mpressibility of Soil

Consolidation

established fact that when a material is stressed, it undergoes strain. Soil is no exception. When a
d because of the consruction of a structure, its volume will decrease due to a rearrangement of soil
Eit is assumed that both the soil particles and the water in the voids are incompressible and the soil
saturated, the change in volume of the soil can occur only if water is forced out of the voids. The
&cmward displacement brought about by this volume change shows itself u the settlement of the
crnding over the soil. Since the rate at which the water moves out of the voids is dependent on the
fty of the soil, the settlement of the structure itself is a function of the permeability of the soil and is,
ndependent. While the rate of volume change is related directly to the permeability of the soil, the
ddcformation per unit increase in stress depends on a property of the soil calledits compressibility,
lg property of the soil. The total vertical deformation of a soil layer under stress is, thus, directly
to (a) the compressibility of the soil, (b) the magnitude of stress increase, and (c) the volume of
rthe thickness ofthe layer. The first one is a soil property, the second, a loading condition, and the
*oil boundary condition.
hclusion, it can be said that the problems in soil engineering related to volume change of soil have
lntas that need answering-how much is going to be the magnitude of volume change, and how long
for this change to manifest. The first question has already been answered in the preceding paragraph.
other, permeability has already been seen to figure in a big way. The volume of water that must exit
smrated soil in the deformation process and the boundary conditions are also important considera-
&cide the rate of deformation.

OF TOTALSEITLEMENT

cal engineer is cdlled upon to predict the magnitude of settlement and rate of settlement of
due to structural loads. tf the settlement is excessive, meaning more than what is permissible for
!P.e it may causti structural damage or malfunctioning, especially when the rate of such settlement is
L tfial settlement Sr, of a loaded soil can be recognisld as having three components: the immediate
 Basic and Applied ffi
settlefient Si, the settlementdveto primary consolidatlon S. and the settlement dueto secondary
or creep S*

Sr= Si+ Sc+ S"

The immediate settlement or distortion settlement occurs almost immediately after the load is
result of distortion of the soil without any volume change.This is, of course, an idealised
such a negligible flow of water out of the soil mass that the volume remains essentially the sam
soil is either partially saturated or extremely pervious. The immediate settlement is usually deterrni
the elastic theory, even though the deformation itself is not truly elastic. In the design of shallow
cornputation of immediate settlement has to be made. This will be discussed in Chapter 15.
The squeezing out ofpore water from a loaded saturated soil causing a time-dependent
is known as primary consolidation. Here, the rate of flow is controlled by the pore pressure, the
and the compressibility of the soil. With the passing of time, as the pore pressures dissipate, the
wjll decrease and eventually, the flow ceases altogether, leading to a condition ofconstant effective
signifies the end of primary consolidation. Some soils exhibit time-dependent settlement at
stress in the post-primary consolidation period. This is known as secondary consolidation or creep
Secondary consolidation becomes important for certain types of soil, such as peats and soft organic
stiff clays or preconsolidated clays, this component is relatively minor, as primary consolidation
a major share of the total settlement. For such cases, S, = Si + S..This chapter deals with
magnitude and rate of consolidation settlement.

9.3 COMPRESSIBILITY

The compressibility of a soil will determine how much compression shall take place in that soil
The soil particles realrange themselves into a stable, denser configuration as the pore water is
amount of rearrangement and the ensuing compression is a function of the rigidity of the soil
again is directly related to the soil type and its structure. Any soil deposit existing in nature will have
geological origin and stress history. This can also be expected to influence the compressibility of the
for a particular soil deposit, compressibility is related to the magnitade of the effective stress acttng
at that time. The significance of these factors is outlined in the following paragraphs. It should be
that only one-dimensional compressiorris being discussed. The one-dimensional compression
deformation occurs only in the vertical direction a condition which is realised when the loaded
large. The situation becomes slightly different when - deformations are produced by loads acting
areas.

Effects of Soil Type

Granular materials exhibit a compressibility behaviour quite distinct from that of a clay. Figure 9.1 (a)
the results of a compressibility test on a sand. It is plotted in the form of an effective
relationship. The rate of compression decreases as the load increases. The time vs. compression
Fig. 9. I (b) shows that the major part of compression occurs almost instantaneously. Because of the
permeability of sand, it does not take much time for pore water to drain out. This is the reason why a
on a sand soil experiences very little settlement after it has been constructed. Most of the settlement will
have taken place by the time the structure is complete. Even then, if a structure is considered sensitive
settlements, settlement computation has to be carried out in the design of foundations. In the case of
soils, for reasons explained later (Chapter 15), more reliance is placed on field tests than on
for estimating settlements. For granular soils, d = S,.
 ,tirryrrrsrbi/rry
of Soil and Consolidation
223

0.75

0.70
A)
.0.65
o Loose sand
;
I o.so
.!o
- o.5s
--_=t_\
0.50
0
Eflective stress -, kN /m2
(a)

Fig' 9'1 void ratio-effective stress

and compression{ime prots for
sand

'r ;an also be seen from Fig' 9' 1(a) that dense sands are
much ress compressibre than
roose sands.
ffi::ii,'ffi1.:fi"-J:[::,ll5;j5"T::..*1j::",r:+
euarsoits where rhe expursion
Ii!'iu,". r.o, the soi, rn conrrast ro
r nme is needed in fine-grained soils *il.;;k;; J;;;#:ilt"H ;ii::ffTJ*;Ti;:H:j?Ti;
orpore
for p.." *"". to escape. Thus, there is a considerabre tiiie
,ag in
:I:5:H"l:111fl#i:i:j::;;iJ[Tl,,,.:.rJerormation rndeed, it may rake many months
ior derormatio n to be
""*pr "t"a
ii" ;;;, ffi ;#, f ;Tn
j:[#ffity,##|i gff:;
or even

fle' 2 ,;:'-"JT:;:?j'.*,::"T::::::::i:::iy,'- i!,

;;;ti;;;',i.",..,he ,ime orconso,ida,ion
how s the voi d rati o-errecii
s
v"' o"" ."r
'Jl:i1,,'::':,i:::',"","J,',*'"ttt.*:mfr" "iioffi lll!ii', J. ffi
;:':":ffi :., ff '::i'jli' :#
to a sand *ir reig q.id;:il;;:'J,,"-
"o'p*'d

S zc
1, c
I .9 40
Ut
a 0.60 U|
q,
E E60
ci
6 ol
0.
c, aol
0 20t
0 s0
El fective stress 6kN/rnz
(a)
Fig.9.2 Void ratio-effective stress and compression-time plots
for clay
*re basic difference in the compression
behaviour of a granular soil and
trr.' be expressed thus: a granular
soir
that of a fine-grained soil
can,
"orf.o.", atmosiimmeor"i"i, ,r"" roading but the compression
2U Basic and Applied Soit

is relatively small, whereas a fine-grained soil exhibits time-dependent consolidation and the
rather large.

RoIe of Stress Histoty

Soils tend to retain the effects of stress changes that have taken place in their geological history, ir
of their structure. A soil which is subjected to a certain effective stress for the first time in its geologft{
will, obviously, be more compressible than when it has been subjected to a larger effective stress in
history, but is now relieved of that effective stress due to some reason. When a soil is stressed to a
than the maximum stress to which it was ever subjected in the past, perhaps some kind of a
soil structure occurs, resulting in a much higher compressibility, indicated by a steep void
stress(eol curve [Fig.9.3 (a). The initial flatterportion of the e-5curve is called the
the steeper portion after the break in the curve (attributed to a breakdown in structure) is called
compression curve,becatse the soil is experiencing first time stresses in this part. Somewhere
two parts of the curve lies the point (point A) corresponding to the maximum value of stress the
experienced, called preconsolidation srress, 6".
A soil is said to be normally consolidated when the existing effective stress o is the maximum
ever experienced in its stress history. In other words, o = 6,
A soil is said to be preconsolidated or overconsolidated, if the existing effective stress is lesc
preconsolidation stress, that is,6 < 6".
Overconsolidation ratio, OCR, is the ratio of the preconsolidation stress to the present vertical
stress: that is,

oc
OCR=
o
For a normally consolidated soil, OCR11 and for a preconsolidated soil OCR > l.
Soils which are yet to consolidate under the existing overburden pressure, as in the case of a
fill, are sometimes referred to as underconsolidated soils. For these soils, OCR < l.
- Preconsolidation of a soil stratum may occur due to several reasons. For example, a clay
originally consolidated under a large pressure, may later have been relieved of some load
erosion ofthe overburden. Here, a change in total load caused the effective stress to change and
normally consolidated soil to an overconsolidated one. Similarly, a glacier, while it is over a soil, i
When it moves away and the load is withdrawn, the soil deposit is transformed into a
Change in pore water pressure due to (i) desiccation ofthe upper layers due to surface drying; (ii)
elevation of water table; (iii) desiccation due to plant life, and (iv) removal of construction are
factors responsible for preconsolidation.
Some interesting facts emerge from a study of the plots in Fig. 9.3(a) and 9.3(b), obtained by
sample in a consolidometer. BranchAB of the plot represents a soil that has never been subjected to
loads. On the semi-logartthmic plot [Frg. 9.3 (b)], this appears as a straight line. After the load has
value represented by point B, the soil sample is unloaded in stages. Corresponding to this release
expansion curve BC is obtained. It can be seen that the unloading has not restored the soil to the ori
There is a permanent deformation due to an irreversible alteration in the soil structure. The part of
that is recovered is attributed to the elastic rebound ofthe soil skeleton. The specimen is loaded again
unloading. The reloading curve lies slightly above the rebound curve and the two meet just before
is also quite evident that the reloaded soil is not compressed as much as the soil that was not loaded
the semi-logarithmic plot, this portion of the reloading curve for the nol? preconsolidated soil has
 .tr a
of Soil and Consolidation

Yi4in comPresson
cutYe

o- /og q-
(a) (b)

e1

e
,2

cl tos f az
(c )
of C.
9j Void ratio-effective stress curve on arithmetic and semi-logarithmic plots and determination

upwards. A hysteresis loop isformed between the expansion and reloading curves'
If the loading is
oed beyond ioint B, the curve merges smoothly into the straight line DE that would have been
joading not been intem-rpted at B. Anempirical observation that can be made here is that a
had the
id ratio us. Iogirithm of effective stress (eJog 6') ii always a straight line for a normally consolidated
the e- log o plot for an overconsolidated Clay is always seen to have a convex curvature upward'
ation is 6ornl out by a large number of experiments carried out on different soil samples'
"e normally consolidated ctay, it is, therefore, possible to express the compressibility property of the
aoting the slope of the straigtrt line portion oi the e vs. log o plot. This parameter is known as the
index, C,and is given by the equation
et - e2 L"
r - = IFie. 9.3(c)r (e.3)
lo916 62 lo916 61 lop;,s(o2/o)
-
 Basic and
226

for
It should be noted that the compression index is a meaningful parameter only
soils. Its value, however, is a constant for a given soil and is not a
function of the effective
compression index value, larger the resulting vertical deformation in a clay.
il ,-"n";iti" "^prnriln curve [branJh BC in Fig. 9.3(b)] is
the
also sometimes determincd-
equation €2= et + C" tog
I
swelling iiex, C, Tlrc swelling index can be determined using

e2 is the void ratio at a stress 62 after a release in

stress from 61. The swelling index is a

increase in a soil consequent to release of stress'

of the
It will be of great value for a geotechnical engineer to know the magnitude
tion stress. tt wo-uta then be known whether a soil stratum in the field would exhibit the trrl
To the
consolidated soil over the stress range relevant to the soil statum. determine
popular is the one suggested by
several empirical procedures have been proposed. The most
(1936). Casagrande studied the shapes of several e vs. log 6 curves and gave the following
illustrated in Fig. 9.4.

log f
Fig. 9.4. Casagrande construction for determining preconsolidation stress

(i) Byjudgementofeye, pointA,thepointofmaximumcurvatureontheconsolidation

(ii) AtA, a horizontal line is drawn .

(iii) A tangent is drawn to the curve atA.

(iv) The angle obtained by steps (b) and (c) is bisected'
(v) The sfaight line part of the curve is extended back to meet the bisector line obtaind
point of irtersection of these lines (point B) gives the preconsolidation stress 6"'

To obtain the value of 6" , it is best to test an undisturbed, initially overconsolidated

Role of Effective Stress

It has 6gen mentioned earlier that when a stress is applied to a saturated soil, there is flow of
pores. This flow will continue only as long as the hydraulic gradient induced by the pore water
are set'up, is present. Such a flow is callel transientitow. lJnder transient flow, volume redudi
 of Soil and Consolidation

stress is increased. The volume reduction at any instant of time is, in fact, directly related to the
stress at that time and not to the applied total stress.
f,a soil is subjected to a certain increment of stress, 46, it will undergo a decrease in void ratio equal to
h the process, the soil is somewhat densified. If the soil is again subjected to the same magnitude of stress
that is, Ao, this time around, the reduction in void ratio will not be equal to L,ey It will be equal to
than Ae1 @ig. 9.5). Thus, it can be said that the compressibility of a soil decreases as the effective
hL:reases. A parameter called the cofficient of compressibility, a", is used to indicate the slope of the
ip by the equation,
Le
,46
u.,- (e.4)

bc negative as the void ratio decreases with increase in stress. When the sffess increment is small, the
be approximated to a straight ltne and a, can be computed using the relation,
Le
U-.- (e.s)
"46
that the cofficient of compressibility decreases with increase in effective stress.

iY= de-Ae
dF Ad
o^ el
o
'J Qr
g. 'l 2l--T --+-
AA

I
P I
o I ^:l^

dbq c?
Etlective stress f
Fig.9.5 Effective stress-void ratio plot

TE OF CONSOLIDATION

hca mentioned eadier that computation of the total settlement that the foundation of a structure
b but one part of the solution to the problem of soil compression under structural loads. The second
Oe problem is the rate of settlement under the applied load. The time required for the settlement to
is the life span of the structure, is an important consideration. It will give us an idea of how much
r structure will undergo after it is constructed and whether such a settlement will impair its
or not. Certain types of structures, such as a R.C. framed structure, have little tolerance to rapid
while some flexible structures can take large settlements without app:rent distress. Needless to
s on clay soils are rnore prone to settlement-induced problems than those supported by granular
in the latter case, most of the settlement will have occurred by the time the structure is completed.
that follows will focus on the appropriate theories for estimating the time-rate of both primary
compression for fi ne-grained soils.
22E Basic andAppliedffi

