TR - 111787 - High Voltage Laboratory Testing of Femtosecond Laser Lightning Diversion PDF

High Voltage Laboratory Testing of
Femtosecond Laser Lightning

Diversion
TR-111787
Final Report, December 1998
EPRI Project Manager

R. Bernstein
EPRI • 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 • PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 • USA
800.313.3774 • 650.855.2121 • askepri@epri.com • www.epri.com
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CITATIONS
This report was prepared by
University of New Mexico

Department of Physics and Astronomy
Albuquerque, NM 87131
Author
J. Diels
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the
following manner:
High Voltage Laboratory Testing of Femtosecond Laser Lightning Diversion, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 1998. TR-111787.
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REPORT SUMMARY
Lightning strikes cost the electric power industry an estimated 1 billion dollars
annually in damage and lost revenue. One possible way of protecting critical and
susceptible facilities from lightning strikes is to use lasers to trigger and divert
lightning along a predetermined path. This report describes laboratory research on the
use of ultrashort UV pulses and near IR pulses to trigger high voltage discharge.
Background
Lightning causes extensive damage to industrial, commercial, and residential facilities.
In addition, lost revenues cause substantial economic loss. This project deals with
developing a laser-based system to divert lightning from striking susceptible facilities,
such as nuclear power plants, critical substations, operational centers, and customer
process control plants.
Objective
To demonstrate through laboratory experiments a new method to divert and trigger
lightning by ultrashort laser pulses; to construct a compact, economical solid state laser
source for this application.
Approach
The project team conducted laboratory experiments to demonstrate that an ultrashort
UV pulse followed up by a near IR pulse could trigger high voltage discharges. The
team also began construction of a compact, economical solid state laser source to
generate the necessary ultrashort pulses under field conditions.
Results
The use of lasers for ultrafast switching of large currents has been studied for several
decades. Two conditions are generally met in the laser triggering of a spark gap of less
than 5 cm: the peak electric field of the laser radiation is sufficient to reach avalanche
ionization and the energy of the pulse is sufficient to ionize all molecules in the gap
region. These requirements make it difficult to scale up laser triggering to long gaps
such as the cloud to ground gaps involved in lightning. Upwards of 300 kJ are required
to ionize a column of air of 1 cm2 cross section, 50 m long. In lieu of using very high
energy infrared lasers, the approach adopted in this study used an ultrashort,
picosecond to subpicosecond, UV pulse to create a uniform pre-ionization of a narrow
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cylinder and a second long-pulse laser in combination with
the ambient electric field to evolve the denser plasma needed to initiate a streamer. In
this scenario the energy requirements are much more modest, on the order of 8 mJ
rather than the 300 kJ required for full ionization. Under appropriate circumstances,
charge migrations in the ambient field generate a charge multiplication that leads
ultimately to an ionization front or streamer. Because full ionization is not needed, a
smaller, cheaper laser system can be used.
EPRI Perspective
This project made significant progress in the development of economical lasers that can
produce femtosecond (10-15) pulses. Besides the potential of such equipment in the
lightning-related applications described in the report, the technology may have an even
more important role in communications. Line–of-sight communication using
femtosecond lasers may be possible at speeds approaching 10 THz (EPRI report TR-
111786).
TR-111787
Interest Categories
Reliability
Distribution operations and maintenance
Transmission operations and maintenance
Lightning and weather impacts
Applied science and technology
Strategic innovations
Keywords
Distribution systems
Transmission systems
Substations
Outages, lightning, weather
Reliability
Lightning protection
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ABSTRACT
Lightning causes extensive damage to industrial, commercial and residential facilities.

In addition, lost revenues causes substantial economic loss. This project deals with
developing a laser-based system to divert lightning from striking susceptible facilities,
such as nuclear power plants, critical substations, operational control centers, and
customer process control plants. Laboratory experiments towards the demonstration of
a new method to divert and trigger lightning are presented. A combination of
ultrashort UV pulses and near IR pulses is used to trigger high voltage discharges.
Progress towards the construction of a compact, economical solid state laser source for
this application is reported.
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CONTENTS
1 BACKGROUND................................................................................................................... 1-1
2 OTHER LASER APPROACHES ......................................................................................... 2-1

CO2 Lasers.......................................................................................................................... 2-1
Near infrared lasers ............................................................................................................ 2-1
Laser induced lightning efforts around the world ................................................................ 2-2
3 PHYSICS OF LASER INDUCED LIGHTNING .................................................................... 3-1

Ionization of the air ............................................................................................................. 3-1
Evolution of the charges ..................................................................................................... 3-4
The Streamer...................................................................................................................... 3-8
4 EXPERIMENTAL WORK..................................................................................................... 4-1

Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 4-1
System with chirped pulse amplification ............................................................................. 4-1
Control and Measurement of UV pulse duration ................................................................. 4-2
UV Autocorrelation.............................................................................................................. 4-3
Control of pulse duration..................................................................................................... 4-4
Ionization cross-section measurements.............................................................................. 4-6
Typical Discharges.............................................................................................................. 4-8
Electron density measurements by spectral interferometry............................................... 4-11
Background................................................................................................................... 4-11
Standard spectral interferometry ................................................................................... 4-13
Minimum detectable electron density ............................................................................ 4-15
Spectral Interferometry without spectrometer................................................................ 4-16
Principle of the measurement.................................................................................... 4-16
Contrast and sensitivity ............................................................................................. 4-17
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5 A NEW SOLID STATE SOURCE ........................................................................................ 5-1
The Nd:Yag Laser System.................................................................................................. 5-2
The amplifier chain.............................................................................................................. 5-2
Optical parametric oscillator................................................................................................ 5-4
Second Harmonic pulse compression................................................................................. 5-6
Optical Parametric Amplification and Sum Frequency Generation ..................................... 5-7
Remarks regarding the New Laser System......................................................................... 5-9
The Nd:Yag Laser ........................................................................................................... 5-9
Pulse Compression ......................................................................................................... 5-9
Higher Energies ............................................................................................................ 5-10
Tests with the New Source at Mississippi State University ............................................... 5-10
A TABLE OF LASER LIGHTNING EFFORTS .......................................................................A-1
B REFERENCES....................................................................................................................B-1
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3-1 Sketch of the laser configuration for laser induced lightning. An UV laser
pulse of a few ps is combined with dicroic mirrors with a longer visible pulse (from
an alexandrite laser, for instance). The two combined laser beams are sent
through the atmosphere, and focused at a certain altitude below the charged
cloud. The chirp of the fs laser pulse is adjusted for temporal focusing ahead of the
spatial focusing, in order to maximize he length of the ionized region. The relative
delays of the UV and visible pulses are such that the UV pulse be slightly ahead of
the visible pulse............................................................................................................... 3-2
Figure 3-2 Pulse duration (solid), peak intensity of the laser (dot) and electron density
(dash) vs. Propagation distance for an absorption cross-section of β=10-22 cm3/W2.
As one can see, when the pulse is traveling through the atmosphere it gets more
and more compressed. Therefore the peak intensity increases, resulting in a very
high peak electron density at about 180 meters above the ground. At this point the
sharp needle is created (see Fig. 3) which causes an electric field enhancement
on the ends of the needle. That strong electric field is accelerating the created
electrons through the atmosphere to trigger a lightning discharge.................................. 3-3
Figure 3-3 The ionized volume created in the high field region under the cloud, and the
associated equipotentials................................................................................................ 3-5
Figure 3-4 Evolution of the electric field in time at a distance of 25-75m above ground
where the plasma has been formed. This electric field is caused by the electron
density created by the short pulse laser multiplying in an ambient electric field.............. 3-6
Figure 3-5 Evolution of electron density in time. As one can see, it starts up with a
huge concentration at about 50m above ground, starts accelerating in the outside
cloud-ground field and eventually becomes a flattop. At the edges of the flattop
one can see that the electron density rises very quickly, causing the peak electric
fields plotted in figure 4. .................................................................................................. 3-7
Figure 3-6 Peak local field (meaning the peak of the intensity spikes seen in Fig. 4
versus time. The initial condition for the curve shown in the left curve of (a) was a
density of ρ0 = 7.5 x1011/cm3 and a photodetachment intensity of Ipd=20 MW/cm2.
For the curve on the right: ρ0=1x1011/cm3, Ipd=10 MW/cm2. Figure (b) shows a
continuation of the left curve in Fig. (a). The curves show that the spikes are much
higher over a longer time period if the initial electron density is higher (since these
electrons create those spikes) and if the intensity of the photodetachment beam is
bigger. That prevents the free electrons from attaching to oxygen atoms and
therefore ensures more electrons for causing the electric field peaks............................. 3-8
Figure 4-1 Block Diagram of Ti:Sapphire/KrF System with enlargement of the tripler. .......... 4-2
Figure 4-2 (a) Autocorrelation setup (b) Autocorrelation measurement ................................. 4-4
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Figure 4-3 Plot of pulsewidth (in s) versus grating separation (in m) as measured
experimentally. ................................................................................................................ 4-5
Figure 4-4 Experimental setup for multiphoton ionization measurements.............................. 4-7
Figure 4-5 Sketch of the alexandrite laser cavity (top) and typical waveform (below)............ 4-8
Figure 4-6 Self and laser-induced breakdown threshold vs. N2 pressure.............................. 4-9
Figure 4-7 Laser-induced breakdown versus focal position. ................................................ 4-10
Figure 4-8 Laser-induced break-down near the top electrode (left) and mid cell (right).
The weaker traces are reflections off the plexiglas cylinder enclosing the
electrodes. .................................................................................................................... 4-11
Figure 4-9 Sketch of conventional spectral interferometry. .................................................. 4-13
Figure 4-10 Sketch of our spectral interferometry set-up without spectrometer................... 4-16
Figure 4-11 Sketch of the set up to measure the evolution of charge density with the
laser-induced discharge. ............................................................................................... 4-18
Figure 5-1 Schematic of Nd:YAG Oscillator........................................................................... 5-2
Figure 5-2 Current amplifier arrangement for single pulse. Note that a divergent beam
is needed. ....................................................................................................................... 5-3
Figure 5-3 With greater divergence in the amplifier, self-phase modulation can be
drastically improved......................................................................................................... 5-3
Figure 5-4 Schematic of the new solid state laser system. .................................................... 5-4
Figure 5-5 The synchronously pumped Optical Parametric Oscillator ................................... 5-5
Figure 5-6 Frequency tripled pump beam at 355nm and the resulting 928nm pulse train
