Seminar Report

On
LED
&

ABSTRACT

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in
many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic
component in 1962,early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are
available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine
with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less than
1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in
reflection.LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and
greater durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively
expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent
lamp sources of comparable output.

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 2. INTRODUCTION

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are a relatively old technology (1970s) that has advanced
from use in numeric displays and indicator lights to a range of new and potential new
applications, including exit signs, accent lights, task lights, traffic lights, signage, cove lighting,
wall sconces, outdoor lighting and downlighting.
LEDs offer benefits such as small size, long lamp life, low heat output, energy savings
and durability. They also allow extraordinary design flexibility in color changing, dimming and
distribution by combining these small units into desired shapes, colors, sizes and lumen
packages. Currently, relatively low overall light output, poor color rendering and questions about
advertised service life may indicate that LEDs, while very useful in many applications, are not
yet ready for “prime time” in some architectural applications. Notably promising current
applications include retail display, colored lighting, tight spaces, areas that require low light
levels, exterior lighting and applications where the integration of light sources and architectural
elements is critical.
LEDs currently dominate the exit sign market and many cities have adopted them as a
replacement for incandescent lamps in traffic signals. In the architectural market, the
development of a visible/white light LED has awakened lighting designers to new possibilities
with this light source. White light LEDs, however, currently do not produce enough lumen
output to make them competitive with many general light sources. This restricts their use in
architectural projects to applications where small lumen packages are needed and where the
characteristics of a lower CRI rating and high color temperature are acceptable.

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3..LED History
3.1 Discovery

The first known report of a light-emitting solid-state diode was made in 1907 by the British
experimenter H. J. Round. However, no practical use was made of the discovery for several
decades.[18] Independently, Oleg VladimirovichLosev published "Luminous carborundum
[[silicon carbide]] detector and detection with crystals" in the Russian journal Telegrafiya i
TelefoniyabezProvodov(Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony).[19] Losev's work languished for
dacades. .

The first practical LED was invented by Nick Holonyak, Jr., in 1962 while he was at General
Electric Company. The first LEDs became commercially available in late 1960s, and were red.
They were commonly used as replacements for incandescent indicators, and in seven-segment
displays, first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then
later in such appliances as TVs, radios, telephones, calculators, and even watches. These red
LEDs were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to
illuminate an area. Later, other colors became widely available and also appeared in appliances
and equipment. As the LED materials technology became more advanced, the light output was
increased, and LEDs became bright enough to be used for illumination.

Most LEDs were made in the very common 5 mm T1-3/4 and 3 mm T1 packages, but with
higher power, it has become increasingly necessary to get rid of the heat, so the packages have
become more complex and adapted for heat dissipation. Packages for state-of-the-art high power
LEDs bear little resemblance to early LEDs (see, for example, Philips Lumileds).

3.2 LED panels

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There are two types of LED panels: conventional, using discrete LEDs, and surface mounted
device (SMD) panels. Most outdoor screens and some indoor screens are built around discrete
LEDs, also known as individually mounted LEDs. A cluster of red, green, and blue diodes is
driven together to form a full-color pixel, usually square in shape. These pixels are spaced evenly
apart and are measured from center to center for absolute pixel resolution. The largest LED
display in the world is over 1,500 feet (457.2 m) long and is located in Las Vegas, Nevada
covering the Fremont Street Experience.

Most indoor screens on the market are built using SMD technology a trend that is now
extending to the outdoor market. An SMD pixel consists of red, green, and blue diodes mounted
on a chipset, which is then mounted on the driver PC board. The individual diodes are smaller
than a pinhead and are set very close together. The difference is that the maximum viewing
distance is reduced by 25% from the discrete diode screen with the same resolution.

LED panels allow for smaller sets of interchangeable LEDs to be one large display.Indoor use
generally requires a screen that is based on SMD technology and has a minimum brightness of
600 candelas per square meter (unofficially called nits). This will usually be more than sufficient
for corporate and retail applications, but under high ambient-brightness conditions, higher
brightness may be required for visibility. Fashion and auto shows are two examples of high-
brightness stage led lighting that may require higher LED brightness. Conversely, when a screen
may appear in a shot on a television show, the requirement will often be for lower brightness
levels with lower color temperatures (common displays have a white point of 6500 to 9000 K,
which is much bluer than the common led lighting on a television production set).

For outdoor use, at least 2,000 nits are required for most situations, whereas higher brightness
types of up to 5,000 nits cope even better with direct sunlight on the screen. (The brightness of
LED panels can be reduced from the designed maximum, if required.)

Suitable locations for large display panels are identified by factors such as line of sight, local
authority planning requirements (if the installation is to become semi-permanent), vehicular
access (trucks carrying the screen, truck-mounted screens, or cranes), cable runs for power and
video (accounting for both distance and health and safety requirements), power, suitability of the
ground for the location of the screen (if there are no pipes, shallow drains, caves, or tunnels
thatmay notbeable to support heavy loads), and overhead. .