Mechanics of Consolidation

Terzaghi(1922) demonstrated with the help of amechanistic model, the process of consolidation
olling the phenomenon. A study of this model will help develop a feel for the interplay of
"ont
involved in consolidation.
The model consists of a cylindrical vessel with a series of pistons separated by springs @3;
space between the springs is filled with water and the pistons are perforated so as to
all
communication to water. Piezometers are inserted at the centres of each of the compartmenB
pressure heads due to excess pore water pressures. Terzaghi has shown that the consolidation
proo
soil subjected to loading is analogous to the behaviour of the spring-piston model. The springs
by water represent the saturated soil. The springs represent the soil skeleton-the network of soil
the water in the vessel represents the water filling the voids in the soil. The perforations in thc
analogous to the voids thit impart permeability to the soil. Since the area of the piston oh whict
placJ is almost equal to the area of the vessel, the compression will be one-dimensional. Water I
only in the verticai direction; in the model discussed here, the flow can take place only upwards-

Fig.9.6 Terzaghi's mechanical model to explain the process of consolidation

Now let a pressure Ao per unit area act on the topmost piston. Immediately upon applicatiu
the length of the springs remains unchanged because the time-elapse is not sufficient to allow esa
through the perforations. The springs cannot carry any load until they compress and, ther
applied pressure Ao must be borne by the water in the vessel. This pore water pressure, Ar is
iyarorntf, pressure, since it is in excess of the original hydrostatic pressure (say, u). The i
hydrostatic pressure(at , 0),
= At is equal to Ao. The water in all the piezometric tubes riscs

elevation ft above the original water level in the vessel,'TnTn

where h = * = *. From the analog;r'

that at, = 0, the applied total stress is carried entirely by pore water; neither the effective stress
nor has any volume decrease occurred.
After a certain small length of time / has elapsed, flow of water through the perforations
only progressively, beginning from the upper compartments. In the lower compartments, the
remains unchanged, since the flow upward has not yet begun here. In the upper comparttr
decrease in volume has occurred because of flow, the springs have compressed a little, which
carrying a portion of the applied load while the excess pore water pressure haSfallen
 I

of Soil and Consolidation

time is small, say /1, there is no decrease or dissipation of excess hydrostatic pressure in the water of
compartments. A curve joining the water levels in the piezometers at any given time is called an

. At , = 0, the isochrone is a horizontal line at an elevation n = *. At r = /r, the isochrone merges

Tn
initial isochrone at elevation ft. From the analogy, it is clear that the volume change of a soil takes
r the effective sfress changes.
Ilr shapes of isochrones at increasing values of time , = tz, 4 etc., in Fig. 9.6 indicate that as more and
passes, there is migration of water from the lower compartments too, leading to a gradual dissipation
hydrostatic pressure and simultaneous compression of springs. Finally, after a very long time, when
ient flow situation comes to a stop, an equilibrium condition results. The excess pore water pressure
in the water is now zero and the entire load is carried by the springs.
lb decrease in soil volume by the squeezing out of the pore water on account of gradual dissipation of
hydrostatic pressure induced by an imposed total stress, is defined as consolidation.
$rne facts concerning consolidation are worth noting here. Prior to the application of total stress, the pore
IrEssure is the same as the hydrostatic pressure. Excess hydrostatic pressures are set up upon loading
generate what is termed as the transient flow condition. Consolidation progresses while the excess
rG pressure dissipates with time. This dissipation occurs first at locations close to the drainage face
compartment in the analogy) and progresses gradually to locations far removed from the drainage
lower compartments). Consolidation or the volume decrease is concomitant with stress transfer from
soil grains. In other words, it is the effective stress which is the cause of volume change in a soil and
bul stress. The time requried for final compression in the Terzaghi model, obviously, depends on the
6cape of water through the perforations-in case of soils, consolidation is, thus, a function of their
. Also, if the springs were less stiff so that the same compression in these would be produced by
load, more water would have to leave the vessel to reach a given stage of consolidation. By analogy,
Ihe compressibility of a soil, greater the volume decrease.
h tte spring-piston model, if the total compression of the set of springs after an elapsed time r is Lh,, and
-ral ss6p1e5sion, the ratio(Ntr/A,h x 100) is called the degree of consoli"dation, U, and indicates the
d consolidation process at a given time. The rate of consolidation of the spring-piston model can be
using principles of rheology. Figure 9.7 shows the theoretical relationship between the degree of
ion U and the elapsed time. However, the plot obtained by laboratory consolidation experiments
u coincide with the theoretical curve all the way. There is a fair degree of convergence upto a degree

Ttroretical curve
(grimary compression I

(secondary conpression )

Fig. 9.7 Consolidation surys-theolgtical and experimental

 Basic and Applied Soil

of consolidation of about 80 per cent, but beyond that, the experimental curve indicates continued
at a slow rate, while the theoretical curve tends to become asymptotic. The additional delayed
ascribed to secondary compression, which occurs after almost all the excess pore water pressure has
In the following paragraph, a theory of consolidation, first developed by Terzaghi, is presenbd-
one-dimensional theory and deals with primary compression.

Terzaghi's Theory of One-dimensional Consolidation

The rate of settlement is directly related to the rate of dissipation of excess pore water pressure.
order to predict the time-rate of consolidation of a consolidating layer, a theory which can predici
pressure at any elapsed time and at any location, is necessary. Terzaghi's theory is one such theory
most popular. The basic relationship can be established on the following assumptions:
(a) Compression and flow are one-dimensional (vertical).
(b) Darcy's law is valid.
(c) The soil is homogeneous.
(d) The soil is completely saturated.
(e) The soil grains and water are both incompressible.
(f) Strains are small; that is, the applied load increment produces virtually no change in
k and a" remain constant.
(g) There is a unique relationship, independent of time, between void ratio and effective
de = - av do, while a, is assumed constant over the sffess increment.

This also implies that there is no secondary compression because if secondary compression
the relationship between void ratio and effective stress would not be unique, as secondary
at constant effective stress.
In Fig. 9.8(a), a layer of clay is shown sandwiched between two sand strata. The clay layer is
an increase in total vertical stress, Ao distributed uniformly over a semi-infinite area. At the instant
that is, , = 0, the excess pore water pressure will increase uniformly by u;(ui= Ao) over the

l
2H
,t.-;i--Z
I'- /lq ll, ,l
i!,1191;rr
.-]:l\\
I t..)t- t.. \r.

ClaY
--r-{g-ro,
-
(consolidating liyer) l=0
b
Sand (drainage layer ) u+
(a) (b)
Fig. 9.8 (a) Section of clay layer (b) Excess pore pressure distribution
 of Soil and Consolidation 23t

rs shown by abcd in Fig. 9.8(b). After a time r has elapsed, because of the drainage into the sand
and below, the distribution of excess pore water pressure will have changed to the shape shown
led portion in Fig.9.8(b).
kca sart by using the condition of continuity of flow, which is applicable to all flow situations. During
Es* sf gensolidation, the most general situation would be the one in which flow occurs in all the three
directions, and the soil element volume also changes by a change in its dimensions in the three

m Lft hand side of the continuity equation represents the amount of water flowing into a soil element,
h*ns dr, dy anddz, minus the amount of water leaving the soil element per unit time. The right hand
ft oquation is an expression for the rate of storage (or depletion) of water in the soil elemeniper unit
hcontinuity equation assumes the form

lhrghi
[*.*.*)*0,0,=#
assu mes a one-dimensional consolidation situation with one-dimensionalflow,a situation which
in field. For flow in z direction, the equation reduces to

(fu\ **0,a,=Y
u! u4- (e.6)
dt
lat J
[r. rssuming that Darcy's law is valid, vz = k,
! ^"athat
the soil is twmogeneous, that is k, # flz),
dr, *'a?
. dzn
E =
'Fl* f is the head which causes flow and the potential that produces flow during consolidation is the
water pressure u, h= u/yn; again, assuming thatyn*fl2),

dr.- k, dzu
E=T.aZ
thus, be written as

!, a'a^
dx dv" dz = Ydt (e.7)
Tn dz'
aconvenient and usable expression for the right hand side ofEq. 9.7, you may recall that during
Process, as the water flows out of the voids, the soil volume decreases by an amount equal to
af wat e r w hic h flow s out.

}IY represents the change in volume of the element dx dy dz and awa (dx dy dz). In a soil
dt dt
lDtwne at aninitial void ratio
1fi;a* al ar.
V equal to dx dy dz e6, the volume of the voids V, =
rr experience change, e would be a variable and

v" = dy dz
iAdx
in the volume of soil is on account of the change in the volume of voids. The volume of soil
rct change and, thus,
 Basic and Applid

# = * @xdvdz)=* [#a d,dvdz)

Since the volume of soil grains which is a constant, is equal ," dx dy dz'
iA
aw= a ( ' d* a, az\=a+-* a'*
at atll.au'LuYuL)- l+es dt
From Eq. 9.5, for small changes in effective stress,

de = - e., ve sign, because e decreases with increase in o) '

do (-
In the consolidation process, as the e5cess pore water pressure dissipates, the effective strqrr

do = -du
Thus, de = audu

Substituting for de in Eq. 9.8,

AW dxdydz de _ dx dy dzA..-:-
du
dt l+es dt - l+e6 'dt
aw -
Substituting for
dt
k, dzu dx dv dza" du
i ;z dx dY dz = -t;; at

k,(l + eo) dzu _ du

auT* dzz
- dt

If a soil parameter cofficient of consolidation, c, is defined such that

"u=W-tl
a"Tn

du d2u
a, -- '57
Equation 9.l2is the Terzaghi one-dimensional consolidation equation. The coefficient of
thesoilparametergoverningthetime-rateof consolidation. Ithasunits12 T-r i.e. -2l,ot
differential equation is analogous to a diffusion equation in Physics. The heat flow in a solid body'
is governed by a similar equation. c, is not really a constant but is a function of the stress incremeat f
soil; but since both k and.a, decrease with a decrease in void ratio, c, which is a function d
k(t+ed
remarns more or less the same within a considerable pressure range. Solution of Eq.9.l2
av
 Jpril and Consolidation
233

ry conditions, describes the distribution of excess pore water pressure z with respect
to time
lmtien, 3. For a rigorous mathematical solution of the differeniial
equation in term of a Fourier
m, the reader is referred to Taylor (1948). Here, the Terzaghi soluiion for a set of boundary
ich are ofpractical urility, is described.
to Fig. 9.8, the boundary conditions and initial conditions for the case of
one-dimensional
AIE:
ft r= 0, u = ui, thainitial excbss pore water pressur€, atalllocations (thatis, forallz values) and
* =Ao, the applied total pressure.
nbution of initial excess pore pressure will be uniform along the thickness
only when the loaded
rclative to the thickness of the consolidating layer.
As r-+ e, u = 0 for all e values
t>O;z=0; a=0
l>O; z=2H; u=0
&maximum distance that waterhas to travel to reach adrainage face; that is,
the length of the longest
FdL If there are two drainage surfaces, one at the top and unoih", at the bottom of the consolidating
rase of double drainage and r/ will then be equal to half the thickness of
the clay layer. If there is
Leinage surface, it is a case.oJ sing.te (railage and H willbe
equal to the thickness orin" clay layer.
ofFig' 9'8 concerns double drainage. Boundary conditions (c) ano (o) are
easy to understand. For
nt flow begins and since at z = 0 and e 2H, water has to travel
= zero distance to reach the
fue, the excess pore water pressure there dissipates instantaneously.
cTerzaghi solution, three non-dimensional factors are provided: the
first is the drairuge path ratio
dated to the location, the second is timefactor,related to the time elapsed, and
the th{rd,'degree of
lbn related to the excess pore water pressure.

Drainage Oath ratro, Z = (e.r3)

ft
Time factor T-.=Y
fi (e.14)

consolidation (or consolidation ratio) (J,

ui - ttz
I I
'= Ui = - tl; (e. rs)
Tnc factorI will be directly proportional to time elapsed / for a particular soil and the drainage
h when c, and Hareknown values.
f degree of consolidation U. represents the stage of consolidarion
at a certain location in the consoli-
;hyer.
[c Terzaghi solution for U, comes out in terms o{ a Fourier series expansion
of the form

u,= | -Zfr(4fze") (e.16)

n=0

rbsolution of this equation is presented in Fig. 9.9. The diagram includes the three important
parameters
From this diagram, it is possible to determine the dlegree of consolidation
t
! Yr
int (that is, for a known z/il value) for any value of r after toaaing. one e (or a therefrom) at
14 for a given value of'tirne r, if one knows the value
can calculate tjme factor no. {
and the drainage conditions (to determinel{).
of c, for giu"n
"
Jl
,mtu-, the thickness of the
234 Basic and Applid

E
N
ll
N

Con:olidation ralior U2

Fig.9.9 Consolidation ratio for any location and time factor in a doubly drained laycr

For I =0, Tv= 0 and 4 = 0 for all values of Z.

For, -+ -, 7, J* and Uz= 1 for all values of Z.