after the OPO.................................................................................................................. 5-5
Figure 5-7 These curves show a successful pulse compression from 17ps down to
309fs. .............................................................................................................................. 5-6
Figure 5-8 Setup for the pulse compression. ......................................................................... 5-7
Figure 5-9 Amplified 928nm pulse. ........................................................................................ 5-7
Figure 5-10 Additional amplification, second harmonic generation and frequency
mixing lead to the 248nm beam that is amplified in a KrF excimer. ................................ 5-8
Figure 5-11 Beam profile of the outcoming 248.6nm. ............................................................ 5-8
Figure 5-12 Triple pass amplification of the 248.6nm seed pulse in a KrF excimer. ............ 5-11
Figure 5-13 The solid state source as it was set-up at the facility of Mississippi State
University (left). Top right: laser guided discharge at 140 kV dc, electrode spacing
30 cm. Bottom right: laser triggered discharge for an ac voltage of 400 kV,
electrode spacing 1 m. In both cases, the irradiation was 10 ps, 10 mJ UV pulse,
and 200 mJ, 2 µs alexandrite laser. .............................................................................. 5-12
Figure 5-14 High Voltage Testsite at MSU........................................................................... 5-13
Figure 5-15 Left: Part of the new Nd:YAG system. Right: J.-C. Diels standing between
the two excimer amplifiers and the alxandrite laser....................................................... 5-13
Figure 5-16 Pictorial Overview of the experiment at MSU. Here we show the successful
longest UV discharge. ................................................................................................... 5-14
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LIST OF TABLES
Table A-1 Table comparing several lightning efforts around the world. ................................. A-1
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1
BACKGROUND
Lightning strikes cause more than $200 million a year in damage to utility equipment
and facilities, not counting lost revenue during power outages. It has been estimated
that combined damage and lost revenues exceed 1 billion dollars annually. In an 18
month period from 1990 to 1992 a large utility experienced three lightning caused
shutdowns at its nuclear power plant costing about $500,000 in lost operating revenue.
A nuclear power plant in Japan nearly lost system control when struck by lightning in
the early 1990s. Many golfers and other water sports people are killed annually. Also,
lightning causes major perturbations of air traffic.
In addition to the damage caused by direct strike, indirect perturbations are having
increasing importance. These are, for instance, ground current disturbances and
voltage transients caused by induced electromagnetic radiation when lightning strikes
near a distribution line. Even the transients associated with the protection switches
may affect sensitive installations. The electromagnetic disturbance associated with
lightning strikes can affect fast electronic components of computers or control centers at
automated production and process plants. The most sophisticated and automated
industries are the most sensitive to lightning. The trend is therefore for more stringent
requirements on electrical power distribution, improved reliability and power quality,
and an increasing need for a protection from lightning strikes. One such protection is
to find a way to trigger lightning along a predetermined path. Even before such a
system can divert lightning from susceptible facilities, it will be an invaluable research
tool in investigating lightning, its impact on electrical component, on material science
(investigation of new phases of matter, as has been observed in earth on the path of
lightning), and meteorology (weather impact upon a sudden perturbation created by
discharging an electrified cloud). EPRI and the researchers at the University of New
Mexico are seeking an active alternative to lightning protection. Key locations such as
airport control towers, power stations, rock concerts, golf courses, could be protected if
any thunderstorm in the area can be discharged in a safe ground not interfering with
the installations. Keys to the viability of the approach are that the operational laser
system is compact, economical, and robust against adverse environment, not requiring
a cumbersome installation.
Our research has pursued two parallel tracks: first, investigating the concept by
computer simulations and laboratory experiments with existing but non-operational
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Background
technologies; second, developing a pure solid state system that could be implemented
in the field.
The use of lasers to trigger discharges has been studied for several decades [1,2]. One
of the main applications has been to exploit the availability of laser pulses for ultrafast
switching of large currents. Two conditions are generally met in a typical laser
triggered spark gap (less than 5cm): (a) the peak electric field of the laser radiation is
sufficient to reach avalanche ionization, and (b) the energy of the pulse is sufficient to
ionize all molecules in the gap region. Laser triggered spark gaps cannot easily be
scaled up to long gaps, and eventually to cloud to ground gaps. This is illustrated if one
considers the energy requirement to ionize a column of air of 1 cm2 cross section, 50 m
long. Since there are approximately 1023 molecules in that volume, with ionization
energy of approximately 15 eV, the required energy is 300 kJ. With this large number in
mind, the approach of most researchers in this field has been to use very high energy
infrared lasers, either Nd:YAG lasers at 1.06 µm [3,4] or (kJ) CO2 lasers [5-14] at 10.6
µm. In contrast to these high energy approaches, we create a uniform pre-ionization of
a narrow cylinder with an ultrashort (picosecond to subpicosecond) UV pulse.
Subsequently we let the combination of ambient electric field and a second long-pulse
laser evolve towards the denser plasma needed for initiation of a streamer. In this
scenario the energy requirements are much more modest. Indeed, for the example of
the 50 m long column of air of 1 cm2 cross section, only 8 mJ are required to reach a
uniform ionization of 1013 e-/cm3. A much more modest installation is required to
deliver 8 mJ at a high repetition rate (8 mJ at 100 Hz represent only 0.8 W of laser
power) than for the 300 kJ required to reach full ionization. We have shown [15-17]
that, under appropriate circumstances, charge migrations in the ambient field generate
a charge multiplication, leading ultimately to an ionization front or streamer. Hence
our approach works with little ionization, requiring a smaller laser system and less
expense.
The initial concept [18] has an increasing number of followers [19-22]. Interestingly
enough, the first reported observation of laser triggered lightning in the field [14,23]
was made using a combination of two kJ CO2 lasers with a picosecond UV pulse at 266
nm (fourth harmonic of Nd:YAG).
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2
OTHER LASER APPROACHES
CO2 Lasers
The carbon dioxide laser operating at a wavelength of 10.6 µm is one of the most
powerful and efficient lasers. However, 10 kJ is a huge energy, even for such a laser.
An electron beam pumped device is needed to generate a 2 kJ beam. Nevertheless,
numerous attempts have been made to trigger and direct discharges with pulsed CO2
lasers [5-14]. The mechanism of ionization is electron avalanche in the intense laser
field. Aerosols play a dominant role in nucleation of the laser-induced plasma. Bright
spots or “plasma beads” are seen in the path of the high power beam. A recent study
by a Japanese group at Osaka University [14] showed experimentally that the ability to
trigger the discharge at less than the self-breakdown voltage is related to the distance
between plasma beads with the breakdown voltage decreasing as the bead spacing
decreases towards a continuous path. A continuous plasma cannot be formed because
the laser-induced plasma is opaque to the CO2 laser radiation. Another disadvantage of
the CO2 laser is the large diffraction associated with the long wavelength. A beam with
a 3 mm radius (1/e half width of the radial electric field distribution) diffracts to 4.5
mm in 1.5 meter.
In summary, a CO2 laser is not a practical device to create a directed discharge for the
following reasons:
• the CO2 laser is a huge, bulky device of low repetition rate, with the largest ones
requiring electron beam pumping,
• a continuous plasma cannot be created because the plasma is opaque to the

