ,to equity, then
productivity, leading to a sense of empowerment.

Ul Haq further clarifies the model of human development.

The real point of departure of human development strategies is to approach

every issue in the traditional growth models from the vantage point of people.
Do they participate in economic growth as well as benefit from it? Do they have
full access to the opportunities of expanded trade? Are their choices enlarged or
narrowed by new technologies? Is economic expansion leading to job-led
growth or jobless growth? Are budgets being balanced without unbalancing the
lives of future generations? Are "free" markets open to all people? Are we
increasing the options only of the present generation or also of the future
generations? ul Haq, 1995, p.23).

We can add our specific concerns here and say that the human development paradigm
should incorporate concern for the environment. This refers to both its material and non-
material culture, that is, the specific technologies used as well as the beliefs and values
which accompany the use of such technologies.

The human development model may seem too good to be true but it is a start. Many
nations are signatories to a number of charters and resolutions that are imbued with the
spirit of human development. For example, the many declarations dealing with rights of
children, women, the disabled and first peoples, emphasis inclusion. Decisions on
'Health For All' and 'Education For All' again emphasis equity. Conventions about
113
procedures and legislation governing interactions at the workplace, tor example, sexual
harassment and worker representation, focus on promoting a working environment that
will enhance productivity. However, there is need for more initiatives that empower
people in areas such as self help projects and cooperative ventures or that encourage
participation in grassroots and community meetings on issues of national importance.

The acceptance of the basic pillars as the inevitable means to a sustained pathway to
holistic development is slow. This is because it is based on choice and each society must
develop its own strategy. Countries may become signatories to a number of conventions
about enlightened practices, but take a long time to enact relevant procedures to put those
practices in place. This very often stems from local forces of opposition that see their
wealth, power and prestige threatened. The success of the human development paradigm
extends to an idea of the world as something we all share. Borders must be transcended
if, for example, problems of environmental stress are to be addressed.

The international convention on population and development held in cairo in

1994 agreed that US$17 billion would be needed annually to provide better
reproductive health care. It was agreed that ELDCs would provide US$11.3
billion and EMDCs the remaining US$5.7 billion towards the UN programme.
Whereas ELDCs kept close to their promise and provided US$10.7 billion, EMDCs
provided less than US$2.5 billio·n - less than half of what they promised.
(Nagle, 1998, p. 31)

Activity 6:2
ELDCs refer to economically less developed countries and EMDCs to economically more developed countries.
Suggest why EMDCs were given a much smaller target to contribute to the fund? Why do you suppose they
were unable to meet their target whilst poorer countries came close to doing so?

Traditional growth models and the Environment

The following section identifies examples of human behaviours that impact negatively on
the environment. These behaviours stem largely from thinking that is associated with a

114
notion of development that emphasizes economic growth over social and personal
(human) development.

In the Caribbean our colonial overlords treated land and resources as commodities that
were to be exploited for the economic gain of the metropole. We have inherited such
ideas about the environment and they continue to remain strong because even with the
advent of independence the Caribbean continues to be dominated by the values and mind
set emanating from the metropole. Economic development has been an accepted part of
our modernization programme which emphasise a balance sheet understanding of
productivity and does not extend to non-quantifiable components, such as respect for the
fragility of the environment, the sustainable development, the co-existence of people and
the preservation of the environment.

Human Behaviours and Environmental Impact

Population growth

Tremendous expansion in the actual numbers of people in a country is more a feature of

societies described as ELDCs rather than EMDCs. The latter are characterized by close to
zero population growth. Pepulations grow as a result of natural increase or
immigration. In the Caribbean rampant population growth is associated with high rates
of natural increase rather than with immigration. In fact, the rates of population growth
have been so high in the past that emigration has acted as a safety valve.

Natural increase of population results from an excess of births over deaths. In the
Caribbean as in most ELDCs birth rates are high. The birth rate is described as the
number of live births per 1000 people per year. Average birth rates over the Caribbean
are estimated to be between 27 to 36 births per thousand of the population. Figures vary
among the countries. Haiti has a higher birth rate the average and Barbados is lower.
EMDCs such as northern Europe record 16 and lower births per thousand of the
population (Waugh, 1995).

115
Death rates on the other hand are low worldwide. The death rate is the numbers of
deaths per 1000 people per year. The tremendous improvements in medicine, hygiene and
sanitation that occurred in EMDCs in the 19th and 20th centuries, were gradually adopted
by ELDCs, even amidst high birth rates. The result was that death rates fell dramatically
and birth rates remained relatively high, so that the rate of population growth soared. This
means that more persons were staying alive and living longer. Life expectancy has also
increased tremendously in ELDCs. The average rate of population growth in EMDCs is
0.64% (zero population growth). In the ELDCs it is 2.07% (Waugh, 1995).

Activity 6:3

1. If improvements in medicine, hygiene and sanitation were discovered in EMDCs earlier on, why is nthat
they did not suffer from problems of rampant population growth as is being experienced in the ELDCs
now?
2. Conduct research to find out the most up to date demographic statistics for Caribbean countries: birth
and death rates, rates of natural increase, and life expectancy.

Cultural behaviours

If birth rates .are the most influential factor in maintaining high rates of natural increase,
then we have to attempt to find out why human behaviours resulting in high birth rates
persist. Although there has been somewhat of a decline in recent years in rates of
population growth in the Caribbean, as we have seen the figures continue to be relatively
high when compared with EMDCs.

Activity 6:4
Reflect on the persistence of relatively high birth rates in Caribbean countries.
1. What are some of the cultural behaviours (attitudes and values) that you believe are responsible for high
birth rates in the Caribbean.
2. Refer to activity 6:3. Speculate on the reasons why some countries in the Caribbean have distinctly higher
birth rates than others.

Throughout the Caribbean traditional attitudes to family life, marriage, sexual

relationships, child bearing and women's role in the home, come under scrutiny when
reflecting on issues of population growth. Having children is an important cultural value
in the Caribbean. As a result of the high birth rates, much of the population is a young

116
population. Thus, fertility levels are high. Marriages and consensual relationships tend to
occur from very early in life so that each female enjoys many long years of being fertile
with the potential to have many children.

Birth control has been heavily promoted over the last two decades as an important
method of reducing the birth rate and consequently population growth. Yet, attitudes
towards birth control remain ambivalent. It has been said that possibly the best method of
curbing rampant population growth is the education of women and facilitating their
entrance into the labour market at relatively high paying levels. This is in recognition of
the fact that higher education seems to increase awareness of options and choices for
women, beyond the traditional. Playing many different roles - wife, mother, career
person, own person - forces on women the need to make practical choices, such as
limiting their family size. The ways they do this often bring them into conflict with the
prevailing strong cultural values about having children and being at home to take care of
them.

Environmental effects of cultural beh~viours

Inevitably the predominance of young people in Caribbean populations creates an

unhealthy dependency ratio. This is an estimate of how many dependents (old and
young) the working population has to support. The thinking is that, the less persons
dependent on you, the better you are able to enjoy a higher standard of living. The
dependency ratio is calculated in this way.

Numbers of non-economically active population x 100

Numbers of the economically active population

The dependency ratio for the EMDCs is between 50 and 70 and for ELDCs it is often
over 100 (Waugh, 1995). What this means is that there is a tremendous struggle for the
working population to provide for their dependents. Governments are forced into a
syndrome where they can only attempt to provide basic needs such as food, shelter,
medicines, and schools. They must necessarily cutback on their development programme
- job creation, building infrastructure, provision of a range of services - to accommodate

117
the basic needs of a youthful population. In other words, existence becomes a matter of
survival.

Providing for large numbers of people puts inordinate pressures on land. The carrying
capacity of land is often exceeded. Inappropriate farming practices become endemic to
try as people try to expand food production and make even small plots commercially
viable. Marginal lands are drawn into cultivation on a regular basis. These are hilly
lands which should only be cultivated in emergencies and then very carefully so as to
reduce the effects of fertility loss and soil erosion. Loss of fertility occurs when the same
crops are cultivated continuously and the nutrients they extract are not replaced.
Overcropping also threatens soil fertility as the carrying capacity of the land is
exceeded. Soil erosion occurs when the valuable top soil is lost through removal by wind
or water. This can result when slopes are denuded of vegetation so that roots are not there
to bind the soil together against the forces of gravity, wind and rain.

Other than deforestation, there are certain patterns of land use which actually encourage
soil erosion. Ploughing up and down slopes rather than around the slope (contour
·ploughing), causes natural channels and furrows on the slope which are easily used by
rainwater to remove soil downslope. Contour ploughing on the other hand tends to make
this difficult. The practice of planting crops in neat rows leaving bare land between the
rows, facilitates the blowing away of the dry, exposed soil or its removal by rain.
Similarly, overgrazing, particularly by goats, leaves soil bare and vulnerable to the
elements. Slash and burn is a normal practice in the Caribbean for clearing lands in
preparation for cultivation. This widespread practice shows the 'taken-for-granted' way
in which the environment is regarded.

Soil erosion threatens the very livelihood of the farmer by removing his most
fundamental resource. When all the soil is removed the hills and slopes become riddled
with ravines and gullies and bare, exposed rocks. The practice of slash and bum on
hillsides also affects persons and property far away on the plains. The removed soil finds
its way onto river beds, causing the beds to be raised with accumulated silt. In times of
heavy rainfall rivers cannot carry as much water as they used to and widespread flooding
occurs, usually downstream from the scenes of active soil erosion. These behaviours
118
result every year in tremendous losses of property, livestock and crops on the part of
farmers in the plains. At the same time, farmers in the hills experience progressive land
degradation and loss of soil fertility. The economic cost is crippling.

Population growth then is at the root of environmental effects in rural areas such as loss
of soil fertility, soil erosion, land degradation, and flooding. Yet this tremendous effort to
produce more food and make a rural existence viable has not worked for rural farmers.
Rural poverty continues to dominate their lives. Inevitably, the population pressures
experienced in rural areas force many to drift to the urban areas to seek a happier way of
life.

Urbanization

The growth in the numbers of persons living in towns is referred to as urbanization. This
can occur through rurahurban migration and the high birth rates of urban residents.
Rural-urban migration is a major characteristic of all developing countries. During the
latter half of the 201h century, cities in developing countries outgrew the largest cities in
the developed world mainly through rural urban migration. Potter (1995) reports that
Caribbean countries have high levels of urbanization (about (65%) as more than half of
its citizens live in towns and cities

Cities experience very high densities of population and the large numbers of persons per
area often threaten the carrying capacity of the land. Many migrants to the city find
shelter in shanty towns, slums, squatting sites, and other areas of high population
density. In sprawling urban areas, poor and sub-standard housing, unreliable supplies of
clean water, or sewage and garbage disposal, become a fact of life. These conditions
impact on the health and well being of the migrant. Their economic livelihood is under
constant threat because of the casual nature of the work they manage to procure.
Although they leave the depressed rural areas in search of a better livelihood as envisaged
in the development that seems to be going on in cities, they only succeed in substituting a
depressed urban existence. The move has not brought increased levels of health, income
or productivity, yet many of them do not return to the rural areas.

119
This is easily understandable if we are aware of the strength of the impulse towards
modernization that we have inherited and perpetuated. Even though life may be difficult
in towns (or, even in metropolitan centres), it is to be preferred to life in a rural area. It is
a common cultural value found over the Caribbean and seems to become manifest in a
number of ways. Here we see it as the impetus towards an urban lifestyle and we also see
it in the reluctance to leave the city, even when the particular lifestyle envisaged has not
materialized.

Activity 6:5
1. In countries across the Caribbean, the phenomenon of urbanization will differ. Extremely small states
cannot be said to have large cities so that rural migration may even be non-existent. Engage in studying
two Caribbean countries, one small and one large, to discern the causes for and the effects of
urbanization, if any.
2. If a country is too small to display the palpable effects of urbanization, in what other ways can the urge
towards modernization be seen?

The folJowing excerpts from specific case studies give us an idea of the extent of the
impact of urbanization on the Caribbean environment.

Port of Spain is also the focus of an undisclosed number of commuters who

travel across the county boundaries into the region to work. Figures suggest
that as many as 15,000 travel in each day from Caroni, 5,000 from St. Andrew
and 4,000 from Victoria. Such hi!;Jh levels of development and movement
mean that the Capital Region faces more than its fair share of environmental
problems, including serious traffic congestion on the east- west arteries,
the destruction of nearby forests and problems of water conservation.
(Potter, 1998, p.99).

The main developmental dilemma arises directly from the dynamics of explosive
growth. This growth is continually overwhelming the limited provisions made for
controlling and improving the quality of life. This is exemplified most grimly by
\

the condition of the water supply which is, almost everywhere, inadequate for
even the most elementary needs of domestic consumption and hygiene, and a
constant threat to public health. So critical is this situation in fact, that it can be
said that the search for water almost dominates the lives of thousands of shanty
town residents .... Pumps are old and often fail; they are dependent upon the

120
 power supply, which also sometimes fail. In Montego Bay, a hilly city, the mains
and feeders snake up and down the steep terrain providing gushers at a few low
spots and leaving all the hilly sections dry.
(Eyre, 1998, p. 90).

As in most countries of the Third World, urbanization in the Dominican Republic

has serious environmental implications. The main urban centres were not
prepared to receive the increasing flows of the rapid cityward migration of the
last two decades. As a result, urban centres have been confronted with dramatic
demands for water, energy and waste disposal, causing great economic burdens
to governments and exerting tremendous pressures on fragile environments. In
30 years the urban population has increased sixfold; the present need for
adequate housing has been estimated at above 500,000 units; the demand for
residential energy has increased more than 25 times; 70 percent of the water
supply to urban centres comes from the subsoil and contains high levels of salt
and micro-organisms which are dangerous for human consumption; and in the
capital city, of Santo Domingo, only 23 percent of the population is linked to the
municipal sewage system and only 8 percent of this sewage is treated before
discharge.
(Nanita-Kennett, 1998, p. 103).

Tracing the roots of the behaviours

It is left for us to consider how the behaviours associated with problems of population
growth, agricultural land use patterns and urbanization, and their environmental
implications, are related to an economistic conception of development. To do this we
must go back to our colonial history and examine the ways in which Caribbean territories
were involved in forms of economic exploitation. A consistent pattern found throughout
the Caribbean is related to how the Europeans organized their system of production.

They invested primarily in plantations on flat, fertile coastal plains where they built up
infrastructure such as roads and linked them to ports, which developed into capital cities,
to export raw materials to Europe. The system was tied into growing industrialization in
Europe, dependent on raw materials from the colonies. The industrial economy of Europe
had to export its manufactured products and the Caribbean therefore had to import these
121
goods. Ports and capital cities thus became the focus of development. Heavy investments
were made in infrastructure, administrative machinery, commercial enterprises, education
and housing, all of which were located in the main urban centre.

In most Caribbean countries today we see clear evidence of this. Capital cities are
primate cities - they are overlarge. They have such a concentration of economic
opportunity, facilities, amenities, and services that they serve as a major attraction to
"pull" migrants in search of a better life. Primacy is a legacy of the colonial experience
and independent Caribbean governments continued the policy of heavy investment in
urban centres. For example, the experiments in assembly-type, light industry, located in
industrial estates. This echoes our theme of modernization and the value we have placed
on it.

The dark side to this colonial policy was underdevelopment of the interior of the
colonies. It was of no economic interest to the Europeans and so rural areas in the
Caribbean have always struggled with their problems - few roads, poor harvests, low
prices of agricultural commodities, loss of soil fertility, soil erosion, deforestation, pests,
lack of access to credit facilities and technical advice. The land available to small farmers
tends to be hilly, marginal lands because the better farming lands were long ago
swallowed up in the European production machine. In virtually every Caribbean country
there is a sad history of massive urban investment leading to a "bright lights" syndrome
and a modernized economy balanced by neglect of the countryside leading to widespread
rural poverty.

Read the following extract and attempt the exercises below.

"The historical development of agriculture in the Caribbean region is a good

example of the interaction of political economy and island environments which has not
only created typical Caribbean rural landscapes, but has persisted to influence
contemporary agricultural development and exacerbate environmental stress. Thus the
mergence of structural dualismin the agricultural sector led to export-led large scale
plantation agriculture pre-empting the best land, forcing small farmers to occupy and
cultivate marginal hillside land for food crops. Entrenched rural poverty is widespread
thought the region. Further, agricultural dualism has a geographical dimension. It has
created a landscape signature for many mountainous Greater Antilles and the Windward
Islands, whereby the larger farming enterprises (like sugar cane) tend to be located on the
flatter ,alluvial, fertile coastal plains whilst small-scale mixed farming is relegated to areas
which are often marginal to sustainable agriculture." (McGregor & Barker, 1995, p, 8)

122
 Activity 6:6

1. To what extent do you perceive structural dualism in agriculture in your country today?
2. For your own country, describe examples of environmental stress that may be occurring in areas of
rural poverty.
3. We have traced many of the cultural behaviours at the root of environmental issues to our history of
colonial exploitation. Attempt to explain why these behaviours persist even into the 21 5' century.
4. Extend the argument to the tourist sector. Can you detect the heavy influence of foreign models of
development in the Caribbean? Has tourism in your country intensified urbanization?

The above section has shown us that the cultural behaviours associated with patterns of
land use, in both rural and urban areas, can be traced to a deliberate policy of urban
primacy and development at the expense of the rest of the country. This is directly related
to a concept of economic progress and development that places importance on efficient
and cost effective production and ignores the impact on people.

For example, economic production during historical times and in the present day is in the
hands of a few wealthy business and corporate citizens. They structure and locate
operations according to a classical profit making model in which all ingredients of the
production process are assessed as to their contribution to efficiency or cost effectiveness.
No wonder that rural areas do not play a significant role in their world view.

We may also examine the is~ue in another way. If a country is committed to a certain
concept of modernization and transformation of the economy, then a holistic
understanding is necessary about the society and its behaviours that may help or hinder
this move. Specifically, let us focus on population growth rates. It would seem that the
urge for all women to have at least one child, the propensity to have large families, and
the early on-set of childbearing are strong cultural values of our people. This could be a
potentially explosive situation when poised against a falling death rate. Poverty, hunger,
environmental stress, are only some of the major consequences of unbridled population
growth. Yet attempts to educate the population about the potential problems inherent in
their strong cultural values where reproduction is concerned have been sporadic and tepid
at best. Not as many energies and resources are put into people as into capital and
infrastructure investment and trade and financial institutions. This is largely because the
results (or, profits) are rather long term and cannot easily be quantified.

123
The advice from demographers is not solely based on a birth control programme. Rather,
it envisages ways to reduce the perceived need for large families. Birth control is
regarded as approaching the issue from the supply side. Reducing a need is to be
interpreted as reducing a demand. In the following excerpt this is clarified.

... policy analysts have advocated measures that that reduce the demand for
births through affirmative social and economic policies. The general objective is
to change the costs and benefits of child rearing so that more parents will
recognize the value of smaller families while simultaneously increasing the
investment in children. Examples of factors potentially under government's
control include affecting (1) education levels, (2) the status of women, and (3)
child mortality.
(Bongaarts, 1995, p.199).

The author goes on to state that - "Of all the social and economic factors that have been
studied for their potential effect on reproductive behaviour, the level of education stands
out as the most consistent" (p. 201). We should also note that the interests of big business
and industry have not traditionally been concerned with education, women, nor children.
Their conception of development has focussed on material resources, labour productivity,
costs, markets and profits. Here we see the writing on the wall. For developJilent to
proceed, even an economistic conception of development, planners and policy makers
should recognize the central place of people in all their efforts. In the Caribbean today we
see the environmental fall-out from attempting to sidestep issues of social and human
development alongside economic development.

A Human Development Analysis

We can look at the traditional model of growth and progress and show how it has
transgressed in terms of equity, productivity, empowerment and sustainability, to show
how development, if it did occur was only relevant to a few and thus ephemeral.