3.3 Early LED flat panel TV history

Perhaps the first recorded flat LED television screen prototype to be developed was by James P.
Mitchell in 1977. The modular, scalable display was enabled by MV50 LEDs and newly
available TTL (transistor transistor logic) memory addressing circuit technology. The prototype
and paper was displayed at an Engineering Exposition in Anaheim May 1978, and organized by
the Science Service in Washington D.C. The LED flat panel TV display received special
recognition by NASA, General Motors Corporation, and area universities including The

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University of California Irvine, Robert M. Saunders Prof. of Engineering and IEEE President
1977. Additionally, technology business representatives from the U.S. and overseas witnessed
operation of the monochromatic LED flat panel television display. The prototype remains
operational. A LCD (liquid crystal display) matrix design was also presented in the
accompanying scientific paper, as a future television display method using a similar scanning
design method.
The early display prototype was red monochromatic. Low-cost efficient blue LEDs did not
emerge until the early 1990s, completing the RGB color triad. High-brightness colors gradually
emerged in the 1990s enabling new designs for outdoor signage and huge video displays for
billboards and stadiums.

3.4 Multi-touchsensing

Since LEDs share some basic physical properties with photodiodes, which also use p-n junctions
with band gap energies in the visible light wavelengths, they can also be used for photo
detection. These properties have been known for some time, but more recently so-called
bidirectional LED matrices have been proposed as a method of touch-sensing. In 2003, Dietz,
Yerazunis, and Leigh published a paper describing the use of LEDs as cheap sensor devices.

In this usage, various LEDs in the matrix are quickly switched on and off. LEDs that are on shine
light onto a user's fingers or a stylus. LEDs that are off function as photodiodes to detect
reflected light from the fingers or stylus. The voltage thus induced in the reverse-biased LEDs
can then be read by a microprocessor, which interprets the voltage peaks and then uses them
elsewhere.

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 4. Principle & Mechanism
4.1 Working of LED
The essential portion of the Light Emitting Diode is the semiconductor chip.Semiconductors can
be either intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic semiconductors are those in which the electrical
behavior is based on the electronic structure inherent to the purematerial. When the electrical
characteristics are dictated by impurity atoms, the semiconductor is said to be extrinsic. See
Appendix A for further information regarding the different materials and their characteristics.
This chip is further divided into two parts or regions which are separated by a boundary called a
junction. The p-region is dominated by positive electric charges (holes) and the n-region is
dominated by negative electric charges (electrons). The junction serves as a barrier to the flow of
the electrons between the p and the n-regions. This is somewhat similar to the role of the band-
gap because it determines how much voltage is needed to be applied to the semiconductor chip
before the current can flow and the electrons pass the junction into the p-region.

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 In general, to achieve higher momentum states (with higher velocities), there must be an
empty energy state into which the electron may be excited. (In other words, to achieve a net flow
of electrons in one direction, some electrons must change their wave vectors thereby increasing
their energy.) Band-gaps determine how much energy is needed for the electron to jump from
the valence band to the conduction band. As an electron in the conduction band recombines with
a hole in the valence band, the electron makes a transition to a lower-lying energy state and
releases energy in an amount equal to the band-gap energy. This energy is released in photons.
Normally the energy heats the material. In an LED this energy goes into emitted infrared or
visible light. The bandgapenergy,Egis approximately equal to the emitted photon’s energy.

Eg= h ν

where h is the Planck’s constant , h = 6.626 x 10-34 Js =4.135 x 10-15 eVs The number of photons
may be obtained via the following expression.

N = E / (hν) = (PΔ t )/[h(c/λ)] = (λPΔt)/(hc)

The diode current on the other hand, is related to the band-gap energy via the following formula

J = J1 exp [(e(V-Vg))/kT] for eV/kT>>1

If a large enough electric potential difference (voltage) is absent, across the anode and cathode,
the junction serves as an electric potential barrier to the flow of electrons. When sufficient
voltage is applied across the chip of the LED, the electron has enough driving force to move in
one direction over the junction that separates the p-region and the n-region. The p-region (holes)

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is where the positive charge forms the majority of charges. (Implicitly, there are also negative
charges but they are the minority). Vice versa for the n-region. The electrons from the n-region
basically flow across the junction into the p-region. In the pregion, the electrons are attracted to
the positive charges due the mutual Coulombic forces of attraction between opposite charges of
same magnitude. Thus “recombination” occurs. After every successful recombination, electric
potential energy is transformed into electromagnetic energy. This releases a quantum
electromagnetic energy that is emitted in
the form of a photon of light with frequencies characteristic of the semiconductor that was used
in the process. These photons have specific wavelengths thus specific colors according to the
different materials used. Therefore, different compositions of the chemical elements used in the
manufacturing of the semiconductor results in different colors emitted as well as different
energies needed to light them. The electrical energy is in proportion to the voltage required to
enable the electrons to flow across the p-n junction. Predominantly, LEDs emit light of a single
color. The energy (E) of the light emitted is related to the electric charge (q) of an electron and
the voltage (V)required to power the LED by the equation:

E = qV (Joules)

This equation or expression depicts that the voltage is proportional to the electric energy, and
encompasses any circuit that has any electrical components. The constant q is the electric charge
of a single electron which is given the value

q = -1.6 x10-19 Coulomb.