radiation and thus blocks the beam,
• a high intensity cannot be maintained over long distances because of diffraction.
Near infrared lasers
The Nd:YAG laser at 1.06 µm is the next high power laser candidate which has been
used in various laser-induced discharge tests [3,4]. Here again, the wavelength is too
long to ionize air by multiphoton absorption (a 13-photon process). The mechanism is
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Other Laser Approaches
again avalanche ionization through the intense field of the laser pulse. Lasers
developed for “Star Wars” of up to 1 kJ energy [24] per pulse have been used for this
purpose.
Other experiments [25] have been performed at 800 nm, using filaments produced by
self-focusing of 100 fs, 30 mJ pulses in air. The pulses produce their own waveguide of
80 µm diameter in air. Despite the high peak intensity in these self-trapped filaments
(in excess of 1015 W/cm2), it was not possible to trigger a discharge across a 10 cm gap,
100 kV. The reason appeared to be that, at that wavelength, the nonlinearities
responsible for trapping the beam in a waveguide appeared before the field amplitude
of the laser has reached the level required for ionization. The beam diameter upon
trapping is not yet small enough for efficient ionization. At a shorter wavelength
produced by frequency doubling these pulses (400 nm), the 10 cm gap could be easily
discharged at a 20 times lower intensity.
Laser induced lightning efforts around the world
The first international workshop on “Lightning protection by Lasers” held in Sosnovy

