Introduction

to
cell biology
Caril Alvin kradril
SHS general biology 1
Department of biology
College of science
Polytechnic university of the Philippines
OBJECTIVES:

 Explain the postulates of the cell theory;

 Describe the structure and function of major and subcellular
organelles;
 Distinguish prokaryotic from eukaryotic cells according to their
distinctive features;
 Classify different cell types and specify the function(s) of each;
and
 Describe some cell modifications that lead to adaptation to carry
out specialized functions.
 I. THE CELL:
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND THEORY
 THE CELL THEORY
I. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
II. The cell is the basic structure and organization in organism.
III. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
SOME HISTORICALLY IMPORTANT EVENTS IN CELL BIOLOGY
A.
 1590 – Zacharias JansenA invented the
compound microscope.

 1665 – Robert HookeB, using an improved

compound microscope, examined cork and B.
used the term “cell” to describe its basic
units.

 1650 to 1700 – Anton Van LeeuwenhoekC,

using a good quality simple lens (mag. x200),
C.
observed nuclei and unicellular organisms,
including bacteria. In 1676, bacteria were
described for the first time as “animalcules”.
 a

 1831 to 1833 – Robert Browna described the

nucleus as a characteristic spherical body in
plant cells.
b

 1838 to 1839 – Matthias Schleidenb (a botanist)

and Theodore Schwannc (a zoologist)
produced the “cell theory” which unified the c
ideas of the time by stating that the basic unit
of structure and function in living organisms
is the cell.

 1840 – Jonnanes Purkinjed gave the name

protoplasm to the contents of cells, realising
that the latter were the living material, not the d
cell walls.
o Later the term cytoplasm was introduced
(cytoplasm + nucleus = protoplasm).
 1855 – Rudolf Virchow showed
that all cells arise from pre-
existing cells by cell division.

 1866 – Ernst Haeckel established

that the nucleus was responsible
for storing and transmitting
heredity characters.

 1866 to 1888 – Cell division

studied in detail and
chromosomes described.
 1880 to 1883 – plastids, e.g. chloroplasts, discovered.
 1890 – mitochondria discovered.
 1898 – Golgi apparatus discovered.
 1887 to 1900 – improvements in microscopes, fixatives, stains and
sectioning.
o Cytology† started to become experimental.
o Embryology was studied to established how cells interact
during growth of a multicellular organism.
o Cytogenetics‡, with its emphasis on the functioning of the
nucleus in heredity, became a branch of cytology.
 1900 – Mendel’s work, forgotten since
1865, was rediscovered giving an
impetus to cytogenetics.
o Light microscope had almost reached
the theoretical limits of resolution,
thus slowing down the rate of
progress.
 1930s – Electron microscope developed,
enabling much improved resolution.
 1946 to present – Electron microscope
became widely used in biology, revealing
much more detailed structure in cells.
o This “fine” structure is called
ultrastructure.
 Who gave this statement???
 “I saw thousands of tiny empty
chambers in cork and called it cells”
(1665).
 “I observed tiny living organisms”
(1676).
 “As I observed in my studies, all plants
are made up of cells” (1838).
 “All animals are made up of cells”
(1839).
 “Please mate, all cells came from pre-
existing cells” (1858).
II. CELLULAR ULTRASTRUCTURE AND
FUNCTIONS
THREE (3) MAJOR COMPONENTS
 CELL MEMBRANE

 Structure:
 Two layers of lipid (bilayer)
sandwiched between two
(2) protein layers.

 Functions:
 A partially permeable
barrier controlling
exchange between the cell
and its environment.
 Summary of the Features of Biological Membranes

 Different types of membranes differ in

thickness but most fall within the
range 5-10 nm, for example cell surface
membranes are 7.5 nm wide.