124
Rural people were given less of a fighting chance to get on their feet and develop viable
economies of their own. The industrial machine of the urban areas needed workers and so
it was that interest which was responsible for maintaining rural poverty and deprivation.
As we have seen, rural depopulation, environmental degradation, economic stagnation,
and rural-urban drift, were the results. It is only now being understood that one area of a
country cannot experience development at the expense of another, or for that matter,
some countries at the expense of others. The backlash or consequences are felt by all.
For instance, deforestation in ELDCs affects greenhouse warming of the Earth's
atmosphere. Deforestation also threatens the ways of life of our aboriginal peoples, and,
in indirect ways our survival through their knowledge of plants and herbal medicines. In
1987 a tall woody vine was found in Cameroon's forests, ancistrocladus korupensis, and
is proving important in the treatment of HIV and AIDS (Geographical Magazine, 2000).
The Caribbean has high levels of bio-diversity. However, by concentrating on narrow
understandings of economic growth, and ignoring our forests and wild places, we may be
sabotaging our very survival.

Thus, equity has been elusive. Rural populations have been disadvantaged in many ways,
not the least being access to higher levels of education and adequate health care. Not only
rural people, but the poor and women on the whole, have not been seen as components of
the development process. Yet the human development paradigm shows that for the goals
of development to be realized, equity must be a cornerstone. If any groups are left out
there will be 'gaps' in what is realized as 'development'.

As mentioned at the beginning of the chapter, once equity is seen as important, groups
will enjoy expanded choice in what they can do and are willing to do, hence the
groundwork will have been assured for productivity to occur. If one is well-educated in
areas that one has chosen and employed in humane conditions, then it is more likely that
one feels a tremendous sense of empowerment which translates into an awareness that
one is ultimately responsible for the decisions one makes. That includes decisions about
the environment. The scene is thus set for sustainable development.

125
Cultural Behaviours supporting Human Development

• The experience of Grenada under the Peoples' Revolutionary Government of

Maurice Bishop showed a strong attempt to debunk myths about
modernization that were detrimental to people and to institute approaches to
equity. ''The provision of basic needs was seen as the focus of development by
the PRG. Central policy imperatives included the control of food prices, the
use of idle land, agricultural diversification, the development of agro-industrial
plants ... " (Potter, 1995, p.340). The commitment to equity though must
engage with powerful forces bent on maintaining the status guo.

• The late George Beckford voiced a concern for human development long
before that position was articulated by the United Nations. "Let us restate here
the basic dilemmas of the people of plantation society. First, the system denies
the majority of people a real stake in their country. Second, a chronic
dependency syndrome is characteristic of the whole population. And, third,
people are not sufficiently motivated to make sacrifices and to expend effort.
These are direct legacies of the plantation system. Only by destroying the
system can they be overcome. Destroying the system involves revolutionary
change in the institutional structure- that is, the economic, social, and political
arrangements? It is possible to release the creative energies of people once they
have a stake and have confidence in themselves" (1991, p. 12).

• About sustainable development: "Development can never be on a true

economic basis if it takes place at the expense of the future. Where however.
there is a conflict between the two, survival must take priority, even though it
puts longer-term sustainability at risk. In some cases incentives could be used
to encourage environmentally friendly practices by the poor and a combination
of 'polluter pays' and beneficiary pays' could ease environmental taxes on the
poor where preventive or remedial action on their activities benefit others ....

126
 The norm must always be, though, that development should be on
a sustainable basis- even in the short term. (Persaud, 1995, p. 87)

• The kitchen gardens kept for centuries by Caribbean peoples are local
examples of ways we have devised to generate and supplement a livelihood
that is environmentally friendly. Brierley (1991) describes traditional kitchen
gardens sing mixed cropping (intermingling of crops), inter-cropping
(planting different crops in alternate rows) and interculture (growing crops
under trees). He refers to their veritable neglect as a source of study and their
potential in cutting the food import bill. "If 'charity begins at home', then the
basis for sound food crop policies may well begin in the garden which
surrounds Caribbean homes" (Brierley, 1991, p.26).

• Although Guyana is politically and culturally viewed as a Caribbean nation,

our tourism product is very different from what the Island Community of the
Caribbean usually offers in their sun, sand and sea vacation. The focus of
development in Guyana is on the adventure type eco-tourism product. The
primary tourism assets of Guyana are based on nature activity related
attractions. Most of Guyana's assets are to be found in the hinterland areas of
the country, mountain ranges, rolling savannas and lush forests where one can
see breath-taking waterfalls, impressive rivers and lakes, view widely varied
birds, and unique flora and fauna .... Since the 1992 Rio Conference, Guyana
has taken a number of initiatives to promote the sustainable use of its natural
resources in its quest to develop the country's economy and simultaneously
improve the living standard of its population" (Williams, 1997, p.44).

The wide variety of natural landscapes in the Caribbean provide many different contexts
in which we can begin to develop indigenous ways of becoming economically viable
without threatening sustainable human development. The illustrations above are only a
few of the ways Caribbean people have thought of engaging the issue of human
development.

127
Summary

In this chapter we explored the concept of development enshrined in the human

development paradigm based on the pillars of equity, productivity, empowerment, and
sustainability. This notion of development was compared with the prevailing and
dominant understanding of development as economic development, by examining some
human behaviours associated with that model. The environmental effects of such human
behaviours were assessed against the ideals of the human development model. Finally,
we surveyed some examples of learned behaviours evident today in the Caribbean that
can work positively towards the realization of human development.

Key Concepts

Structural dualism Birth rate Dependency Ratio Inclusion

Gatekeepers Productivity Empowerment Flooding
Modernization Urbanization Rural-urban migration Primacy
Deforestation Overcropping Population density Death rate
Sustainability Soil erosion Carrying capacity Overgrazing
Fertility loss Marginal lands Contour ploughing Birth control
Demographic Life expectancy Zero population growth Exclusion
Immigration ~atural increase Fertility levels Equity
Slash & bum Structural dualism Environmental stress
Agriculture

References
Barker, D., & Me Gregor, F. (Eds.). (1995). Environment and development in the
Caribbean. UWI, Mona: The Press.

Beckford, G. (1991). Persistent poverty. Caricom Perspective, nos. 50 & 51, pp. 12-13.

Bongaarts, J. (1995)':-'Population policy options in the developing world. In G. Pitzl (Ed.),

Geography 95/96, pp. 198-203. Guilford, CT: Dushkin Publishing Group Inc.

Brierley, J.S. (1991). Kitchen gardens in the Caribbean, past and present: their role in
small farm development. Caribbean Geography, J(l), pp.15-28.

128
Eyre, L.A. (1998). Shanty towns in Jamaica. In D. Barker, C. Newby & M. Morrissey
(Eds.), A reader in Caribbean geography, pp. 81-92. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle
Publishers.

Geo&APhical Magazine. (2000). Totally tropical travesty. Environment Section. July

issue, pp. 44-49.

Nagle, G. (1998). Development and underdevelopment. Surrey, U.K.:Thomas Nelson &

Sons Ltd.

Nanita-Kennett, M. Industrial free zones in the Dominican Republic. In D. Barker, C.

Newby & M. Morrissey (Eds.), A reader in Caribbean geography, pp. 101-106. Kingston,
Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers.

Persaud, B. (1995). Sustainable development and environmental action in the Caribbean.

Caricom Perspective Souvenir Issue, June 1995, pp. 86-89.

Potter, R. (1995). Urbanization and development in the Caribbean. Geography, 80(4), pp.
334-341.

Potter, R. (1998). The Port of Spain Urban Corridor, Trinidad. In D. Barker, C. Newby &
M. Morrissey (Eds.), A reader in Caribbean geography, pp. 93-100. Kingston, Jamaica:
Ian Randle Publishers.

Ul Haq, M. (1995). Reflections on human development. N.Y.: Oxford University Press.

Waugh, D. (1995). Geography- an integrated approach. Surrey, Uk:Thomas Nelson &

Sons Ltd.

Williams, P. (1997). Ecotourism and environmental education in the Amazon Region: a

case study of Guyana. In P. Williams & J. Rose (Eds.). Environment and sustainable
human development in the Amazon, pp. 36-48. Guyana: Free Press & University of
Guyana.

Further Readings

Sealey, N. (1992). Caribbean World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Watts, D. (1995). Environmental degradation, the water resource and sustainable

development in the Eastern Caribbean. Caribbean Geography. ~(1), pp. 2-15.

Conway, D., & Lorah, P. (1995). Environmental protection policies in Caribbean small
islands: some St. Lucian examples. Caribbean Geography. ~(1), pp. 16-27.

Lorah. P. (1995). An unsustainable path: tourism's vulnerability to environmental decline

in Antigua. Caribbean Geography. ~(1), pp. 28-39.

Sharkey, D.A., & Henshall Momsen, J. (1995). Tourism in Dominica: problems and
prospects. Caribbean Geography. ~(1), pp. 40-51.

129
 Chapter7

Regional Integration and Development

Overview

So far, we have explored the concept of development through economic and human
development lenses. We have sought to unravel the nature of human behaviours in
relation to these two lenses and the impact each has, or should have, on the environment.
In this chapter we extend the discourse on development to consider its potential within a
framework of integration and to assess the contributions of individuals to the
development process.

The issue of regional integration is central to the evolution and future development of the
Caribbean. We tried experiments in political unity that were unsuccessful. Perhaps, they
were premature. In this chapter we will focus on the later attempts to engender
integration through other means - through economic co-operation and co-operation in
maintaining regional institutions.

Objectives1

By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

1. describe the attemp~ in the Caribbean at political unity, the formation of

the Federation;

2. identify the factors leading to the adoption of an economic integration

policy;
3. appreciate the importance of the role played by the University of the West
Indies in integration;

4. Exal]line the role and function of other regional institutions such as the
Caribbean Development Bank, the Caribbean Examinations Council, the ·
West Indies Cricket Board of Control and the Caribbean News Agency;
5. Assess the significance of contributions made by identified individuals to
the social, cultural, political or economic development of the region.

1
These objectives refer to module 2, specific objectives 5 and 8 of the Caribbean Studies syllabus.

130
Introduction

The attempt at political unity even before national independence shows that the
Caribbean people were grappling with ways of ensuring their survival in a period of
imminent decolonization, even if the idea did not come initially from them. The failure
of the Federation, however, and the granting of independence, seems to have fuelled
renewed vigour in trying to create a forum for regional integration, this time through
economic integration. In addition to ideas on economic integration, we have been
developing initiatives to ensure regional co-operation through various regional
institutions, which promote development. The contributions to regionalism of
outstanding individuals across the region are also recognized, namely as persons who can
ably promote understandings of Caribbean identity both without and within the
Caribbean.

While many Caribbean leaders and the people themselves are convinced of the good
sense of creating a united West Indies, maintaining the vision has been somewhat of a
problem. Some reasons for such ambivalence stem from issues related to our society and
culture .. This chapter explores initiatives for integration, also discusses national and
individual imperatives and the wider goals of a Caribbean identity.

Federation

After the end of the Second World War, the Report of the Moyne Commission 1938-
1939, under the chairmanship of Lord Moyne, was made public. This report
recommended the formation of a British West Indian Federation as a laudable policy goal
for the British Government. However, there were doubts about the success of such a
Federation owing to the strength of insularity that the Commission had encountered
across the British West Indies.

In October 1947 the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Arthur Creech-Jones, convened a
meeting in Montego Bay, Jamaica to discuss the proposal for a West Indian Federation
with representatives from British West Indian colonies. This meeting led to the formation

131
of the Standing Closer Association Committee which was designed to consider and report
on the specific proposals for a British West Indian Federation.

The Report of the Standing Closer Association Committee favoured the creation of a
West Indian Federation. This was accomplished in 1956 with the enactment in the British
Parliament of the British Caribbean Federation Act 1956. This was followed in 1957 with
the making of the Constitution for the Federation which came into effect on 31st July
1957 in the form of the West Indies (Federation) Order in Council 1957, and in 1958, the
first federal elections were held.

The member territories of the Federation were:

Antigua and Barbuda Jamaica St. Vincent and the Grenadines,

Barbados Montserrat, Trinidad and Tobago

Dominica St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla
Grenada St. Lucia

Trinidad was chosen as the site for the Federal capital and the new Governor General of
the Federation, Lord Hailes, arrived to take up residence in Port of Spain on Friday 3rd

January 1958. The Federal elections were scheduled for Tuesday 25th March 1958 and
according to section 15 of the Constitution there were to be 45 Federal Members of
Parliament of whom five were to be elected in Barbados, 17 in Jamaica, 10 in Trinidad
and Tobago, 1 in Montserrat and 2 in each of the other territories.

Following the Federal elections of 1958, Sir Grantley Adams was appointed Prime
Minister of the Federation and the government of the West Indies was constituted as
shown overleaf.

132
The Cabinet

The Hon. Sir Gr.mtley Adams Prime Minister

The Hon. Dr. C. Ll Corbiniere Deputy Prime Minister. and Minister of
Trade and Industry
The Hon. R. L. Bradshaw Minister of Finance
The Hon. W. A. Rose Minister of Communications and Works
The Hon. F. B. Ricketts Minister of Natural Resources and
Agriculture
The Hon. Mrs. P. B. S. Allfrey Minister of Labour and Social Affairs
Affairs
The Hon. N. H. Richards Minister without Portfolio
The Hon. V. B. Vaughn Minister without Portfolio
The Hon. Senator A. G. R. B}iield Minister without Portfolio
The Hon. Senator J. W. Liburd Minister without Portfolio
The Hon. Senator J. L. Charles Minister without Portfolio

1. Find out the nationalities of all the members listed above.

2. Interview your parents and grandparents and persons in your community about the advent of Federation.

In 1961, the British government convened a conference at Lancaster House in London to

discuss the grant of independence to the British West Indian Federation. The issue of
independence for the Federation created a major political choice for Jamaica (the largest
member of the Federation) as to whether they should remain as part of an independent
Federation or whether they should proceed to their own independence separate from the
Federation.

The response of the Jamaican government was to hold a referendum on the subject on
19th September 1961. The result of the referendum was that the Jamaican electorate voted
for Jamaica's withdrawal from the Federation. The way was now clear for Jamaica to
proceed to its own independence which it attained on 6th August 1962. Below is the text
of a confidential memorandum that was sent by the Secretary of State for the Colonies,

133
lain Macleod, to his Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, just after the result of the
Jamaican referendum on the Federation was known.

" The Jamaican referendum has resulted in a defeat for Manley on the
Federation issue. We expected and hoped for a narrow but clear affirmative.
The result is a narrow but clear negative.

This is a most grievous blow to the Federal ideal for which we and enlightened
West Indian opinion have striven for so many years. It is certain that the
Federation cannot continue in its present form and must be doubtful whether it
can survive at all.

The decision of Jamaica to quit the Federation must be taken as final. We may
expect a demand that they should be allowed to go forward into Independence
as a separate member of the Commonwealth. In view of the size, population
{1.6 million) and economic viability of Jamaica this will be a demand which, with
the precedents of Sierra Leone and Cyprus before us, we could not resist.
Whether there will have to be a General Election in Jamaica or whether Manley
will successfully maintain that an adverse vote on this single issue does not
constitute a vote of no confidence in his government remains to be seen.

The question whether a Federation of most or all of the east caribbean Islands
can survive the defection of Jamaica depends more on the attitude of Trinidad
and Tobago than on any other single factor. Dr. Eric Williams (Premier of
Trinidad and Tobago) made it clear during the West Indian Conference that, if
Jamaica left the Federation, Trinidad would follow suit since she would not be
able or prepared to take on the financial burden of 'carrying' the Federation.

(Jamaica and Trinidad contribute about 85% of federal revenues in roughly

equal shares). If he maintains this line, we can expect a demand from Trinidad
and Tobago that they too should be allowed to "go it alone" into independent
membership of the Commonwealth. ·This would be as difficult to resist as a
similar demand from Jamaica.

It is however, just possible that Trinidad might be prepared to lead an East

caribbean Federation - on her terms. Eric Williams has always disliked the
present loose form of Federation which has been a condition of Jamaica
belonging. The defection of Jamaica will give him the opportunity to press for
the tighter form of Federation which he has always advocated, with strong
central powers over taxation, development planning, etc. In return for that he
might be prepared to make a concession over his earlier stand against the early
introduction of freedom of movement.

We cannot of course express publicly our regret at the result of the referendum
since that could embitter our relations with Bustamante if he returns to power in
Jamaica. Our immediate line with the Press is that. it was recognized that the
Lancaster House Agreement was dependent on the Jamaica referendum and the
endorsement by the Legislatures in other Islands; that we have always regarded
the form of Federation as a matter for West Indians themselves to settle; and
that the referendum result is a new factor in the situation the effects of which
we are studying.

134
 The Americans will be extremely concerned over this development and the
Foreign Office are sending an assessment to the Foreign Secretary in
Washington. The Commonwealth Relations Office are also sending guidance to
their High Commissioner in Ottawa.

I have asked for immediate assessments from the Acting Governor-General and
Governors and Administrators. Hailes has broken his holiday in Scotland and I
have held discussions with him. The Jamaican leaders and the Federal Prime
Minister, Sir Grantley Adams, wish to come to London at a very early date to
confer with me. I will report again in a few days on the situation as I see it.

I am sending copies of this minute to the Lord Chancellor, the Chancellor of the
Exchequer, the Foreign Secretary, the Commonwealth Secretary, and the
Minister of Defense."
(CO 1031 I 3278, Macleod to Macmillan, Secret, P.M. [61] 73, 22nd September,
1961).

Having read the memorandum, answer the questions below.

Activity 7:2

1. Reflect on the reasoning behind the action taken by the West Indian leaders and people. To what extent
do you believe that the same is true today?
2. In your opinion was the demise of the Federation inevitable?
3. It is believed that British government policy on the future of the Federation tended to place more emphasis
on independence than it did on regional unity. Comment
4. Why was Trinidad and Tobago more concerned about freedom of movement than Jamaica? What was Sir
Eric Williams' famous 'equation', about the pulling out of Jamaica from the Federation?
5. With this background information, how do you view the present decision to rely on economic
co-operation as a basis for regional integration?

The secret and confidential memorandum reproduced above was declassified in 1992 by
the British government in accordance with their Official Secrets policy which keeps most
documents secret until, in most cases, thirty years have elapsed. There are situations
where documents may be kept classified for longer periods such as 50, 70 or 100 years.
Indeed, the government has the right to retain the secrecy of a document forever if it so
desires.

It is instructive to dwell at length on this period of our history. It is fertile in throwing up

the kinds of issues and decision making that attends a major change of direction in how
we view ourselves. In Chapter 1 we discussed the cultural norms in the Caribbean that
relate to how the society was defined. We found that in most cases it was defined as the
geographical limit or the island borders. We also noted that the situation in Guyana and

135
Belize was similar, both being 'island like', in that they shared relatively few
characteristics with neighbouring countries.

Activity 7:3
Research the following:-
1. What was the eventual outcome concerning the future of the Federation for those countries known as the
"Little Eighr?
2. British Guiana and British Honduras were not included in the vision of a Federation at the time. Find out
when these two mainland countries became an accepted part of the understanding of Caribbean.

The crisis precipitated by the break up of the Federation resulted, in the years afterwards,
in individual countries in the Caribbean gaining political independence. While the notions
of Caribbean unity and regional integration, still imbued the region, largely in rhetoric
and in the vision of its scholars and outstanding leaders, each country set about
emphasizing a national identity within a larger Caribbean self-identification.

As each country developed separate political and other institutions, the old underlying
call of a Caribbean theme to our existence became more insistent. Life in the Caribbean
has always been characterized by tensions especially in relation to identity. In the next
section we will see that the urgent push for national borders and political independence
also competed with a need for some formal recognition of our interdependence.

CARIFTA and CARICOM

Emanating from this sense of relatedness was the feeling that we had to manifest some
form of unity or cooperation to survive as newly independent countries. This feeling
existed in countries whether they were fully independent, enjoyed associated statehood or
remained closer to the United Kingdom.