Bor in June 1998 was an indication that the field of laser induced lightning is the object
of active research around the world. Proceedings of this conference are to appear in
January 1999. Appendix A shows an overview of the various efforts around the world,
with an indication of the funding level, when available. Our novel approach has
allowed us to compete with these efforts with only relatively modest investment, while
promising perhaps the most dramatic results.
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3
PHYSICS OF LASER INDUCED LIGHTNING
There are several advantages of using ultrashort UV pulses. First, photoelectrons are
created uniformly by multiphoton ionization of low order (3- and 4-photon), rather
than by a runaway process such as avalanche ionization. Second, high peak intensities
can be reached with moderate pulse energies (on the order of millijoules). Third, the
dispersion of air is large in the UV and can be exploited to achieve temporal focusing.
Indeed, pulses with a negative phase modulation (downchirped pulses) will be
temporally compressed (focused) as they propagate through the atmosphere. A
combination of spatial and temporal focusing can be used to create free electrons along
a needle shaped cylinder. Fourth, the diffraction of the beam at 248 nm is 40 times less
than at the CO2 laser wavelength, which implies that, for the same initial beam size,
1600 times larger powers are required by a CO2 laser to reach the same intensity at a
remote site. Finally, even high density plasma will be transparent to the UV radiation.
Ionization of the air
The general approach is sketched in Fig. 3.1. A combination of two short low
wavelength pulses is used. An ultraviolet ultrashort (< 1 ps) pre-ionizing pulse is
combined with an “ultralong” (> 5 µs) visible pulse (wavelength 750 nm) to maintain
the free electrons created by the first one. Indeed, free electrons are efficiently created
through 3-photon ionization of oxygen and 4-photon ionization of nitrogen by a 248 nm
ultrashort pulse. However, these electrons combine within nanoseconds with oxygen
to produce negative oxygen ions. The purpose of the long pulse visible laser pulse is to
photodetach these ions, maintaining a path of free electrons. Because of the difference
in group velocities at both wavelengths, the UV pulse should be launched slightly
ahead of the visible pulse.
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Physics of Laser Induced Lightning
e
tim
time
Figure 3-1
Sketch of the laser configuration for laser induced lightning. An UV laser pulse of
a few ps is combined with dicroic mirrors with a longer visible pulse (from an
alexandrite laser, for instance). The two combined laser beams are sent through
the atmosphere, and focused at a certain altitude below the charged cloud. The
chirp of the fs laser pulse is adjusted for temporal focusing ahead of the spatial
focusing, in order to maximize he length of the ionized region. The relative delays
of the UV and visible pulses are such that the UV pulse be slightly ahead of the
visible pulse.
With regards only to the UV beam, the problem of temporal as well as spatial focusing
is rather complex, because, as the intensity increases near either focus, several nonlinear
effects contribute to a distortion of both temporal and spatial beam profiles:
• the intensity dependence of the nonlinear index of air tends to self-focus the beam
and produce a positive phase modulation (positive chirp),
• the top of the beam profiles flatten because of nonlinear absorption (energy loss
associated with three-and four-photon ionization),
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• the electrons generated by three-and four-photon ionization tend to de-focus the