 Membranes are lipoprotein structures

(lipid + protein), with carbohydrates
(sugar) portions attached to the
external surfaces of some lipid and
protein molecules. Typically, 2–10% of
the membranes is carbohydrate.
 The lipids spontaneously form a
bilayer owing to their polar heads
and non-polar tails.
 The proteins are variable in function.
 The sugar are involved in
recognition mechanisms.
 The two (2) sides of a membrane
may differ in composition and
properties.
 Both lipids and proteins show rapid
lateral diffusion in the plane of the
membrane unless anchored or
restricted in some way.
 CELL WALL

 Structure:
 A rigid cell wall surrounding
the cell, consisting of
cellulose microfibrils running
through a matrix of other
complex polysaccharides,
namely hemicellulose and
pectic substances.
 May be secondarily
thickened in some cells.
 Functions:
 Provides mechanical support
and protection.
 It allows a pressure potential
to be developed which aids in
support.
 It prevents osmotic bursting of
the cell.
 It is a pathway for movement
of water and mineral salts.
 Various modifications, such as
lignification, for specialized
functions.
 NUCLEUS

 Structure:
 Largest cell organelle, enclosed
by an envelope of two (2)
membranes that is perforated by
nuclear pores.
 It contains chromatin which is
the extended form taken by
chromosomes during
interphase.
 It also contains a nucleolus.
o Nuclear envelope – composed of a lipid bilayer that separates the
nuclear content from the cytoplasm.
• The double membrane is separated by approximately 50 nm.
• The outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum.
o Nuclear pores – selective channels that facilitates the inward and
outward movement of molecules.
o Nucleoplasm – the fluid portion of the nucleus where the genetic
material is suspended.
o Nucleolus – a suborganelle of nucleus, the site where the subunits of
the ribosome are assembled and include the synthesis and
maturation of ribosomal RNA for release in the cytoplasm where
protein synthesis occurs.
• Around 10, 000 ribosomes per minutes are needed by the cells.
o DNA molecule – a long strand present
in the nucleus, which wounds around
histone proteins to form a helical
structure termed as chromatin strands.

o Chromosomes – formed during cell

division by the condensation of
chromatin strands.
• In prokaryotes, the chromosomes
are circular and no membrane
enclosing the chromosomes.
 Functions:
 Chromosome contain DNA, the
molecule of inheritance.
 DNA is organized into genes
which control all the activities of
the cell.
 Nuclear division is the basis of
cell replication, and hence
reproduction.
 The nucleolus manufactures
ribosomes.
 RIBOSOMES

 Structure:
 Very small organelles
consisting of a large and a
small subunit.
 They are made of roughly
equal parts of protein and
RNA.
 Slightly smaller ribosomes are
found in mitochondria and
chloroplasts in plants.
 Functions:
 Sites of protein synthesis,
holding in place the various
interacting molecules involved.
 They are either bound to the ER
or lie free in the cytoplasm.
 They may form polysomes
(polyribosomes), collections of
ribosomes strung along
messenger RNA.
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

 Structure:
 A system of flattened, membrane-
bounded sacs called cisternae,
forming tubes and sheets.
 It is continuous with the outer
membrane of the nuclear
envelope.
 Functions:
 If ribosomes are found on its
surface it is called rough ER,
and transports proteins made
by the ribosomes through the
cisternae.
 Smooth ER, (no ribosomes) is a
site of lipid and steroid
synthesis or detoxification of a
variety of poisons within the
cell.
 GOLGI APPARATUS

 Structure:
 A stack of flattened, membrane-
bounded sacs, called cisternae,
continuously being formed at
one end of the stack and
budded off as vesicles at the
other.
 Stacks may form discrete
dictyosomes as in plant cells, or
an extensive network as in
many animal cells.
 Functions:
 Packaging, sorting and refining
of products that the cells are
making.
 Processing in cisternae and
transport in vesicles of many
cell materials, such as enzymes
from the ER.
 Often involved in secretion and
lysosome formation.
 The intricate connection of other organelles in the process of creating cellular
products beginning from the nucleus.
 MITOCHONDRIA (sing. Mitochondrion)

 Structure:
 Surrounded by an envelope of two (2)
membranes, the inner being folded to
form cristae.
 Contains a matrix with a few
ribosomes, a circular DNA molecule
and phosphate granules.