Shortly after the establishment of associated statehood for six of the remaining seven
former members of the Federation, The Caribbean Free Trade Association, CARIFfA,
was formed on 1st May, 1968. The excerpt below was published by the Government of
Trinidad and Tobago in 1968 to commemorate the birth of CARIFTA.

136
The CARIFTA Agreement established a Free Trade Area among the
Commonwealth caribbean countries. Antigua, Barbados, Guyana and Trinidad
and Tobago joined as founding members on 1st May, 1968. Dominica, Grenada,
St.Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, St.Lucia and St.Vincent joined CARIFTA on 1st July,
1968. Jamaica has been admitted as a member, and Montserrat has also been
admitted, subject to receiving formal approval from the U.K. Government. Both
have agreed to join by 1st August, 1968.

A Free Trade Area is only one possible form of economic integration among
countries. There are other forms.

A Free Trade Area exists when two or more countries remove trade barriers
(tariffs and quantitative restrictions) among themselves, but keep their own
level of tariffs and quantitative restrictions against outside countries.

A Customs Union goes beyond a Free Trade Area. Not only is there free trade
among member countries, there is also a common external tariff and a
common set of quantitative restrictions against outside countries.

A Common Market goes beyond a Customs Union. In addition to internal free

trade and a common set of external trade barriers, there is free movement of
capital and labour within the Common Market.

An Economic Union is the highest form of economic co-operation among

!=C)unbies. In addition to a Common Market, there are common economic,
finandal, taxation and social policies. Because of the high degree of co-
operation between countries involved, an Economic Union comes very close to a
political union.

These are the well-known forms of economic integration. However, West Indian
University economists have argued for another type of integration which, it
should be noted need not be in conflict with the well-known forms. They have
argued for integration of production by sectors, or industries, among West
Indian countries, so that resources can be combined among different countries
to build up larger interlocking activities producing aluminum, textiles, fish
products, meat complexes, and so on. In this way resources located in specific
territories can be brought together through industrial planning on a West Indian
scale to produce goods using West Indian instead of imported materials for the
West Indian market and even for external markets.

CARIFTA, then, as a Free Trade Area, is a somewhat loose form of integration.

The important point to grasp, however, is that CARIFTA is only a beginning - a
first step towards closer forms of caribbean integration.

(CARIFTA and the caribbean Economic Community, Government of Trinidad and

Tobago, July 1968, p. 7).

137
Having read the excerpt above, do the following exercise.

Activity 7:4
1. What do you believe was behind this move to form a free trade area? Was tt only in relation to economic
survival?
2. Identify at least two specific examples that can qualify as possibilities for integration of production.
3. You will notice that whilst Guyana has been included from the very beginning, Belize was not a part of the
free trade area. Find out how Belize came to be considered as an integral part of the Caribbean by the
rest of the community.

In 1973, the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Treaty was signed at Chaguaramas in

Trinidad and Tobago. This cleared the way for a Caribbean Common Market to which all
of the member-states of the former CARIFTA would belong. It represented a further
attempt to bring about regional integration through the mechanism of economic
integration.

Activity 7:5
As a class project make a presentation to the class on CARICOM. The following topics may order the
presentation:

1. Members (old and new), location of headquarters, identify past and present Secretary Generals, aims and
objectives.
2. Different organizations wtthin CARICOM -role and function of each.
3. Track record of CARICOM- issues of regional importance in which tt has been involved.
4. Problems being experienced by CARICOM.

Caribbean Development Bank

The idea of a regional development bank was first suggested at an official level in July
1966 at the Canada-West Indies Prime Ministers' meeting in Ottawa. The Canadian
Government was sympathetic to the idea in 1966. This idea had also come from the
Tripartite Mission on the Leewards, Windwards and Barbados in relation to a
development bank for the capital needs of the proposed integration of the "Little Eight" in
the aftermath of the demise of the Federation.

In late 1966, the Governments of the Commonwealth Caribbean, Canada, the United
States of America and the United Kingdom agreed to contract the United Nations

138
Development Programme (UNDP) to undertake a feasibility study on the concept of a
regional development bank. UNDP in its report in July 1967 recommended the
establishment of a regional bank. In August 1967 a meeting of Commonwealth
Caribbean officials in Guyana endorsed the recommendations of the UNDP. Regional
Heads of Government at a meeting in August 1967 also endorsed the concept. The basis
for a Charter for the Regional Development Bank was worked out at a meeting held in
Jamaica in October 1967 of officials from the Caribbean, Canada, the United States of
America and the United Kingdom.

The formal Agreement establishing the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) was signed
in Kingston, Jamaica on 18th October, 1969 at a Conference of Plenipotentiaries from
eighteen countries and territories. That Agreement was set to come into force on 26th
January, 1970 and the Secretary General of the United Nations acted as the Depository
for the Agreement, while the Government of Barbados was appointed to be the Trustee
for receiving payments of the first installment of subscriptions for share capital in the
Bank.

The first meeting of the Board of Governors of the Caribbean Development Bank was
held in Nassau, Bahamas on 31st January, 1970 and Professor Sir Arthur Lewis was
elected as the first President of the Bank.

Activity 7:6

1. Investigate whether the Caribbean Development Bank has been involved in funding projects in your
country. What kinds of projects receive approval for funding? What is COB's perspective on development?

University of the West Indies

The University of the West Indies (UWI) was created as a regional institution in 1948.
The University College at Mona, Jamaica was the first campus of the University. A
campus was established at St. Augustine, Trinidad in 1960, and at Cave Hill, Barbados in
1962. Over the years the University has grown considerably. There are now eleven

139
University Centres situated in non-campus countries throughout the region as well as a
Centre forHotel and Tourism Management in the Bahamas:

In a meeting of Commonwealth Caribbean Heads of Government held in Barbados on 7th

June, 1969, the future of the University was discussed since the Agreement between the
contributing governments to continue funding the University was due to expire in 1972.
Heads of Government had to decide on one of two options contained in a paper prepared
by Vice-Chancellor O.R. Marshall. The options are given below.

A. The continuation of the U.W.I. as a regional University after the

expiration of the current agreement in 1972, either on its present basis,
or on a modified basis; or

B. The dissolution of the U.W.I. from 1972 or a date thereafter to be fixed

and the establishment of a mechanism for giving effect to this decision.

(Future of the University of the West Indies: Memorandum to

All Heads of Government of Territories contributing to the
University of the West Indies and Guyana, 16th May, 1969).

Heads of Government decided to continue with the University of the West Indies beyond
1972. The need for tertiary education in the region was and still is considered crucial to
the development of the region itself.

The UWI plays a critical role in the educational advancement for the people of the region.
The demands for its services are growing weii beyond the campus territories of Jamaica,
Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago. Its academic programmes have served the vital
tertiary-level needs of the Caribbean region in law, social sciences, engineering,
medicine, the humanities, agriculture, natural sciences and education. Recently distance
education methodologies are also being used to improve access to programmes.

Other institutions have also been established in various parts of the region for tertiary-
level education. Among these are the University of Guyana, the University of the Virgin
Islands, the University of Belize and the University of Technology (Jamaica).
Community colleges are also being established, for example, the Sir Arthur Lewis

140
Community College in St Lucia, the Clarence Fitzroy Bryant College in St. Kitts and
Nevis and, the Antigua State College in Antigua and Barbuda.

In addition, there are institutions with affiliations outside the region, for example, the St.
George's University in Grenada that has its connection to the U.S.A. This University
started as an offshore training institute in the medical sciences to American students.
However, it has now expanded and offer a wider range of courses in the social sciences
and the humanities to students throughout the region.

Activity 7:7
1. What do you see as the purpose and function of the University of the West Indies in relation to the
development of the region?
2. Give four reasons why Caribbean governments should contribute to the University of the West Indies?
3. Do you see developments such as American off-shore universities as threats to regional identity and the
region's premier tertiary institution, UWI?

The Caribbean Examinations Council

The Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) was established in 1972 to develop a system
of regional examinations at the Ordinary and Advanced Levels to replace the Cambridge
and London General Certificate of Education (G.C.E.) examinations for the candidates of
the region. In 1981, the first such examinations were held in five subjects This system has
allowed the development of a regionally-based system of examinations which have
greater relevance to the needs and aspirations of the school population of the region and
can provide them with relevant methods of testing and evaluation.

In 1998 the Council held seven examinations at the advanced level. The Introduction to
the Caribbean Studies Syllabus records that:

The caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE) are designed to

provide certification of the academic, vocational and technical achievement of
students in the caribbean who having ·completed a minimum of five years of
secondary education wish to further their studies. The examinations address the
skills and knowledge acquired by students under a flexible and articulated

141
 system where subjects are organised in one-unit or two-unit courses with each
unit containing three modules.

Subjects examined under CAPE may be studied concurrently or singly, or may

be combined with subjects examined by other examination boards or
institutions.

A CAPE diploma will be awarded for the successful completion of a programme of at

least six units, including Caribbean Studies.

Activity 7:8

1. Argue the case for and against the introduction of regional, as opposed to foreign, testing of Caribbean
students as a contribution to the development of the region.
2. What innovations have been made by CXC in syllabus development and assessment? To what extent
have these innovations been accepted by the public as in the best interests of the child?
3. When CXC was first established there were many criticisms and today there are similar reservations
about the introduction of CAPE. How will you argue the case for CAPE in terms of regional development
and personal development of the individual?

The West Indies Cricket Board

Although sport is dealt with in the next chapter at length, -here it is necessary, here, to
make mention of the West Indies Cricket Board as a regional institution that has long
been established and represents another form of regional cooperation.

The Board is responsible for the administration and organisation of cricket in the region.
It comprises representatives from Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, the Leeward Islands,
Trinidad and Tobago, and the Windward Islands. The headquarters of the West Indies
Cricket Board is located in Antigua and Barbuda. It had previously been located in
Barbados.

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 Activity 7:9
1. Interview cricket fans that you know to get a sense of the contribution made by the West Indies Cricket
Board to the development of cricket in the region?
2. How will you describe the contribution of the game of cricket to regional development?
3. While cricket seems to dominate the region in the vast numbers who are addicted and devoted to it, there
are areas in the Caribbean where it is regarded as of little interest. What areas are those? Do they have
sports that they are equally devoted to? Why is there this difference in allegiance to cricket?

The Caribbean News Agency

The Caribbean News Agency (CANA) is based in Barbados and provides coverage of
news relevant to the region based on news reports from its correspondents throughout the
region. Before the existence of CANA, there was a reliance on the news services of
Reuters, the Associated Press, the BBC, the Voice of America and other foreign sources
for news coverage.

The emergence of CANA has seen the introduction of regional news that emanates from
a source that has regional coverage as its primary mandate without having to compete
with the international sources for coverage that might otherwise be minimal in relation to
the Caribbean.

Activity 7:9
1. Interview cricket fans that you know to get a sense of the contribution made by the West Indies Cricket
Board to the development of cricket in the region?
2. How will you describe the contribution of the game of cricket to regional development?
3. While cricket seems to dominate the region in the vast numbers who are addicted and devoted to it, there
are areas in the Caribbean where it is regarded as of little interest. What areas are those? Do they have
sports that they are equally devoted to? Why is there this difference in allegiance to cricket?

Assessing the Contribution Made by Individuals in the Caribbean

Region to Development

Many outstanl:ling individuals have contributed to the development of the Caribbean, both
at a local and a regional level. Some have made their contributions in many fields - in
politics, education, economics, literature, journalism and drama. Within some territories,
especially Jamaica and Barbados, the governments have taken the lead in declaring a

143
pantheon of national heroes. These governments laid down certain criteria for selecting
their heroes.

Except for Sir Garfield Sobers and Sarah Ann Gill, all the heroes in Barbados were drawn
from the field of politics. There is a temptation for one to assess the development of a
country solely from the contribution of Prime Ministers and Presidents. We must also
remember many others not in the field of politics who have given their life to their
communities and, so, should be given the recognition due to them.

We offer the following criteria that should be employed by students to assess the
contribution of any individual to their country, region or community:

details of personal life history;

details about academic training/profession;
sum of the achievements in their field or career at the local, regional and
international level;
uniqueness of the individual's contribution;
recognition of that individual across all racial and ethnic lines in their country;
recognition of the individual's contribution at a regional or international level.

Historical background and setting should be given to highlight the way the particular
contribution helps us to face the legacies of our past which may inhibit our development.

Some regional figures to consider (please note that the list is not exhaustive):

Aime Cesaire William Demas Derek Walcott

Edward Brathwaite Grantley Adama Eric Williams
Errol Barrow George Lamming V. S. Naipaul
Sir Vivian Richards Samuel Selvon Sir Gary Sobers
Sir Arthur Lewis Sir Alexander Bustamente Norman Manley
Ellie Manette Kitchener (Aldwyn Roberts) Michael Manley
Louise Bennett Bob Marley C.L.R. James
Sir Frank Worrell Walter Rodney Jose Marti
The Mighty Sparrow (Slinger Francisco)

144
 Activity 7:10
Suggestions for Research and Class Discussion
• Brian Lara should be officially declared a national hero in Trinidad and Tobago before the end of his
career. Discuss.
• Suggest FOUR ways in which outstanding individuals of the region should be recognized.
• Bob Marley is more than a Jamaican singer providing musical entertainment. Discuss

Summary
This chapter has attempted to highlight the evolution of regional integration from the
Federation to the post-independence era. During that time, the focus has shifted from
political union to economic integration. At a time when other countries of the world are
forming themselves into economic blocs (NAFfA, and the European Union), the
Caribbean needs to ensure that its economic integration has a sound basis for future
development for the benefit of the regional populations.

There are forces of division and insularity in the Caribbean that can militate against the
concept of regional integration. There are differences of opinion about the allocation of
resources and the location of political power (for example, in the twin island states -
Trinidad and Tobago, Antigua and Barbuda, and St. Kitts and Nevis).

At a time when the rest of the world is realising the importance of economic integration
for purposes of development, it may be necessary for Caribbean populations to become
more aware of the challenges of the world's financial markets to their own development.
Can the formation of new micro-states in the region help or hinder development?

Further Activities
1. Organize a class debate to discuss the reasons why the Federation failed.
2. Identify the member-countries of the Caribbean Development Bank today and discuss in the classroom
the role of the Bank in regional development.
3. What are the educational programmes offered at the University Campus/Centre in your country and how
relevant are they to the needs of your society?
4. Interview at least two persons about the perceived benefits of belonging to CARICOM? Comment on their
perspectives.
5. What are the major problems facing the regional integration movement ? If you are a future leader of a
Caribbean country, what solutions would you advance to address the problems facing regional
integration?

145
 Key Concepts

Federation Decolonization Economic integration

Political unity Regionalism Regional institutions
Referendum Caribbean identity Insularity

Independence Referendum Free Trade Area

Development CARIFfA CARlCOM

University Tariffs Customs Union

Common Market Economic union Common external tariff

CDB cxc Non-campus countries

CAPE WICBC CANA

References

Memorandum to All Heads of Government of Territories contributing to the University

of the West Indies and Guyana (16th May, 1969). Future of the University of the West
Indies

Government of Trinidad and Tobago (July 1968). CARIFfA and the Caribbean
Economic Community.

(CO 1031/3278, Macleod to Macmillan, Secret, P.M. [61] 73, 22nd September, 1961.

LaGuerre, J. (Ed.). (1997). Issues in the government and politics of the West Indies.
UWI, St. Augustine: School of Continuing Studies.

West Indian Commission. (1992). A time for action: report of the West Indian
Commission. Mona: The Press.

Further Readings

About the Region. Caricom perspective. Caricom Perspective. (1993). Association of

Caribbean States. July- December, pp. 8-9.

146
 ChapterS

The Arts and Popular Culture

Introduction

In this section you will be looking at the role of the arts and popular culture in the
development of the Caribbean. The creativity of the Caribbean people is one of our most
precious resources. The arts and popular culture have been one important means by
which, even in the days of colonialism and slavery, people were able to express their
identity, and preserve parts of the heritage of those countries from which the different
people of the Caribbean were uprooted. Today, the arts and popular culture enable us to
look critically at our behaviour and the values that we demonstrate through that
behaviour. We are also enabled to consider what aspects of the arts and popular culture
we might want to maintain as we are exposed to other cultures. Finally, the arts and
popular culture represent a potentially powerful source of income generation.

OBJECTIVES1

By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

1. identify a range of art forms and expressions of popular culture that can be
considered uniquely 'Caribbean';

2. evaluate claims that Caribbean art forms, the mass media and sports
lead to development;

3. analyze the factors that impact on the contribution of the mass media to
development in the region;

4. appreciate the multi-dimensional nature of development..

1
These objectives refer to those of Module 2, specific objectives 6, 7. and 9 of the Caribbean Studies syllabus

147
Arts and popular culture

The arts include such expressions of human creativity as drama, literature, painting,
sculpture architecture, dance and music. Popular culture is difficult to define, and various
expressions of popular culture continue to develop as a society develops. However, it
may include a range of expressions of creativity, and of artefacts, that are continuously
accessible to, produced by, and enjoyed by, the majority of the people of a society. It also
includes certain symbols and rituals that emerge, and that represent our deepest values,
feelings and beliefs as a people. Our festivals, for example, Carnival, Crop Over,
Phagwah, Hosay, Jonkonnu, La Marguerite and La Rose are part of popular culture.
Many of the expressions of creativity to which they give rise - the music and dances
which they make popular, like the calypsoes and chutney songs of Trinidad and Tobago
which are known and sung or listened to by people across classes and other forms of
social division, are part of popular culture. At various times, fashion, hairstyles, and
clothes, which are adopted by the majority of people can be considered part of popular
culture.

Forms of participation by significant numbers of people in widely valued sporting events,

whether as actors or as audiences, constitute popular culture; so too are those icons,
symbols and images projected by the mass media, which are viewed, read, and listened to
by the majority of the people. With the introduction of new technologies in the
Caribbean, shared events such as participation in chat rooms on the Internet, and the
types of content that millions of people view and interact with online are becoming
components of our of popular culture.

The examples mentioned above reflect only a tiny part of the range of the experience of
the arts and popular culture in the Caribbean.

148
 Activity 8:1
1. At one time 'popular culture' was used as a term to distinguish certain expressions of the creativity of a
people from 'high' culture - those art forms that were feH to demand special education or training and
refinement of taste to produce and enjoy.. Does such a rigid distinction exist in your country? Why, or
why not?
2. What, in your experience, are the factors that cause something to become part of the 'popular' culture of a
society?
3. Suggest possible differences in the impact on your society of expressions of its popular cuHure and its
high cuHure.

Caribbean Art and Popular Culture in Development

Portraying the Caribbean experience

Arts and popular culture contribute to the development of the Caribbean because of the
uniqueness of their forms: they reflect our history, our everyday experience of our
physical and social environments, and our internal landscapes - the thoughts and
emotions~ This is so even when the Caribbean people who create them live thousands of
miles away from the Caribbean region. We recognise as 'Caribbean' those artists who
are born and who live in the Caribbean, as well as those who may now live in the
countries of North America, Europe, Africa and Asia, but who see their family or cultural
connections to the Caribbean as a critical part of their lives and their work.

Edna Manley, who was born in Yorkshire, but who had Jamaican blood, and lived in
Jamaica for most of her life, can be considered to be just as Caribbean as Earl Loveace,
who was born and lives in Trinidad and Tobago. The experience of being Caribbean-
born, or of living in the Caribbean, is a crucial part of their work. Derek Walcott, when
he won the Nobel Prize for Literature, was recognised as a Caribbean writer because,
even though he now lives in the United States. He was born in St Lucia and lived there,
and in other parts of the Caribbean, for a significant part of his life; also, the majority of
his work focuses on what it is like to live in the Caribbean, and to have the blood of the
different peoples of the Caribbean running through his veins.

149
This is also true of Trinidadian-born writer, Vidia Naipaul, who now lives in England,
steelband pioneer Ellie Mannette, who lives in North America, but whose work focuses
on the Trinidadian steelband. And Bob Marley was always a Caribbean singer, whether
he lived in Jamaica where he was born, or in the United Kingdom - the words and the
reggae rhythms of his music both spoke about the Caribbean citizen's struggle to exist,
and also about the joy and exuberance of our people.