beam, and create a negative phase modulation (negative chirp),
• the ions have a lower index of refraction than the neutral molecules, contributing
also to a negative phase modulation and de-focusing.
Calculations taking these effects into account were made within the assumption that the
beam remain Gaussian [15-17].
A ω = 17 cm diameter diffraction limited beam can be focused at 180 m to a minimum

spot size ω0= 0.2 mm.
Figure 3-2
Pulse duration (solid), peak intensity of the laser (dot) and electron density (dash)
vs. Propagation distance for an absorption cross-section of β=10-22 cm3/W2. As
one can see, when the pulse is traveling through the atmosphere it gets more and
more compressed. Therefore the peak intensity increases, resulting in a very high
peak electron density at about 180 meters above the ground. At this point the
sharp needle is created (see Fig. 3) which causes an electric field enhancement on
the ends of the needle. That strong electric field is accelerating the created
electrons through the atmosphere to trigger a lightning discharge.
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An example of such a calculation showing the pulse duration, electron density and
pulse peak intensity versus distance is reproduced in Fig. 3.2, taken from [17].
The general feature shows an electron density increasing before the spatial focus,
thereafter a sharp decrease. The temporal focusing occurring slightly before the spatial
focusing (because of the self-phase modulation in air) does slightly broaden the region
of maximum ionization. These calculations are in good qualitative agreement with
measurements of Fontaine et al [21] showing the sharp edge of ionization versus
distance after the focus. This sharp edge is important in determining the dynamics of
the further evolution of the plasma. The larger the charge gradient, the larger the local
field enhancement due to an external field [17]. The laser will be therefore most
efficient in triggering and guiding a discharge if the beam is focused towards the
positive electrode. The initial velocities involved in the development of the streamer
are that associated with the electron drift velocity, on the side of the anode.
Evolution of the charges
The UV and 750 nm pulses create a needle-shaped ionized volume in the high field
region. The equipotentials associated with a needle shaped conductor in a high field
show a concentration of field at the tips of the needle (as sketched in Fig. 3.3.
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FIELD ENHANCEMENT
AT THE TIPS OF THE
NEEDLE, RESULT IN
AVALANCHE IONIZATION,
CHARGE MULTIPLICATION
AND FURTHER LOCAL FIELD
ENHANCEMENT
Figure 3-3
The ionized volume created in the high field region under the cloud, and the
associated equipotentials
The physical problem is more complex, because we have created a weak plasma, rather
than a perfectly conducting needle. Computer simulations show that the initial density
of charges is fed by avalanche collisional ionization taking place at the tips of the
needle. The process is the fastest where the gradient is the largest --- hence at the end
of the conductor away from the source. The time it takes for the local field enhancement
to develop into a streamer is of the order of microseconds. The time it takes for
electrons to attach to oxygen is however in the order of nanosecond. To prevent the
substitution of electrons by the low mobility negative ions, a photodetaching pulse of
an alexandrite laser is launched through the same path, for the length of time required
for the streamer to form.
The following computer simulation were performed assuming a constant