 Functions:
 In aerobic respiration cristae are the
sites of oxidative phosphorylation and
electron transport, and the matrix is the
site of Krebs cycle enzymes and fatty
acid oxidation.
 CHLOROPLAST

 Structure:
 Large plastid containing chlorophyll
and carrying out photosynthesis.
 It is surrounded by an envelope of
two (2) membranes called
thylakoids and contains a gel-like
stroma through which runs a system
of membranes that are stacked in
places to form grana.
 It may store strach.
 The stroma also contains ribosomes,
a circular DNA molecule and lipid
droplets.
 Functions:
 It is the organelle in which
photosynthesis takes place,
producing sugars and other
substances from carbon dioxide
and water using light energy
trapped by chlorophyll.
 Light energy is converted to
chemical energy.
 LYSOSOMES

 Structure:
 A simple spherical sac bounded
by a single membrane and
containing digestive
(hydrolytic) enzymes.
 Contents appear homogenous.
 Functions:
 Many functions, all concerned
with breakdown of structures
and molecules.
 Responsible in digestion of
nutrients, bacteria and damaged
organelles.
 They are also used to destroy
certain cells in the process
known as apoptosis or
programmed cell death during
embryonic development.
 LARGE CENTRAL VACUOLE
o (Smaller vacuoles may occur in plant and
animal cells such as food vacuoles, contractile
vacuoles.)

 Structure:
 A sac bounded by a single membrane
called tonoplast.
 It contains cell sap, a concentrated
solution of various substances, such as
mineral salts, sugars, pigments, organic
acids and enzymes.
 Typically large in mature cells.
 Functions:
 Storage of various substances
including waste products.
 It makes an important
contribution to the osmotic
properties of the cell.
 Sometimes it functions as a
lysosome.
 MICROTUBULES (Tubulin Polymers)

 Structure: Hollow tubes; wall consists of 13 columns of tubulin molecules.

 Diameter: 25 nm with 15 nm lumen
 Protein Subunits: Tubulin, a dimer consisting of alpha-tubulin and beta-
tubulin
 Main Functions:
 Maintenance of cell shape (compression-resisting “girders”).
 Cell motility (as in cilia or flagella).
 Chromosome movements in cell division.
 Organelle movements.
 MICROFILAMENTS (Actin Filaments)

 Structure: Two (2) intertwined strands of actin. Each a polymer of actin

subunits.
 Diameter: 7 nm
 Protein Subunits: Actin
 Main Functions:
 Maintenance of cell shape (tension-bearing elements).
 Changes in cell shape.
 Muscle contraction
 Cytoplasmic streaming
 Cell motility (as in pseudopodia)
 Cell division (cleavage furrow formation)
 INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS

 Structure: fibrous proteins supercoiled into thicker cables.

 Diameter: 8 – 12 nm
 Protein Subunits: One of several different proteins of the keratin
family, depending on cell type.
 Main Functions:
 Maintenance of cell shape (tension-bearing elements).
 Anchorage of nucleus and certain other organelles.
 Formation of nuclear lamina.
 vacuole lysosome

ribosome
nucleolus
mitochondrion

centriole
nucleus
vesicle

cytosol
vesicle rough endoplasmic reticulum

vacuole

mitochondrion smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Golgi apparatus

cytoskeleton cell membrane

III. PROKARYOTIC versus EUKARYOTIC CELLS
 Table 3.1 Similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (Cell Ultrastructure).
PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL
BASIS
Bacteria Archaea Protists Fungi Plants Animals

Plasma membrane Bilayer Monolayer Lipid bilayer

Number of cells Unicellular Unicellular or multi-cellular Multi-cellular

Cell wall Present ??? ??? Present Present Absent

Endoplasmic
Absent Present
reticulum
Golgi apparatus Absent Present
Mitochondria Absent Present
Chromosome Circular in general Linear
Ribosome size 70S 80S
Source: Dela Pena. R. Jr. et.al. 2016. General Biology. JFS Publishing Services. Pp. 19.
 Table 3.2 Similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (Physiology and
Molecular Biochemistry).
PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL
BASIS
Bacteria Archaea Protists Fungi Plants Animals
Site of ATP
Plasma membrane Mitochondria
Production

Quorum
Autocrine
Cell to Cell sensing / Autocrine
??? ??? ??? Paracrine
Signalling feedback Paracrine
Endocrine
inhibition

Storage of
DNA
Genetic Material
Common
Molecular Marker 16S rRNA gene 18S rRNA gene / Mitochondrial genome
for Identification
Source: Dela Pena. R. Jr. et.al. 2016. General Biology. JFS Publishing Services. Pp. 20.
IV. CELLULAR TYPES AND HISTOLOGY
 PLANT TISSUES
 Plant tissues are classified into general
classifications: meristematic and
permanent tissues.