The vertical on the left, thus, indicates that consolidation has not begun anywhere, while thc
right indicates that consolidation is complete everywhere. For t > 0 or 7, > 0, the degree of
is vitally related to the location of the point being considered. Q will be.equal to 1 at tIrc r
({H=0and})andwillbeminimumatthemiddleof thelayer(/H= 1).Forexample,ForTi,
atmidheightof thelayer (ztH=l)whileforthesametimefactor(ortime),Ur=O-74atz/H=
0.86 at z/H =0.25.
U, indicates the degree of consolidation at a particular location. This is not something of
What is more significant practically is how much the consolidating layer as a whole has
words, what the average degree of consolidation U is for the entire stratum. U can be readily
value of ?l, as illustrated by Fig. 9.10. Suppose U is to be determined for T, = 0.6. A pilt
reproducedinFig.g't0incorporatingtheT,=0'6curve'sincelineaDrepresentsTr=0and
[ -> -, Line s ab and cd represent the start of loading and end ofconsolidation respectively-
isochrone of I records the progress of consolidation conesponding to a given time. As we

Ercess pore prqscunr

icsipated
a
ol

t=o
,,H
b llc
2.0 0 Uz t.0

Fig. 9.10 Determination of average degree of consolidation for T, = 9.6

 of Soil and Consolidation 235

hbngradually progresses from 0 to 100 per cent. In Fig. 9.10, the shaded area represents the
of pore water pressure, while the unshaded area on the right represents undissipated pore water
fuolidation yet to occur). Thus, the average degree of consolidation over the entire stratum for
b tc ratio of the shaded area of Fig. 9.10 to the area of the rectangle abcd.It is equal to 82 per cent.
oorrespondingto U = 82 per cent is written as Is2.

ined mathematically by an integration procedure using an equation of the general form

U=flTut

&ove solution is for the cdse of constant or linearinitial excess pore water pressure distribution. The
sSown in Tables as well as graphically. Taylor (1948) gave the following approximaterelationship
Il and U, which are quite handy:

For U < 60per cent,Tn= QttqLf (e.17)

For U >60 percent, T,= 1.781-9.933 log(lW-U%o) (e.18)

9.1 gives values of I corresponding to different values of U for (i) double drainage and all linear
x of initial consolidation stress, and (ii) single drainage and uniform disfribution of initial consoli-

Table 9.1 Values of 7} Corresponding to Values of U

Tv

5 0.m2 55 0.238
10 0.008 60 0.287
l5 0.018 65 0.342
20 0.031 70 0.403
25 0.049 75 0.477
30 0.071 80 0.567
35 0.096 85 0.684
N 0.126 90 0.848
45 0.159 95 1.163
50 o.197 loo

h lresented in Table 9.1 are plotted ilfig. 9.1 l. Fig. 9.1 I (a) shows U plotted versus log I,,
Et- 9-ll(b) shows Uplotted versus {-Tr. These theoretical plots have certain features which

solutions of the consolidation equation for cases of single drainage with linear variation of
pore water pressure in the clay layer are also available. Curves 1, 2 and 3 in Fig. 9.12 represent
for corresponding cases indicated in Fig. 9.13
236 Basic and Applied

) ,o

,O
f

(b)
Fig. 9.11 U,, versus I, (a) Log scale (b) Square-root scale

Fig.9.l2 Relationship between average degree of consolidation and time factor

Op"n Lrcr (double drainrgc) (b) H.tt closcd layer(sir€lc

Fig. 9.13 Initial distribution of excess pore water pressure with depth
 of Soil and Consolidation 237

r ."4 may be written in the form

,=T"qq (e.re)

r elv€n degree of consolidation U, time factor 7, has a certain definite value, depending on the
:nnditions governing the problem. From Eq. g.lg,itis, thus, seen that the time required for a soil to
degree ofconsolidation is directly proportional to the square ofthe length ofdrainage path and
rroportional to the coefficient ofconsolidation; that is,

t *-H,
cv
(e.20)

uun€ taken to reach a certain degree of consolidation is measured in the laboratory by testing a soil
from an in situ soil layer, the time which the consolidating layer in the field will take to reach the
of consolidation can be predicted from Eq. 9.20, c, being the same in the two cases. To work out
re of consolidation, that is, a t - U relationship, we need to determine values of 7, at different values
Eq.9.14,

c,, t
't=fr
drcinage path H of the consolidating layer has to be established by proper borings and sampling.
of c., has to be determined by a laboratory consolidometer test for the range of stress increment
rromfi q'ould be subjected to at the site . Once T, is determined using c, and 11 for a particular value of

ing value of IJ can be obtained by using Table 9.1 or Fig. 9.11. Repeating the steps for
rdues of ,, one can obtain a t vs. U plot. The determination of c, from laboratory testss will be
rn the following section.

TION TEST

parameter that controls the magnitude of consolidation in a soil is the coefficient of

a* The time-rate of consolidation is controlled by the coefficient of consolidation, cr. These
:trameteres are vital inputs along with the relevant boundary conditions, in the prediction of the
of consolidation and time-rate of consolidation in a field situation. The laboratory consolidation
ont on a suitable undisturbed sample of the soil layer in question is meant to determine these
properties. Besides, thepermeability andthe swelling behaviourof the soil can also be determined
The test simulates one-dimensional consolidation with double drainage.

ulormrirngmechanism and a specimen container, known as the consolidation cell. An undisturbed soil
representing the in situ soil layer is carefully trimmed and placed in a metallic confining ring which
,,ulium component of the consolidation cell. The ring does not allow any lateral deformation of the soil.
mcroe discs are provided at the top and bottom of the sample to allow drainage in the vertical direction,
uys Two types of consolidation cell,thefloating-ring cell andthefixed-ing cell, are commonly used.
finming-ring test, compression occurs from both top and bottorn, while in the fixed-ring test, the soil
moves only downward, relative to the ring. In the floating-ring test, the friction between the ring and
i lr somewhat less than in the fixed-ring test. However, it is only in the fixed-ring test that drainage from
porous stone can be measured or controlled. Hence, measurement of permeability of the soil can
only in the fixed-ring test. A fixed-ring consolidation cell is shown in Fig. 9.14.
238 Basic and Applid

Lood

Porour
3tones

Conotidomctrr
rlng

Fig. 9.14 Fixed-ring consolidation cell

15 to
Specimens with diameters ranging from 65 to I l0 mm and thickness ranging from
The ratio of the diameter to height of the specimen is between 2.5 arld 5. There is evidence to
results are affected by specimen size. Specimens with large diameter to height ratios suffer
to soil structure due to trimming, while those with smaller ratios have greater side friction.
The soil sample is loaded in increments of vertical stress. Under each stress incremenL
allowed to consolidate till there is little or no further compression, with all the excess pore
compeletly dissipated. Usually, a load is kept for 24 hours. The stresses commonly used are 2
ana iOO t iU*'. Vertical deformation of the specimen is measured by means of a dial
gauge.

rate ofcompression under each sfess increment, dial gauge readings are taken at different
a load is placed. One schedule of elapsed time that is adopted is 0.25,
1.00,2'25,4'00, 6'25,9'G
20.25,25,36, 49,60, 120, 240 minutes, etc., till the last reading is taken at 24 hours.
common practice is 0.25, 0.5, L,2,4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 120 minutes, etc. The 24 hour reading
under each stress increment. To obtain a void ratio vs. pressure relationship, the
"o1np."r.ion
ratio is computed with the help of the 24 hour reading. After the consolidation under the last
is over, theipecimen is unloaded in two or three siages and the soil allowed to swell. Only
readings are taken at each unloading stage and after the completion of swelling, the
the soii specimen is taken out, dried in an oven to determine the weight of solids and the
final
Ttreiest procedure used in India is according to the Indian Standard IS:2720(Part XV)-

Void Ratio-Effective Stress Relationship

One of the outcomes of the load-deformation data is the plot of void ratio vs. the logarithn
equlil
consolidation stress (e vs. log @. Sometimes, an e-6 plot is also drawn. For computing
at each stress level, one of the two methods is, usually adopted: height of solids method an4
rarrbmethod. Inthe'heightof solids' method, theheightof solids, Ilrofthesoilspecimenis
the equation

a, (cm)'' = -!t-
G"lnA
where W" = weightof drysoil(g)
G, = specific gfavity of soil gfains and
^{w = unit weight of water = 18/cm3
| = cross-seitional area of soil specimen(cm2)
The equilibrium void ratio is then calculated from the equation
 :r of Soil and Consolidation 239

H-H,
e=- (e.22)
H,
H- height of soil specimen at equilibrium under different applied stresses (in cm) as given
by equation

H= Ht!Nl (e.23)
Hr = initial height of the specimen at the beginning of test and
-1,I1 = change in thickness of specimen under the stress increment.
'lltr rlghtof solids' method can be used even for unsaturated soils, and if the void ratio and water content
ry"tdng and the end of test are known, the degree of saturation values can also be worked out.
,m me ";hange in void ratio' method, the void ratio of the saturated soil at the end of the test is calculated
tlr =qr.ration

e7= w1G' (e.24)

i ls the final water content at the end of the test.
,u rmc*Jimensional compression, change in thickness, AIl per unit of original thickness 116 of the specimen
m' ;hange in volume per unit of original volume. If the change in volume is a consequence of a decrease
:too of Ae (Fig. 9.15), it can be seen that, for an initial void ratio of e6,

AIl _ change in volume :- L"

H - original volume l+es
(e.2s)

T To'i
co
l.
,+
+
I

L
(o)
lr
1l W (b)
AV
Y
a-

Fig. 9.15 (a) Initial state of sample (b) After compression

Ae
I +co

ffuc,o*iruting in Eq. 9.25 the known volumes of ey and Hlattheend of the test,

o"=ff 0 + E) (e.26)

in void ratio Ae under each stress increment is calculated from E4.9.26.Working backwards from
value of e.,a the equilibrium void ratio at the end of each stress increment can be deduced.
F :cn the e vs. 6 plot, the coefficient of compressibility can be determined for any desired stress range by
on:oating the curve in that stress range to a straight line, as shown in Fig. 9.16.
h-"rn the e vs. log o- plot, preconsolidation pressure Q and the compression index C, can be determined
feen sxrlair.d in Section 9.3.
 240 Basic and Applied

o
o
o
t
o

Ettcctivc stresr, F
Fig.9.16 Void-ratio-effective stress plot from consolidation test

Determination of Coeflicient of Consolidation

The coefficient of consolidation, c, can be determined by taking advantage of certain

theoretical U vs. Tu curves shown'in Fig.9.l1. In fact, the curves of deformation ys. tine
laboratory tests are very similar to the theoretical (J versus 7, curves. This fact is made use of il
procedures suggested by Casagrande and Taylor. These are known asthe'curte-fitting'

A. Casagrande's logarithm of Time Fitting Method

The shapes of the theoreti cal U vs. log I curve and the experimental dial reading vs log r
Compare the curve of Fig.9.ll(a) with the plot of Fig. 9.l7.ln Fig. 9.ll(a), the tangent and
intersect at U=100 per cent. Since the time corresponding to U = 100 per cent approaches
- -*uggested that if two tangents are drawn to the experimental curve (Fig. 9.17), their intersectior
lOOper cent. The dial reading at U = 100 per cent is R166.
' 'casagrande's method aims at finding R56 so that ,50, the time corresponding to u = fi
determined. Since R1s0 is already defined, it remains to locate R0, the dial reading
cent, before R5s can be located midway between Rs and R100.
To determine R6, two values of time \ arrd t2 are chosen on the initial part of the curvc
4r1. The points corresponding to these values of time are marked on the curve and the
between them measured, say z. Now a horizontal line is drawn above the first point at thc
distance z. This line cuts the ordinate atR0, called the 'corrected zero'reading. The
between R6 and R16s is the primary consolidation and from R166 onwards, it is secondary
After locating R6 and Rroo, Rso is marked midway between these two points and the time
to R56 is read off as t56.

From Fig. 9.18, 156= 13 min

From Eq. 9.14, Tu=21

H,
Timefactor(, foru=50percentis0.197fromTable9.1.If theaverageheightof the
mm during the stress increment in question, lI = 9.00 mm = 0.9 cm (since there is double
the test). Thus,
 $soil and Consolidation
u3

E
E Primery
E'! consolidaliqt
.s
E
a!
o
.E
ct
Rroo' u=lm.r.

. Time (min )

Fig. 9.17 Determination of rro from Casagrande's method

T,Il TsoIf
0.D7 x0.92
+=a? = ?-vfffffcm2/s
= 2xl}a cm2/s

tmt of Time Fitting Method

dso similarity in shape between the theoretical curve of U vs. l[7, and dial readings
uses the
i-f l O) and 9.18)1. The theoretical curve is characterised by a straight line portion at least upto
r- Tiylor observed that the abscissa of the curve at U = 90 per cent was l. 15 timeb the abscissa
6e straight line. Taylor used this characteristic feature to locate the 90 per cent consolidation
plot. Figure 9.18 illustrates the procedure. A straight line can be drawn passing
on the initial part of the experimental curve of dial readings yr. square root of time. The
b produced backward to intersect the ordinate at R6, which is the corrected zero reading
U= 0 per cent. Starting from Rs, a second straight line is drawn such that its abscissa is I .15
of the first line. The intersection of this line with the experimental curve identifies Re6 and
fu 9o per cent consolidation, /qo, is read off (Fig. 9. 18). with te6 thus determined, c, can be
Eq.9.14.
methods cannot be expected to show exact agreement. The choice of the method
cconvenience, the shape of the compression us. time curve indicating which method is more
of the square root of time method is that the plotting of the curve can be done as the time
can stop a test as soon as it is possible to locate the 90 per cent consolidation point and
fu next increment of stress, thus reducing the test duration to an appreciable degree.
 Basic and
AO

€
E
(rt
,s
D
n
1,
:-
.!
o

fifrEtmin )

Ftg.9.18 Determination of tr,, from Taylor's method

It is obvious that one value of coefficient of consoli-

dation c, will be obtained for each one of the stress L|-
increments. c, obtained from any one of the curve fitting c
o
methods can be plotted as ordinate with the average effec-
g
tive stress as abscissa. Figure 9.19 shows such a plot. From
this curve, the approximate c, value for any given stess
Ic
increment can be read off and used as input in the time-set- 8€
9C
=d
tlement computation. E;
.g
(,
The Compression Ratios
=a,o
rrl
It can be seen from Figs. 9.17 and 9.1 8 that R6, the corrected
dial reading corresponding to U = 0 per cent, does not Elleciive slressrtNlrl
correspond to thepointR; representing the initial dial gauge Ftg. 9.19 C,-6ou plot from
reading. The compression Ro - R; is due to many factors
which include compression of small quantities of airin the
soil, imperfect saturation, vertical elastical compression of the soil specimen and lateral
speciman when imperfectly mounted. This compression is called the initial compression.
The relative magnitudes of inital compression, primary consolidation and secondar;r
expressed by the following ratios (Fig. 9.17 and 9.18).
tf,,rycssibility of Soil and Consolidation u3

Iaitial compression ratio

(R,-&)
= (e.27)
" [R'-R/',l

*rmary compression ratio (log time):

(R,-n,*')
(9.28)
"=ln-r 1

to(R, - Rqo)
*:rnary compression ratio (root time): 'P
r =._-l
9[R,-R/J (e.2e)

$qondary compression ratio : /s = l-(ro+rr) (e.30)

: Determination of the Cofficient of Permeability

rrotffrcient of permeability of a fine-grained soil can be indirectly determined by the consolidation test.
:ruc-.tcient of permeability, k, can be calculated using Eq. 9.1 l.

k(l + e") k
u,, l-
' ariln ui =
fruT,
-
Hence, k= cu ryyn (9.31)
fllrm $rcss increment one value of /< will be obtained and a plot of average effective stress yeruuJ
nmmlir-y can be drawn.