photodetachment intensity of 4 MW/cm2. The system of equations is given in ref. [17].
Figure 3.4 shows an example of evolution with time of the electrical field versus
distance (condition of cylindrical symmetry). The zero corresponds to the positive
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electrode, the negative electrode being at 100 m. The initial condition is that of a
cylinder of charges (electrons and positive ions) deposited by the ionizing UV fs pulse.
The initial electron density is the Gaussian curve peaking at 1018 charges/m3 in Fig. 3.5,
which shows the evolution of the electron density after seeding. At this relatively small
photodetachment intensity, the electron density decreases rapidly from the initial
value. The field is reduced (as seen in Fig. 3.4 --- as it should be --- inside the conductor
--- (i.e. the cylinder of charges).
Figure 3-4
Evolution of the electric field in time at a distance of 25-75m above ground where
the plasma has been formed. This electric field is caused by the electron density
created by the short pulse laser multiplying in an ambient electric field.
At the edges of the “needle” of charges, there is a local enhancement of the electric
field, which results in further field ionization. The charges thus generated feed the
charges in the plasma. The gradient of charges becomes steeper as the needle of
charges expands longitudinally. As a result the local field enhancement at the tips of
the needle increases nonlinearly with time. The velocity of the two edges of the
ionization front increases with time. This is illustrated by the plot of Fig. 3.6, where the
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growth of the peak electric field is shown as function of time, in ms, following seeding
by a cylinder of charges. In the left Fig. 3.6(a), the evolution with time of the peak local
electric field is plotted for two different initial diameters of the cylinder of charges. It is
assumed that the same pulse energies (photoionizing UV pulse as well as the
photodetaching laser) are producing the different cylinders of charge. The length of
the cylinders of charge is the same as in Figs. 3.4 and 3.5. The beams of smaller cross-
section create much larger photoionization (ionization in I3 for oxygen) and larger
photodetachment (proportional to I, or in the inverse ratio of the cross-sections).
Figure 3-5
Evolution of electron density in time. As one can see, it starts up with a huge
concentration at about 50m above ground, starts accelerating in the outside
cloud-ground field and eventually becomes a flattop. At the edges of the flattop
one can see that the electron density rises very quickly, causing the peak electric
fields plotted in figure 4.
3-7
11194449
(a) (b)
Figure 3-6
Peak local field (meaning the peak of the intensity spikes seen in Fig. 4 versus
time. The initial condition for the curve shown in the left curve of (a) was a density
of ρ0 = 7.5 x1011/cm3 and a photodetachment intensity of Ipd=20 MW/cm2. For the
curve on the right: ρ0=1x1011/cm3, Ipd=10 MW/cm2. Figure (b) shows a continuation
of the left curve in Fig. (a). The curves show that the spikes are much higher over
a longer time period if the initial electron density is higher (since these electrons
create those spikes) and if the intensity of the photodetachment beam is bigger.
That prevents the free electrons from attaching to oxygen atoms and therefore
ensures more electrons for causing the electric field peaks.
Because the transverse dimensions of the plasma are much smaller than the
longitudinal dimensions, the dynamics of the evolution is practically not affected by the
diameter of the initial cylinder of charges, given the same number of total charges. The
theoretical simulations can thus be summarized by stating that the growth rate of the
field is mainly determined by the total number of electrons deposited by the UV pulse.
The narrower the beam, the larger the intensity and the larger the number of
photoelectrons generated. The plot in Fig. 3.6(b) corresponds to the narrower cylinder
of charges, and shows the nonlinear growth of the peak local electric field.
The Streamer
It has long been thought that the numerical approximations break down after
approximately 40 to 70 ms because of the steepening of the field and electron density
gradients, and the increasing velocity of the ionization front. The reason for the
numerical breakdown may be more fundamental, because it does not take into account
the full energy spectrum of the electrons. In fact, in the system of equations being used
by most researchers in this field, only one velocity group is being considered. On the
other hand, observation of lightning strikes and streak camera pictures by the Canadian
group [21] point towards an ionization front or streamer propagating at a velocity of
the order of tenths of the speed of light.
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We propose to expand the model by considering just two groups of velocities for the
electrons. The slow electrons obey essentially the same set of equations as used
previously [17]. A small fraction of the slow electrons makes if through the forest of
atoms, to acquire a kinetic energy of several tens of electron volts, sufficient to create a
large number of photoelectrons upon impact with a neutral molecule. Let us consider
for the model a collision rate of α=1/τc ≈ 1/50 ps for electrons accelerated to m⋅Eion,
where m is an integer and Eion is the ionization energy of nitrogen (15.5 eV). We pick
this specific type of electrons because they will lead to an impact ionization to yield m
electrons. Between collisions, these electrons reach the velocity of
eτ c
Vf = E = µf E (eq. 3-1)
me
where me is the electron mass, e the electron charge, and E the applied field. There is
clearly a different “mobility” µf for the fast ionizing electrons. We will thus consider a
group of slow electrons with a mobility µe and a density Ne, and a smaller group of
electrons of density Nf that has reached the ionizing velocity µfE. The modified
conservation equations are:
∂N e ∂( µ e EN e )
+ = mαN f − ηN e − β ep N e N p + γ l N n (eq. 3-2)
∂t ∂z
∂N f ∂ ( µ f EN f )
+ = ε ne N e − αN f − ηN e − β ep N e N p + γ l N n (eq. 3-3)
∂t ∂z
∂N p ∂(V p N p )
+ = mαN f − β ep N e N p − β np N n N p (eq. 3-4)
∂t ∂z
∂N n ∂(Vn N n )
+ = ηN e − β np N n N p − γ l N n (eq. 3-5)
∂t ∂z
...where Vp, Vn, Ne, Np and Nn represent the velocity of positive and negative ions and
the number density of electrons, positive and negative particles, respectively. η, βep, βnp,
and γll are the attachment, electron-ion recombination, ion-ion recombination and laser-
induced detachment coefficients, respectively. These transport parameters are
calculated from empirical formulas taken from different experimental results and
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detailed in ref. [17]. The source term for the slow electrons and positive ions are
collisions of the fast electrons with neutral molecules, expressed by the term m⋅α⋅Nf.
The source term for the fast electrons is εneNe, where εne is the probability for each slow
electron not to make an elastic collision.
Work is in progress, with the collaboration of the European group CATHODE