 Meristematic tissues
 Found at the growing ends of roots
and stems as well as in the
peripheral areas of stems.
 These tissues have the tendency to
contain undifferentiated, small and
compact cells.
 Different meristems for specific plant parts:

 APICAL MERISTEMS
 Located on root tips and shoot tips.
 Responsible for the formation and
primary growth of various cells and
tissues:
o Protoderm = dermal tissues
o Ground meristem = cortical cells
o Procambium = vascular tissues
 LATERAL MERISTEMS
 Responsible for the horizontal
expansion of tissues particularly
the cork cambium and vascular
meristem.

 INTERCALARY MERISTEMS
 Responsible for regenerating
removed parts of the plant.
 Occurs between the old tissue
regions of the node and leaf
attachment.
 Permanent tissues
 Made of differentiated cells that can be further grouped into as
lining tissues, fundamental tissues and vascular tissues.
 LINING TISSUES are generally
called as epidermis.
o This is a thin-walled layer of
cells that is used for protection.
o On some epidermal layers, a
thick cuticle of wax is secreted
to prevent water loss of the
plant.
o In some older plants, the surface
of the roots and stems consist of
a tissue made-up of several
corky cells that are resistant to
water called periderm.
 FUNDAMENTAL TISSUES
 are located at the interior of the plant. This kind of tissue is further
classified into three: parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma.

 The most abundant and widely distributed

are the parenchyma, which is characterized
by a thin-walled cells and highly diffuse in
arrangement.
 Most of the tissues that you eat in the fruit,
roots of the carrots and stem of the potato
are made of parenchyma cells.
 Cells with irregular thickening make up the
collenchyma that makes the stem of the pechay
hard to chew.

 Sclerenchyma, on the other hand is made of thick-

walled cells that impart structural support for the
plant.
 This may form a fibrous layer that can also
exist as the hard part of many seed shells and
pits.
 The gritty particles that you can feel in your
mouth when you eat the fruits of chico or pear
are actually sclerenchyma cells.
 Two types of sclerenchyma cells, known as sclereids and fibers, are
specialized entirely for support and strengthening.

 Sclereids which are shorter than fibers and irregular in shape, have
very thick, lignified secondary walls.
 Sclereids impart the hardness to nutshells and seed coats and
the gritty texture to pear fruits.

 Fibers, which are usually arranged in threads, are long, slender,

and tapered.
 Some are used commercially, such as hemp fibers for making
rope and flax fibers for weaving into linen.
 The VASCULAR TISSUES are primarily the xylem
and phloem.

 Xylem serves as a continuous passageway for

the transport of water and dissolved solutes in
an upward direction. Xylem loses their living
material upon maturity but still retain its
function.

 Phloem transports the food within the plant

body until it remains alive to perform its
function.
ANIMAL TISSUES
 Somatic cells (Body Cells)
 Are diverse in the body of
an organism.
 Play a physiological role
in the overall function of
the organism.
 Germinal cells (Gametes /
Reproductive Cells)
 Essential for reproduction.
 These cells are destined to
become either mature sperms
or egg cells.
 Table 4.1 Summary of the difference between somatic and germ cells.

CHARACTERISTICS GERM CELL SOMATIC CELL

Commonly diploid
Hapliod (one copy of
Genetic material (two sets of genetic
genetic material)
material)
Mode of Reproduction Meiosis Mitosis
Found anywhere in
Localization Testis and Ovary
the body
Function Reproduction Systematic physiology

Source: Dela Pena. R. Jr. et.al. 2016. General Biology. JFS Publishing Services. Pp. 24.
 DIVERSITY OF HUMAN CELLS

 The ovum is 120 μm in diameter. The zona

pellucida surrounds the ovum. It contains the
haploid genetic material of the organism.