CI}}TPUTATION OF SETTLEMENT

lEmlon, only the settlement due to primary consolidation and secondary consolidation is considered.
rttlement will be discussed in Chapter 15 on 'shallow Foundations.' Primary consolidation
rill be taken up first.
&in Do Fig. 9. l5 where the volume of solids V, is assumed as unity and the void volume equal to eo.- the
o'f the soil before compression. If eJ is the void ratio after primary consolidation is complete, the
u.roidratiois 6s =(es-e). ThenAll,thechangeinheightoftheconsolidatinglayeroritssettlement
4;tbe equation
AH L,e
Ho T+%

LH= s,=ffqno (9.32)

msolidation test results are plotted between void ratio and effective stress arithmetically, the slope
for the pertinent stress range, that is, the coefficient of compressibility ev can be used in settlement

L,e
,AO
u..- and thus fromfu.9.32,

+= t1ftl Hoao (e.33)

24 Basic and Applied Soil

In Eq. 9.33, the terms within the brackets are given the name cofficient of volume change or the
v o lume c omp re s s ibiliD, m'.

av Le, I
mu=
11so=Ao(l+eo)

Combining with Eq. 9.33,

Sr=ryHxLG

an Nd ryhaveunits inverse of stress, i.e., m2lkN ot "m2lkgf

Thus, it can be seen that the magnitude of settlement is a function of the soil compressibility mp
condition llo (thickness) and the loading condition Ao. If e is plotted against log o, the slope of the
compression curve (straight line portion) is called the compression index, C,

, ":- Le
log(oy'o6;

Combining Eq. 9.31 and 9.36,

s.=* Ho=+&,"*fi
Here,6oisthepresenteffectiveoverburdenpressureand6T=6s+additionalstressA6inducedbyan
load. Thus,

Hn o"+AO
joo
S.=C.
l+ro--log

Thus, the settlement can be computed by using Le or ry or C" as input in 84.9.32 or 9.35 or 9.3&
an and m, areto be obtained for a particular stress range, C, is a constant, independent of the stress i
If there are different consolidation layers with different compressibility parameters, the
layer (not necessarily of the same thickness) is separately calculated. The total settlement is then tb
settlement in different laYers.
Equation 9.38 can be used only if the soil is normally consolidated. If the soil is preconsolidatc4
will not be under virgin compression; when loaded, it will undergo recompression. Hence, C" cannof
to calculate the settlement. Itbecomes necessary, therefore, to find out whether the soil is normally
or preconsolidated. In Section 9.3, the method of determining the Preconsolidation pressure o"
outlined. Once 6, is known and it is found to be greater than 06 (which means the soil is
a further check to see if o, is greater than o, + Ao is made. If o" is indeed grcater than o, +
9.20(a)1, the entire stress range is in the preconsolidation zone and the settlement is computed by
C,, recompression index, in place of C", in Eq. 9.38. Ttrc recompression index is the average
recompression part of the e vs. log 6 curve tFiS. 9.21(a)1. Thus, settlement S, is given by the equai:"

s"=c&L"sE#
 S Soil and Consolidation

rrtzrse in stress extends beyond the preconsolidation pressure into the virgin compression region
tbe settlement is computed in two parts, as follows:

fu tbe stress increase from 66 to 6. on therecompression curve, settlement 51 is given by

Hn 6^
sr=Gllrolog--: (e.40)

k the stress increase from o, to (o6 + Ao.) on the virgin curve, the settlement 52 is given by

Jr=L--log
Hs o6+Ao (9.41)
' 'l+es " o.

fo

il
Q+AF ao dc
ll % eo +Ad

I Recompression
I
Recompression
CUT YC

a Virgin
o tl)
a
.9
o IU

D
'o

Logarithm of eflecliv€ slress Logarithm of elfectiYe stress

(al co+ Ac < c" . (b) do+Ad >d.

Fig. 9.20 Effect of preconsolidation on settlement

mal settlement Sc is, therefore, given by

Ho - O. - Hs oe+A6
(9.42)
S,= C,Tieolog + C,
oo t + eolog

d c, instead of the void ratio value at in the second=-

o" term of Eq. 9.42, will not introduce much
!h cmtribution of the second term in F;q.9.42. is much more than the first, since the compressibility
virgin compression is much greater under recompression; Ae2 > ) Lel in Fig. 9.20(b).
U6 Basic ard

9.7 EXTRAPOLATION OF FIELD CONSOLIDATION CURVE

When a soil sample is taken out from its location at a certain depth in the field, it is
When the sample is loaded in the laboratory during consolidation testing, it is, in
reloading. Thus, even with every care exercised during sampling to avoid
undisturbed sample produces a compression curye whose slope is flatter than that d
compression curve. With increasing degree of disturbance of the soil sample, tbe
Schmertmann (1955) observed that whatever may be the degree of disturbance in fu
straight line part of the compression curves, in all cases, intersect at a point
the in situ void ratio eo. On the basis of this empirical observation, Schmertmann
procedure to predict the field consolidation curve. The procedure is illustrated in Fig. 92L
shows the e - log o plot for a normally consolidated soil and Fig. 9.21 (b) that for a

t,
.9
o
E
o

0.42eo

(a) Effective stress d (1og scate)

Ga Slope=gt
%

Remotdl--..
-\
t,
.9
,!
!,
'6

o.12

(b) Effective slress o- (lo9 scate )

Fig.9.21 Schmertmann's procedure to construct field consolidation curve
(a) normally consolidated soil (b) preconsolidated soil
 of Soil and Consolidation u7
umally consolidated soil, the field consolidation curve is constructed as follows:
ion pressure o. is evaluated using the Casagrande construction. Now, a horizontal line
apointaontheordinatecorresponding totheinitialvoidratioofthesample, eo(eo=wnGr).
hizontal line upto point b, corresponding o.. locate point c on
to the preconsolidation pressure
virgin compression curve by extending this portion, if necessary, such that at c, void ratio
Rom Schmertmann's empirical observation, the field consolidation curve will be defined by the
lead c.
index, Co determined from the field virgin compression curve is used in settlement
The Schmertmann correction will result in an increase in C" value by over 15 per cent even in
gmd samples of soft to medium clay soils (Ladd, l97l). The increase in settlement, as a
a may turn out to be quite crucial if the structure in question is sensitive to settlements.
9:1O) illuestrates the extrapolation procedure for an overconsolidated soil. If the soil is'expected
soil, the soil should be allowed to partially rebound, then recompressed and loading
to define properly the sraight portion of the e - log o plot. The unloading is begun only at
the curvature of the plot has been properly outlined. The average slope of the rebound
curve, C, is determined.
line is drawn from eo upto the point a which corresponds to the present overburden pressure,
from where the sample is taken. Through a draw a line parallel to the average slope of the
ion curve, upto point D corresponding to precgnsolidation pressure o". Join b to c,

qrve is now defined by the curve abc [Fig. 9.21(b)]. The slope of the line ab gives the
hfudex Cr, while the slope of the line bc gives the compression index, C. In a given problem,
of the field consolidation curve can be made use of, depending on the range of the pertinent

INDEX _ SOME EMPIRICAL CORRELATIONS

index, C" is sometimes approximately estimated by empirical equations relating C. to some

poperty of the soil. The compression index so determined can be used for a preliminary estimate
However, most of the correlations are applicable only for soils existing in a particular region
were carried out for the purpose ofestablishing these correlations.
ft most widely used equations with + 30 per cent error, is the one proposed by Terzaghi and
fuundisturbed clays of low to medium sensitivity.

C" = o.oo9 (w1- lo) (e.43)

ir the liquid limit expressed in per cent.

can be used only for clays which are not very sensitive (S, < 4), whose liquid limit w1 is not
lfi) per cent and which do not contain appreciable quantity of organic matter.
clays, the following equation is sometimes used:

C'=O'(x):l f"-{f (e.44)

tb other equations that have been proposed are:

C. = l. l5 (es - 0.35) for all clays (9.4s\
 Baic and

248
soils' clayey silt' silty clay
for inorganic cohesive
C, = 0.30 (es-O'21)
-J - organic soils
C.= l-15 x 10 w' for

cent reliability'
0'0004 w''O'34)
C,=0.37 (e, + 0'003 wt+
consolidated' medlum-sensrt
of interest to know that most of the normally
It will be 4' Some special soils
clays may have C'
values of 0.2 to 0'5 while oreanic ""it". "-"""Otng
10 to 15, are extreme
cases
peats with c' values of
oiz to to or
;,;;i;r;t,h c. values
higt comPressibilitY'
SETTLEMENT
9.9 SECONDARYCONSOLIDATION

Intheprecedingdiscussion':li'::f:..":H*'f,flnTffi;f :J#"ffiIil:l

'L"
to-alogr
F-

of time' co
ratio in a plot of void ratio vs' logarithm
where Ae is the decrease in void
time interval At'
t' o'"'' fat'i.'' ar'ter'u = 100 r::';ft
of per cent (f,
co is measured as the slope'n""T',1,1::::T::";Ii:-l;I?tliJ;
*nj",1'J;;::Tff:J["';1il;.;'"r'bon corresponding ac
is noted ,rJ;"#;il] ;+;t,, f"r;;"i; ;v;le or time;outthefrom Eq' 9'31' loo
compression *d;;;;; ilien worked
value of co. The '"""tii''i""'*'id"t'"t
for a particular stress increment' is rather o'f"tt
nressions in a clear cut manner

.,"ir,ril*[:x"il"x-;:l;rp':"#[T1.p:?ili5'*$Hfl#*5,"""m
be under secondary compressro*
*:::l'J:Hl,Hi};'lil"tl,ffi::i'Hl"'r'"'""r'""0'
are still ;; their ptilnu'v from completing
:
soil layer near the -iddi";;;-i;; ";; "tf
pressure, ;.7; l;;it"
tao to influence the significa
maydecreasea,tt,"tt,ictnessofthelayerincreases.Anotherfactor,.namely,theratioofd
to rhe exrsung overburden
increment
 249
ssibility of Soil and Consolidation

A6lo.s ratio' smaller *" tt':':::"#

fi
-lil:
relative primary compression' Greater
to
the
ffi',i#
;J**'";;il;, strictly, not constant, but may, ch"T: ::l"I:::l:t :
a

il"';"',l"i,,ii;"lJ#i."'",#'il;;;''#"tt"'*o:tl1T.Y::::::,':',T:Ti:1irff ;
,i:::T:il::::TffitH;i#il';;;;;:l'r",,i,"."*'1t:li:i:::::::::.-""":*.1?J#
constant overthe normar range
;3::::1ffiH[:lJ::: T#"'il"";;;. ;;;;;id"'"d. upp'o^imaterv
r io for
carra ro'hres of C,/C fatiO
Mesri andGodrewski::l:11:"i."#?,i:::
^^ir^,,,-Li
fOf a a
#Jn unicoo,"*rli,$'7i).
crc"
""-:1,#il:1", ii"#t',
;;lffi;:: t" these authors median
' hasa
:":
:t 11:ll-'^l-1"^T""'::':':::
the range
organic soils while for inorganic soils,
,ffi;'ffi.;ffi;"^;;u;;;;;;",, "".tuin rr
und
that for normally consolidated soils'
-l:l^a^I ^^:1.
0.025 to 0.06. Ladd (1976) suggested
(e.sl)
co(to)=(4-q&

t,
increment : 50 lo 100kN / m2
9
,o

E
'6

Ae=C(=0.056

20 r00
0.1
Time (min )

secondary compression' Cs
F-ig' 9'22 Determination of the rate of

1: ;ompute the secondary compression scttlement

S" Eq' 9'32 is used
(e.s2)
s,=(i*) L,e
H,

value of Ae is not related to the stress

increment' Le is a
:he case of secondary compression' the
.ro
ratio at the end of primary
mrm of time and is equal to Co x A
log t (from Eq' 9.50). e1 is the void
(atu= l0O7o).