As the voltage required to light the LED differs from manufacturer, therefore the energy required
to light the LED also differs accordingly. The frequency of light (f) is related to the wavelength
of light by the following formula
f=c/λ
where
c is the speed of light (3 x 10 8 m/s) and λis the wavelength of light obtained from a spectrometer
(in units of nanometers or 10-9 meters). This equation gives the frequency at which the LED
emits most of its light.

4.2 Visibility

Luminous intensity (Iv) does not represent the total light output from an LED. Both the
luminous intensity and the spatial radiation pattern (viewing angle) must be taken into
account. If two LEDs have the same luminous intensity value, the lamp with the larger
viewing angle will have the higher total light output.

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Theta one-half (q½) is the off-axis angle where the
LED's luminous intensity is half the intensity at direct
on-axis view. Two times q½ is the LEDs' full
viewing angle; however, light emission is visible
beyond the q½ point. Viewing angles listed in this
catalog are identified by their full viewing angle
(2q½ °).

LED viewing angle is a function of the LED chip

type and the epoxy lens that distributes the light. The
highest luminous intensity (mcd rating) does not
equate to the highest visibility. The light output from
an LED chip is very directional. A higher light output
is achieved by concentrating the light in a tight beam.
Generally, the higher the mcd rating, the narrower the viewing angle.

The shape of the encapsulation acts as a lens magnifying the light from the
LED chip. Additionally, the tint of the encapsulation affects the LED's
visibility. If the encapsulation is diffused, the light emitted by the chip is
more dispersed throughout the encapsulation. If the encapsulation is non-
diffused or water clear, the light is more intense, but has a narrower viewing
angle. Non-diffused and water clear LEDs have identical viewing angles; the
only difference is, water clear encapsulations do not have a tint to indicate
color when the LED is not illuminated.

 Overall visibility can be enhanced by increasing the number of LED chips in the
encapsulation, increasing the number of individual LEDs, and utilizing secondary optics
to distribute light. To illustrate, consider similar red GaAlAs LED chip technology in
four different configurations:

In each case, the amount of visible light depends on how the LED is being viewed. The single
chip may be appropriate for direct viewing in competition with high ambient light. The 6-chip
may be better suited to backlight a switch or small legend, while the cluster or lensed LED may
be best to illuminate a pilot light or larger lens.

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4.3 Operating Life

Because LEDs are solid-state devices they are not subject to catastrophic failure when operated
within design parameters. DDP® LEDs are designed to operate upwards of 50,000 hours at 25°C
ambient temperature. Operating life is characterized by the degradation of LED intensity over
time. When the LED degrades to half of its original intensity after 50,000 hours it is at the end of
its useful life although the LED will continue to operate as output diminishes. Unlike standard
incandescent bulbs, DDP® LEDs resist shock and vibration and can be cycled on and off without
excessive degradation.

4.4 Voltage/Design Current

LEDs are current-driven devices, not voltage driven. Although drive current and light output are
directly related, exceeding the maximum current rating will produce excessive heat within the
LED chip due to excessive power dissipation. The result will be reduced light output and reduced
operating life.

LEDs that are designed to operate at a specific voltage contain a built-in current-limiting resistor.
Additional circuitry may include a protection diode for AC operation or full-bridge rectifier for
bipolar operation. The operating current for a particular voltage is designed to maintain LED
reliability over its operating life.

4.5Precautions While Working With LEDs

General

We cannot assume any responsibility for any accident or damage caused when the products are
used beyond the maximum ratings specified herein.

The user of these products must confirm the performance of the LEDs after they are actually
assembled into the user's products/systems. It is strongly advised that he user design fail-safe

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products/systems. We will not be responsible for legal matters which are caused by the
malfunction of these products/systems.

LED Lamps

Static Electricity and Surge

Static electricity and surge damage LEDs. It is recommended to use a wrist band or anti-
electrostatic glove when handling the LEDs. All devices, equipment and machinery must be
electrically grounded.

Lead Forming

The leads should be bent at a point at least 3mm

from the epoxy resin of the LEDs.

Bending should be performed with the base firmly

fixed by means of a jig or radio pliers.

Mounting Method

The leads should be formed so they are aligned

exactly with the holes on the PC board. This will
eliminate any stress on the LEDs.

Use LEDs with stoppers or resin spacer to

accurately position the LEDs. The epoxy resin base
should not be touching the PC board when mounting the LEDs. Mechanical stress to the resin
may be caused by the warping of the PC board when soldering.

The LEDs must not be designed into a product or

system where the epoxy lens is pressed into a
plastic or metal board. The lens part of the LED
must not be glued onto plastic or metal. The
mechanical stress to the leadframe must be
minimized.