 The sperm has a head (5 μm) with compact

DNA, body (5 μm) equipped with
mitochondrion, and tail (50 μm). The frontal
head contains an enzyme that allows the cell
to penetrate the zona pellucida. About 100
million sperm count is in the semen.
 The neuron can be 4 – 150 μm with multiple
dendrites and a single axon. Around 100, 000
networks of neurons may connect with one
neuron. Spine cell has an axon that is usually
1 m long.

 Melanocytes are epithelial cells that contain

long branches that lie in keratinocytes. Its
function is to pass the pigment to the
melanosome. Normally, the skin contains
1,500 cells per square millimetre.

 Keratinocyte are scale-like structures full of

keratin, which is devoid of a nucleus or any
organelles.
 Muscle fiber cells are structurally 10 – 100 μm
in diameter, multinucleated due to myoblast
fusion. The most interior part is 1 – 2 μm
myofibrils with many mitochondria.

 Fibroblasts are unspecialized cells of

connective tissue, which can commit to
becoming a cartilage, bone, fat or smooth
muscle cells.

 Hepatocytes are liver cells that are

structurally polyhedral, 20 – 30 μm in
diameter, and sometimes multinucleated.
They are rich in mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum and contain lipid droplets.
 Structure: Polygonal cells that nearly
placed together with very few or no
extracellular matrix.

 Functions:
o Shielding the organism against
harmful infective agents (e.g. skin)

o Uptake and pre-metabolism of

nutrients/drugs (e.g. intestine)

o Sensation (e.g. neuroepithelium)

Types of Epithelial Tissue:
 SIMPLE EPITHELIUM
 Has only one layer of cells.

A. Simple squamous epithelium – flat cells with a non-regular

outline, closely fitted together to form a sheet. This type of
cell is prevalent in the alveoli, endothelium of blood vessels
and covering mesothelium of body cavities.
B. Simple cuboidal epithelium – it has a box-shaped structure
with brush border in its cell lining, usually found in kidneys.
C. Simple columnar epithelium – cylindrical with a noticeable
height plus a striated border. It has goblet cells that secrete
mucus, normally found in the stomach.
Types of Epithelial Tissue:
 STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM
 Comprises of more than one layer of cells
 Classified according the structure of the topmost tissue layer.
A. Stratified squamous epithelium – a multilayer of cell groups,
often found in the skin that protects the organism from
bacterial invasion. It can be keratinized or non-keratinized.
B. Stratified cuboidal epithelium – multi-layered cube-shaped
cells fused together in some glands.
C. Stratified columnar epithelium – stratified, elongated cell
structure often found in the conjunctiva and human salivary
glands.
D. Transitional epithelium – overlapping layers of cells that line
the uterus and urinary bladder.
Examples of Stratified Epithelium: (A) Stratified Non-keratinizing Squamous Epithelium—Esophagus;
(B) Stratified Keratinizing Squamous Epithelium—Palm of the Hand; (C) Stratified Cuboidal
Epithelium—Goblet Cells; (D) Stratified Columnar Epithelium—Larynx; and (E) Transitional
Epithelium—Urothelium—Ureter.
Types of Epithelial Tissue:
 GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
 Distinct due to cells that function for molecular secretion.
 The different types are classified according to:

a) Number of cells – monocellular or multi-cellular

b) Morphology or shape – simple, compound or saccular
c) Types of secretion – serous, mucous or mixed serous-mucous
d) Presence or absence of secretory ducts – endocrine or exocrine;
and
e) The integrity of secretory cells – holocrine, apocrine and
merocrine
 Structure: Groups of tissue that
structurally differ according to
their localization. They can be
fibrous, elastic, reticular or
collagenous.

 Functions: They are important for

support, protection, transport,
insulation and repair. They are also
responsible for blood cell
differentiation or formation
(hematopoiesis) and
immunological responses.
Types of Connective Tissue (CT):

 Collagenous Connective Tissue

 Structure: made up of type II collagen.