Portraying the Physical and Emotional Landscape

Read the poem by Derek Walcott that follows, and reflect on how it conveys the physical
experience of living on Caribbean islands, and loving the experience.

Islands (for Margaret) (1962)

Derek Walcott [St Lucia I USA]
Merely to name them is the prose
Of diarists, to makt> you a name
For readers who like travellers praise
Their beds and beaches as the same;
But islands can only exist
If we have loved in them; I seek,
As climate seeks its style, to write
Verse crisp as sand, clear as sunlight,
Cold as the curled wave, ordinary
As a tumbler of island water;
Yet, like a diarist, thereafter
I savour their salt haunted rooms
(Your body stirring the creased sea
Of crumpled sheets) whose mirrors lose
Our huddled, sleeping images,
Like words, which love had hoped to use
Erased with the surf's pages.
So, like a diarist in the sand,
I mark the peace with which you graced
Particular islands, descending
A narrow stair to light the lamps
Against the night surf's noises, shielding
A leaping mantle with one hand,
Or simply scaling fish for supper,
Onions, jack-fish, bread, red snapper;
And on each kiss the harsh sea-taste,
And how by moonlight, you were maJe
To study most the surf's unyielding
Patience, though it seems a waste.

150
In the poem Walcott's experience of the islands intertwines the physical beauty of the
islands themselves, with the beauty of his relationship with the woman who has been part
of that experience. His relationship with the woman in the poem incorporates the
experience of being in a place surrounded by the sea: with each kiss comes "the harsh sea
taste"; the bed where they lie is itself a "creased sea of crumpled sheets", and the
memory of their relationship includes everyday island experiences like scaling fish for
supper. Walcott in his writing celebrates the beauty of the islands "crisp as sand, clear
as sunlight, cold as the curled wave".

Our arts and expression of popular culture often include such a celebration of our
physical and emotional landscape. Many of our painters, for instance, make the physical
environment a major theme of their work. New York based Bendel Hymes, a painter
from the Cayman Islands, has made the marine character of the Caribbean environment
central to paintings such as Roneador Cay (1995) which refers to the cays off the coast
of Central America where Cayman fishermen used to journey.

Activity 8:2
1. Collect examples of the work of an artist, a writer, popular musician or fashion designer of whom you
know. Identify characteristic features of the physical landscape and interpersonal relationships of the
people of the Caribbean which that work reflects- in its subject matter, perhaps, or in such features of its
design and structure as the use of colour or rhythms in the work.

2. At one time, many Caribbean artists and writers chose as themes for their work, not the Caribbean
landscape but those of Europe and North America. Discuss how you think this might have affected how
we saw ourselves in relation to the rest of the world.

Representing Caribbean history and experience

Another way in which the arts and popular culture contribute to our development is by
representing important aspects of our history and of the significant experiences that are
unique to us as Caribbean people; by doing this, they give us important tools to help us to
reflect on, and interpret, those features of our Caribbean heritage.

The sculpture, Negro Aroused by the Jamaican sculptor, Edna Manley, was done in 1935,
at a time when workers in Jamaica were rising up against oppression, and demanding

151
social justice, as they were doing in most of the other Caribbean islands. Notice the
power of the hand, and how the head is thrown back, looking upwards. When the work
was first shown in Jamaica, before being exhibited in Britain, thousands of people came
to see it. To them, it gave a voice to their struggle. They were, indeed, aroused, and they
were prepared to let the world know it, even though they might not yet have had the
political or economic power to assert themselves. Today, this work continues to be an
icon in Jamaica - a work that is admired and respected as being a powerful symbol of .
Jamaica and her people. But it is equally powerful as a symbol for other countries of the
Caribbean who have also been aroused, at some stage in their history, to a sense of
outrage at injustice or oppression, and to demand justice.

Our struggles against the domination and oppression exerted by various forces, both
within the Caribqean and outside of it, have been critical to our development as a people
with a unique identity. Barbadian writer George Lamming, in his book, The Pleasures of
Exile (1960), writes about how we struggle to reclaim our voice, even though we express
ourselves in the vocabulary of European colonisers.

Other writers, like Louise Bennett of Jamaica, not only write about that struggle, but also
actively continue that struggle in their determination to use~Caribbean Creoles to speak
about Caribbean experiences, arguing, as Bennett does in Bans a Killin, "wha meek yuh
gwine go feel inferior when it come to dialec?''( 1982).

In his calypso, Outcast, Trinidadian calypsonian, the Mighty Sparrow, is only one of
many calypsonians who have documented the struggle of the steelband and
steelbandsmen for acceptance by elite groups in the society:

If yuh sister talk to a steelband man

Yuh family want to break she han,
Put she out,
Lick out every teet in she mout,
Pass, yuh Outcast!

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Barbadian calypsonian Gabby, singing Send A Answer Fuh We in 1993, also details the
struggles of the people of Barbados to survive the challenges of their daily experience of
crime and corruption of those who have authority over them:

Crime on de increase, we livin like beast,

How can it cease when police shoot police
In de station we consolation is investigation.

For most of the artists of the folk culture, the theme of our right to survive is crucial to
their work. In earlier times they were predominantly the voices of the peasants; today,
they are often also the voices from the ghetto, crying out to be heard in the middle of
what Bob Marley called the Rat Race. They speak of the challenges of that struggle, its
heartaches, victories and defeats.

The experience of exile and 'other'ness

One of the central experiences with which Caribbean people must deal is exile. We were
exiled, at the outset, from our countries of origin, when we came to the Caribbean to live.
We are often compelled to travel abroad in order to survive economically - or even
emotionally. And sometimes we feel exiled in our own countries, from our country
people, who exclude us in one way or the other from the mainstream of life. You will see
our feelings of being 'other', uprooted and divided within ourselves and from ourselves,
represented in many of the works of our artists, together with our experience of the tug of
.home.

Activity 8.3
Class Discussion
1. Show how other positive and negative experiences of the people of your culture have been represented in
its popular music and dance. Give examples of spec~ic works that reflect specific experiences.
2. Explain if and why you think it may be important to our development for our art and popular culture to
continue to document the Caribbean experience. Describe how the works of different artists present
different perspectives on a given experience (for example, the pain of exile, the challenge of exile, the
opportunities for growth in exile).

I 153
 Critiquing the Caribbean

While it is important to celebrate who we are and how we have come to be as we are, it is
also important, if we are going to move forward and make a better quality of life for
ourselves, that we learn to step back and identify our failings and idiosyncrasies. As you
read the excerpt below from The Suffrage of Elvira, a novel by Vidia Naipaul, look at
how Naipaul reveals, and presents as ridiculous, the pretensions and delusions of the
people who interact in_ the scene described.

''Teacher Francis visits the Bakshes"

From The Suffrage of Elvira (1958)
Vidia Naipaul (Trinidad and Tobago!UK)

They got home late, and found Baksh, Mrs Baksh and Zilla in the storeroom.
Teacher Francis was there too. Foam was surprised. Teacher Francis had come to the
Baksh house only once before, to say that if Rafiq didn't buck up at school, he was
going to turn out just like Foam.
'Ah', Baksh said heavily to Foam and Herbert. "Campaign manager and little mister
man. Where you was out so late? I did tell you to put away the dog, or I did tell you
to build a mansion for it?"
Herbert smiled. "We was out campaigning." He winked at Foam.
"That prove what I was saying about the elections, ma'am", Teacher Francis said to
Mrs Baksh. "A little boy like Herbert ain't have no right to go out campaigning."
Mrs Baksh was on her best behaviour for the teacher. "Is what I does forever,
always keep on telling the father, Teach. Beg pardon, Teach." She turned to the
boys. "All your food take out and waiting for all you in the kitchen. If must be cold as
dog nose now."
Herbert went noisily up the stairs. Foam sucked his teeth and followed.
"I don't mean anything against you, Mr Baksh," Teacher Francis went on, "But the
fact is, the ordinary people of Elvira don't appreciate that voting is a duty and a
privilege". That was part of the speech he had prepared for the Bakshes. "Duty and
privilege, ma'am."
"Is what I does forever always keep on telling the father, Teach. Hear what the
teacher say, Baksh? I been telling him, Teach, a hundred times, if I tell him one time,
that this election begin sweet, sweet for everybody, but the same sweetness going to
turn sour, sour in the end. Zilla, you ain't hear me use those self-same words to your
father?"
"Yes, Ma!"
"Yes, ma'am. Election bringing out all sorts of prejudice to the surface. To the
surface, ma'am."
Mrs Baksh crossed her powerful arms and nodded solemnly. "You never say a truer
word, Teach. In all my born days nobody ever come to my house- my own house,
mark you- and talk to me like how the goldsmith come and talk to me this afternoon."
Teacher Francis delivered the rest of his statement. "I have been turning over this
and similar ideas in my mind from time to time. From time to time. Yesterday evening
I stated them in general terms- in general terms- to Miss Chittaranjan. Mrs Baksh,
r Miss Chittaranjan took down every work I said. In shorthand."

154
 Mrs Baksh opened her eyes wide, swung her head slowly, very slowly, from side to
side, and gave a cluck of horror.
"Look at that, eh Teach. In shorthand."
"You could trust somebody as stuck up as Nelly Chittaranjan to do a low thing like
that," Zilla said.

In this excerpt, Naipaul uses satire- the humorous representation of the absurdity of the
flaws and idiosyncrasies of societies and human beings - as a way to provide a critique of
the pretensions of the people of this community. Notice, for example, how Teacher
Francis' habit of repeating what he says in order to make it seem weighty and impressive
makes him appear a little bit pompous and artificial. "Voting is a duty and privilege.
Duty and privilege ma'am." And "Yesterday evening I stated them in general terms- in
general terms- to Miss Chittaranjan."

Notice, too, how while Mrs Baksh and Zilla, two Muslims, join with Teacher Francis to
condemn the bias and prejudice of others- in this case the Hindu Chittaranjans- their
own prejudices come to the surface when, as soon as Teacher Francis tells how Nelly
Chittaranjan took his words down in shorthand, Zilla's response focuses on her
assumption that Nelly is only revealing how "stuck up" she is. She cannot see Teacher
Francis' concerns about. being recorded- only that Nelly is flaunting her ability, which
she interprets as "a low thing like that".

At the same time, the conversation Naipaul presents leaves us wondering whether in a
community with petty rivalries such as these, Zilla might not be right, and whether Nelly
may not in fact really be making a point of using the shorthand, not only to intimidate
Teacher Francis, but also to show off her training in this area. One of Naipaul's greatest
gifts as a Caribbean writer is his ability to show us the pettiness and pretensions which
sometimes characterise our relationships.

People of our society often use such mockery to deflate the pretensions, delusions and
hypocrisy of other people. As early as the eighteenth century, one writer described how
the slaves showed "a talent for ridicule and derision, which is exercised not only against
each other, but also, not unfrequently, at the expense of their owner or employer'
(Edwards, 1794: p. 85). Such ridicule and derision, to sanction behaviour that is

155
disapproved of, often expresses itself, within the popular culture, as ~·, which
translates itself to our popular songs and folk literature as well. It also finds expression in
our festivals, as in Ole Mas, at Carnival, when masqueraders may portray public figures
who are perceived as having acted corruptly, inappropriately or stupidly, as caricatures of
themselves - with appropriate commentary on their actions.

Not all critique is purely satirical, though. In the excerpt below, writer Jamaica Kincaid
of Antigua and Barbuda describes in her novel Lucy the sort of irrelevance and
falsehoods a colonial education could impose upon a child in the Caribbean.

Lucy (1991)
Jamaica Kincaid [Antigua!USA]

I remembered an old poem I had been made to memorise when I was ten
years old and a pupil at Queen Victoria's Girl School. I had been made to
memorise it, verse after verse, and then had recited the whole poem to an
auditorium full of parents, teachers and my fellow pupils. After I was done,
everybody stood up and applauded with an enthusiasm that surprised me, and
later they told me how nicely I had pronounced every word, how I had placed
just the right amount of emphasis in places where it was needed, and how
proud the poet, now dead, would have been to have heard his words ringing
out of my mouth. 1 was then at the height of my two - facedness; that is,
outside false, inside true. And so I made pleasant little noises that showed
both modesty and appreciation, but inside, I was making a vow to erase from
my mind, line by line, verse by verse, every word of that poem.

Activity 8:4
Identify flaws in your society and its people that you feel detract from the quality of life in your country.
For any one of these, show how h is treated in ONE expression of popular cuhure or art form:
1. What aspects are highlighted for comment?
2. What are the means used to critique those aspects?
3. To what extent have the majority of people acknowledged the cmicisms made as justified?
4. What could be done to ensure that even more people acknowledge the critique, which the works(s)
represent?

156
Using the resources

In the year 2000, the Jamaica media, together with the Tourist Board, collaborated to
mount International Reggae Day in an attempt to market reggae as a commodity to the
international community. They made use of available technologies - reggae was
broadcast on radio stations in Jamaica and in North America; an online international
reggae music festival was also launched on the World Wide Web. This initiative, and
Sunsplash before it, provide examples of how the people of the Caribbean can use our
Arts and Popular Culture to promote our economic development. To do so, in this
instance, it was necessary to use modem technologies.

This, however, demonstrates issues that may arise when we attempt to use these products
of our society in such ways: what, for instance, are some of the dangers we face when we
begin to adapt our arts and popular culture to make them attractive to persons outside of
the Caribbean? How might packaging them appropriately to suit these new technologies
change their character? Will we lose important features that make them our own? What
sorts of policies might Caribbean governments need to put in place to ensure that while
the arts and popular culture are properly developed, we also protect what they reflect of
our cultural heritage? How can we ensure that our artists and cultural entrepreneurs
develop the skills that will provide them with employment and help them to survive and
prosper economically? These are important questions which must be addressed in
considering how the arts and popular culture might play a role in aspects of our economic
development.

Activity 8:5
Discussion
1. How well does the curriculum in your school or country prepare students for using their artistic talents to
promote their personal developmental goals?
2. Identify specific policies that can be put in place to protect the ar:ts and popular culture in the Caribbean
from: (i) Piracy (ii) Cultural Imperialism.
3. Propose some suggestions as to how specifiC projects can be initiated in the Caribbean to use elements
of our culture to promote unity within and between Caribbean countries.

157
 Further Activities

1. Say what you would include on EITHER a web sije OR a television documentary featuring the Arts and/or
Popular Culture of your country which is meant to encourage people from countries ou1side the
Caribbean to come to your country, and also to create a demand for the work of creative people in these
areas. What would you include to make the documentary or web sije appealing to people of different
ages and incomes?

2. Identify the major themes that were explored in this section which shows the potential for arts and popular
cuhure to contribu1e to development in the Caribbean.

Key Concepts

Cultural entrepreneurs Creativity High culture

Internal landscape Identity Heritage
Social justice Folk culture Arts
Popular culture Picong Artefacts
Symbols Rituals

References

Bennett, L. (1982) Bans A Killin. In M."Morris (Ed.) Selected Poems: Louise Bennett.
~ngston: Sangster's Book Store Ltd.

Edwards, B. (1794) The history, civil and commercial, of the British colonies in the West
Indies. (p.85) In P.Roberts (1997) From oral to literate culture: Colonial experience in the
English West Indies: Mona: The Press, University of the West Indies.
Gabby (1993) Send an answer fuh we. In C.Best (1999) Barbadian popular music and the
politics of Caribbean culture. Rochester, Vermont: Schenkmann Books Inc.
Kincaid, J. (1991) Lucy. London: Virago.
Naipaul, V. (1958) The Suffrage of Elvira. London: Andre Deutsch.
Lamming, G. (1960) The pleasures of exile. London: Michael Joseph.
Walcott, D. (1962) Islands. From: In a Green Night In: S. Brown, M. Morris and G.
Rohlehr (Eds.) (1989) Voice Print: An anthology of oral and related poetry in the
Caribbean. Trinidad: Longman: Caribbean.

Further Reading
Poupeye, V. (1998) Caribbean Art: Thames and Hudson.

158
 The Mass Media in Caribbean Development

As societies grow more complex, the mass media become one primary way by which
people are kept informed about different facets of social and community life. This is as
true of the global society as it is of national societies. It is also true, however, that mass
media messages, if accepted uncritically, can help to establish perspectives on reality that
may better serve other people's interests. Here in the Caribbean, understanding of how
the mass media perform their functions is essential to our development. In this section,
you will look at the role and functions of the mass media in this process, and at the
factors that help to determine how they carry out their roles and functions.

The Mass Media

The mass media are those channels that can be used to communicate messages to a large
number of people simultaneously. They include, for example, films, radio and television,
newspapers and other print media like magazines, and today they also include on-line
journals of all kinds. Caribbean countries are continuously exposed, through these
media, to a variety of images and messages from the international community; we are
also continuously sending images and messages about our region out to the international
community.

Roles and functions of the Mass Media

The major role of the mass media is to enhance communication among members of a
society and of the global village. Subsumed within that role are three major functions
that are crucial to the development process: to ii!fQfll1, to entertain, and to make us visible
to others. In addition, some members of their audiences (readers, listeners and viewers)
may use mass media to obtain reinforcement for their personal values and beliefs, and to
find models of behaviour.

Activity 8:6
1. Identify the major media organisations which serve your country and the region.
2. Identify alternative media which might still be important in your community in performing the functions
identified .

159
Informing the people

A major function of mass media is to let individuals know what is going on in their
immediate environment and in the wider community. Think, for instance, of how people
of your country find out about issues like the incidence of crime and the availability of
business and social opportunities, or the imminence of natural disasters. Where, in earlier
times, interpersonal communication was an adequate source of information, especially in
situations where people's lives and trade were centred around their villages, today it .
would be almost impossible to survive without the mass media to inform us about trends,
patterns and critical events affecting important sectors of our daily life.

Tied in with the function of informing the people is the issue, in democracies, of
providing persons with contexts in which to make choices in planning projects for their
development. As such, leaders in these countries have a responsibility to see that
adequate information reaches people in a timely enough fashion to make rational choice a
possibility. Cleveland (1988) sums up this role, and the responsibilities of leaders in the
process when he says:

Leadership of the informed, requiring wider participation and more collective

thought and action, has to be exercised by persuasion .. . In such an
environment, planning cannot be done by a few leaders, advised in secret by
experts. Planning has to be a dynamic improvisation by the many on a general
sense of direction, which is announced by leaders only after genuine
consultation with those who will have to improvise on it. This means more
openness, less secrecy ... In the information society, may be that is an updated
definition of democracy.

The need for information, therefore, starts with the need to make informed choice as to
who our leaders will be - in the electoral process, for instance. However, once those
leaders assume leadership, a two-way flow of information must guide their decision-
making.

In the context of our developing knowledge of each other, here in the Caribbean,
separated as we are from each other physically, the mass media perform a vital role. As

160
 the Report of the West Indian Commission (1992) points out, some parts of the region
remain remote from the Caribbean community:

The Commission conducted hearings in Belize and the Bahamas in June 1991,
and did indeed find perceptions of remoteness from CARICOM and of CARICOM
from them. If this matter is not seriously addressed, it could become a source
of great concern in the Community. (p. 401)

The mass media can play a significant role in lessening countries' feelings of remoteness
by providing an adequate supply of news from and to those areas. They can also help to
combat the insularity which we sometimes demonstrate in our attitudes and policies, and
to enhance our understanding of ourselves as truly Caribbean people.

The media's function of providing information also assumes importance in developing

countries to ensure that programmes of public education are effectively implemented.
Think, for example, how in your community, information about how to maintain a
healthy lifestyle and how to preserve the environment are circulated to the mass of
people, both within and outside your school doors. Chances are, your community
receives a great proportion of such information through radio, television and newspaper
articles. In areas where illiteracy is a problem, media like radio and television are of
particular importance. Note that in most of the examples provided, the understanding of
what an effective information flow must be like suggests that not only must leaders be
able to communicate with the people; the people should also be able to tell their leaders
their thoughts and feelings about major policies and practices. The mass media facilitate
both processes.