- HoCoAlogt
\'-
os-
(e.s2)
l+ey

SITTLEMENT ANALYSB
which is
(a) the magnitude of settlement that a structure
analysis is an analYsis that predicts shall take
unA [u) the rate at which the settlement
rbove a buried claY laYer is i*r, ; undergo,
 Basic and Applid
250

assuming
place. The methods of computing these have been outlined in Sections 9'4 and 9'6,
consolidation and drainage in the clay layer'
profile is
A settlement analys-is is carried out in three stages. In stage one, the subsoil
soil parameters
suitable soil samples are taken from different locations and representative
two consists ofcalculation ofpressures in the consolidating
by laboratory tests. Stage
from the first two
in stage threi, settlemerit predictions are made, with the data obtained

Representative Soil Profile and Soil Properties

can bct
An idealised soil profile, which is representative of the average strata characteristics'
From each boring;
sufficient number of borings are made at the site at properly selected locations.
natural water table wil
about the nature bf soil sirata, their thicknest und th" position of the
and in some cases, the'
There may be variation in subsoil details <ibtained from different borings
be considerable and even haphazard. It requires experience and skill
to construct a simplifid:
The soil samplcs'
incorporating the actual trend of variation in subsoil conditions at the site.
diffeient locations in different boreholes, are then tested in the laboratory to obtain
the indcr
stratum as outlLl
different strata and to deterrnine the consolidation parameters of the compressible
at an average v&'
9.5. Here again, one has to reconcile the range of variation in values and arrive
to the mid-depth of the consolidating stratum'

Analysis of Pressures Before and After Loading

To determine the pressure range ((o, to 6, + A 6) under which the consolidation

is caused

needs to find the effective stress in.the consolidating stratum before

loading, o, and the it
produced in the stratum consequent to loading, Aor. Since both o, and A o- vary with depth'

value of each is used as representative value for the soil layer in question' The
mid-depth values
of a thick
good enough, if the thici<ness of the stratum is not very large. In the case _-_1
not^ exceed I .5 m and
pr*ii"" ir i" oivide the layer into a number of layers whose thickness does !- l:-il
* indivi
Ii"i""r r*r",,,"", the sum of the settlements in different layers. In the case of the
mid-depth values of pressure are used in the computations'
Thi calculation of initial effective stresses due to overburden has been discussed in
which are different
simple static case of hydrostatic pressure. The effect of neutral stresses
has already been
static cases are discussed in Taylor (1948). The influence ofprecompression
Sections 9.3 and 9.6.
In the Terzaghi theory, it was assumed that the application of load produces
an

water pressure in the entiie consolidating stratum, equal to the applied load, and that
to load induced by a
tion is one-dimensional. However, when the soil is subjected a
distribution of initial excess hydrostatic pressure with depth will not be uniform but will
shape described by the elastic theory of stress distribution. Therefore,
in the computati
or thc
transmitted to a buried clay layer by the loads of a structure, the Boussinesq
solution can be used to determine A O at the mid-depth of the layer below individudr
below the centre of raft foundations. For preliminary computations, the approximate
A
I horizontal' method of load distribution is sometimes used. The stratified condition
Westergaard solution is considered to be more close to the conditions existing
in
and, hence, are preferred to the Boussinesq solution'
 2St
of Soil and Consolidation

of Settlement and Prediction of Time'settlement Relation

ng the required data from laboratory tests and pressure analysis, the magnitude
of settlement can
calculated as outlined in Section 9.6.
a relationship of settlement vs time can be obtained was discussed
in Section 9'4' The information
ffor the prediciion are the value of ultimate settlement (determined earlier), theoretical Tu vs' U
oo + (oP + A O'
for the relevant boundary conditions, the value of c, corresponding to a stress
of the clay stratum and the number of,drainage faces (one or two). with this information,
Il9 can be used to yield the time-settlement relationship'
h rcttlement and rate of settlement discussed in the paragraphs above are both in respect of primary
only. The computation of secondary compression and its rate have to be made separately as
m Section 9.6.

for Construction Period

usrmption that is implied in the discussion so far is that the structural load producing consolidation
U m tre clay stratum instantaneously. In practice,
however, the construction of a typical structure
fu several months, sometimes "u"n y"u.t. The loading progress may be shown by a diagram' such
is replaced
. g :3(a). The net load becomes positive only after the load release due to excavation of soil
ietr of the structure. The consolidation and hence the settlement beings only at this point (0)'
t mua builds up gradually, upto the end of the construction period, say ,c. . It can be assumed
d increase is uniform upto /, and thereafter, it remains constant at a value of P . If a time-settlement

Total conslruction time

+
D
,o
o
J

I
E
.a
o
J

c
e
E
a,

ot,

Fig. 9.23 Construction period correction

 Basic and Applied Soil

curve is plotted on the basis of instantaneous loading, it would give

an overestimate of the senler
at any given value of elapsed time. Terzaghi proposed a method
of correcting the .instantaneous'
allow for the construition period.
To apply the correction, it is assumed that the magnitude of settlement
at time /. is the
settlement at time t./2 hadthe entire construction load P. been
acting for that period, that is I
from point A corresponding to trme tr/2on the instantaneous curve, point
r can be located Sl
line parallel to the time axis to meet the ordinate at r,
[Fig. 9.23 (b)]. The settlement at any timer,
construction period is equal to that occurring for instaneous loading
at half that trme (t /2).
the load acting at time r is not the total construction load p.
, th-e value of settlement so
reduced in proportion of that load to the total load, that is, p/pr. point
E is, thus, obtained
from point C, as shown in Fig. 9.23 (b). Sufficient number of points
can be obtained in this mar
the corrected curve will be the instantaneous curve offset by
half the effective construction time.

Comparison Studies

When no settlement records are available for a given site,

there is no alternative but to carq/
analysis for predicting the magnitude and time-rate of setrlement.
out.
How";;;:;;.; ;;;;;'d";
constructed at close locations are available, these data can
be used for predicting the
structures from a comparison of conditions. Even where the accuracy
of prediction'may not be

as theygive us an idea of the settlement of the proposed structure. Ali,

iron rtuai", ;;;;
where some
made and several alternatives are available, comparison studies
will indicate *i"i ki"d;;
settlement can be expected, if a particular assumption is revised
and another used instead of tlre
The following basic consolidation laws are used in these
approximate comparisons:

(Sr)r= muIloAo o, Crfiror,rQ#

(S.1, = 4(S.1,
," = |f-P for U <60 percent

c.,t
rv - ----i

A few points may be emphasised here. A o, the average increase in effective

stress in the
stratum is to be computed u singnet structural load and consiJering
the elevation of the load apdl
to the location of the stratum. If the load is applied over a limiled
area, stress distribution
used to compute the value of A o. Even the approximate 2:1
method of load distribution may
estimate of settlement.
The magnitude of settlement is not influenced by the drainage
conditions but the time rate of
is dependent on II which is a function of both the thickness
of the shatum as well as the
If the construction time cannot be ignored, / the time elapse can be reckoned
from fu
loading period.
Both the coefficient of compressibility, mu and the coefficient
of consolidation, c, that
settlement analysis are determined in the laboratory and
must correspond to the stress ir
applicable for the field problem.
 of Soil and Consolidation
253

YERTICAL SAND DRAINS

pinciple of the functioning of a sand drain is based on the consolidation theory of radially and vertically
d clay systems.
Ihc slow rate of consolidation of saturated clays of low permeability may be accelerated by
means of
E1 sand drains which provide for radial drainage, resulting in shortening
of the drainage path. Consoli-
b then due mainly to horizontal radial drainage which results in a faster-dissipation ofi*""rs pore
water
rc' The customary verucaldrainage becomes less important. The magnitude of consolidation
settlement,
', is unaffected; only the rate of settlement is
increased.
ffld &ains are mostly used when embankments are to be constructd over a highly compressible clay layer
- 9'24)- Sand drains installed in the clay accelerateconsolidation and would enable
tlreimbanlunent to be
isto service much sooner- The posttonstruction seslement of a settlement-sensitive pavement
or a railway
ra embankment would be greatly reduced. Further, there would be an increase in ttre speed at which
is generated in the clay layer, which would permit a faster rate of consfiuction of
the embankment.

Embonkm cnt

Horizontol droinoge
blon kct

Vcrt icol
rqnd droins
Cloy so i I

lmpermcoblc strotum
Fig. 9.4 Vertical sand drain system
5 &ains are installed by driving a casing or a hollow mandrel through the clay layer and making
lid ffiles. The casing is withdrawn after the boreholes are backfilled with a suitably graded sand
epmeability of at least 1,000 times more than of the consolidating clay. The sand drains vary in
r&mabout450 to 600mm.
rE constructed either in a square or a triangular pattern in plan. As the object is to reduce the length
E Path, the spacing of the sand drains is the most important consideration in the design of sand
L spacing depends on the type and permeability of the soil, and in practice varies from 1.8 to 4.5 m
b ccotre. The spacing .t must obviously be less than the thickness of the clay layer, H. Terzaghi
pds ttrat spacing be chosen so that 80 per cent of the consolidation is brought about during the time
lion of the fill itself. The diameter of the drains is not very important. The depth of the sand drains
by the depth of the firm layer available below the ground surface . Sand drains have been installed
of over 30 m.
the sand drains are installed, a blanket of free-draining sand, 300 to 900 mm in thickness, is spread
e sand-drain area. The blanket, in addition to providing a drainage face for vertical drainage,
for lateral drainage at the base of the fill for pore water from the vertical sand drains.
 Basic anl Applied Soil

A successful design of the sand drain system depends basically on the correct estimation
of the soil
especially the coefficients ofconsolidation in both the horizontal
and vertical directions, i.e., c^ and c,
usually grcater than c, , because in any natural clay sffatum, rtp is greater
than ky. The higher the ratio
the more beneficial a sand drain system will be, since the radial
drainage will be governed by c7, .
During the installation of sand drains, the clay around the drains may get
remoulded, thus
value of coefficient of consolidation. This is known as the smear
effect. Carehas to be taken to
effectiveness of sand drains may be drasticaiiy reduced. Another shortcoming
liT,!ff*!
sand drains is"l:"'.
t"
their inability to conEol secondary compression. Fur this reason, ,*a
Jrui* *" r",
in soils having a high secondary compression coefficlent, such as highly
plastic clays and peat.
The theory of sand drains was given by Rendulic (1935) and BLon (194g).
The solution of
known as the 'equal strain' case, will be provided here.
The case of the sand drains is a special case of the general theory of
consolidation of the soil i
dimensions. The general equation for three-dimensional consolidation-
can be described mathematL
the following partial differential equation in the cylindrical coordinate
system:

du cnlal.;
(dzu t du\ d2u
E = a,)*'" al
where r= radial cylindrical coordinate
z= axial cylindrical coordinate
Equation 9.53 can be split up into two parts:
(i) Radial flow:
(a'u I du) du
*; ar)= at
(ii) Vertical flow:
"[rr,
*u du
"E= a,
where ^kh,ku
" = frtuT"andf..-_
C5
' mnT w
lf U, and Uu -
are the average degrees ofconsolidation due to radial and vertical drainage
U,=f (7,)
and Uv= f (T)
where 7, and ( are time factors for the radiar and vertical drainage cases.

--
c nt cnt

" eff=iF
and .ra c-l
rv -- ---T
R is the radius of a cylindrical block of soil, having the same cross-sectional
block of soil surrounding_a sand drain. From Fig. g.25, R=
area as the verticd I
0.564 s for a squarc patt€rn and R=
',h";;;;;;"ft;;.
 of Soil and Consolidation 255

rl
'l
or I
I

R= 0.554s R= 0.525 s
ffi1
,il-
tzrdl
'

Squorc Pottcrn Triongulor pottcrn ffi

Fig. 9.25 Radius of influence of a sand drain

Barron's solution for radial consolidation is expressed in the form

U, = l-e[-BTrtF(n)] (e.s8)

' 3n2-l (e.se)

F(n) =
;f1rot"(n)- oF-
in which 2 is the radius of the sand drain. Figure 9.26 shows the Barron's solution for radial

ion in the form of plots of Trvs U, with z as the third parameter.

0.01 0.1 1.0 2.0

cht
rr=
ET
tlg. 9.25 Solution for radial consolidation
 Basic and Applied SoiI
256

U, combining the
has been shown by Carillo (1942) that the overall degree of consolidation
It
both radial and vertical drainage, can be expressed as

(t- 4 = (1- U,) (1- U,)

U, can be obtained by using the theory of onedimensional consolidation and U,can be determined
Barron solution.

EXAMPLES

Bxampte 9.1 Following results were recorded from a consolidation test on a specimen of
each load being maintained constant for 24 hours before the addition of the next increment.
Applied stress (kN/ m2) o 50 100 200 400 800

Sample thickness (mm) 19.70 19.30 19.15 18.85 18.56 18.36

The water content of the sample at the end of the test was 28 per cent and the specific gravlty
particles was2.72.
(a) Calculate the void ratio at the end of each stress range and plot the e - o curve.
coefficient of volume compressibility, mu for an effective stress range of 150- 350
thee-ocurve.
(b) Plot the e - 1og 6 curve and determine the compression index, C. and preconsolidation
(Casagrande method).

(c) Plot the m, - o curve.

(d) Determine the consolidation settlement that may be expected in a 4 m thick layer of thl<
stress increase from 150 to 350 kN/m2, using data from (a), (b) and (c).

Solution:

Void rate at the end of test, eycatbe calculated from the equation

' eY = wl G' (sinceS= l)

ef = 0.28x2.72=0.762

Changeinvoidratio, Ae =ffrr+e) , from Flq.9.26.

During the swelling stage from 800 kN/# to 0 kN/m2, A x 1.762= 0.050
"
=
*;*
Void ratio at g00 kN/# = 0.762_ 0.050 =o.jt2.

For the stress range from 400 kN/m2 to 800 kN/m2, Le = -** "
1.7 12 =- 0.019
 of Soil and Consolidation 257

Yrid ratio at 400 kN/m2 = 0.712+ 0.019 = 0.731.

D void ratio values at other stresses can similarly by calculated by working backwards. Values of
lc Le
5 *d *u = L#;i can also be worked out.

Dresults are tabulated below:

A6 H AH A) au (= Le / La) mvGav/7*eo)
(kN/m2) (mm) (mnr) x lo-a (m2lkN)x to+
1m2tkN;

19.70 0.837

50 19.30 - 0.40 - 0.037 0.800 7.q 4.03

50 19.15 -0.15 -0.014 0.786 2.80 1.56

100 18.85 - 0.30 - 0.028 0.758 2.80 1.57

200 18.56 -O.29 -0.027 0.731 1.35 0.768

400 18.36 -O.20 - 0.0r9 0.712 0.475 0.274

o 18.90 +0.45 +0.05 0.762

frD Fig. 9.27 shows tlrc e - 6 curve.

0.E0

0168
0.75
0.733

0.70
0 rso 200 3s0 @ 600 800
d (rx tm2)
Fig. 9.tl Example 9.1
foro = l50kN,/m2, e=0.768
for6 = 350kN,zm1 e=0.735
 25t
Basic and Applid

From Eq. 9.34, Le( I \

mv
*[.,..J
#%#}}= e'Sexro-sm2,zkN

(b) Fig 9.28 shows the e - log 6 curve.

0.82

0.70

Log F (kNlm2)

['ig. 9.2g Example 9.1

compression index, c" is the slope of the straight line portion of the e-
C =
frffiffi =
ffi = 0.082 (from the actual values in the table)

From Fig' 9'28, cc is equal to the void ratio difference

linearportion.
corresponding to one cycle of fu
From this method, c' = 0.0g. This latter method is to be preferred. From
the
construction, the preconsolidation stress 6c
4g kN/m2
= @g. 9.2g).
Curpressibility of Soil and Consolidation

The initial curvature has not been well defined on the e - log o plot, since the test sample was not subjected
b a stressof 25 kN,/m2, which is usually the first stage of loading in a consolidometer test.
One can also see thatC. will be the same for any stress range in the linear p art of the e - log o plot while
^q will vary according to the stress ra:rge, even on the linear part.
(c) The last column in the table gives ry values calculated at the end of each stress range. These
values me plotted on Fig. 9.29 to obtain the 16 - o curve.