 Examples: The fasciae containing loose CT, tendons containing
dense regular CT, and the periosteum containing dense
irregular CT.

A B C

Examples: (A) Loose Connective Tissue—Lip; (B) Dense Regular Connective Tissue—Tendon; and (C) Dense Irregular
Connective Tissue—Eyelid.
Types of Connective Tissue (CT):

 Reticular Connective Tissue

 Structure: made up of type III collagen and usually found in

the supporting structure of the hematopoietic and lymphoid
organs.
 Examples: The basal lamina and stroma of glandular organs.
Types of Connective Tissue (CT):

 Elastic Connective Tissue

 Structure: made up of
type II collagen
containing retractile
fibers with elastin.
 Examples: Usually found
in the trachea, bronchi
and blood vessels.
Examples: (A) Elastic Fibers—Auricle (Ear Flap); (B)
Trachea; and (C and D) Descending Thoracic
Aorta.
Types of Connective Tissue (CT):

 Connective Tissues with Special

Properties

 Adipose tissue – acts as

insulator via fat storage and
does mechanical support.
 Mucous connective tissue –
found in the umbilical cord and
young tooth pulp.

Examples: (A) Adipose Tissue; (B) White Adipose

Tissue; (C) Brown Adipose Tissue; and (D, E
and F) Embryonic Connective Tissue—
Gelatinous or Mucous Tissue.
Types of Connective Tissue (CT):
Specialized Connective Tissue:

 Blood and lymph – structurally fiber in dry form that functions

primarily for gas exchange, immunity, hormonal transport, etc.
 Cartilage – structurally made up of elastic fibers and collagen.
Its function is for support and flexibility.
 Bones – structurally a rigid connective tissue composed of
osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts plus a calcified matrix
of organic (collagen and polysaccharides) and inorganic
materials (E.g. calcium).
o Can be cancellous/spongy (irregular branching bony
spicules) or compact (concentric layer surrounding the
Harvesian system).
 Erythrocytes / Red Blood Cells (RBCs)

 These are structurally flat,

biconcave discs, about 7.2 μm in
diameter.
 It does not contain mitochondria,
nucleus and ribosomes.
 They have a lifespan of 120 days.
 There are normally 5 million cells
per blood sample and their function
is to transport oxygen and
nutrients.
 Leukocytes / White Blood Cells (WBCs)

 More like “typical” cells with single

nucleus and organelles.
 Five (5) types of WBCs characterized
2 – 5 days
as granular or agranular. 7 – 12 days
 Average 6000 – 9000 WBCs/cubic
millimetre of blood.
 Variable life span depending on type
of WBC – days (neutrophils) to
decades (lymphocytes); in sick person,
some WBCs live minutes to hours.
2 – 5 days 12 – 15 days
 All function in defence.
 Thrombocytes / Platelets
 They are about 3 – 5 μm of highly structured
cytoplasm with a lifespan of 8 days.
 Normally 200, 000 cells are in μL of blood
sample.
 They function in blood clothing mechanism.

 Megakaryocytes
 They are 35 – 150 μm in diameter, which has
a lobulated nucleus containing 8 – 32
genomes formed by endomitosis.
 They serve as the origin of platelets.
 Lymphocytes

 They are 6 – 8 μm in diameter and with

a minute cytoplasm.
 Normally, there are 5, 000 cells per μL
of blood sample.
 Their lifespan is ½ - 1 day.
 They play a central role in
immunological defence mechanisms.
 Structure: Makes up 40% of a
mammal’s body weight. Mainly
composed of elongated cells.