The mass media are also used in many developing countries to support the school
curriculum. In your own country you may know of educational programmes which are
broadcast to schoolchildren, or to adult learners who may not have easy access to the
campuses of educational institutions.

161
 Activity 8:7
Conduct a survey of people in your community to find out what their preferred sources of information are, for
example:
(i) important events in the society;
(iO sports;
(iii) their favourite entertainers._
How important is the role that the mass media play in their obtaining such information? Which branch of the
media do they prefer for which purposes? Do you notice any differences in the preferences of different
groups?

Entertainment

Many people in our society today also rely on the mass media for a significant part of
their entertainment. If you were to ask your classmates, you might well find that the
majority of them entertain themselves largely by watching television or by going to the
cinema (although, with the introduction of cable TV, you may find that perhaps fewer
people are going to the cinema), or by listening to their favourite radio call-in or music
programmes. People also read magazines and journals for entertainment; for example, the
mass media have given us easy access not only to our own artists and icons of popular
culture, but also to artists from all over the world. In such journals we may find
interesting articles about their lives, their fashion and food choices, and about a range of
issue, which we may not necessarily need as information, but simply for the sake of
interest. In addition, magazines and journals may contain stories, humour and games of
all kinds for our diversion.

Positioning the Caribbean in the international society

The ability to make our goodS and services attractive to countries and organizations both
within and outside the region, and to motivate them to trade with us, is also vital to our
development. Again, the mass media serve an important function, because they make us
visible to these partners in the first place, and also because of how they frame the
information about us may help to determine whether these potential trading partners are
receptive to what we have to offer. By a "frame" we mean the selection of the
information and the attributes that we highlight in talking about or portraying a person,
event or product. Let us say, for example, that we choose to present a picture of our

162
 tourist destinations via the mass media. If we can place our tourist industry on the
agenda of other countries, we have managed to make people aware of us as a tourist
destination. However, in addition to the information we provide about ourselves, the
attributes we emphasize will further determine who becomes interested in us, and for
what reason. Will we focus, for instance, on our country's ability to provide an exciting
nightlife, or on our eco-tourism? And what impact will our messages make if they are
competing with different messages about us from foreign mass media? Consider that the
information highlighted by these media might be framed to focus on attributes that seem
to suggest that we are politically unstable, unfriendly or crime-ridden.

We need, however, to be careful not to assume that the mass media perform these
functions on people who receive their messages passively. Research suggests (and you
probably know this from your own experience) that people use mass media selectively. In
other words, I select which newspapers or television programmes I want to receive; I may
also choose to listen only to those programmes that are in tune with my own beliefs and
values. Thus, people often use mass media to reinforce already existing beliefs and
values.

Activity 8:8
1. Discuss how you would respond to a leader in your society or community who suggested that the mass
media should provide only the kinds of information that would portray your country in a favourable light to
potential trading partners.
2. Analyse how the print media frame the news about an important event in your country. What aspects of
the story do they seem to highlight? How might this affect the public's response to the event?

Factors that affect Media performance

However, although the mass media have the potential to be significant partners in the
developmental process, certain factors must be recognised, which may put constraints on
how effectively they perform those functions.

Available Technologies

The availability of more effective communication technologies - the intellectual and

physical tools needed to effect communication - is a critical factor. Four core
163
technologies that have helped to transform the communication process in recent times are
summarized below:

• Satellite Technology- The availability of communication satellites has made

it possible for the Caribbean News Agency (CANA) and the Caribbean
Broadcasting Union (CBU) to originate radio and television programmes and
data transmissions via INTELSAT (the International Telecommunications
Satellite Organization). According to Dunn (1995) the service has
considerably improved the speed and decreased the cost of Caribbean news
and public affairs programming distribution regionally.

• Computing Technology- Used in satellite programming, in communication

systems and in regular personal computers, this technology has impacted on
both the speed and the efficiency of communications, and on the options for
formatting that will make mass media messages more attractive and user-
friendly.

• Optics and Laser Technologies - Because of this technology,

telecommunication carriers can carry quantities of encoded data, images, and
voice messages.

• Digitalization Technology - Digitalization technology also uses light to

generate, store and reproduce information. Music transmission, for example,
is more precise and of a higher quality since the use of this technology.

Observation of Media rights and privileges

In a democracy, we believe that certain rights and privileges of the mass media must be
observed if they are to be able to perform their functions effectively. Respect for rights
such as the right to security of person and freedom of access to information and to the
facilities necessary to perform their tasks is vital. Furthermore, there needs to be
equitable treatment of the various media organisation by public figures to ensure that all
voices have an equal chance to be heard. Journalists also need to be able to move freely
through countries and areas where they need to work. Thus, national frontiers must be
opened to the Caribbean press ~s becomes necessary. In contexts where such rights and
. 164
privileges are not observed, obstacles are placed in the way of the mass media's
performance of their functions.

Professional training of Mass Media personnel

In the Caribbean, the Caribbean Institute of Mass Communications, CARIMAC, is the

major regional institution for training media professionals. Programmes offered by
CARIMAC and other reputable institutions are vital if our media representatives are to be
able to perform their duties effectively and responsibly.

The dominance of foreign Media

The English-speaking Caribbean is particularly susceptible to the influence of foreign

media. Dunn (1995) points out that the English-speaking Caribbean is particularly
exposed to penetration by international mass media, because of the fact that it shares a
common language with the United States and the United Kingdom, the world's two
largest producers of media control. Its closeness to the United States facilitates the
importation of cheap, attractively packaged programmes, and many of our media
specialists are trained in these countries, or are imported from them. For example,
according to Dunn, as late as the mid-1980s the Caribbean was one of those regions that
revealed the highest levels of imported television context, ranging from 76% in Jamaica
to 95 % in Montserrat.

This has important implications for the Caribbean: our view of the world is perhaps being
shaped largely by representations of events in the international society - and in our own -
that come from the perspectives of people from other cultures and societies. Since the
mass media make decisions about what is newsworthy, and about how these things are to
be framed, are we satisfied that how they represent the world is fair to us, and reflect our
own priority concerns?

165 .
Activity 8:9
1. Compare the coverage by foreign media (like CNN, for instance) of internationally significant events in
which the Caribbean has participated with the coverage by our regional and nationally based mass media.
What differences do you notice in the amount of information about the Caribbean which is provided and
the way that information is framed? How might this affect our development?
2. Do a survey of the people in your class to find out how much local television programming they habitually
watch as compared to foreign programs. What are some examples which you can identify of the ways in
which these television programs seem to impact upon their choices of food, dress.
3. What factors seem to influence their choice of programs? What, if anything, would you do to influence
them to make different choices? (Provide a rationale for the suggestions you make.)

Further Activities
1. Discuss the comment that • the developing countries of the Caribbean cannot afford an uncensored
press.•
2. Arrange a tour of a local newspaper, radio or television house (or invite a speaker in from one of these
institutions), to find out about the changes in technology that have been introduced there within the last
decade, and how this has influenced their ability to perform their functions.

Key Concepts

Frame Satellite technology In·sularity

Icon Print media On-line
Images Computing technology Optics
Democracy Laser technology Foreign media
Communication Rights and privileges Digitalization technology
Alternative media

References
Cleveland, H. (1989). Information as a resource: the emerging information age. InT.
Deyal, Towards a philosophy of national development using communication,
information and mass media. NPC Draft Medium Term Economic Planning
Framework 1989-1995. Vol II: Communication and Information. Port of Spain:
Ministry of Education.

Dunn, H. S. (1995). Policy issues in communications technology use: Challenges and

options. In H. S. Dunn (Ed). Gobalization.communicationa and Caribbean identity.
Kingston: Ian Randle.

West Indian Commission (1992). A time for action: report of the West Indian
Commission. Mona: The Press.

166
 Sports and Development in the Caribbean

If development in the modem sense is about enlarging the choices of people, then the
development of the self-image of a people, their health and recreation become ends in
themselves. If people are healthier mentally and physically then they become more
productive. Sport is integral to this kind of people development.

In the Caribbean we have been able to produce world-class athletes such as Merlene
Ottey, Ato Boldon, Obadele Thompson, Donald Quamie, Curtly Ambrose and Brian
Lara. What we need to do is to put programmes and structures in place to sustain a high
level of performance and to encourage more citizens to benefit from sports.

The case of cricket

More than any other sport in the Caribbean cricket has served to boost the morale of West
Indians all over the world. Our victories in the field of cricket and in particular our
domination of the game between the late 1970s and early 1990s served to boost the
morale and identity of the Caribbean people.

The significance of those victories was the fact that we beat the former British overlords
at their own game and on their own turf. The symbolism was not lost on West Indians.
The skill, the dedication and unity that we displayed in the field of play demonstra~

what we needed in order to survive as a civilization in the Caribbean.

Cricket as a game has also had a strong socializing influence on Caribbean people. The
'gentleman' ethos of the game, the respect for the umpire's decision, humility in victory,
grace in defeat and commitment to team are all qualities passed on to generations of
youth who have played the game. And the game has been played at all levels of the
society. Cricket has also been a force promoting social mobility. Young men who have
excelled at the game have been able to move from community clubs to national, then
regional and international levels. The game has forced intermingling between urban/rural
as well as different classes and ethnicities. Cricket has also been the main integrating
force in the Caribbean.
167
Activity 8:10
Read the recommendation advanced by the West India Committee below.
• Do you think it feasible that we have a West Indian football team?
• Which recommendations do you think have been put into practice so far?
• Which recommendation do you think is most urgent?

Recommendations of the West Indian Commission 1939

1. That the West Indies Cricket Board of Control be encouraged to prepare a

comprehensive report on the state of cricket in the community: suggesting
means for strengthening the game in the region and giving the West Indies
the best possible chance to be competitive internationally. Problems of
finance, the improvement and extension of facilities, the need to keep a
larger number of our leading players performing and coaching within the
region, and increasing the popularity and playing of the game at school level
should all be addressed.
2. That the televising of West Indian cricket matches at the international level,
on tour or at home, hold a high priority in regional broadcasting. A report
should be sought from the CBU on the possibility of televising the annual
intra-regional cricket competitions, the Red Stripe and Geddes Grant
competitions.
3. That fresh initiative be taken by national bodies acting in concert to mount a
West Indian challenge in sports other than cricket.
4. That there be a regional sports desk at the CARICOM Secretariat concerned
with encouraging, organising, publicising and seeking finance for regional
sport. The very successful OECS regional sports desk is an appropriate
model.
5. That a CARICOM sports personality of the year scheme be established
through the sports desk. The criteria for selection can be creatively
developed based not simply upon success in international events, but also
on performance and contribution to sport at the regional and local levels.
6. That regional media be encouraged to provide more coverage of regional
sporting events, even when they are not taking place in their locality.
Regional sport writers and commentators should also be recognised by a
regional award.
7. That greater attention be given to preserving and building up regional sports
archives to foster a greater awareness of the traditions and importance of
sports in the West Indies.
8. That, through the proposed CARICOM sports desk, an attempt be made to
provide cheaper travel for sportsmen and spectators as well as lower-cost
accommodation structures.
9. That regional sports organisations seek to utilise teleconferencing facilities
to hold more frequent and timely meetings as a way of breaking down an
insularity which has meant that meetings are held only during tournaments
and the regular contact needed to advance regional arrangements is
therefore rarely achieved.
10. That in the spirit of promoting entrepreneurship and enterprise, efforts be
made to establish in the region a cricket academy to train persons in all
aspects of the game of cricket. In this regard, the services of available past

168
 and present West Indian cricket stars may be retained; it is also possible
that similar ventures may be undertaken in areas of sport where there is
internationally acknowledged West Indian expertise.
11. That linkages between tourism and sport be pursued and strengthened with
a view to deriving the maximum benefit from the West Indian reputation for
sporting excellence, linked to other aspects of the regional tourism product.
12. That a corps of well trained physical education instructors be established to
undertake school programmes of physical education and sport - as a
counter to some of the anti-social lifestyles threatening the youth of the
region.

Acdvity 8:11

Read the passage below and then answer the questions which follow.

We must develop confidence in ourselves, in our ability to beat the rest of the
world, in our right to be an example to others.
We must make a commitment to excellence. We must be prepared to learn
from the best and then make that best our own and put it into practice.
We must make a total commitment to doing the job we had to do very well
indeed. And, in making that commitment, build a reward structure that made
the commitment worthwhile in a practical as well as a psychological sense.
We must believe in frank and open communication at all times between those
involved in the endeavour - and especially believe in this requirement at times
of particular challenge or crisis.

We must know that serious discipline for a profoundly important purpose, not just for
selfish purposes but for others who depend on our success being achieved.

It was from those principles, we were told, that the greatness of the West Indies cricket team was built. This
excerpt expresses the forces that made for the greatness of the cricket team in the Caribbean.

1. Identify the core values identified in this excerpt

2. Are these values missing in other areas of national life? Give examples.

Other Sports

While cricket has a special place in the West Indian consciousness, we have other areas
of sports that we need to capitalise on. We should be able to perform better at swimming
and water sports given the fact that we are islands. Performance in athletics far outstrips
the level of support and infrastructure. We need programmes and infrastructure from the
school and community level up to the national level.

169
Sports clubs

Sports clubs have made a very special contribution at the community level in our
countries. They have provided a source of community cohesion and solidarity and have
mobilised resources to afford recreation to ordinary citizens. These clubs have been a
source of community leaders and organisers who have graduated to higher levels. of
national service.

Activity 8:11
• Take any sports club in your area and examine carefully its leadership, programmes and the contributions
it makes to the community.

Making a living from sports

Except for cricket, there are few disciplines in sports that afford Caribbean people to
make a living on a fulltime basis. The gradual acquisition of Olympic status for most
games, theoretically, opens wider the door of opportunity for participation. Lucrative
sponsorship by manufacturers of sportswear awaits the talented few. In short, the
glamour of achieving fame and fortune at an early age through sports is a chance of a
lifetime for West Indians, some of whom may have emerged from humble circumstances.

Career opportunities are enhanced on the basis of employment as coaches, physical

education instructors, sport psychologists, sports medicine and physical therapists. As
the medical sciences develop, new areas of specialisation will emerge and careers in
sports will also grow in specialisation.

There is also another dimension to the careers in sports. The manufacture and sale of
sport equipment and goods have become a lucrative business. Constructing and
maintaining sport facilities is another career opportunity. Sports can be employed by
Caribbean youth as a stepping-stone to gaining a solid education in a field that may not
be available at the University of the West Indies and other institutions in the region.
Caribbean athletes, especially those in Jamaica and the Bahamas, who are in close
proximity to the United States, usually tap into the scholarships offered there. Coaching

170
is bound up in sound scientific principles and facilities are excellent for tapping the true
potential of sportsmen. Greater efforts by Caribbean governments are needed in this area
if the true potential of our youth is to be realised.

Activity 8:12
1. When in 1983 a number of West Indian cricketers visited South Africa, Sir Vivian Richardson condemned
them for accepting "blood money"? Should sportsmen be free to make a living regardless of sport?
2. Should a sportsman's loyalty be focussed on representing his country for national pride or his club
overseas for a lucrative salary?

Further Activities
1. Summarize the main ideas in the contribution of sport to regional development.
2. To what extent in your country is a high premium put on sports in human development? Is it emphasized
in the education process?

Summary

This chapter sought to identify a range of art forms and expressions of popular culture
which can be considered to be uniquely "Caribbean". They were shown to be important
to the spirit of the Caribbean people in promoting a sense of identity and placing them on
the world scene, as well as, or economic benefit in their own right. The chapter also
focused on the mass media and the role it plays in the Caribbean in the economy, politics,
entertainment, transmission of knowledge and thus,~ts promotion of a Caribbean identit~

Finally, the focus shifted to sports which can play a much greater role than it does now in
enhancing the image of Caribbean people, physically and mentally, as well as,
financially. (fn short, arts, popular culture, the mass media and sports have much potential
X,

to expand the notion of development that has hitherto dominated our productive effort~

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 Key Concepts

Self image Cricket Identity

Core values Recreation Community cohesion

Entrepreneurship Sports archives Cricket academy

Social mobility

References

Beckles, H. (1977) A spirit of dominance: cricket and nationalism in the West Indies.
Kingston: Ian Randle Publications.

West Indian Commission. (1992). A time for action: report of the West Indian
Commission. Mona: The Press

Further Reference

James, C.L.R. (1963). Beyond a boundary. London: Hutchinson & Company Limited.

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 Chapter9

Social Justice and Development

Overview

The chapter explores further topics relevant to development issues. The economical
concept of development that deals with means to an end was discussed in chapter 5. The
human development model emphasises that people are both the means and ends of
development. Any development, in this mode of thinking, cannot be considered to be true
development unless someone experienced some good from it, and not at the expense of
others. Human development is thus predicated on equity and therefore inclusiveness.

The human development model focuses on people indicators as a means of assessing

whether or not a country is experiencing true development. There are various ways of
measuring the non-material indicators of human development (Table 2, chapter 5). In this
chapter we focus on issues of social justice as crucially important means of guaging the
sophistication with which our people regard development issues.

Objectives 1

By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

1. explain the meaning of the concept social justice;

2. describe the evolution of social justice in the Caribbean;
3. appreciate the importance of human rights and freedoms;
4. assess the development process in the Caribbean with reference to its treatment of
all groups in the society;
5. examine human rights violations in relation to practices arising from racism,
sexism, ageism and ableism;
6. analyze the need for debate on issues such as the functioning of the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council, the Caribbean Court of Appeal, and the death
penalty.

1
These objectives refer to those of Module 2,specific objective 11 of the Caribbean Studies syllabus.

173
Introduction

Social justice is a complex concept. It is based on a premise that all people are entitled to
the same basic rights and freedoms as everybody else. Social justice is, therefore, deeply
connected with issues of equality and equity. Equality refers to efforts to treat everyone
in a similar way. Equity attempts to ascertain whether that treatment is fair or just.

An example may clarify the matter. Let us focus on education. In the Caribbean there has
long been a social demand for equality of educational opportunity. This would entail
all groups in the society being able to access schools without there being major obstacles
directed at any group. However, there has been inequality in accessing secondary
schooling. Some groups in the society cannot access secondary schooling. The obstacles
encountered have to do with limited provision and so not enough school places for all.
Thus, a system is used to choose pupils based on primary school performance. This
system is riddled with inequalities because the race or competition for school places did
not start off with everyone carrying equal handicaps.

Some Caribbean countries today are close to providing Universal Secondary Education
(USE). This means that all children can access secondary education. However, the
potential for breaches of social justice does not end there. We now see where equity
comes in. Are schools equipped and prepared to cater to the wide array of needs and
differences of its clientele? If any groups find that the demands of the education system
are stacked unfairly against them, then they are not being treated in an equitable manner.
Equity here refers to how fair the system is to persons as they pass through it.

In this Chapter we focus on how understandings about rights and freedoms (and thus,
equality and equity) have evolved in the Caribbean region. As societies committed to
guaranteeing the rights and freedoms of its citizens, issues relating to breaches of social
justice are matters for the courts of law. Understanding these issues of rights and freedom
require a basic knowledge of the Constitution of the country. Sometimes the laws of the
land need to be changed to reflect contemporary understandings of our context as a
developing nation. When changes are to be made, they should be debated seriously. If
not there is the danger of a solution being put in place that is unequal or inequitable for

174
some group in the society. This Chapter will introduce you to the Judicial Committee of
the Privy Council, the Caribbean Court of Appeal, and issues relating to the death
penalty.

Not all issues of social justice reach the courts of the land. Sometimes the law is silent on
areas where some groups feel obstructed or marginalized. Thus, everyday in the
interaction of social life, evidence of injustice may be playing itself out without us being
aware of them. In other words, they may be so familiar that they go unnoticed. We will,
therefore, also consider discriminatory practices against different ethnic groups such as
aboriginal peoples; engendered behaviours that do not help males or females realize their
full potential; and, deprivations suffered by the disabled or the aged.