(d) Consolidation settlement can be computed either by using m, or by using C, (provided the stress
range in question lies on the linear part of the e - log o plot).

hm (a): S, = ffi, AG Ho.

s" = 9.89 x 1o-s(350- 150) x4 x 103

= 79mm
s-=c,uo
" "l+eo ,orqlaa
" 6o

^ = 0.08x4x103, 350
toclso
"' lJ68
= 66.6 mm

.,ro3

:
zx
E.
E

f (kN /m2)

,Fig 9.29 Example9.l

For the sfress 6 = 350 kN/m2 which is the end of stress range in question,
mu = o.9xloam2/ kN (Fig. 9.29)
260 Basic and Applied Soil

s" = 0.9 x lo-4(350- l5o) x4 x lo3

= 72mm
Example 9.2 Aclay soil, tested in a consolidometer, showed a decrease in void ratio from I
when the presure was increased from 0.25 to 0.50 kgf /cm2. Calculate the coefficient of
and the coefficient of volume compressibility (m"). If the coefficient of consolidation (cu) determidl
test for the given stress increment was lO m2 t year, calculate the coefficient of permeability in cmlL
If the sample tested at the site was taken from a clay layer 3.0 m in thickness, determine the
settlement resulting from the given sffess increment.

Solution:
Ae = €o- e = 1.20- 1.10= 0.10

Ao = 0.50
-0.25=O.25kgf/cmz
Le 0j1q_ n t ^*2 n-s
h - lO - u.tulr ./^Br
O.Z5-

mu JL=#fu=0.18 cm2lkgf
' = l*'es
cv = lo m2/ year
l0 x 104 1.
= 56stza-roo'60 cmTs .

= 3.17 x l0-3 cm2,zs

k= cumuyn

= 3.17 x 10-3 x 0.18 x 1000 x l0{

= 5.7 xlO-l cm/s
Consolidation settlement

5" = Arfi
x0.10
= 3.0l+l2o
= 0.136 m
S" can also be calculated from the equation
S" = moLG Hr
= 0.81 x 0.25 x 3.0
= 0.135 m
Example 9.3 Figure 9.30 represents the average soil profile obtained from boreholes, at fu
proposed building whose foundation is to be placed at a depth of 2.5 m. The ground water table
of 3.5 m. It is estimated that the additional stresj on the clay layer due to the weight of the t
150kN/# at thetopoftheclayandT0kNi m2 atthebonlmLftheclay.Followingresults
from consolidation tests:
 261
ssibility of Soil and Consolidation

25 50 100 200 400 800

stress (kN /m2 )
ratio 0.890 0.882 0.865 0.830 0.798 0.765

; saturated sand - 21.0 kN / m3 ; clay- 19.5 kN/mr

weights : sand above water table - 19'0 kN i m
Determine the settlement of the clay layer'

El.0m Bui ld ing

71=19.0kN / m3
- 2.5 m- Sand
UI-.T'.Y_
-3.5m 7r"1=21'0kN/rnj
- 5.5m
Clay
/m3
trt = t9.5kN

Rock slratum
Soil pro{ite

Ftg. 9.30 ExamPle 9.3

Initial effective stress in the clay layer:

6 atthe top of clay layer = 3'5 x l9'0 +2'Ox (21'0 - 9'8)

= 88'9 kN/mz
(19'5 - 9'8)
o at the bottom of the clay layer = 88'9 + 6'0
= 147.1kN/m2
stratum before construction
The average effective stress on the clay

_ 88.91147.1 118 kN,/m2

=

Average effective stress after constructlon: .

Ttre average increase in stress after constructron
_
Lo = __T_
150 + 70 .
| 10 kN./m2

after construction
Hence, averageeffective stress on the clay stratum
= 118+ llO=228kN/m2

Settlement comPutation :

From Fig' 9'31' for6' = 118 kN lm2; e = 0'854

for o+A6= 228kN lm2 i e= 0'825

262 Basic and Applied bl
If we assume a straight line relationship between e and o over the stress increment,
the settlement of the clay layer by the equation,

\e
Sr=
- Ho;L
" I+eo

- 6.0 x 103 x (0.854 - 0.825)

J'=ffi=94mm

F (kN/m2)
Fig. 931 Example 9.3

Example 9.4 Representative samples of a layer of silty clay, 5 m thick, were tested in a
and the following results were obtained:
Initial void ratio, eo = 0.90

Preconsolidation stress, G, = 120 kN,/rn2

Recompression index, C, = 0.03

Compression index, C, = 0'27

Estimate the consolidation settlement if the present average overburden stress of the layer, 66 is 70
the increase in average stress in the layer is 80 kN/m2.

Solution:

Theincreasedstress, o,+AoisequaltoT0+80= l50kN/*2. Thirisgreaterthan-o" (=

Hence, F;q.9.42 must be used, that is,

s,= ohL'r* *+*r"cq#

 263
ol Soil and Consolidation

s. = o.o3 ffi,', UQ * 0.,,#a* roc-120fl

= 18.48 + 68.85 = 87'33 mm

Inaconsolidometertestonaclaysample,the followingtime-dialreadt'j..""*"::31T:1
'it";;t,t"l
sampt" height at the beginning or the consolidation
"#j":'ff;;ffi ; i;;",*
ffi=ffi;r:X;#;;'ffi;;i r"p."*;; d" antiJpated sresi increment the fi eld. rhe
.:-
in 1L^ c^1,{ TLa

-r aL^ -^---a-oi1'Ia larrar

;;;"";;ffi;;;;;;#"i*11sv."i1':rh:.thi:k',".",:lt"j"oressibreraver
ffi;;; #;;;;;;;i; i, oz.ooand the initiar diar reading is 11.151
mm.

dreamountofsecondaryconsolidationfrom25tol00yearsaftertheconstruction.

Elaosed time (min) Dial reading (mm)

0 5'03i
0.1 4.91',1

0.25 4.870

0.5 4.820

I 4.747

2 4.640

4 4.485

8 4.270

15
4.025

30 3.755

60 3.540

120 3.410

240 3.265

500 3.175

1500 3.030

step is
Co has to be evaluated. Hence, the first
@o mpute the magnitude of secondary compression, be made'
so that a plot of e vs' log can
rirrr&ra the void ratio values corresponding to the dial readings '
Thtoidratioatanyheightorthicknessofthespecimencanbeobtainedfromthe.heightofsolids'method.
v" Hv H-H'
FmFrg.9.32, e=U,= Hr= Hr-
[]f, is the initial height of the specimen'

t, dE initial dial reading, and

I 6e dial reading at time

',
 264
Basic and

H-H, _Hn-(&_R)_H,
e=
H" =
----E-
(H,-Hn-(R,-R)
H,

H"-
&=iyd=7.056mm
Volume Height

l-
H"=H-H,
i

IE I1
x =Heiqht of
-|_- sariple ol
dial readins R
t'. f

Fig. 9J2 Example 9.5

To determine the void ratio for the dial reading at
0 min for the given stress range 25 to 5o
H o=25.4 mm; I/, =7.056mm; Ro = ll.l5l mm; R=5.031mm.
FromEq. 9.61, e -Q5'4-7'056)-(ll.l5l -5.031) 18.344 - 6.12
7.056 7.056

= 1.732

The void ratio at other elapsed times are similarly

calculated and shown below:
Elapsed time (min) 0 0.5t2
0.1 0.25 4
Void ratio 1.732 1316 1.710 1.703 1.692 1.677 1.655
Elapsed time (min) 15 30 60 120 240 500 1500
Void ratio 1.590 1.552 1.52 1.503 1.482 1.470 1.449

Figure 9'33 shows the void ratio plotted against logarithm of time. co is equa.l to Ae whcli
corresponds to one full logarithmic cycle. r
From Fig. 9.33, cd = 0.033; the void ratio ey at the end of primary consolidation
From Eq. 9.52, secondary settlement S, = r.495.
is glven by

o _ H,Q"Alogt
' l+ey
_ 8x0.033x1og100,225
I + t.195
= 0.064 m or 64 mm.
 of Soil and Consolidation 265

a
o
a
t 66 = Q-- 0.033.
o

r0
Time (min)

Fig.9.33 Example 9.5

e-rple 9.6 In a consolidometer test on a saturated clay specimen, the vertical stress was increased from
n!II) kN/m2 and the following changes in thickness were recorded:
0.00 0.25 0.50 1.00 2.2s 4.00 6.25 9.00 16.00 25.00
0.00 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.82 r.03 1.20 1.33 1.45 1.53

49 64 300 1440

D 1.6 1 .64 1.68 t.75

(mm)

fifu the last reading (1440 min), the thickness of the specimen was 15.30 mm and the water content 23

Ihilg the square root of time method, determine (a) the coefficient of consolidation, c, , (b) the initial
compression ratios, (c) the coefficient of volume compressibility, m;, and (d) the coefficient of

' k. G, = 2.74.

plot of root-time ys. change in thickness is shown in Fig. 9.34. The 'corrected zero point' (U = O Vo)
on the ordinate by producing the best-fit straight line backwards. This point corresponds to a
ia thickness L Ho = 0.21 mm ( Fig. 9.34). Now a straight line is drawn passing through this point
is abscissa is 1.15 times that of the fust straight line, at all points. This line intersects the experimental
U =9OVopoint. FromFig.9.34, L.F/m= 1.38 mm.
(ef FromFig.9.34,16 = 3.4 minor/e = 11.56 min
From Table 9.l,Tq = 0.848
266 Basic and Applied Soil

Average thickness of the soil specimen = 15.30 - 16. 18 mm

+=
Maximum length of drainage path H = lqf! = 8.09 mm, since there are two drair

. rqort 0.848 x 8.092

-----r'
-From Eq. 9.14. c, =

-
=+.#* 't*,'"'illr.rx 10-3cm2./s)

(b) From Fig. 9.34, L Ho=0.21 mm

LHss=1'38 mm

U = 0'/.(0.2t )

.8

,2

U =100'L(1.53
.6

.;l-tt.tn)
Fig. 9.34 Example 9.6

Hence, Arrrm =Str.la -0.21) + 0.21 =1.51 mm

Total change in thickness A II = 1.75 mm
Hence, initial compression ratio, ,"=ffi=O.tZ
Primary compression ratio, r, =E# = o.ro

(c) Void ratio at the end of test, e1 = w1G,

= 0.23x2.74=0.63
 267
of Soil and Consolidation

hal thickness of the soil specimen' HJ = 15'30 mm

&nge in void ratio, A , = 4;:(1 + e6) and eo= e7+ L e

Ho = 15.30 + 1.75 = 17'05 mm
1.75x(l+0.63+Ae)
Hence, I)^ v^-
- 17.05
Ae = 0.186
eo = 0.63+0.186=0'816

Le
9.31. mv=
L6O + %)
0.186
= 7.02x 10-3 m2lkN
(200 - 100) (1 + 0.816)
k
mm Eq.9.11, " fitu\n

k = cvffiuTn = 4'80x 10{' x 1'02 x l0-3 x9'8

= 4.8 x l0-8 rn'lmin or 8 x 10-8cm'/s

tP.Ili::
hryre e.7 on a recramation site where.th"
:.'fl:i "lT';
T:.gf::: ',:fff; graver
#fi;riT!:iy: Y:Y A Xl"t is sandv 3 m thick
:::*$fiJ::?il?ilil:Jii"ii'"i fouowing data have been obtained:
n
ffi;Jil;;fi;;";;;,;ir.
"it "
m3; clav 18 kN / m3
i - 21 kN / m3'; silty sana - zo tN /
u of the clay = 2'2 x
10{ m2'ZkN
Cucfrcient of volume compressibil ity, m
;i# clav = e tv''
crfficient of consolidai#:;; ^' of the fiu'
|ra) Calculate the consolidation settlement
of the clay layer due to the placing

ib) Plot the time-settlement curve

clay layer'
ic) Plot the (Jou= 50 7o isochrone in the

placing the fill:

{r) Initial effective stress 66 before
El.-0m:6s=0
El. - 4m : 66= (20 -9'8) 4 = 40'8 kN /m2
El.-l4m :6s = 40'8 +(18 -9'8) l0 =122'8kN/m
to the fill:
hcrEase in effective stress, A 6' due

A6 = 2lx 3=63kN/m2
268 Basic and Applid

Elevation (m )
+3
FillY=2lkN/r#
O VW.T. Original ground surlace

Silly sandY=20kN/rn3
-1
Clay
Y=lSkN/mJ
mr=2.2 r t-d #lfx
c, =Q.!621y7

Sandy gravel l22J _-'F63{

(a) Soil prolile (b) Ellective slress

Fig. 9.35 Example 9.7

Final effective stress,

6 at the top of the clay Iayer = 40.8 + 63 = 103.8 kN/m2

6s + A

66+A6 atthe bottom of the clay layer = 122.8 +63 = 185.8 kN/m2
Figure 9.3-{ (b) shows the distribution of effective stress with depth before and after placing
assumed that the placing of the fill produces one-dimensional consolidation (which means that
throughout the thickness) and that the fill is consftucted instantaneously (which means that A o b
in a single load increment even though it might have taken several weeks to raise a 3 m high fill)-
From Eq. 9.35, the consolidation settlement of the clay layer is given by

Sr= m, Ho LG
A o at mid-depth of the layer = 63 kN / m2

S"=2.2x10{xl0x63=0.139 m = 139 mm
The coefficient of compressibility value given in the data is assumed to be applicable to the
applicable to the problem
(b) To obtain the time-settlement relationship, the following steps are taken:
(i) Foranassumedvalueof theaveragedegreeof consolidation U (col. I of Table
factor 7v is obtained from Table 9.1 or Fig. 9.12 and entered in col. 2.
(ii) corresponding to the u value, the consolidation settlement
^S",
is compute d from
S" = final settlement computed in (a), namely, 139 mm x U. The values are
col. 3
In col. 4, the time in years at which the settlement in col. 3 manifests is
the equation t = Tu IP / c u. (tyu = Tu x 52 / O.g = 27 .7 gT r)
The time-settlement curve is shown in Fig. 9.36
tffryressibility of Soil and Consolidation 269

(c) With the assumption of instantaneous' construction of the fill, the total stress A o increases by 63
kN/m2 at all depths at / = 0 and at the same time, the pore water pressure also increases by 63
kN/m2 at all depths. This development of excess pore water pressure initiates flow towards the
drainage faces. From Fig. 9.35(a), it can be seen that there is double drainage, with length of
drainage path F/ = 5 m. The excess pore water pressure at the drainage faces will be zero for all
values of elapsed time r > 0.