 Functions: For movement and

locomotion. Other functions varies
according to its location and type.
Types of Muscle Tissue (MT):

 SKELETAL MUSCLE

 Other Names: voluntary, striated, striped

 Structure: Very long cells, usually called fibers, subdivided
into units called sarcomeres. Fibers bound together by
vascular connective tissue.
 Innervation: Under control of the voluntary nervous system
via motor nerves from the brain and spinal cord (neurogenic).
 Activity: Powerful, rapid contractions, short refractory period,
therefore fatigues quickly.
 Locations: Attached to the skeleton in the trunk, limbs and
head.
Types of Muscle Tissue (MT):
 SMOOTH MUSCLE

 Other Names: Unstriated, involuntary, unstriped

 Structure: Consists of individual, spindle-shaped cells,
associated in bundles or sheets.
 Innervation: Under control of autonomic nervous system
(neurogenic).
 Activity: Shows sustained rhythmical contraction and
relaxation, as in peristalsis.
 Locations: In walls of intestinal, genital, urinary and
respiratory tracts, and the walls of blood vessels.
Types of Muscle Tissue (MT):
 CARDIAC MUSCLE

 Other Name: Heart

 Structure: Cells terminally branched and connected to each
other by special interdigitating surface processes, the
intercalated discs. Arrangement of fibers is three-dimensional.
 Innervation: Myogenic, but rate of contraction can be
influenced by the autonomic nervous system.
 Activity: Rapid rhythmical contraction and relaxation, long
refractory period, therefore does not fatigue; contraction not
sustained.
 Location: Found only in the walls of the heart chambers.
 NERVE TISSUE
 Structure: Composed of densely packed
interconnected nerve cells called neurons
(as many as 1010 in the human brain).
Little intercellular space between them.
Also contains receptor cells, and is
frequently ensheathed by vascularized
connective tissue.
 Functions: Receives stimuli from the
environment and internal signals, which
produce relay functionality. The
functionality is dependent on synapses,
which serve as the site for the
physiological relay if signals.
Classification of neurons is based on:

 Function
 Sensory neurons – responsible for transmission of signals from the
environment or other parts of the body to the central nervous system
(CNS).
 Interneurons – for the integration and processing signals.
 Motor neurons – command the effector organs.

 A number of processes
 Unipolar – one process
 Bipolar – two processes
 Multipolar – multiple processes
 The length of signal relay
 Interneurons – small neurons (connector) whose axons are
contained within a specific area of the brain.
 Projection neurons (excitatory) – have long axons projecting to
distant targets or other brain regions.

 Chemical messenger
 Cholinergic (e.g., acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter)
 Adrenergic (e.g., epinephrine and norephinephrine)
 Dopaminergic (e.g., dopamine)
 Serotonergic (e.g., serotonin)
 V. CELLULAR
MODIFICATIONS
 SPORES

 Spore formation is a special

modification in bacteria.
 Particularly functions as a
defence mechanisms to heat,
high pressure and stress.
 The spore will transform into a
new organism once exposed to
a more favourable
environment.
 Usually contain 30% water.
 FLAGELLA AND CILIA
 Flexible membrane extensions structures and often made up of
tubulin proteins.
 Microorganisms use this two (2) special modifications to move to an
area that is favourable for their growth or to their target cells.
 Sperm cells are haploid and contain a flagellum to swim through the
vagina.

 PILI
 Often present in pathogenic bacteria.
 Modifications that enable bacteria to adhere to tissue surfaces.
 DENDRITES AND AXON OF THE NERVE CELLS
 Neurons are specialized cells of the nervous system responsible for
transmitting electrical signals that need to travel relatively long
distances to various parts of the body

o Dendrites – a cellular process (cytoplasmic extension) that

receives an electrical signal from another neuron.

o Axon – transmit an electrical signal from the cell body to

another neuron.
 ACTIN AND MYOSIN
 A pair of special proteins mainly comprises the muscle cells.
 Permits the muscle to contract and elongate for organism
activity.
 ENUCLEATED RED BLOOD CELL
 Red blood cell (RBC) does not
contain a nucleus but contains large
amounts of haemoglobin to
transport oxygen throughout the
body.
 ROOT HAIRS

 Specialized epidermal cells

of plants that increase the
apparent area of roots.
 These cells are widely
believed to play an
important role in plant
nourishment by enabling the
absorption of minerals and
water from the environment.
 Introduction
to
cell biology
Caril Alvin kradril
SHS general biology 1
Department of biology
College of science
Polytechnic university of the Philippines