Evolution of social justice in the Caribbean

This issue of social justice has evolved in the Commonwealth Caribbean from a
conception of the colonial state to the independent state. The traditional notions of civil
society did not apply to the Caribbean region in early colonial times. The Treaty of
Tordesillas, 1494, that purported to divide the world between Spain and Portugal laid the
foundation for colonial exploration and expansion in the Caribbean region by other
imperial powers. The Treaty of Ryswick, 1697, established the principle of No peace
beyond the line which reinforced the idea that whatever applied in Europe between
European powers did not apply to the Caribbean.

The area beyond the line to which the Treaty referred was west of the prime meridian and
south of the Tropic of Cancer. This principle established the Caribbean as a zone of war
in which even the basic assumptions of a civil society did not apply. In this context, the
notions of slavery and forced labour were not regarded as being wrong or even the many
expeditions of colonisation that sought to only appropriate and plunder.

Equality was not a principle that applied in the colonial state. This manifested itself in the
introduction of exploitative labour systems and led to the recognition of slaves as both
people and property. In this context, the fundamental principles of the colonial state were
exploitation, inequality and injustice.

175
Following the emancipation of the slaves in 1834 and the failure of the apprenticeship
system in 1838, the concept of people as property was removed. However, the
indentureship systems that were introduced following the failure of the apprenticeship
system also mandated the limitation on freedom of movement as indentured workers
needed to have passes to leave their estates.

After the end of the indentureship system in 1917, there were further improvements in the
area of social justice as universal adult franchise was first introduced in Jamaica in
1944 and in Trinidad and Tobago in 1946 and later in other territories. This gave all
persons twenty-one years old and over the right to vote regardless of ownership or rental
of property or levels of income.

The climax to the, movement towards real social justice came with the introduction of
Bills of Rights in the constitutions of the newly independent countries of the
Commonwealth Caribbean starting with Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago in 1962.
These were chapters in their constitutions that recognized, declared and protected the
fundamental human rights and freedoms of the individual in all of these societies.

Fundamental human rights and freedoms

The inclusion of a Bill of Rights in the Constitutions of the independent countries of the
Commonwealth Caribbean affords the citizen the power to redress any infringement of
his/her constitutional rights through the use of the court system. All of the independent
territories of the Commonwealth Caribbean have Bills of Rights, which are enshrined and
protected in their constitutions. These Bills of Rights are usually chapters in their
constitutions that recognise and protect human rights and freedoms.

All of these independent territories (with the exception of Trinidad and Tobago) have
followed the format of the European Convention for the Piotection of Human Rights'and
Fundamental Freedoms-for inclusion in their constitutions. The Council of Europe drew
up this Convention in 1950. frrinidad and Tobago copied the formula of the Canadian Bill
of Rights 1960 for inclusion in its constitution in 1962 and retained this model when it
became a Republic in 1976.

176
Regardless of the formula used, the direct effect of the inclusion of a Bill of Rights in
Caribbean constitutions, is the diminishing of the effect of the Westminster doctrine of
the Supremacy of Parliament. This can be clearly seen, for example, in the Constitution
of Antigua and Barbuda:

Except as is otherwise expressly provided in this Constitution, no law may

abrogate, abridge or infringe or authorise the abrogation, abridgement or
infringement of any of the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual
hereinbefore recognised and declared.

Not only does the Bill of Rights limit the Supremacy of Parliament; it also places
constraints on executive action in the following way as can be seen in section 18(1) of the
Antigua and Barbuda Constitution Order 1981:

If any person alleges that any of the provisions of section 3 to 17 (inclusive) of

this Constitution has been, is being or is likely to be contravened in relation to
him (or, in the case of a person who is detained, if any other person alleges
such a contravention in relation to the detained person), then, without prejudice
to any other action with respect to the same matter that is lawfully available,
that person (or that other person) may apply to the High Court for redress.

All of the Caribbean constitutions have essentially similar provisions to that quoted from
the Antigua and Barbuda Constitution.

The doctrine of the supremacy of the constitution applies to all of the written
constitutions of Commonwealth Caribbean countries. For example, in Section 2 of the
Trinidad and Tobago Constitution:

This Constitution is the supreme law of Trinidad and Tobago, and any other law
that is inconsistent with this Constitution is void to the extent of the
inconsistency.

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 Activity 9:1
1. What is your understanding of social justice?
2. Give three reasons why the Bill of Rights in your country's constitution is important to social justice.
3. Can you think of any groups in your society whose rights are not as readily defended as others?

The entrenchment of the constitutions

The constitutions of the Commonwealth Caribbean are all protected from easy
amendment by the entrenchment of their provisions. The Parliaments of the region cannot
amend all of the sections of their constitutions by a simple majority because this is one of
the various checks and balances that have been placed in the constitution to protect it
from political abuse or amendment.

Basically, there are three main types of entrenchment in the constitutions of the
Commonwealth Caribbean:

(i) special majorities in the Parliament;

(ii) approval of Bills for amendment by referenda;
(iii) time delay procedures between readings of a Bill for amendment.

As far as (i) above is concerned, all of the constitutions of the Commonwealth Caribbean
have this procedure which specifies that certain sections of the constitution require
special majorities in the Parliament.

As far as (ii) above is concerned, some of the constitutions of the Commonwealth

Caribbean require that certain Bills that seek to amend the constitution be subjected to the
approval of a referendum after they have been passed in the Parliament.

As far as (iii) above is concerned, some of the constitutions of the Commonwealth

Caribbean specify that there should be a period of ninety days between the first and
second readings of a Bill that seeks to amend the constitution before the Head of State
gives his or her assent to the Bill. The effect of a delay is that Parliament cannot consider
any Bill to amend the constitution hurriedly and more time is given for a deeper
consideration of the proposed amendment by the wider society.

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 Activity 9:2
1. What is a referendum? How can it be used to help make decisions about significant areas of public policy,
like the introduction of a new constitution?
2. Can you think of a scenario in the Caribbean where even a referendum's outcome can be potentially
threatening to minority groups in the society?
3. Sometimes governments in power seek to evade some of these efforts at entrenchment. Can you think of
any incident or process that was initiated by a government, perhaps in your country, which sought to avoid
or legally sidestep some of the checks and balances that are constitutionally approved?·

Establishment of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council

The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom was established by the Judicial
Committee Acts of 1833 and 1844 and its purpose at that time was to hear appeals from British

colonial courts. ~here are nineteen countries that use the Judicial Committee of the Privy
Council as their final court of appeal. These are Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas,
Barbados, Belize, Brunei, Dominica, Gambia, Grenada, Jamaica, Kiribati, Malaysia,
Mauritius, New Zealand, St. Kitts-Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines,
Singapore, Trinidad and Tobago, and Tuvalu.

It should be noted that eleven of the nineteen countries that use the Privy Council as their
final court of appeal are to be found in the Commonwealth Caribbean. It can be argued
that there is a strong judicial bond between the Commonwealth Caribbean and Great
Britain. This is reinforced by the fact that when Trinidad ad Tobago became a republic in
1976, the government chose to retain the Privy Council in its new constitution as the final
court of appeal, while Grenada chose to reinstate the Privy Council as its final court of
appeal in 1991. Only Guyana abolished appeals to the Privy Council when it became a
republic in 1970.

Composition of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council

The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council comprises mainly British Lords of Appeal
who are appointed members of the House of Lords. These Lords of Appeal are appointed
for life as members of the House of Lords under the provisions of the Appellate
Jurisdiction Act 1876. However, they serve in their judicial capacities until the age of
seventy-five, while those Lords of Appeal who have been appointed after 1993 only serve

179
until a retirement age of seventy under the provisions of the Judicial Pensions and
Retirement Act 1993. In spite of this, they may sit in appeals before the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council. The Judicial Committee also consists of judicial
officers who are members of Her Majesty's Privy Council in Commonwealth countries
from which appeals still go to the Judicial Committee.

The Lord Chancellor is a Cabinet Minister, the head of the Judiciary, and the Presiding
Officer in the House of Lords. He is appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the Prime
Minister and by convention he is a Cabinet Minister. By virtue of his office, he is both
the head of the Judiciary as well as the Presiding Officer in the House of Lords. In
relation to the work of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, it is the Lord
Chancellor who is responsible for choosing the panel of judges that will sit and hear cases
that come before the Judicial Committee.

In delivering its judgments, tl).e Judicial Committee of the Privy Council may reverse
earlier judgments. This has been so since 1966 when provision was made for dissenting.
opinions to be given in judgments delivered by the Judicial Committee.

In the case of those countries of the Commonwealth that became Republics and retained
the facility of appeals to the Judicial Committee, the process is regulated by the
constitution or local legislation. In such instances, the Judicial Committee of the Privy
Council will advise the Head of State of the Republic of its opinion. Enforcement of the
decision is regulated in accordance with the Constitution or the relevant law.

Activity 9:3

1. How important is the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council to the development of social justice in the
region?
2. If there are only 19 countries that use the Privy Council as the final court of appeal, find out what
mechanisms other countries in the Caribbean have in place for this function?
3. It must give you cause for reflection when you realize that Caribbean countries are so overwhelmingly
represented among the 19 countries which have retained the authority. of the Privy Council. Suggest why
this might be so? What implications are there on the issue of final appeals in relation to the regional
integration movement?

180
The Caribbean Court of Appeal

The issue of a Caribbean Court of Appeal has dominated the discussion over the retention
or abolition of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Essentially, the Caribbean
Court of Appeal is intended to be a replacement for the Privy Council as the final court of
appeal for the countries of the· Commonwealth Caribbean.

This debate has raised the question of cooperation among members of CARICOM in
trying to agree on a common format for a regional institution. The critical issues are the
budget, the method of selecting judges, the location of the headquarters, the status of a
circuit court or maintaining a fixed location, and the confidence of the Caribbean pubJic.

The argument that the Privy Council is not an indigenous institution and that it is not
sensitive to regional culture and lifestyles is offset by the argument that regional
governments have to make fresh budgetary allocations for the court and the general
public must have confidence in the commitment of their governments to this venture.

Activity 9:4
• Where do your sentiments lie? Do you feel that Caribbean countries, perhaps your own country, should
abandon the British option we have held on to for so long?
• Do you feel that somehow issues of social justice might be perverted if we were to insist on having a
Caribbean Court of Appeal?

The constitutionality of the death penalty

One of the major social justice issues that has been addressed in the Commonwealth
Caribbean is the constitutionality of the death penalty. This has come about largely
because the independence constitutions of the former colonies of Great Britain in the
Caribbean has provided for the continuation of many laws enacted during the colonial era
as existing laws. These existing laws operate notwithstanding the fact that they may
constitute exceptions to the fundamental rights and freedoms guaranteed to the individual
in the independence constitutions. In other words, the transition from the colonial state to
the independent state has guaranteed to the individual fundamental human rights and

181
freedoms that were not previously enjoyed. However, there are many laws that exist in
spite of the presence of a Bill of Rights in the constitution.

Activity 9:5
Conduct a research to locate some significant laws in your country that came into force before independence
that might contain provisions that you feel might be in violation of your fundamental rights and freedoms. These
laws are valid. What is their impact on the issue of social justice in your country?

Social Justice Issue - Cruel and Unusual Punishment

As a good example, ~~ constitutionality of the death penalty has been challenged as a

form of punishment that is cruel and unusual and therefore ought to be a violation of the
human rights of the individu~J This matter was argued in Trinidad and Tobago in the
case of De Freitas v Benny [1975]3 WLR 388 in which the Judicial Committee held, in
dismissing the appeal of Michael de Freitas (also known as Michael Abdul Malik), as
follows:
that the executive act of carrying out a death sentence pronounced by a court
of law was authorised by laws that were in force at the commencement of the
Constitution and the appellant was, therefore, debarred by section 3 of the
Constitution from asserting that it abrogated, abridged or infringed any of his
rights or freedoms recognized and declared in section 1 or particularised in
Section 2. [1975] 3 WLR 388 at 389

Social justice issue - delay of execution

The issue of delay as a ground for declaring the death penalty unlawful was addressed in
another Trinidad and Tobago case, namely Abbott v Attorney General of Trinidad and
Tobago [1979] 1 WLR 1342. In this case, the Privy Council concluded that the transition
of Trinidad and Tobago from monarchical to republican status (August 1st, 1976)
together with the holding of a general election (September 13th, 1976) were acceptable
factors that contributed to the seven and a hal(-month delay in disposing of Abbott's
petition for reprieve before the Mercy Committee.

The Privy Council offered the following viewpoint in this case:

182
 Their Lordships would in any event hesitate long before substituting their own
opinion for that of judges in Trinidad and Tobago, as to what constitutes a
reasonable time for dealing with petitions for reprieve in that country. Judges
who sit in the courts in Trinidad and Tobago know the practice in these matters
and the local circumstances much better than their Lordships can hope to do.
[1979] 1 WLR 1342 at 1348 and 1349.

Activity 9:6
The above quotation was a most interesting deferral of opinion on the issue of delay by the Privy Council.
• Could it be possible that local conditions could eventually contribute to delays of execution measured in
years?
• Suggest instances where the Privy Council would want to substitute their own opinion for those of judges
in the Commonwealth Caribbean on the subject of local conditions where delay of execution is involved.

By the 1980s, it became clear that the Privy Council was beginning to start the process of
rendering the death penalty unconstitutional where delay measured in terms of years was
a factor. The first sign of such a change manifested itself in their judgment in the
Jamaican case of Riley and Others v Attorney General of Jamaica and Another [1982] 3
AER 469. In this case, the Privy Council was divided three to two on the issue of what
effect delay ought to have on the carrying out of the sentence of death. The majority
(Lords Hailsham, Diplock and Bridge) held the view that delay could not override the
effect of the meaning of section 17 of the Jamaican Constitution which reads as follows:

(1) No person shall be subjected to torture or to inhuman or degrading

punishment or other treabnent.

(2) Nothing contained in or done under the authority of any law shall be
held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of this section to the
extent that the law in question authorises the infliction of any
description of punishment which was lawful in Jamaica immediately
before the appointed day.

The majority was satisfied that there was no basis to challenge a delay of execution
before 6th August, 1962 (the date of Jamaica's independence) and therefore there could
be no such right-created after 6th August, 1962. The sentence of death was the lawful
punishment for murder under the provisions of section 3(1) of the Offences against the

183
Person Act 1864. In the circumstances, they argued that there was no basis for bringing
this application to have the death penalty set aside.

On the other hand, the two dissenting judges (Lords Scarman and Brightman) took a
different view in their interpretation of section 17 of the Jamaican Constitution. They
argued that prior to 6th August, 1962 there was no basis for challenging any delay in
carrying out the punishment of death; however, after that date the Constitution granted a
new judicial remedy that did not exist before under the Bill of Rights. In agreeing with
the appellants, the minority referred to the Abbott case (above) in which the Privy
Council left open for consideration the effect of a delay measured in years (as opposed to
months) before the sentence of death was to be carried out. The minority argued that the
implication of the Privy Council's stand in the Abbott case was one which left no doubt
about the fact that a delay measured in years would render the punishment unlawful.

A way had now been found to render the punishment unlawful by applying constitutional
criteria, not to the sentence of the court, but rather, to the executive act of carrying out the
punishment itself. By 1993, that comer had been turned and the views of the minority in
the Riley case were converted into a majority opinion on the issue of delay measured in
years in relation to the death penalty in the Pratt and Morgan case.

The Pratt and Morgan Decision

On 2nd November, 1993, the Privy Council delivered a landmark decision concerning the
death penalty in the Commonwealth Caribbean in the Jamaican case of Pratt and Another
v Attorney General and Another [1993] 43 WIR 340.

The significance of the case was reflected in the unusual composition of the panel of
judges which consisted of seven Lords of Appeal (normally the Privy Council panel
would consist of three, four or five judges). What was also significant was that none of
the Law Lords who sat in the de Freitas, Abbott or Riley cases sat in this case. The seven-
member panel consisted of Lord Griffiths, Lord Lane, Lord Ackner, Lord Goff of
Chieveley, Lord Lowry, Lord Slynn of Hadley and Lord Woolf.

184
It should also be noted that the common thread through the de Freitas, Abbott and Riley
cases was the presence of Lord Diplock on the Board in all of them. A new generation of
Law Lords was now going to pronounce upon the death penalty in the Commonwealth
Caribbean. Their decision was far-reaching insofar as they found a way to get around the
powers of the Head of State in order to prevent the carrying out of the sentence of death
on the ground of delay measured in years.

In arriving at their decision, the Privy Council overruled the majority decision in the
Riley case and adopted the views of the minority. In allowing the appeals of Earl Pratt
and Ivan Morgan, the Privy Council laid down guidelines to be followed by the State as
follows:

If capital punishment is to be retained it must be carried out with all possible expedition.
Capital appeals must be expedited and legal aid allocated at an early stage. Although no
attempt is made to set a rigid timetable, the entire domestic appeal process should be
completed within approximately two years. If in any case execution is to take place more
than five years after sentence there will be strong grounds for believing that the delay is
such as to constitute inhuman or degrading punishment or other treatment [1993] 43 WIR
340 at 341.

Activity 9:7
Organize a class debate on the above quotation.
• Can the appeals against conviction in a death penalty case be completed in two years?
• Can all of the subsequent consmutional motions against the punishment and all the petitions for reprieve
be completed in the three remaining years?

We now turn to issues of social justice that are deeply implicated in our lives and our
interactions with others. Development is a concept that has beguiled us since the era on
independence. Since then we have expanded our understanding of what the concept
entails. We have moved from notions, which see development solely from a standpoint of
economic progress. Today we are beginning to see that emphasis solely on economic
development can threaten our environment and even our cultural values and traditions.

185
What still remain elusive are understandings about social justice that do not play
themselves out in the courts of the land, or they find themselves there very rarely. Even if
they do, judgements of the court do not seem relevant to us, and how we relate to others.
Remember in Chapter 1 discussed the concept of socialization. As we grow up in society
we learn the rules for living. It is not difficult to see that our perceptions of others - the
old, the disabled, the slow learner, minority ethnic and aboriginal communities, gender
groups - are forged in the mainstream values and ideologies we inherited{Iust as changes
in laws became necessary as our territories changed from being colonial to independent
states, so too our laws for living need to reinvented as we become committed to the tenets
of human development.

Gender Issues

Since the declaration of the United Nations Decade for Women in 1975, there has been a
greater awareness of gender issues in the Caribbean. Equal pay for equal work between
men and women, laws regarding domestic violence and sexual harassment, protection of
the law, child care, and domestic labour are some of the main issues that continue to arise
under the heading of gender. These are areas in social life where sexism or
discriminatory practices against a particular gender group (usually women) occurs.

According to the West Indian Commission in its 1992 Report entitled ''Time For Action":

The time has therefore come for the correction of the asymmetry of gender
relations so detrimental not only to women but also the wider society, since this
asymmetry ignores that women are the prime focus in the reconstruction of the
moral, social, cultural, economic and political fabric of the Region. The centrality
of the position of women lies in the range of roles performed by and expected of
women.
(West Indian Commission, (1992), p.335).

The role of women in Caribbean. society has been greatly underestimated in the past.
However, the reality that more women than men are pursuing tertiary education in the
region is going to create a situation whereby the competition for higher paying jobs in the
region will become more intense. The other side of this is the likelihood of the
marginalization of men in Caribbean society. Consider whether this has the potential to

186
intensify social problems like domestic violence. Why are Caribbean men apparently less
interested in pursuing tertiary-level education? These are critical questions facing our
societies and they go far beyond the cover of gender issues. Explore and reflect on these
issues in the activity below.

Activity 9:8
• Consider the following statement- "If a country takes seriously issues of social justice, then surely there
is not only a problem of women being undervalued but one also about men, and the plight they seem to
be facing". Discuss.

It is a fact that more women are accessing higher education and being successful at it.
However, what to the best of your knowledge is the situation with the majority of
women? Are there traditional attitudes in the society towards women, which seem to be
unjust? Would you say that we have a situation where more women then ever are
achieving academic success, while issues of social justice still beleaguer the lives of
women in general?