Table 9.2 Computation of Time-Settlement Relationship

U Tv So(mm) t O)rs)

0.r 0.008 t3.9 0.22

o.2 0.031 2i.8 0.86

0.3 0.071 41.7 1.97

0.4 0.t26 55.6 3.50

0.5 0.197 69.5 5.47

0.6 0.287 83.4 7.97

0.7 0.403 9',1.3 I 1.19

0.8 0.567 t1t.2 15.75

0.9 0.848 t25.t 23.55

0.95 1.163 t32.0 32.30

r.00 -+@ 139.0

I is required to determine the excess pore water pressure distribution with depth for Uou = 5O 7o or at
time/56. Tu =O.l97forU* = 50Vo,fromTable9'1.
Todeterminetheexcessporewaterpressure rrz at a depth ofsay, l.25mfromthetopofclaystratum,
9.12 is used.

z/H = 0.25;for7, =0.197and 7/H = O.25,Uz=

For 2= 1.25m, O.'70 (FromFig.9.l2).

Excesspore waterpressure u, = (l-U r)ui (fromEq.9.l5)

uz.5 m= (l - 0.70) 63 = 18.9 kN/m2

AtZ = 0 and Z =l0m,ar=0.

of u , at other values of z are similarly calculated and shown in Table 9.3.

270 Basic and Applied

(Sc )r:1$mm

Fig.9.36 Example 9.7

Table 9.3 Values of z. for Uou = 5O Vo (or Tu= 0. 196).

Depth (z) zlH uz u-

(m)
twiml
0 0 1.000 0
1.25 0.25 0.700 r8.9
2.50 0.50 0.455 34.3
3.75 0.75 0.285 45.0
5.00 1.00 0.230 48.5
6.25 1.25 0.285 45.0
7.50 1.50 0.455 34.3
8.75 1.75 0.700 18.9
l0.m 2.@ 1.000 0
 271
Conpressibility of Soil and Consolidation

h--AAi =63 kNtm2

-l
At t =5.47 y7
Aft U2 U3y 50'1.
E

.U
E l,
o
q lrcchrone fol
o
U3y =50'/o
C
b
N
E pore \ore.^Preslre
o
o1,
bili','.
I diss ipated
\ry1-19
dissapatc

o- ?o 40 60

Fig.9.37 ExamPle 9'7

to an elapsed time of 5.47 years (see Table 9 '2); that

The isochrone is drawn in Fig. 9.37 corr€sponding
at different depths can 6" computed
s, it takes 5.47 years for this isocilrone to develop. Th-e effective stresses
63 kN/#' These values will be over and above the 66
by subtracting n, values in col. 4 of Table 9.3 from
values at the respective locations.
through boreholes and the same is shown in
Example 9.8 The subsoil profile at a site was obtained gravel
ground surface by filling in with a 6 m thick sandy
Fig. 9.38. It is proposedio increase the level of the u*
r.N I # lr, artter a certain time elapse' clay A
has reached of 50
Iayer with its unit *"igh;;;;;io
per cent and clay B has reached Uuu of20 per cent'
clay A to that of clay B'
(a) Determine the ratio of the coefficient of consolidation c, of
(b)Towhatheightwouldwaterriseinapiezometerinsertedat(i)themiddleofclayA'(ii)themiddle
of claY B, and (iii) bottom of claY B?

Solution:

c-t
ia) Tu=
E
Hence for the same value of elapsed time r in clay A and clay B'
( Table 9.1)
T4a1= T5n= o.197 and 744 = ?zo = 0.031 from

Equation f"=Xfi can also be used to find I, since U <60 per cent in both cases'
272 Basic and Applicd

#
-
Sand

Sand
-
.
-Y.lq-.w.T.
3m

IJ;,
4m
'-F

_lt'
Clay B 4m
Rock T
S.rbsoil pro{ile

Fig 9.3E Example 9.8

I=2m; Hn=4m,
no =

c,lA) cu (A) 0.197 42

,,@) = .lB) = o.o3l '7= z5'a

(b) A o due tofill = 2O x 6 = 120 kN/m2 and will be the same throughout the thickne ss of
clay B, since the fill is placed over a large area; that is, ui = 120 kN / m 2
(i) For clay A , T n = 0.197 for Uou = 50 per cent
Atmiddleof clayA, z=2mand z/H = I ('.' He =2m)
For z/ H = I and 7i, =0.197, Uz = 0.23 (from Fig. 9.12)
u, = (l-U,) ui = (l-0.23) x l2O=92.4kN/m2
which is equivalent to 92.4 I 9 .8 = 9 .43 m height of water.
Total pressure head at mid-depth ofclay A = hydrostatic head + head due to excess
water pressure = 5 m + 9.43 m = 14. 43 m.
Hence water in a piezometer would rise upto a height of 14.43 m above the
clay A
(ii) = 0.031 for Uu, = 2O percent
Forclay B ,Tu
z=2 mandzlH=0.5 (': Ha =4m)
For z/ H = 0.5 and 7n = 0.031, U , =0.57 (from Fig.9.l2)
u, = (l - u,) ui = (l - 0.57) l2O = 51.6 kN / m2,
which is equivalent to 5.26 m height of water.
Water would rise to a height of 15 m + 5.26 m=20.26 m in a piezometer.
(iii) Herez=4mand zl H =l.O
For zl H = 1.0 and Z, = 0.031, U , =0.40 (from Fig. 9.12).
It may be noted that for single drainage, only the top-half o f Fig. 9 .L2 is effectivc
z I H ratio can have a maximum value of 1.
ur= (l - U, ) ui= ( 1 -0.40) 120 =72kN/m2 or 7.35m height of water.
Waterwouldrise aheightof 17 m+7.35m=24.35 m in apiezometerinserted atthe
of clay B.
 of Soil and Consolidation

120 mm in 2 years' The coefficient

S.vqmple 9.9 A 8 m thick clay layer with single drainage settles by
msoridation for this # found to be 6 x t0-3 cm2ls. Carcurate the. rikely ultimate consolidation
";t
out how iong it will take to undergo 90 per cent of
and find
this settlement.

fl= 8 m (single drainage)

t= 2x 365x 24x 60 x 60 s
cv= 6 x 10-3 x 10r m2 /s

,T c,,t
tv -- -:-
H'z

6 x 10-7 x2x365x24x60x60
=- 64

= 0.5913
Eq. 9.18, we have
0.5913 = 1.781 -0.933log(1OO-U Vo)

1.2751 = log(100-U7o)
U -- 81.5 7o
U> 60 Vo ihenceuse o{Eq' 9'18 is right'
From the Eq. (S") , =U ,(5")f

(s,) = V=#L=r47mm'
Fr U = 9OVo,T" = 0.848 (Eq. 9'18)
Tufr= 0.848 x 64
= cv 6x10-7x60x 60x24x365
= 2.87 years

of saturated clay taken from

E-mple 9.10 In a laboratory consolidometer test on a 20 mm thick sample
B 5o per cent consolidatil;;;t'u;;'"acnea in i! 1m ."':11"t"
*::T:^Y:I":"t"",*"
ir there is drainage onrv towards the top. 1':1,':'"",1",i
Assume that
fuH;J#l;":#;;il";;;;";;;;r,i",
at the site are both subject to the same incr]ie^t::::::
boratory sample and the clay layer .::#:::
time required for the clav
ffr],.|"ilH;";;;r* to reach 90 ger cent consoliiation? what is the
to reach 50 per cent if the iayer has double drainage instead of single drainage?
"onrotiaution

(a) For the laboratorY samPle, / so= 10 min, Il =2O t2 = 10 mm (for double drainage)'

For the claY laYer at site, ll = 5 x 103 mm (for single drainage)

c-,t
,r- Il
 n4 Basic and Applied Soil

. Since Uor= 5o per cent for both the sample and the clay layer, T, is the same in both cases. S
increment is the same in both cases, cv is also the same. 'Hence
tiil ,attois the same for the
sample and the clay layer at the site,

where subscripts I and s are used to denote the laboratory

sample and the site soil
h= h
=
t# x 1o = 25 x ld min = 4.76 vears
"=f;* '
(b) Fortheclaylayeratsite, tso = 4|16 years

n
,u-P
-cut

Here both cu and H are the same for the clay layer.

Hence, Tso
_ tn
Tn le
Tn = 0.197 and 7e = 0.848 (Table9.l)

^ Te 0.848
,ro = x 4.76 = 20. 49 years
fr rso =
dJ67
(c) For single drainage condition, tn = 4.76years ; II= 5 m
Fordouble drainage, H = 5 t Z = 2.5 m
cut
'u= F
tI H2 ratiois tle same for both conditions

2'52
156 (double drainage) = r5e (single dmmage) x;;,

rhus it can be seen that q#Jt;,111.;,"'ii[X"] n ,ukes a quarter orthe time to reach
stage of consolidation compared to a layer with single
draiiage.

Example 9'11 A normally consolidated clay layer settled by 20 mm when the

effective
increased from 25 to 50 kN / m 2. what will be its setrlement when the effective
l00kN/m2 ?
;;;i; i;;;";
Solution:

For a normally consolidated clay, from 8q.9.37,

s,=c"#**
 od Consolidation
275

I + eo) is the same for both sEess increments,

(S.)r _ loe'f/oir
(sJz log(oyfo)2
foSaI to 50 / 25 =2 and (o/odz is equal to 100/ 50 =2. Hence, the settlement for the
rh5Oto 100 kN/m2 (S.)2, is also equal to 20 mm, r.e., (,S;)1 .

I l' A clay layer 6 m thick, having double drainage, settles by 30 mm in 3 years after it has
ectrtain load. Its final consolidation settlement is calculated as equal to 120 mm. If a layer
thickness were to be present at a depth of 1.5 m from the top of the clay layer,
what will
[ion settlement of the clay layer? what will be its settlement after 3 ylars?

lDilroduction of an additional drainage surface inside the clay layer will not after the magnitude
daimate consolidation settlement. Ignoring the thickness of the drainage layer, th-e final
rdarent will still be 120 mm, since the magnitude of ultimate settlement is relaied
only to the
- - ' ss of the srarum.
ft rirrrc-a4te of consolidation sefflement will, however, be appreciably altered in the changed
l;on.
Frrom Fig. 9.39, it can be seen that instead of a single 6 m thick clay layer
undergoing
Eto{idation under double drainage as at (a), there are two layers, layer I of 1.5 m thickness and
of 4.5 m thickness, undergoing consolidation, both undlr doubte drainage conditions
as at
'ry2
6L bot each layer having its own independent time-settlement relationship.

l.5m lace

6m Clay

ll0rainaS lace
4.5m

Drainage lace
(a) (b)

Ftg. 939 Example 9.12

I-ayerl -H o =1.5m; 11 =1.5/2= 0.75m

Layer2-Ho =4.5m H =4.5t 2=2.25m
Srears, thc settlement was 30 mm under conditions at (a); this corresponds to a degree
of consolidation
30 ( seftlement at a siven time S^. \
tro or0'25' For U= 0.25 (or25 percent ),
l.=@j
(Tabld
Table 9.1). H for this layer is
rs equal
eq to 6'12 =3 m.
tfnd 7,, and Tu, for layers 1 and2 at, = 3 years, given that Tu=O.}49for case (a), the relation
'If canbe used. By proportion,
 Basic and
n6
,2
(7,)r = 0.M9x Ih = 0'88(fromTable9'1)
#=0.784;
12
(Tu)z = 0.049 x U2= 0'28 (From Table 9'1)
*=0'087;
For a consolidating layer, at any time & = U'x S4 and 54 itself is directly
''
thickness IIe

Thus, U1 (S/r + IJ2(54)2= tJtS4 (of the 6 m thicklayer)

wherelJ|isthedegreeofconsolidationforthetwolayerscombined.
or U1x 1.5 +(12x4'5=Utx6'Q
0.88 x 1.5 +0'28 x4'5=U,x6'0
years is
Hence, U t =0.43 and the settlement after 3
S.=0.43 xl20=51.6 mm.
Example 9.13 A certain clay layer has of 5 m. After 1 year, when the clay wa
a thickness
a similar clay and loading conditions' how
mud
consolidated, 8 cm of settlement had occurred. For were
if the thickness of this new layer
would occur at the end of 1 year and 4 years respectively,

Solution:

For the layer of 5 m thickness, U = 50 Vo' t = I year and S.r= 8 cm'

Since S", = U,Sf

s/ = ot= to "-

Hence for the 25 m thick layer, Sr = 16 x25/5 =

80 cm (since S1* Hs )
From the equation Tu= for the same clay layer and the same degree of consolidatic'
ci/fr,
t1 t2

frr=4
For the 5 m thick laYer, t56 = I Year
Hence for the 25 m thick layer, /so = 1 x Q5/r2 =25 years

Forthe 25 m thick luyer,

#=t;
Also, since Tu= n/4 x tf for Il < ffi per cent'

f, (r,)r t1

4 Q)z
-=-=- t2
 277
Ward Consolidation

Ur = 50 Vofortl=25 Years;

tz'= l Year

't1 0.52 x;f

4 = 4?= 2J
= o.or

Uz = 0'l
5"1 = US1

S"r=0'1X80=8cm
tz= years'

tl = 43=o.t'**=goo
Uz -- 0.2

S"t = O'2 x 80 = 16 cm'

stands over al} mthick stratumof sand. Beneaththe sand stratum

is
t 14 A school building
has void ratio of
6 m thick and this is underlain by an impermeable rock stratum' The sand a
average degree
trble lies at a depth of 1.8 m below ground surface' Above the water table, the
r0.6.
test data for the clay soil gave the curve of e -6 as shown in Fig. 9.40. G, for both sand

b taken as2.7. Y,* (claY) = 19 kN/m3.

that as a
d to supply water to the school by pumping from the sand stratum and it is expected
that the school building is light
*me, the water table will be drawn down by 4 m. Assuming
result of the pumping'
I bed), calculate the probable settlement of the school
as a

fuss the subsoil profile below the school building'

fu lowering of the water table as a result of pumping of water, the effective stress in the clay
ircEase and this would lead to a settlement in clay'

G"+ Se
d above WT - 1ql tn

_ 2.7 + 0.6 x 0.7

, r.*
1+0.7

= 18 kN/m3
278 Basic and Applied

.i
€ 200
z
-- 190
,i rso
g rzo
o
g 160
L

.! rso
.F 3 t+o
u 130
0 .78 0.80 0.82 0.84
Io id rotio, c
Fig.9.40 Example 9.14

School
0m
1,8m
Originol W-T.