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Soldering

Solder the LEDs no closer than 3mm from the base of the epoxy resin.

For solder dipping, it may be necessary to fix the LEDs for correct positioning. When doing this,
any mechanical stress to the LEDs must be avoided.

When soldering, do not apply any mechanical force to the leadframe while heating.

Repositioning after soldering must be avoided.

Cleaning

Avoid exposure to chemicals as they may attack the LED surface and cause discoloration. When
washing is required, "isopropyl alcohol" is to be used.

The influence of ultrasonic cleaning on the LEDs differs depending on factors such as oscillator
output and the way in which the LEDs are mounted. Therefore, ultrasonic cleaning should only
be performed after making certain that it will not cause any damage.

Emission color

LED emission wavelengths vary. LEDs are classified by emission color into different ranks.
When a large volume of LEDs are purchased, LEDs with different color ranks will be delivered

Eye Protection

LEDs are very bright. DO NOT look directly into the LED light!! The light can be intense
enough to injure human eyes.

4.6 Color

LEDs are highly monochromatic, emitting a pure color in a narrow frequency range. The color
emitted from an LED is identified by peak wavelength (lpk) and measured in nanometers (nm ). 

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Peak wavelength is a function of the LED chip material. Although process variations are ±10
NM, the 565 to 600 NM wavelength spectral region is where the sensitivity level of the human
eye is highest. Therefore, it is easier to perceive color variations in yellow and amber LEDs than
other colors.

LEDs are made from gallium-based crystals that contain one or more additional materials such as
phosphorous to produce a distinct color. Different LED chip technologies emit light in specific
regions of the visible light spectrum and produce different intensity levels.

White Light
When light from all parts of the visible spectrum overlap one another, the additive mixture of
colors appears white. However, the eye does not require a mixture of all the colors of the
spectrum to perceive white light. Primary colors from the upper, middle, and lower parts of the
spectrum (red, green, and blue), when combined, appear white. To achieve this combination with
LEDs requires a sophisticated electro-optical design to control the blend and diffusion of colors.
Variations in LED color and intensity further complicate this process.

Presently it is possible to produce white light with a single LED using a phosphor layer (Yttrium
Aluminum Garnet) on the surface of a blue (Gallium Nitride) chip. Although this technology
produces various hues, white LEDs may be appropriate to illuminate opaque lenses or backlight
legends. However, using colored LEDs to illuminate similarly colored lenses produces better
visibility and overall appearance.

4.7 Intensity
LED light output varies with the type of chip, encapsulation, efficiency of individual wafer lots
and other variables. Several LED manufacturers use terms such as "super-bright," and "ultra-

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bright" to describe LED intensity. Such terminology is entirely subjective, as there is no industry
standard for LED brightness.

The amount of light emitted from an LED

is quantified by a single point, on-axis
luminous intensity value (Iv). LED
intensity is specified in terms of
millicandela (mcd). This on-axis
measurement is not comparable to mean
spherical candlepower (MSCP) values
used to quantify the light produced by
incandescent lamps.

Eye Safety Information

The need to place eye safety labeling on LED products is dependent upon the product design and
the application. Only a few LEDs produce sufficient intensity to require eye safety labeling.
However, for eye safety, do not stare into the light beam of any LED at close range

Packaging

The leadframes of the LEDs are coated with silver. Care must be taken to maintain a clean
storage atmosphere. If the LEDs are exposed to gases such as hydrogen sulfide, it may cause
discoloration of the leadframes.

Moistureproof packing is used to keep moisture away from the chip type LEDs. When storing
chip type LEDs, please use a sealable package with a moisture absorbent material inside.

4.8 Heat Dissipation

When many LEDs are mounted into a small area, heat generation must be taken into
consideration. If there is a possibility that the ambient temperature may exceed 60 degrees
centigrade, some kind of forced cooling system will be needed

The ambient operating temperature must be taken into consideration when a product/ system is
being designed. There are certain limits to maximum current, at certain temperatures which must
be kept in mind.

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5 Advantages

 Efficiency: LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent bulbs. Their efficiency is
not affected by shape and size, unlike Fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.
 Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as
traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.
 Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2[74]) and are easily populated onto
printed circuit boards.
 On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full
brightness in under a microsecond LEDs used in communications devices can have even
faster response times.
 Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent
lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or HID lamps that require a long time before
restarting.
 Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or
lowering the forward current.
 Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of
IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as
heat through the base of the LED.
 Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of
incandescent bulbs.
 Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to
50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent
tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the
conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000–2,000 hours.
 Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with
external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile.
 Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and
fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a
usable manner.
 Low toxicity: LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike fluorescent lamps.