What is the case with men? Men seem to be not as highly achieving as their female
counterparts yet, the highest paying jobs are held by men and the leaders and employers
are still overwhelmingly men. To what extent then are men marginalized in the society?
Being sensitive to issues of social justice, help us to see that the continuing good fortunes
for women should not have to happen at the expense of men. Otherwise there will be
deepening of conflicts and tensions between the genders.

It may be instructive for us to think of not a whole category such as men or women but
look at intersections of class and race. You may wish to reflect on the view that it is
predominantly men and women of lower socio-economic background who are
marginalized in society. Social justice also has to do with the condition of poverty. If the
resources and wealth in a country continue to be unequally distributed so much so that
there are marked disparities in the way of life of different social groups, then that is an
issue of social justice.

187
Any condition that marginalizes groups of people throws up issues of social justice. This
may include the way slow learners are treated in an education system or the disabled in
society or the aged or aboriginal peoples.

Activity 9:9
Reflect on and give examples to show how the following groups may experience certain forms of
marginalization in their day to day lives:
a. old people (ageism)
b. the disabled (ablelsm)
c. the 'at risk' learner
d. aboriginal inhabitants (racism)

All groups have rights as stated at the beginning of the chapter. Rights are not to be
thought of as only being given or withheld by governments. In many cases rights have to
do with the perceptions of members of society about whether the groups listed in Activity
9:9 are indeed worthy of better treatment.

In our education systems concerns of the slow learner, the disadvantaged child, and even
the demotivated and uninterested, must be addressed. There is the view that one comes to
school to learn and if one does not learn then one must stand the consequences. This view
ignores the fact that there are people in schools who do not perform equally well but who
through family wealth and connections, can go on to live a comfortable life. This is an
issue of social justice because schools purport to help people learn. If someone is failing,
schools should ask themselves why are people not learning? Every year thousands leave
school with minimal or no qualifications. This translates into a reduced set of life chances
for that group. This then contributes marginalization and is an issue of social justice.

By the same token in some cases old people tend to be treated as if they are invisible.
There are few institutions and organizations focused on the needs and wants of the aged.
Recreation, leisure and entertainment for the aged are virtually unheard of in some
societies. This sends signals that they are not really important to society's well being so
not much funds or attention are devoted to them. As a result of this evaluation of their
worth on the part of society, older people tend to stay at home. For many, they have
internalized the norms that society has set on their group and has few expectations.

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What social expectations have done is to force them into early forms of retiring from
public life as a preparation for their eventual, final departure. Clearly, this is not
acceptable. While people are alive they should be encouraged in many different ways to
contribute and participate as much as possible in the life of the society. This then is as
valid an issue of social justice as any that we have already studied in this chapter.

The perception of aboriginal peoples as peripheral to the Caribbean identity is also cause
for concern. The aboriginal peoples represent a varied group of distinct cultural heritage
dating back to the pre-Columbian era. They are the oldest inhabitants of the region. We
find similarities between North America and the Caribbean in the treatment of aboriginal
peoples in North America where the descendants of the American Indians and the Inuit
are being recognized in some way after years of neglect and marginalization. Labels and
names reveal our unconscious biases. The recently adopted designation, First Peoples,
can be a symbolic act aimed at the beginnings of reversing social injustices experienced
in the past.

Summary

This chapter has attempted to highlight the evolution of social justice issues in the
Caribbean. In doing so, the functioning of the Constitution and the courts has been
highlighted as central. There is the possibility of judicial reform, which may see the
replacement of the Privy Council by the Caribbean Court of Appeal as the final court of
appeal for the countries of the Commonwealth Caribbean. In understanding social justice
issues, certain key areas were highlighted, concerning inequitable treatment meted out to
groups defined by gender, learning problems, disabilities, age, and ethnicity. The
umbrella of social justice is a broad one so that the issue of punishment in society and the
conditions of execution meted out to convicted persons also qualifies as an area of
concern. All these issues invoke conditions of equality and equity and all are, therefore,
related to human development.

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 Further Activities

1. Give three reasons why social justice is important to development in the Caribbean region.
2. Why are gender issues important to development in the Caribbean?
3. Argue a case for and against the retention of the death penalty for the offence of murder.
4. Identify one example of a breach of social justice in a Caribbean counti)'. Examine its effects on the
quality of life in the country.
,,

Key Concepts

Social Justice Civil society Inequality

Human Rights Exploration Injustice
Freedoms Sexism Equity
Constitutions Racism Equality
Bill of Rights Ageism Entrenchment
Gender Issues Ableism Amendment
Death Penalty Poverty Socialization
Referendum Political abuse Checks and balances
Universal adult franchise

References

West Indian Commission. (1992). Time for action: report of the West Indian
Commission. Mona: The Press.

Ghany, H. (1994). The myth of the Westminster model. Caribbean Affairs, 1(3), pp. 62-
82.

Leo-Rhynie, E., Bailey, E., & Barrow, C. (Eds.). Gender- a multidisciplinary reader on
the Caribbean. Kingston: Ian Randle.

Palacio, J. 0. (1995). Aboriginal peoples -their struggle with cultural identity. Bulletin
of Eastern Caribbean Affairs. 20(4 ), pp. 25-40.

Further Readings

Ghany, H. (1996). The death penalty and the Privy Council. Caribbean Journal of
Criminology and Social Psychology, 1(1), pp. 108-120.

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 Chapter 10

Conducting an Independent Study

Overview

The independent study allows you to select a theme, that you find interesting from within
tt>e Caribbean Studies programme, and to study it in greater depth. The research skills to
which you will be introduced in carrying out your study can be used in your everyday
life. For example, if you want to open a small business after leaving school, and want to
survey the potential market, or if you need to conduct research during the next stage of
your academic career, you will benefit from having learned how to conduct an
Independent Study.

In carrying out the Independent Study, you will need to prepare a research proposal
saying what you propose to do, and then to carry out the investigation. Finally, you will
need to write a report on the study and its outcomes. This chapter introduces you to major
concepts and skills involved in conducting research.

Objectives1

By the end of the chapter, you will be able to:

1. explain major terms central to conducting a study;

2. develop a proposal for conducting research;

3. write a well- organised and formatted report on the study you conducted;

4. assess ethical considerations in making decisions pertinent to all phases of

the study.

1
These objectives refer to all the specific objectives of Module 3 of the Caribbean Studies syllabus

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 Introduction

Research is an activity that entails formal, systematic processes for carrying out a
scientific method of analysis. It may be defined, in the words of Best and Kahn (1986) as

"the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations

that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles or themes,
resulting in prediction and, possibly, ultimate control of events". (p. 18).

Characteristics of research

1 Is directed towards the solution of a problem.

2 Emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or themes that will be
helpful in predicting future occurrences.

3 Is based upon observable evidence or empirical evidence, selects valid data

gathering procedures, and uses mechanical, electronic or psychometric devices to
refine observation, description and analysis of data.

4 Involves gathering new data from primary or firsthand sources, or using existing
data for a new purpose. Merely reorganizing or restating what is already known,
and has already been written - as in your school research paper or extended essay
-is not considered research in this sense, since it adds nothing to what is known.

5 Is rigorous and systematic.

6 Tries to be logical and to apply every possible test to validate procedures

employed, data collected and conclusions reached.

7 Is carefully recorded and reported. Each important term is defined, limiting

factors are acknowledged, procedures are described in detail and references are
carefully documented.

t Purposes of research

i) Basic Research- the findings of this type of research informs the development of
broad generalizations or principles.
ii) Applied Research - The goal of this type of research, however, is to improve
products or processes. Theory is tested in actual situations.
iii) Action Research - Action research is focused on immediate application. It
places emphasis on current problems in a local setting. Its findings are evaluated

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 CAPE
Caribbean Studies

CONDUCTING AN
INDEPENDENT STUDY

Module3
 in terms of local applicability and not necessarily universal validity. Its purpose is
to try to improve social or organizational practices and, the behaviour of persons
involved in those practices. It applies scientific thinking and methods to real life
problems.

Types of research

All research entails observation, description and analysis of what happens under certain
circumstances. All studies fall under one, or a combination, of the following types given
below.
i) Historical Research -Describes what was. Entails investigating, recording,
analysing and interpreting the events of the past for the purpose of discovering
generalizations that help us to understand both the past and the present, and
possible implications for the future.
ii) Descriptive Research- This type of research describes, records, analyses and
interprets conditions that presently exist. It entails some type of comparison or
contrast, and attempts to discover relationships between existing variables.
iii) Experimental Research -This type of research focuses on variable relationships
and describes what happens when the variables are carefully controlled or
manipulated. Deliberate manipulation is always a part of the experimental
method.

These different types of research use two main methods of describing the observations of
material§ or characteristics.

a) Quantitative Studies - These are studies that use a numerical method of

describing observations of materials or characteristics.
b) Qualitative Studies- These are studies in which the description of observations is
not ordinarily expressed in quantitative terms. Numerical measure may be used,
but other means of description are emphasized. For example, in ethnographic
studies or case studies, when the researcher gathers data by participant

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 observation, interviews and the examination of documents and artefacts, little
measurement may be involved.
Choosing a research strategy

Five major research strategies, which are most often used in the social sciences, may be
helpful to you as you do your Independent Study. The strategies are:

l i) experiments;
ii) surveys;
iii) archival analysis;
iv) histories;
v) case studies.

The researcher chooses a strategy for conducting research on a given topic based on three
major considerations:

a) what kind of research questions are you posing?

b) how much control will you have over events?
c) are you focusing on contemporary or historical events?

The research question

The major research questions are also the five 'Ws' and the 'H" of journalism- w~o,

what, when, where, why and how. For instance:

'Who' and 'Where' questions may favour survey strategies, or analyses of archival
research. Here the goal is to describe the incidence or prevalence of a phenomenon, or to
predict certain outcomes. Surveys, for examples, are used in election polls.

'How' and 'Why' questions are meant to explain, favour case studies, histories or
experiments, because such questions demand that you trace how things are done over
time, rather than find out frequency or incidence. For example, if you wanted to know
how your community established a new programme for helping old people, this would

194
demand a case study. If, on the other hand, you wanted to find out why an identified
group behaves in specified ways under certain conditions, you might choose to design
and conduct a series of experiments. If you wanted to find out how much damage had
been done during a period of political disturbance in your community, you might conduct
a survey; and if you wanted to know why the riots occurred, you might have to analyse
documents and conduct interviews in conducting a case study.

Levels of research control

Access to Events Over Time and Space

Historical research is appropriate in circumstances where the researcher has no control

over, or access to, events. If, for instance, you wanted to deal with an event that occurred
in the distant past, ~ere people concerned are now dead, then you would conduct
historical research. ·Here you will be relying on primary sources that can provide
eyewitness accounts of events; secondary sources, or accounts not actually witnessed by
the reporter; and, cultural and physical artefact~_

Case study research deals with contemporary events, when the relevant behaviours
cannot be manipulated. In such a study, you may rely on documents, as you do in
historical research, but you may also add interviews or observation as possible methods
of collecting data. Let us suppose you wanted to do an in-depth examination of how a
group of roadside vendors on your street coped with their relocation to a new market that
was recently opened in another part of your community. A case study might provide you
with excellent information about this, even if you could not do anything to change the
behaviour of the vendors.

Experiments are best when the study demands, and conditions permit, that the researcher
can manipulate behaviour directly and systematically. This can take place in a
laboratory, or in a field setting where investigators treat groups of people in different
ways, providing them with different kinds of experience or resources.

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 Developing the Research Proposal

Background to the problem

The signs and observations you have made lead you to suspect that there is a researchable
problem. Your own sense of the circumstances relating to the problem must be reported
in as objective and unbiased a manner as possible (this is not to say that you disdain your
close knowledge and experience of the situation. Instead, it suggests that you aim for
clarity in stating what you have experienced). Statements in this section must lead
logically to the conclusion that the problem you will identify in your problem statement
.
does indeed exist.

Problem statement

This is a clear statement of the purpose of the study ("This problem [or] the purpose of
·this study, is to discover and explain ... ") This should be followed by about two to three
research questions that follow from your understanding of the problem.

Delimitations of the study

At this point you make clear the boundaries you have set in researching the problem you
are studying. For example, you want to look at reasons why your community has failed
to support a plan by the National Environmental Agency to keep the waterways
unpolluted. Do you want to look at all possible reasons? Can you or do you simply want
to examine those reasons that may be rooted in their understanding or lack of
understanding of how this affects their economic circumstances?

Definition of terms

196
For the purposes of your study, you must define the major factors that are relevant to
your study. The definitions will not necessarily be dictionary definitions. Instead, they
should be derived from your reading on the subject you are researching.
Literature review

The literature review is a clear, succinct and logically developed summary of the major
readings that have influenced your thinking in planning your study. You should be able-
to summarise the important points raised by each author to whom you refer, or whom you
quote. Authors cited should be named, together with the year of the publication to which
you are referring, and a page reference where you quote. Quotations should not be long.
The review should also include a justification for the focus of your study with reference
to the literature.

Research methodology

The methodology should include the following:

• a description of the sample- the selection from the group of people, institutions,
etc. - among whom the study will be conducted;
• a description of the instruments that you propose to use (for example
questionnaires, interviews);
• a detailed account of the procedures you propose to follow in carrying out your
research.

Data analysis

You must state the means you propose to adopt to analyse the data and to scrutinize it to
see what patterns emerge. An analysis of data will provide explanations, and enable you
to draw inferences about the findings of your study.

Analysis of data may be quantitative or qualitative. The approach used depends on the
type of study conducted and the methods of data collection. If, for instance, statistical
sampling was the basis for the selection of respondents to a survey, then quantitative
analysis will probably be necessary. If, on the other hand, you were doing a case study,

197
and you used unstructured interviews and observations, then the analysis will be
qualitative.
Writing the problem statement

Research proposals usually carry an introductory section in which the overall research
problem is specifically stated. Therefore, once the problem has been selected, and its
significance determined, we must then seek to formulate or state the problem in a way
that would (a) clarify exactly what is to be determined or solved; and (b) restrict the
scope of the study to a specific problem.

The problem statement can be written either in declarative or problem form. It focuses
on the stated goal and gives direction to the research process. It is limited enough to
allow the researcher to make a definite conclusion possible.

The problem must be stated clearly and concisely. Usually, you may need to reword the
problem statement several times as you try to make it precise. Only when the problem is
clearly defined, you will be able to choose an appropriate methodology. An important
consideration in defining the problem is achieving balance between generality and
specificity. A narrow problem could be trivial and meaningless.

Another essential step is the definition of key terms. All the variables in the study - that
is, the conditions or characteristics that you as a researcher are going to manipulate,
control or observe - should be identified.

Things to remember in writing your problem statement

• Some authors suggest that the problem be presented as a question rather than
a statement. This form is especially useful when there are likely to be sub-
problems. However, the definitions are still necessary.

• For quantitative studies, the problem statement should describe the relationship
between the two variables.

• Avoid philosophical issues and value and judgmental problems .

• Think in terms of the target population and related variables in order to be more

198
 specific.

Sample problem statements and questions

1. What is the response of farmers on El Diablo estate to the introduction of new

harvesting technologies?

2. Participation in competitive sports in high school is detrimental to academic

achievement.

3. Does segregation have a damaging effect upon the self-image of minority group
children?

Activity 10:1
• Develop 3 problem statements and/or research questions for studies you would be interested in
conducting.

• Cr~ically evaluate the problem statements proposed by one of your colleagues to see if they meet the
cr~eria for well-structured problem statements, and let that person do the same for those you developed.

Preparing a Literature Review

The purpose of doing a Literature Review is to relate the research that has already been
done in your subject area to the problem you want to investigate. For one thing, you will
need to select literature that illustrates the methods which have been most successful in
procuring the kind of information you want to get; you will also refer to the literature as a
way of justifying your choice of an area to research - to show, for example, how previous
work done points to the need for this research; to show how the information obtained
from previous studies was contradictory or inadequate for understanding the topic. Your
research hypothesis may also be shaped by previous studies done in the area, which you
will also cite in your Review - for example, studies already carried out may suggest
specific results, and your hypothesis may be consistent with those results. The review
may also help to establish major concepts within the field, which will help to guide areas
of your research.

199
• Locating the Literature.

a. Review secondary sources - those sources that summarise or discuss research

conducted by others. These include textbooks, encyclopaedias, and reviews of
existing research in books or-journals. They can help to give you an overview of
your topic, and can guide you to important primary sources.

b. Identify key terms - those terms that represent the problem you are
investigating, and which can be used to trace related literature within primary
sources.

c. Read material in primary sources - those original articles and reports where
researchers communicate directly to the reader how they did their studies and
what the results were. They include books and journals (both print and on-line)
in ~he field. Read the abstracts first. to be clear exactly what an article is about
and determine whether it is relevant to your needs. Sources should be current
and directly relevant.

d. Summarize the key information on index cards - key information will

include bibliographic information and outline summaries of key areas of
content.

Activity 10:2
EITHER
• For an investigation of the development of policies to ensure social justice for either the Indigenous
Peoples of your country Q! the Disabled: a.) explain your strategy for locating the L~erature, and prepare
a bibliography, which will identify sources of information you, found.

OR
• Say how you would go about locating the Literature relevant to one of the problem statements or research
questions you developed earlier, and prepare a bibliography that will identify sources of information you
found.

• Writing the review.

a. Organize the material by grouping together studies that investigate similar

topics or sub-topics within your overall review.

b. Make an outline of the order in which you will deal with them, and then read
your outline carefully, asking yourself if there is a clear logical movement
from one point to the next, and whether it will be clear to your readers how
different parts of the discussion follow from, or illustrate what went before.

200
 c. As you discuss each topic, or sub topic, show explicitly how the information
is related to the present research, and what light it sheds on the research
issues. One way to develop a discussion of the studies you cite is to give a
brief summary of the study reviewed, followed by an analysis of the study
which discusses its approach and its major outcomes. Add a statement about
how it relates to your research problem.

• Excerpt from a Literature Review

The following paragraph illustrates the discussion of one topic within a literature review
for a study of literacy programs for adults:

Research suggests that attaining adequate levels of literacy is a problem, which

needs to be addressed in countries throughout the Caribbean. For example, a
survey of functional literacy in youths outside the school system (Jennings,
1998) found that 89% of youths who have left school in Guyana are achieving a
I

level of literacy below that which is needed to function effectively in the

Guyanese society. A World Bank report (1993) found that, based on the
evidence of tests administered to 16-25 year olds applying to enrol in the
SERVOL skills training program in Trinidad and Tobago "About 5% cannot read
at all; 25% can read only one sentence, and only 8% can read a simple
book."(p.66) The data from the Trinidad and Tobago report applied to a very
limited group of subjects. Nevertheless, it seems to provide a clear indication
that literacy is a problem in that country as well.

As you read the excerpt, note that both references to literature (the World Bank study and
the Jennings report) are related to a specific topic- the problem of functional literacy of
school leavers in the Caribbean. Note also that the discussion of each piece of Literature
includes information on how the information was obtained (survey/tests); the group from
which the data was obtained; and the findings. Note, finally, the critique of the way in
which the information from Trinidad and Tobago was gathered.

What do you think is the potential significance of the fact that only those youths
applying for enrolment in SERVOL programs were tested?

201
Sampling Procedures

In designing your study, an important consideration is the sampling_procedure you plan

to use. This is vital, because the manner in which your subjects are selected can later help
you and readers of your study to identify factors that might have affected the responses of
your subjects. The sample refers to the group of subjects (or participants as they are
sometimes called) from whom data are collected.

You need to describe the sampling procedures used in detail. There are a number of
different procedures, each of which is appropriate within a given context.

• Types of sampling procedures.

1. Simple random sample - where subjects are selected by lottery or by use

of random numbers.
2. Stratified sample - where the population is stratified according to lists of
units divided into groups or strata according to an appropriate variable. In
this case, strata should differ as widely as possible from each other, and
units within strata should be as homogeneous as possible.
3. Quota sampling- this approach, which is often used in market research
surveys, entails stratified sampling, in which the selection within strata is
non-random, once the general breakdown of the sample is determined.
4. ~urposive sampling- used in qualitative research, where subjects are
selected especially for their particular understandings of, and involvement
in the context where the study is being carried out.