Drowdown
5.9 m
e =O7
6s= 2.7
12m
C toy
Gs = 2'7
l8 m
Fig.9.41 Example 9.14

G"+ e
y.ro, of sand
l+e't'
2.7 + O.7
-
l7
= 19.6 kN./m3
yro, of clay = -vLl1l
19 kN,/m3

From Fig. 9.41, effective stress at the centre of the clay layer before lowering of w r
1.8 x 18 + to.2 (19.6 - 9.8) +3 (19 - 9.8)

32.4+100+27.6
160 kN/m2
 fiil,ard Consolidation n9
r the centre of the clay layer after lowering of W T

= 5.8 x 18 + 6.2 (19.6 - 9.8) + 3 (19 - 9.8)

= 10.4 + 60.8 + 27.6
= l92.8kN/m2
fu Sove value can also be obtained by simply adding the additional effective stress induced
hwring-of W T by 4 m. The effective stress over this depth changes from 4(19.6 - 9.8) to 4 x
t$ tlrt/m2y

dclay corresponding to 160 kN/m2 (e)=0.798,from Fig. 9.40

ot clay correspondin gto 192.8 kN/# (e) = 0.758, from Fig. 9.40
c'+rlernent ofthe clay is given by the equation

sr= Hr&
6000(0.798 - 0.7s8)
1 + 0.798

= 133 mm
of the sand stratum is likely to be insignificant in comparison to the settlement of clay.
t.15 ATVtowerweighing 1000kNisconstructedon a3 mx3 mfootingatgroundsurface.
I[esence of a 3 m thick clay layer centered at a depth of 7. 5 m below ground surface and
qermeable bedrock, the tower settles by 5 cm in the year following construction. At this time,
e building is erected rapidly at the location shown in Fig. 9.42. This building rests on a raft
elso at ground surface, and exerts a uniform pressure of 100 kN/m2 on the ground.

l+-7.5 m -*{
,H [-1
It
I I T Bu ild ing
F3m-t l5m rof t
T. V. towcr
foundotion
I l-15 m ,<l
Fig. 9.42 Example 9.15

Cdsnlate the total settlement of the TV tower after another year has passed. The coefficient of
of the clay is 100 cm2l day, and it may be assumed that within the present range of loading,
settlement is equal to a constant times the load increment.

!i..1-1 5[ev5 the location of the clay layer relative to the positions of TV tower foundation and the raft
280 Basic and Applied

T.V. tow ar
foundotion Roft

I
7.5 m

II T
3m Cloy cv= 100 "^71 ary
Bcd rock
Fig.9.43 Example 9.15

Loading intensity at the base of TV tower foundation

1000
= 3,3: 111 kN/m2
Ho = 3m
It = 3m(singledrainage)
cv = 1oo cm2lday
c,,t
Tu = ---
H'

For, = ryear,Tu=aHrffq

= 0.406

For 7, = 0.406, U=1OVo (4.9. 18)

S.r = 5 cm at /= 1 year or U =7070
Hence, ultimate settlementS"l due to TV towerloading will be
# = r., ".n
After another year, i.e. t = 2 years,
l00x2xJQ=g.g1
"=-9, lo'
ForZ,= 0.81, U=89Vo @q.9.18)
due to TV tower loading only will be 0.89 x7.l= G
At the end of 2 years, consolidation settlement
To determine the additional settlement due to the loading intensity of 100 kN / m z at the basc
adjacent raft, one has to calculate the additional stress at the centre ofthe clay layer below the
TV tower foundation. This can be done using the Newmark chart. Construct the plan of the
 28t
and Consolidation

a rring paper making the scale distance equal to depth z = 7 .5 m (Fig. 9'a3). Place
with
the
the
of the TV tower foundation coincides
fu Newmark chart such that the centre
areas covered = 9
l0x 0.005x9
4.5 kN/m2
proportionality method
nt due to the additional load calculated by approximate

= 0-26 cm.
0'18 cm' Hence total settlement of the
{tuilding load ), U =70 % and S,, = 0'70 x 0'26 =
*t of 2 years will be 6'3 + 0.18 = 6. 5 cm'

clay l0mthick' underlain

l5 Anembankmentisproposedtobeconstructedoveralayerof
k srratum. The embankment is 3 m high and the fill soil has a unit weight of 20 kN / m3 ' The

dh - 8. 0 m2l year and cu= 4' 5

"?lY"*
pattern' at.a s.nacin8.:f
b of 400 mm diameter are proposed to be installed in a square
1,T::::
,fJ*"r, that can be expecti due to consolidation of the clay layer
d effective embankment loading.

3x 2O = 60 kN / m2
Erical stress in the clay layer due to the construction of embankment =
iroal loading)
railement. Sf = HomrLo
= 10 X 2.7 xlOa x 60 x 103

= 162 mm
dgddrains = 400mm, i.e., ra=0.2m

SilE pattern, radius of the cylindrical block

f, = 0.564s
f, = 0.564x3=l592m
R 1.692
n = ;=ff=8.46
&ainage:
c..t
T"= E
ll= 10 m, being a case of single drainage

Tr= =0.225
"#
2E2 Basic and

Tu- u36ovo
f,t'rc,
4xO.225
Uu= =O.17
1t

Radial drainage:

,r - 7
cnt 8.0 x 0.5
4R:2 4x 1.6922

= 0.349
From Fig. 9.26, for T, = 0. 349 and n = 8.46, U, = 0.87
Now, (1-U) = (l-U,) (l-U,)
r_u = (1_0.17)(1_0.87)
(/ - 0.892 or 89 .2Vo
s.
UI-
E
Hence, settlement of the embanlsnent at the end of 6 month = 0.89 x 162 = 144.5 mm.
can expectasettlementof only (162-144.5), i.e., 17.5 mmaftertheembankment hasbeen
six months.

PROBLEMS

l. Anoedometertestwasconductedonaspecimenof saturated clay(G =2.70)andth

dial gauge readings were obtained 24 hours incrcmod
after the application of each stress incrcn
rours after_the

Stress ftN/m2) 0 50 r00 2N 400 800 1600 32Cf 0

Dial reading (mm) 10.00 9.75 9.50 9.10 8.45 7.60 6.67 5.73 6.N
The initial thickness of the specimen was 20.00 mm and the water content at the end of
20 per cent.
Plotthe e-log 6 curve and determine the maximum preconsolidation pressure 6".
values of rn, for the stess increments 150-300 kN/m2 and 100G1500 kN/m2? Whar is
of C"?
The clay stratum in the field from where the soil sample was taken for laboratory testing
thick and is likely to be subjected to a stress increment of lfi)GlsOo kN I m 2. wnat si
settlement of the clay stratum as computed from (a) ry and (b) C"?
G" = 355
2. The compression curve for a certain clay is a straight line.on the e - log o plotandpassce
the point e = 1.2O, o= 50 kN I mz and e = 0.70, 6= g00 kN / m2. Write an equatia
relationship between e and o.

3. From the data obtained from an oedometer test, the following values of void ratio were
at different values of effective stresses:
 of Soil and Consolid.ation ?43

Effective stress o (kN/m2) 0 25 50 r00 200 300 400

Void ratio, e 0.775 0.760 0.750 0.735 0.721 0.700 0.685

(a) plot the a6 - 6curve and determine the,a, value for the stress range 250 : 45O kN / m2-
What is the corresPonding m" value ?
(b) Plot the e - o curve and tbe e - log 6 curve and determine C''

A 8 m thick sand layer overlies a 6 m thick layer of clay below which is another sand layer. For
the clay, mn= lo-3m2 / kN and cr= lOl ,r?/". tn water table is at the ground surface but is to
be

lowered permanently by 4 m over a period of 6 months. Calculate the ultimate settlement due to
the consolidation of clay assuming no change in the weight of sand. What is the likely settlement
2
years after the start of lowering of the water table?

5. The e - o data from a consolidation test is given below. The initial void ratio is 0.83 and the existing
overburden pressure is 120 kN / m2.

o(kN/#) 25 50 100 2a0 100 25 50 2N 400 800 1600

0.82 0.80 0.77 0.73 o.74 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.45

plot the e log 6 curve and determine the 6" value and the overconsolidation ratio. construct the
field consolidation curve using the Schmertmann procedure and determine the field compression
index, C. and recompression index, C. If this test is representative of a l0 m thick clay layer
2
at a given site, compute the settlement of the clay if an additionel stress of 2O0 kN / m were added.

6. The following time-dial reading data was obtained from a consolidation test on a saturated clay
2
sample under a stress incrementfrom 100-200 kN / m '

Time(min) 0.00 0.10 0,25 0.50 1.00 2.w 4.00 8.00 16.0

Dial reading (mm) 2.95 3.00 3.04 3.10 3.16 3.22 3.32 3.42 3.64

Time(min) 32.O 60.0 120.0 240.0 480.0 1000.0 l,l4O.0

Dial reading (mm) 3.82 3.g4 4.10 4.18 4.27 4.36 5.00
per cent
The initial thickness of the sample was 20.00 mm and its end of test water content was 25
G, =2'72'
(a) Plot the dial reading ,s. fi curve and determine c,'
(b) Determine the initial and primary compression ratios for this stress range.
(c) Using the log-time method, determine c, .
(d) Determine ry and k for this stress range.

7. The laboratory sample in prob. 6 was taken from a clay layer 10 m thick in the field, single drained
and subjecte( to a similar loading.
(a) How long wilt it take until the layer consolidates 50 per cent?
(b) If the final consolidation settlement is computed to be 15 cm, how long will it take for a
settlement of 3 cm to take Place?
2U Basic and Applicd

8. A clay layer, l0 m thick, doubly drained, is expected to have a final settlement of

coefficient of consolidation of the clay soil is l0-3 cm'l r for the relevant stressfl
consolidation settlement v.t time curve.

9. Assume the conditions presented in prob. 8 above. After 4 years, an identical load is
an additional 10 cm of consolidation settlement. Assuming 'instantaneous' load
time settlement curve under these conditions.

10. A settlement analysis carried out for a proposed structurc indicates that 8 cm of
occur in 5 years and that the final settlement will be about 40 cm. The computation wl
the basis of double drainage condition. However, subsequent borings establisbed c
drainage condition. Make an estimate of the final settlement and settlement in 5
changed situation.

ll. The proposed sfiucture of prob. 10 above was constructed and performed as expected
drainage condition. The owner then decided to build an identical structure nearby.
investigators established that the subsoil layers and their properties were identical to
10 except that the compressible stratum undsr the new structure would be about 25 per
than under the f[st structure. For the new structure, estimate the final settlement and th
after 5 years.

12. The final consolidation settlement for a clay layer 8 m thick, is estimated to be 24 cm.
reading obtained after 6 months established that the degree ofconsolidation at a pornt2
the top of the doubly-drained layer is 60 per cent.
(a) Determine the average degree of consolidation of the clay layer.
(b) Compute the value of c, .
(c) What is the settlement after 6 months?

13. Over the sand layer of Fig. 9.44, afill weighing 20 kN / .3 *u' constructed for a
50 per cent consolidation occurred in a period of2.5 years in the clay layer.
(a) What is the value of c,?
(b) At the end of 25 years, how much excess pore water pressure has dissipated (i) at
(ii) at the bottom of the clay laYer?
(c) To what height would the water rise in a stand pipe inserted at the bottom of ttc
2.5 years after the construction of the fill?

T= 20tNIm3

?= 2t kN lrn3
6= 0.90

Rock
Soil polih

Fig. 9.44 Problem 13

@ressibility of Soil and Consolidation

14. The liquid limit of a normally consolidated clay is 80 per cent. What are its approximate
C" and Co values?
15. ThesubsoilprofileataproposedsiteofconstructionisshowninFig. g.45. Afooting2msquare,
carries a total load of 1000 kN and is laid with its base at 1 m depth below ground surface. Assuming
that the post-construction settlement in sand is negligible, determine the consolidation settlement
of the layer on account of the construction. There is geological evidence to indicate that the clay is
normally consolidated. Use the approximate 2 to 1 load spread to estimate the stress increase in the
clay layer.

I 000 kN
rlr-

I=20kN/m3

Rock
Soil Prolih

Itg. 9.45 Problem 15

l- Azanz,A. S., Krizek, R.J, andCorotis, R.B. (1976), " RegressionAnalysisof SoilCompressibility", Soils
d Foundations, Vof 16, No. 2.
L Baron, R. A. (1948), "Consolidation of Fine-Grained Soils by Drain-Wells", Proceedings, American society
ofCivilEngineers, Vol. 73, 1947, YoL l13, 1948.
!- Bowles, J. E. (1984), Foundation Analysis and Design, McGraw-Hill Intemational Book Company.
t[ Carillo, N. (1942), "simpleTwoandThreeDimensional CasesintheTheoryofConsolidationofsoil", Joumal
dMathematics and Physics, l942,Yol.2l, pp. l-5.
5- Casagrande, A. (1936), "The Determination of the Preconsolidatian Ioad and its Practical Significance,
Discussion D-34, Proceedings of the First Intematronal Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineer-
ing, Cambridge, Vol. III.
6" Indian Standard Method of Test for Soil (Part XV), Consolidation Test,lS:2720 (Part XV), 1965.
7" r add, C. C. (1971), Settlernent Analysis for Cohesive Sodlr,' Research Report R fl-17, Department of Civil
Frgineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.