Disadvantages

 High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial
capital cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense
partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power
supplies needed.
 Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient
temperature of the operating environment. Over-driving an LED in high ambient
temperatures may result in overheating the LED package, eventually leading to device
failure. Adequate heat sinking is needed to maintain long life. This is especially

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 important in automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must operate over a
wide range of temperatures, and need low failure rates.
 Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a
current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power
supplies.
 Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black
body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at
500 nm can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED
illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism, red surfaces
being rendered particularly badly by typical phosphor based cool-white LEDs. However,
the color rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is
now available in state-of-art white LEDs.
 Area light source: LEDs do not approximate a “point source” of light, but rather a
lambertian distribution. So LEDs are difficult to apply to uses needing a spherical light
field. LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few degrees. In contrast, lasers can emit
beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less.
 Blue hazard: There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable
of exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety
specifications such as ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1-05: Recommended Practice for
Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems.
 Blue pollution: Because cool-white LEDs (i.e., LEDs with high color temperature) emit
proportionally more blue light than conventional outdoor light sources such as high-
pressure sodium vapor lamps, the strong wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering
means that cool-white LEDs can cause more light pollution than other light sources. The
International Dark-Sky Association discourages using white light sources with correlated
color temperature above 3,000 K.

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6.Applications
6.1 Sensor Application

 Medical Instrumentation
LED-PHOTODYNAMIC THERAPY FOR CANCER
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a cancer treatment modality that recently has been
applied as adjuvant therapy for brain tumors. PDT consists of intravenously injecting a
photosensitizer, which preferentially accumulates in tumor cells, into a patient and then
activating the photosensitizer with a light source. This results in free radical generation followed
by cell death. The development of more effective light sources for PDT of brain tumors has been
facilitated by applications of space light-emitting diode array technology; thus permitting deeper
tumor penetration of light and use of better photosensitizers. Lutetium Texaphyrin (Lutex) and
Benzoporphyrin Derivative (BPD) are new, second generation photosensitizers that can
potentially imrove PDT for brain tumors. Lutex and BPD have major absorption peaks at 730 nm
and 680 nm respectively, which gives them two distinct advantages. First, longer wavelengths of
light penetrate brain tissue easily so that larger tumors could be treated; and second, the major

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absorption peaks mean that more of the drug is activated upon exposure to light. Tumoricidal
effects of Lutex andBPD have been studied in vitro using canine glioma and human glioblastoma
cell cultures. Using light-emitting diodes (LED) with peak emissions of 728 nm and 680 nm as a
light source, a greater then 50 percent cell kill was measured in both cell lines by tumor DNA
synthesis reduction. The effectiveness of Lutex and BPD against tumor cells in vitro thus
established, we have taken the first step toward determining their in vivo efficacy by performing
experiments to determine the largest doses of both Lutex, or BPD, and light that can be
administered to dogs before toxicity is seen, i.e. the maximum tolerated dose (MTD). Using this
dose allows us to effect maximum tumor cell destruction during in vivo studies. - -
For longer wavelengths of light, the improved NASA LED-technology is required. LED’s are an
effective alternative to lasers for PDT. Laser conversion to near-infrared wavelengths is
inherently costly and inefficient, using an argon ion or KTP/YAG laser beam that is converted by
a dye module, usually to 630 nm. LED’s have been frequently used to emit longer wavelength
broad spectrum near-infrared light of 25-30 nm bandwidths. LED lamps traditionally consist of
an array of semiconducting LED chips. In recent years, improvements in semiconductor
technology have substantially increased the light output of LED chips. A novel type of LED chip
is based on the semiconductor Aluminum Gallium Arsenide (AlGaAs). These LED chips have
been manufactured to emit light with peak wavelengths of 680 and 730 nm, which are optimal
wavelengths for the absorption spectrum of the new photosensitizers used for cancer PDT.
38 Human trials have begun at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Naval Special Warfare
Command and NASAMarshall Space Flight Center.

6.2 Sign Application

Seven-Segment Display
A seven-segment display, or seven-segment indicator, is a form of electronic display device
for displaying decimalnumerals that is an alternative to the more complex dot-matrix displays.
Seven-segment displays are widely used in digital clocks, electronic meters, and other electronic
devices for displaying numerical information…

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 Concepts And Visual Structure

A seven segment display, as its name indicates, is composed of seven elements. Individually on
or off, they can be combined to produce simplified representations of the arabic numerals. Often
the seven segments are arranged in an oblique (slanted) arrangement, which aids readability. In
most applications, the seven segments are of nearly uniform shape and size (usually elongated
hexagons, though trapezoids and rectangles can also be used), though in the case of adding
machines, the vertical segments are longer and more oddly shaped at the ends in an effort to
further enhance readability.Each of the numbers 0, 6, 7 and 9 may be represented by two or more
different glyphs on seven-segment displays.The seven segments are arranged as a rectangle of
two vertical segments on each side with one horizontal segment on the top, middle, and bottom.
Additionally, the seventh segment bisects the rectangle horizontally. There are also fourteen-
segment displays and sixteen-segment displays (for full alphanumerics); however, these have
mostly been replaced by dot-matrixdisplays.The segments of a 7-segment display are referred to
by the letters A to G, as shown to the right, where the optional DP decimal point (an "eighth
segment") is used for the display of non-integer numbers.The animation to the left cycles through
the common glyphs of the ten decimal numerals and the six hexadecimal "letter digits" (A–F). It
is an image sequence of a "LED" display, which is described technology-wise in the following
section. Notice the variation between uppercase and lowercase letters for A–F; this is done to
obtain a unique, unambiguous shape for each letter (otherwise, a capital D would look identical
to an 0 (or less likely O) and a capital B would look identical to an 8).