In determining your sample size, you must ask yourself questions about what size will
truly reflect the composition of your target audience, including sub-groups. You will also
need to ask yourself what size will pick·up possible differences in attitudes etc. You must
also think of practical issues like limitations of time and money.

You should be aware too, of the strengths and limitations of different sampling
procedures. For instance, simple random sampling is usually representative of the

202
population, and results can be easily analysed and interpreted; on the other hand, to do it
effectively, you will need to be able to number each element jn your population.
Purposive sampling, on the other hand, adds credibility to the research, as it ensures that
the data collected are provided by the people and from venues most likely that are able to
provide that data. Purposive sampling can also be less costly and time consuming as a
process; on the other hand, it is also less representative of an identified population, and
the results are dependent on the unique characteristics of the sample.

Activity 10:3
a. For a study of the television programming preferences of students in your school, what methodology
would you select for conducting your research?
b. Say what type of sampling procedure you would choose, and why.

Collecting your data

Certain methods of data collection given below are especially favoured for the types of
research this syllabus emphasises in carrying out an Independent study.

1. Questionnaires
You will need to design questionnaires for surveys and formal interviews. For the
questionnaire to provide you with the high quality information you need to observe some
important principles in formulating them: wording the questions, forming the questions,
and ordering the questions.

!I Wording the questions

Four basic principles should be observed in wording survey questions.

1. Relevance- should relate directly to given investigation.

2. Simple - should be phrased in a straightforward manner, and should be as
free from technical jargon that your respondents might not understand.
For example, you should avoid structures like double negatives, which
may confuse the respondent.

203
 3. Neutral - that is, they should not be worded in such a way as to suggest
that any particular response is "correct".
4. Direct obtaining information on a single topic.

• Forming the questions

Questions may be structured - that is, they should be phrased in such a way as to
anticipate the types of responses and to present respondents with fixed alternatives; or
they may be unstructured or open-ended - that is, the way they are phrased should
encourage a free response. (This is a useful option when you are not very clear about the
types of responses a particular question is likely to elicit).

• Ordering the questions

Some helpful points to consider when you are putting your questions in order are first,
that the sequence should be logical, so as to allow the respondent or the interviewer to
progress from one point to another with ease. Second, in order not to make your
respondent uncomfortable, you should start with the easier questions and to progress
from there to the more difficult ones. Third, try to put the questions that are least likely to
encounter resistance from your respondents first (this will also help to ensure that they
are willing to proceed). You should also include in your questionnaire some means of
identifying types of respondents (for example, all in one age group or income bracket),
and an introduction that explains briefly what the questionnaire is about, why the research
is being undertaken, who is responsible, and what it hopes to achieve.

Activity 10:4

Look at the questions below. Some of them may be considered well-formed questions for a questionnaire,
while others demonstrate some of the faults suggested above. Identify the questions that you believe should be
modified, say why you think they need changing, and make the necessary changes.
• Are you opposed to not requiring students to study Caribbean History?
• Does the way that newspapers frame their stories help to determine reader response?
• Should the state be responsible for training and funding sportsmen and women for international events?
• Should the state continue to fund unethical playwrights who use obscenities in their plays?

204
A Likert scale is one example of a questionnaire you might use to get information. The
Likert scale is often used to measure the attitudes of your respondents on certain issues. A
number of statements are made about a given subject; these should reflect opinions held
by a number of people on the topic, and should include an approximately equal number
of favourable and unfavourable .statements. Respondents are allowed a number of options
for response: For example: "agree/disagree/undecided"; "strongly disagree/disagree/
/undecided/agree/strongly agree".

Example of an item for a Likert scale.

It is very important to our country's development to buy locally produced foodstuffs:
Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree

2. Observation

Observation is a way of finding out how people interact, and the kinds of behaviour
patterns and relationships they develop in identified contexts. Naturalistic Observation
takes place in a setting where you, as· the researcher, do not intervene in anyway to
manipulate what is going on. Let us suppose, for instance, that you wanted to find out
what strategies the market vendors on your street who have been relocated to the market
have developed to cope with the change. Naturalistic observation would be one way of
finding out.

• Method

Observation begins the moment you make contact in the field- the context of your study.
It is carried out in different stages, and becomes increasingly more sharply focused as the
study progresses.

'f a. Unfocused observation

This is what you do when you first go into the field. Although it is helpful to go with
some understanding (for example, from the literature) of some things you might look for,
try not to start with pre-conceptions about what will happen. Survey the general
landscape to get a picture of the main features of the physical environment. (For example:

205
Is the new market well structured? Are the stalls comfortable, and is there lots of space?
How are things arranged?) Then begin to look at the individuals in the setting. How many
are there? How many men/women? About how old are the different individuals? Is there
anything unusual or striking about any of them? How do they interact? Do some people
form little cliques? Are there certain kinds of events that seem to repeat themselves?

b. Becoming increasingly focused

As you stay within the context, -market area - you gradually become aware of interesting
patterns, people, and events, which seem to be especially significant to the people you are
observing. You may now want to focus, for example, on one or two of the market
vendors who seem to be leaders in the group, or to be having special problems coping.
You might now want to start interacting with them, and speaking with them informally,
to find out why they are behaving in a particular way. Or you might want to look at
certain recurring interactions in more depth to understand what triggers them,. and
whether there is a certain pattern to how they develop.

c. Taking notes
All these observations must be recorded. Do not trust your memory - it may fail you
about important details. In any case, your observations will form part of the data you later
analyse. Remember that if you use observation as your only means of collecting data,
your interpretation of what you see may not be an accurate reflection of what is
happening. In the example of our market vendors, let us suppose that you see one of them
quarrelling constantly with another whenever that person enters his stall - you may
interpret this to mean that the relocation to the new market is creating strife among the
vendors. If you spoke to 'them, however, you might then discover that these two people
are quarrelling for totally different reasons. It is therefore, important to gather as much
data as possible in order to interpret what you observe. One way of collecting data is by
an interview.

3. Interviews
Sometimes case studies are based almost entirely on interviews. Interviews can be
highly structured or very open- ended; that is, they allow the person interviewed to

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respond freely to a question phrased in a very general way. Whichever method you use,
the success of your interview depends largely on your skill as an interviewer.
• Method

a. Create rapport with your respondent

Try to make the person you are interviewing feel at ease. To do this, you might want
to start with simple questions that are non- threatening and that the respondent feels
comfortable answering. Start, in fact, as you would start if you were getting to know
someone, or starting a conversation. You will need to give the person an idea about
what your research is about, and why you are doing it, so as to dispel possible
suspicions and gain their confidence. Again, be confident that your tone or body
language, or the ways you respond to what they say suggest that you are making
judgements about the rightness or wrongness of what they are telling you. Accept
what is being .said to you.

b. Order of progression
Keep the discussion flowing logically from one point to another. Having started with
questions for general information, you may find it helpful to move on to descriptive
type questions. For instance, ask about people, events, and behaviours relevant to the
situation. ("So what did you do to prepare for this move?") Next, as you follow up a
topic, you will probably need to ask probing questions that allow you to be ~lear

about what they mean when they refer to certain things. Ask them to talk a bit more
about the point they are making if necessary, or ask for examples and illustrations of
what they mean. Also, ask them to relate specific experiences they had relevant to
what they are talking about. ("You say that the people who built the new market don't
care about what is happening to you now that you've moved. Have there been times
when you tried to talk to them about the problems you've experienced with the
move?")

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 Activity 10:5

a. Conduct, and record on tape, an interview with two of your classmates on how they feel about local
television programming in your country.
b. Have your interviewees tell you about how they felt when you were interviewing them: - whether you
were able to make them feel at ease, whether they understood the questions you were asking.
c. Analyse the transcript of your interview and see if your questions were well thought out and if you
were able to include probing questions and questions to elicit experiences.

• The formal interview

If you are doing a formal interview, and you are trying to get the same kinds of
information from every one, you will need to structure the questions very carefully.
The section on composing questions for a questionnaire will provide you with some
guidance here. When you actually conduct the interview, however, it is still very
important to establish rapport with your respondent first.

• Strengths and limitations of the Interview

Especially for less structured interviews, this method has the advantage of allowing
individuals to contribute their own views of the topic being studied. They can explain
what is important to them, and immediately correct any possible misinterpretations of
a situation that you may have developed.

On the other hand, a major limitation is that this method is susceptible to a self-
presentation bias. That is to say, respondents may want to please you, or to appear to
you in a favourable light. It is possible, therefore, that some of their responses may
not reflect their real thoughts and behaviours.

Analyzing your data

Data analysis for quantitative studies employs a deductive, statistical approach and
usually takes place after the data has been collected; data analysis for qualitative studies
is inductive and ongoing.

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1. Analysing Qualitative Data
In most qualitative studies, you will need to start analysing your data as soon as you
start collecting it - that is, from your first interview, observation or contact with a
relevant document. The goal of your analysis is to discover patterns, ideas and
explanations about people's understandings about what is going on in the context in
which they are immersed, and about their own roles and actions there. A thorough
analysis takes place in three stages: organizing the data, summarising it and then
interpreting it.

• Organising the data

You need to read through your data from your interviews, observations, and
documents and create codes for the topics and patterns that emerge. These codes are
then used as categories around which to organize your data. For instance, in your
study of the market vendors, possible codes may be related to their interactions with
each other and with persons in charge of the relocation project; they may also be
related to strategies the vendors used to cope with the relocation, and with their own
feelings and concerns about it. Having identified these, you would begin to organise
your data into groups dealing with each of these. Index cards and folders provide one
way of organising.

• Summarising the data

Having arrived at categories of data dealing with specific codes, you then need to
summarise them by developing sentences which sum up the pattern you are seeing:
"Vendors dealt with physical inconveniences in the new market by bringing in their
own materials to make up for what was missing" [This summary may emerge from
evidence you have of one vendor bringing buckets of water from home to make up
for the lack of a consistent water supply; another may have used his own wood and
tools to set up shelves to display products; others may have made still other personal
provisions.]

• Interpreting the data

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 Once you have done the coding and summarizing, your next step is to interpret the
data. Here is where you try to arrive at a meaning for what you have found. What do
you think it means, for example if you di~covered that vendors frequently tried to
contact persons in authority, spoke about their perceptions that they never got a
response that was helpful; and then started bringing their own materials from home?
What mindset do they seem to you to have developed about this relocation? Each
major interpretation of this kind will need to be supported by examples of the
evidence that led you to account for what was happening as you did - quotations from
people, references to your observations.

Activity 10:6
EITHER
a. Do an innial coding of the interviews you conducted with your classmates on television programming,
and see if you can identify any preliminarv patterns you see emerging.
OR
b. From a newspaper in your country, collect articles, which relate to ongoing coverage of any major
event. Code the articles to identify ways in which they show how they evaluate the event as being
significant or not significant. Code them as well to see what attributes - favourable or unfavourable -
they ascribe to aspects of the event.

Try to do a preliminary interpretation of what considerations may have contributed to their presentation of the
event based on what you have learned about mass media in Caribbean countries and on what you know about
back round factors related to this articular event.

2 Analysing Quantitative Data

The analysis of quantitative data is usually done using statistics. This section will deal
only with basic concepts. As with all research, the actual techniques you will have to
adopt will follow logically from your research questions, but your research will have
involved making measurements, sometimes of a number of variables, and usually
across the sample. So for each variable, you will have scores for each member of the
sample. This is called a distribution, and you will need ways of summarising it. The
two main concepts used to do this are central tendency and variation. Actually, you
probably use similar concepts in your daily life. For instance, supposed a pen pal
asked you about the climate of your country; in your description you might include a
statement that the temperature averages about 30 degrees Celsius, but that it can go

210
down to as low as 23 degrees, or as high as 38 degrees. In this case, thirty degrees
suggests central tendency, but the changes you described focus on variation.

• Central Tendency
There are three common measures of central tendency: the mean, the mode and the
median. The most commonly used, and the one described here, is the mean. The more
common term for the mean is the average, and to obtain it, you will need to add up
your scores and divide by the number of scores. The mean is a very effective statistic
where scores within a distribution do not vary too much, but it is not as effective
where there is great variance. Therefore, it is important to know how much spread or
variability there is in a set of scores, in order for you to be able to interpret the mean
correctly.

• Variation
There are also different ways to measure the variance. One simple concept is the
range - the highest score in a sample minus the lowest score. However, the most
common measure of variability is the standard deviation. This goes with the mean,
because the deviations involved are deviations of individual measurements from the
mean of the distribution. These deviations are calculated and standardised to give the
standard distribution. This allows you to summarize in one number the variability in a
set of data. The more the scores are spread out, the larger is the standard deviation.
Interpreting the standard deviation together with the mean can tell you something
about how much spread there is in the scores in a distribution, and important
properties of the distribution relate to how far away from the mean we move, in terms
of standard deviations.

From the standard deviation, you will be able to obtain the variance. This is the
square of the standard deviation. Like the standard deviation, the variance gives us a
numerical estimate of the amount of spread in our data. However, you will usually
use the standard deviation in descriptive statistics, and the variance in statistical
inference. A quantitative research strategy is based on accounting for variance -
finding out how much people or things differ, and then accounting for those

211
differences by using relationships with other variables. Both the. standard deviation
and the variance give us numerical estimates of the variability in the distribution.

• Frequency Distributions
In addition to the mean, standard distribution and variance, you can also use simple
frequency distributions as a way to summarise statistical data. The individual scores
in a distribution are tabulated, .according to how many respondents gave each
response, or fell into each category. Absolute numbers or percentages can be used.
Depending on the overall score range, you will sometimes find it useful to group
scores in ranges, so that you can see the distribution of the frequencies more easily.
You can then show the results as frequency distribution tables, or as graphs.
Examples are histograms, pie charts or horizontal bar charts.
A bar graph, which can be arranged either horizontally or vertically, represents data
by bars of equal width, drawn to scale length. Horizontal bar graphs are usually Qsed
to compare components at a particular time; vertical bars are used when making
comparisons at different times.

A histogram is a type of bar graph in which lines or bars represent each score or set of
.scores, rather than lines connecting the frequencies of each score.

A pie chart shows the division of a unit into the component parts. They are frequently
used to explain simple percentage distribution.

Frequency distributions of responses can tell, at a glance, something about the shape
of the distribution, which can help you to determine later stages in your analysis.

• Relationships Between Variables

Quantitative research is based on relationships between variables, and many different
ways have been developed to study these relationships. These include cross
tabulations. The basic cross tabulation or contingency table is easy to construct and
read, and is applicable to a wide range of situations. The contingency table can be

212
 used basically as a descriptive tool. A simple table will contain data about two
variables. In its simplest form, each variable has two categories, and the 2 x 2 table
has four cells. Percentages are a common way to use the data, but actual numbers can
be used as well:

Listen to Call in Programmes. Listeners 11-15 yrs. Listeners 16-19 yrs.

Yes 17% 43%
No 83% 57%
Total 100% 100%

Sample Contingency Table.

Writing the report

1. Writing the abstract

The abstract is the last thing you will write when you have completed your study:
however, it will be placed at the start of your report. The text of the abstract will
summarise the following for the reader of your study:
• problem;
• specific target group
• design and procedures
• findings
• conclusions you drew and the implications of the study

2. The format of the report

Remember that you are now reporting on what happened when you did the study. Thus
the report will be written in the past tense (unlike the proposal, which discusses what you
intend to do.)

A report of a study will include the following:

I. Title Page: -This will include the title of the study, your name and school.
II. Abstract.

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ill. Introduction: -This will provide a background to the problem, and will include
your statement of the problem and a statement of the rationale for the study.
You should indicate why there is a need for such research, and what are some
expected outcomes. It is also necessary to indicate why the problem is
important in the context of how it will contribute to existing theory or
practice.
IV. The Review of the Literature.
V. Method: - This will describe in detail how you carried out the study. It will
include a subsection on the sample, and will describe the participants in the
study and provide relevant information about them. This may include major
demographic characteristics (age, gender and socio-economic status) You will
describe the instruments you used; you will also include a subsection on
procedures, and here you will describe in detail the steps you took in
conducting the study. Enough information should be included to allow
someone else to replicate the study.
VI. Results: - Here you will present your data and the statistical analyses. At this
point you do not discuss the implications of the findings. You should include
tables and figures as necessary to supplement your text.
VII. Discussion and Conclusions: - At this point you discuss the findings. Were
the hypotheses supported or should they be rejected? Is the theory you started
with different as a result of your research? Why did the results tum out as they
did? How do the results relate to previous research findings discussed in the
literature review? What are the implications of the finding of your study?
What practical applications can you identify? A brief discussion of the
limitations of your study and possibilities for future research would also be
appropriate here. Finally, you may want to make recommendations for
possible practical applications of your research.
VIII. References: - For your report, the references will go on a separate page.
Refetences consist of the names of the authors, texts, publishing houses and
places of publication of all. documents, including journal articles, books,
manuscripts and on-li_ne material that are mentioned in your report.
References are arranged in alphabetical order, by the last names of the first-
.,
named authors of the texts. If no author is listed, the first word of the

'.;' . 214
 organisation that sponsored the study begins the entry. Each reference starts at
the left margin of the page.

Examples of the different types of references you might use are given below:

1. Book with one author:

Vaizey, J. (1967) Education in the modem world. New York: McGraw-
Hill.

2. Book with many authors:

Baizun, J. & Graff, H.F. (1977) The modem researcher. New York:
Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich.

3. Chapter in an edited book:

Campbell, D.T. and Stanley, J.C. (1963) Experimental and quasi-
experimental
designs for research on teaching. In N. L. Gage (Ed.) Handbook of
Research on teaching. Chicago: Rand-McNally.

4. Journal article:
Tiene, D., and Buck, s. (1987) Student teachers and classroom authority.
Journal of Educational Research, 80,261-265.

5. Electronic Sources:
Pritzker, T.J. (no date) An early fragment from central Nepal. [Online].
Available:
http://www. ingress.com/ pritzker/pritzker.html. [1995, June 8].

IX. Appendices: - Appendices will include material that is necessary for a full
appreciation of the study, but that is too long to go into the body of the text, or that
would interrupt the flow of the report. Examples of Appendix material would be
copies of your questionnaires, excerpts from relevant documents, and field note
reports and interview transcripts for qualitative studies. Each appendix begins on a
new page, with the label "Appendix" and its identifying letter (for example Appendix
A, Appendix B).

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1
....
•. ··'
Ethics in research

When you begin to do research, you place yourself in a position where you ask people to
reveal information that they may not normally tell to a stranger or a casual acquaintance.
Therefore, you need to deal with these people in a principled way. You cannot take
advantage of their trust. You should consider the following points as you do your
research and reflect these in your report.

Informed consent: - That is, the people you speak to, observe, send questionnaires to,
should know what you are doing and that you are involved in a research project. You
should not put undue pressure on people (like little children), or who might be afraid to
say that they do not wish to participate in your research.

Invasion of privacy: - Let us suppose you wanted to talk to one of the participants in a
setting you were observing, and you wanted to tape the conversation. You should seek
the permission of the person being interviewed to do so without letting that person know,
or to record people in unguarded moments without their knowledge and permission is
what we mean by invasion of privacy.

Confidentiality: - You cannot go telling other people what you learned about a person
you spoke to, or about a situation you observed if those persons are in a position to
recognise the people or venues described. When you write your report, you should make
every attempt to disguise your subjects' identity- change the names, or use "x" or some
other method to ensure that they are protected. Let people know how you intend to
maintain confidentiality.

Knowledge of the outcome: - Participants in a research project have the right to know
what you will be doing with the information you collect, as well as the reason for the
research. You may explain this orally or in writing.

216'
 References:
Best, J. and Kahn, J. (1986). Research in education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall.

Further Readings
Silverman, D. (2000) Doing qualitative research: A practical handbook. London: Sage
Publications.

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