Seven segments are, effectively, the fewest required to represent each of the ten Hindu-Arabic
numerals with a distinct and recognizable glyph. Bloggers have experimented with six-segment
and even five-segment displays with such novel shapes as curves, angular blocks and serifs for
segments; however, these often require complicated and/or non-uniform shapes and sometimes
create unrecognizable glyphs.

Signal Applications With LEDs

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The advancements in InGaAlP&GaN technology have fostered the adoption of LEDs in a variety
of outdoor applications including traffic signals. Today, nearly 50% of all LED traffic signal
installations are supported by electric utility subsidy programs. Almost every major city in North
America and abroad is using LEDs in traffic signal applications. LEDs offer enormous benefits
over traditional incandescent lamps including:

 Energy savings (up to 85% less power than incandescent

 Reduction in maintenance costs. LEDs lifespan averages 7-10 years
 Increased visibility in daylight and adverse weather conditions

6.3 Automative Applications

, Marktech Optoelectronics offers LEDs that are designed to meet the requirements of VTCSH
(Vehicle Traffic Control Signal Heads) issued by the ITE (Institute of Transportation Engineers)
as well as the European Standard EN12368:2000

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LED lighting in a aircraft cabin of the Airbus A320 Enhanced.

A large LED display behind a disc jockey.

LED destination displays on buses, one with a colored route number.

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LED digital display that can display 4 digits along with points.

Traffic light using LED

Western Australia Police car using LED

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Printhead of an Oki LED printer

LED daytime running lights of Audi A4

6.4 Mobile Application

Led Mobile with no touch

screen

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 Tao Ma´s LED cell phone in call mode (left) and game mode (right).
Designer Tao Ma has recently unveiled an LED cell phone concept, where hundreds of
LEDs replace the conventional screen. Besides boasting a stylish modern appearance, the
LED phone will likely have reduced power consumption, and be quite affordable.
The LEDs, located below the translucent surface of the phone, light up to create all the phone´s
functions and displays. For example, a keypad is displayed when in phone mode, and a sensor
network is located behind the "keys" to pick up touch input.Other LED arrangements are
illuminated for basic functions such as accessing contacts, gaming, SMS (short message service)
and other modes. The phone will probably not be capable of more complex functions like
sending MMS messages.Two AAA batteries are used to power the LED phone, which could be
recharged with a USB dock (included). Due to its simplicity, the phone is expected to be
inexpensive, although pricing and other details are have not been revealed.

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Full led TV

LG INFINIA-FULL LED TV

Infinia, an innovative new family of LED LCD HDTVs from LG Electronics that
delivers “freedom through infinite possibilities,” highlights the company’s 2010 lineup of LED
LCD HDTVs introduced at the International Consumer Electronics Show. LG Infinia HDTVs
(the LE9500, LE8500 and LE7500 series) combine a slim design and thin bezel with enhanced
connectivity and abundant content options. Leading the way to the ultimate home entertainment
experience, the 55- and 47-inch class LG LE9500 sets will be LG’s first 3D-ready models
available in the United States. Infinia is the flagship of LG’s 41-model LED LCD HDTV line -
six new series of LED LCD HDTVs and five new series of LCD HDTVs.

LG HDTV series with LED LCD

“We’re removing barriers to entertainment with very slim LED LCD TVs that couple wireless
connectivity with the most access to online content,” said Peter Reiner, senior vice president,
marketing, LG Electronics USA. “With seamless connectivity and limitless content, LG Infinia
is resetting the standards for design and entertainment as LED LCD TVs are expected to grow to
more than 20 percent of the market this year. Consumers will no longer have to compromise on
picture quality in order to enjoy an ultra-slim design. Together this new Full LED Slim
technology and our wireless connectivity options allow consumers to ‘live borderless’ with the
ultimate in content accsess and convenient installation.

Ultraslim LG Infinia LED HDTV

Leading these introductions are two new LED technologies - Full LED Slim and LED Plus - that
provide cutting-edge picture quality. The unique backlight structure on its Full LED Slim models
(LE9500 and LE8500) allows for the Infinia line’s ultra-slim depth without sacrificing picture
quality. Together, these features provide consumers with infinite possibilities in home
entertainment. LG’s new Full LED Slim technology elevates picture quality with a slim LED
structure that supports detailed local dimming of up to 240 addressable segments (on the 55-inch
class LG LE9500), resulting in an HDTV that provides the deeper black levels and uniform
picture quality which typically could not be achieved on an ultra-thin set. The LG LE9500 series
cabinet depth is only .92 inches with a bezel width of only 8.5mm. LG’s LED Plus technology
(available on the LG LE7500 and LG LE5500 series), also improves picture quality and energy
efficiency by adding a basic local dimming capability of up to 16 addressable segments. The
LE9500, LG LE8500 and LG LE7500 were all recognized with CES 2010 Innovations Awards,
including the “Best of Innovations” distinction in the Online Audio/Video Content category for

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the LE9500.

LG HDTV series offers superior pitcture quality

Broadening consumer entertainment options, LG’s latest series of HDTVs affords consumers
superior picture quality, advanced energy saving options and flexible access to content-on-
demand. LG’s LED LCD HDTVs challenge consumers’ current perceptions of home
entertainment by illustrating what’s possible with superior display technology. LG’s Full LED
Slim series (models LE9500 and LE8500) for example, join an elite group of LED LCD HDTVs
that have achieved THX Display Certification - the industry standard for having the correct
gamma, luminance, and color temperature. This certification demonstrates that select series of
LG HDTVs can recreate the cinema experience at home, making the picture resemble movie
theatre quality. To date, LG is the only manufacturer who has attained this designation for LCD
TV in the U.S. market. LG is also the first manufacturer to include the “THX Bright Room”
setting on its LED LCD HDTVs. This new feature to the THX certification program optimizes
the contrast, gamma and other settings for watching movies in rooms with a lot of ambient light.

LG HDTV Feature Full LED Slim Technology

LG’s exclusive Full LED Slim technology includes detailed local dimming capability, but also
enables the LG LE9500 and LG LE8500 to achieve a slim depth usually limited to conventional
edge-lit models. This unique technology makes it possible for these two models to achieve the
picture quality worthy of THX Display Certification and helps minimize the front bezel of the
TV. This works with the single, edge-to-edge panel of glass to create a design, perfect for any
home environment. Boasting a thin bezel of only 8.5mm, the LG LE9500 brings advanced
technology into the home without being obtrusive. Available in 55-and 47-inch class sizes, this
series also incorporates TruMotion 480Hz for reduced motion blur during fast moving action
sequences.

Entertainment on the LG Infinia HDTV Series

LG’s full line of LED LCD HDTVs - series LG LE9500, LG LE8500, LG LE7500, LG LE5500
and LG LE5400 (in screen sizes 32-inch class and above) - boast a connectivity package with a
variety of entertainment options, including NetCast Entertainment Access. With NetCast,
consumers can access the following content sites for an almost endless array of entertainment
options:
• Skype: Newly added in 2010, this allows consumers to make free video and voice calls over the
Internet to family members and friends (separate camera and other equipment needed).
• Netflix: Updated with Netflix 2.0, consumers can stream movies without a PC.
• VUDU: Allows consumers to instantly buy or rent from an extensive library of movies and TV
titles, including a catalog of more than 3,000 high-definition movies - with no monthly fees or
additional.
• YouTube: Offers the ability to instantly stream millions of Web videos directly from the
Internet.
• Napster: Now Napster subscribers can enjoy unlimited on-demand streaming music from

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millions of songs on their Netcast TV.
• Yahoo! Widgets: Enables access to various applications called TV Widgets that allow viewers
to interact with popular Internet services and online media through applications specifically
tailored to the needs of the watcher, such as Yahoo! News, Weather and Finance, and new
widgets,incl. CBS,Showtime.

6.5 Non-visual applications

Light has many other uses besides for seeing. LEDs are used for some of these. The uses fall in
three groups: Communication, sensors and light matter interaction.

The light from LEDs can be modulated very quickly so they are used extensively in optical fiber
and Free Space Optics communications. This includeremote controls, such as for TVs and VCRs,
where infrared LEDs are often used. Opto-isolators use an LED combined with a photodiode or
phototransistor to provide a signal path with electrical isolation between two circuits. This is
especially useful in medical equipment where the signals from a low voltage sensor circuit
(usually battery powered) in contact with a living organism must be electrically isolated from
any possible electrical failure in a recording or monitoring device operating at potentially
dangerous voltages. An optoisolator also allows information to be transferred between circuits
not sharing a common ground potential.

Many sensor systems rely on light as the signal source. LEDs are often ideal as a light source due
to the requirements of the sensors. LEDs are used as movement sensors, for example in optical
computer mice. The Nintendo Wii's sensor bar uses infrared LEDs. In pulse oximeters for
measuring oxygen saturation. Some flatbed scanners use arrays of RGB LEDs rather than the

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typical cold-cathode fluorescent lamp as the light source. Having independent control of three
illuminated colors allows the scanner to calibrate itself for more accurate color balance, and there
is no need for warm-up. Further, its sensors only need be monochromatic, since at any one time
the page being scanned is only lit by one color of light. Touch sensing: Since LEDs can also be
used as photodiodes, they can be used for both photo emission and detection. This could be used
in for example a touch-sensing screen that register reflected light from a finger or stylus.

Many materials and biological systems are sensitive to, or dependent on light. Grow lights use
LEDs to increase photosynthesis in plants and bacteria and viruses can be removed from water
and other substances using UV LEDs for sterilization.Other uses are as UV curing devices for
some ink and coating methods, and in LED printers.

Plant growers are interested in LEDs because they are more energy efficient, emit less heat (can
damage plants close to hot lamps), and can provide the optimum light frequency for plant growth
and bloom periods compared to currently used grow lights: HPS (high pressure sodium), MH
(metal halide) or CFL/low-energy. However, LEDs have not replaced these grow lights due to
higher price. As mass production and LED kits develop, the LED products will become cheaper.

LEDs have also been used as a medium quality voltage reference in electronic circuits. The
forward voltage drop (e.g., about 1.7 V for a normal red LED) can be used instead of a Zener
diode in low-voltage regulators. Red LEDs have the flattest I/V curve above the knee. Nitride-
based LEDs have a fairly steep I/V curve and are useless for this purpose. Although LED
forward voltage is far more current-dependent than a good Zener, Zener diodes are not widely
available below voltages of about 3 V.

Light sources for machine vision systems

Machine vision systems often require bright and homogeneous illumination, so features of
interest are easier to process. LEDs are often used for this purpose, and this is likely to remain
one of their major uses until price drops low enough to make signaling and illumination uses
more widespread. Barcode scanners are the most common example of machine vision, and many
low cost ones use red LEDs instead of lasers. Optical computer mice are also another example of
LEDs in machine vision, as it is used to provide an even light source on the surface for the
miniature camera within the mouse. LEDs constitute a nearly ideal light source for machine
vision systems for several reasons:

The size of the illuminated field is usually comparatively small and machine vision systems are
often quite expensive, so the cost of the light source is usually a minor concern. However, it
might not be easy to replace a broken light source placed within complex machinery, and here
the long service life of LEDs is a benefit.

LED elements tend to be small and can be placed with high density over flat or even shaped
substrates (PCBs etc.) so that bright and homogeneous sources can be designed which direct
light from tightly controlled directions on inspected parts. This can often be obtained with small,
low cost lenses and diffusers, helping to achieve high light densities with control over lighting

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levels and homogeneity. LED sources can be shaped in several configurations (spot lights for
reflective illumination; ring lights for coaxial illumination; back lights for contour illumination;
linear assemblies; flat, large format panels; dome sources for diffused, omnidirectional
illumination).

LEDs can be easily strobed (in the microsecond range and below) and synchronized with
imaging. High power LEDs are available allowing well lit images even with very short light
pulses. This is often used to obtain crisp and sharp “still” images of quickly moving parts.

LEDs come in several different colors and wavelengths, allowing easy use of the best color for
each need, where different color may provide better visibility of features of interest. Having a
precisely known spectrum allows tightly matched filters to be used to separate informative
bandwidth or to reduce disturbing effects of ambient light. LEDs usually operate at
comparatively low working temperatures, simplifying heat management and dissipation. This
allows using plastic lenses, filters, and diffusers. Waterproof units can also easily be designed,
allowing use in harsh or wet environments (food, beverage, oil industries).

7 Conclusion
Light Emitting Diodes has such a profound impact on society. It affects our daily lives as
well as activities. It is used in so many applications and so many places. With Light Emitting
Diodes, so many significant improvements to already existing technology could be made.
Historically the LED market has experienced signal digit growth of about 8.5 percent. The laser
diode market has experienced double-digit growth in the past of approximately 30.0 percent and
once economic conditions improve it is anticipated that the market will experience strong growth
rates once again. As this technology expands, so does our horizon and our conquest for the
betterment of today’s technology. Light Emitting Diodes truly is a great invention of the age.

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8 References

1. Alan J. Heeger, Alan G. MacDiarmid and Hideki ShirakawaThe Royal Swedish Academy of
Sciences,Sweden,http://www.nobel.se/chemistry/laureates/2000/public.html,,AccessedNove
mber 8, 2002.

2. Lumen Maintenance of White Luxeon Power Light Sources,

http://www.lumileds.com/pdfs/AB07.PDF, Accessed November 4, 2002.

3. Pang, Grantham; Kwan, Thomas; Liu Hugh; Chan, Chi-Ho, “LED traffic light as as
communications device”, University of Hong Kong ,Hong Kong, 1999, p 789

4. Data Display Products, http://www.ddp-leds.com/applicationnotes.htm, Accessed

November 10, 2002

5. Callister, William D., Fundamentals of Material Science and Engineering / An Interactive

e-text, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2001. p. 377

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6. Callister, William D., Fundamentals of Material Science and Engineering / An Interactive
e-text, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2001. p. 378

7. LED Device Structure, StarNine Technologies, http://hyperphysics.phyastr.

gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/leds.html, Accessed 30 November 2001

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