(Computer Algebra Tools for Handling Ordinary Differential Equations) to solve these
equations numerically and/or analytically in order to determine the existence of a
steady state propagating ionization front. Because of the presence of the
photodetachment laser, the fastest --- hence dominant -- ionization from would be
generated by the fast electrons. Analytical solutions are being sought that would
describe the propagation of a distortionless edge of electron density, associated with a
spike in local electric field. We intend to make measurements in the laboratory to verify
experimentally the existence of an ionization front propagating at a constant velocity.
A thorough understanding of this aspect of the problem will help scale the laboratory
results to the field.
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4
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Introduction
The theoretical simulation points to a design goal for the laser system of 50 mJ energy
for the femtosecond pulse at 248 nm, and several Joules for the extended (tens of µs)
photodetaching visible pulse at 750 nm.
Keys to the viability of the approach are that the final laser system be compact,
economical, robust against adverse environment, and that it not require cumbersome
installation (such as the 36 kW electrical power and 30 l/min cooling flow required for
most argon laser driven systems, or such as the laser systems developed for the
Strategic Initiative (Star Wars) or fusion research being used by the Japanese and
Russian groups).
Our research has pursued simultaneously two parallel tracks: first, investigating the
concept by computer simulations and laboratory experiments with existing but bulky
technologies; second, developing a pure solid state system that could be implemented
in the field.
System with chirped pulse amplification
Laboratory tests with standard (but large scale) technology are reported in this section.
An argon laser pumped Ti:sapphire laser oscillator was built, followed by a
regenerative amplifier, multipath amplifier chain pumped by a Surelite II (Continuum)
Nd:YAG laser. This front end produces pulses of up to 20 mJ in a 200 fs pulsewidth at
10 Hz tuned to 744 nm. The pulse is frequency doubled in LBO (1.5 mm thick) to 372
nm. After a dichroic Michelson to adjust for spatial and temporal walkoff of the 744
and 372 nm pulses, they mix via sum frequency generation in BBO (1.5 mm thick) to
yield a 248 nm pulse, seed for a triple pass KrF amplifier. The final output energy is
around 10 mJ.
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Experimental Work
Pulse
Ti:Sapphire laser
Stretcher
744nm, 100 fs
100 MHz
Regenerative
Nd:YAG laser Amplifier
Post
Amplifier
Grating
KrF amplifier compressor
Grating 744 nm, 100 fs
248 nm, 10 mJ compressor 10 Hz, 10 mJ
LBO t τ (delay)
ω t
BBO
3ω
t
Figure 4-1
Block Diagram of Ti:Sapphire/KrF System with enlargement of the tripler.
Control and Measurement of UV pulse duration
In order to establish a good working model for the propagation of an ultrashort laser
beam in air, one has to know the absorption properties of air. This will enable us to
improve our computer simulations and will help to get a better understanding of the
processes involved. The number of electrons Ne created in a certain time period t by
means of an ultrashort UV beam is:
dN e
= A ⋅ I (t ) 3 (eq. 4-1)
dt
To measure the ionization cross-section A, we have to know the intensity of the

incoming laser beam. Since intensity is [energy/time], it is crucial to know the
pulsewidth of the laser in addition to the pulse energy.
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Experimental Work
UV Autocorrelation
The technique to measure ultrashort pulses is called autocorrelation. The basic idea is to
send the beam into a regular Michelson interferometer and to overlap the two
outcoming pulses (that have different time delays) in a medium which shows a second
order intensity dependence. For visible light this is usually a second harmonic crystal
with a photomultiplier for the light detection. Unfortunately, there exists no second
harmonic crystal for UV light. We therefore had to make use of a different second order
intensity process such as two photon ionization in gases [26,27]. For that purpose, a
totally new setup had to be built. It consists of two evacuated tubes with copper
electrodes that have a spacing of 4mm (see Fig. 4.2). One should note that it is rather
difficult and tedious to build a clean and leak free vacuum cell. We can fill the gas
tubes with the needed pressure (ca. 450 mTorr) and apply a voltage of about 300V. The
laser beam is then focused between the electrodes to ionize the gas with second order
dependence. The resulting ions travel to the electrodes, yielding a photocurrent that is
directly proportional to the number of ions formed. Plotting the photocurrent will
therefore (after some calibration) lead to the pulsewidth of the beam.
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Experimental Work
Autocorrelation Normalization
Arm Arm Cell filled with NO
(Two-photon Ionization)
+300v
+300v
Ammeter Ammeter
delay
UV fs
pulse
M BS Fused Silica
Window
M
(a)
3.0 Sample UV autocorrelation
Autocorrelation FWHM: 711 fs
2.8 for no UV compressor
Pulsewidth: 474 fs
2.6
2.4
Autocorrelation (a.u.)
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
-3000 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 3000
Delay (fs)
Figure 4-2
(a) Autocorrelation setup
(b) Autocorrelation measurement
Because of shot-to-shot variations, we use one vacuum tube to normalize. Dividing the
current of the autocorrelation arm by the normalization arm will provide us with a
measurement that is independent of shot-to-shot energy fluctuations. The next figure
shows one of the many autocorrelation curves we already measured.
Control of pulse duration
With a valid pulsewidth diagnostic developed, the next step was to prove that a
“chirp” could be imparted to the pulse. This allows one to vary where spatially the
minimum pulsewidth will occur after the laser. Such adjustment of the temporal focus
location will be needed to optimize the intensity at a specific altitude in field tests.
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Experimental Work
Pulse
width
(ps)
2.5
1.5
0.5
Grating
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 Separation
(m)
Figure 4-3
Plot of pulsewidth (in s) versus grating separation (in m) as measured
experimentally.
In order to achieve this temporal adjustability, we can use either a grating or prism
pair. The choice depends on where the pair is located. If the chirp is to be imparted
after the excimer amplifier, the gratings would be the best choice because intensity
dependent losses in glass would reduce the useful output of prisms. However, it is
perhaps more logical to chirp the pulse prior to this final excimer amplifier (which
operates to saturation level) so that the amplifier can give the maximum system output.
Under this assumption that the pair should be placed before the excimer, there are
certain advantages to each approach. Since the seed pulse going into the amplifier is
weaker, a prism pair would suffer less losses (giving an estimated total transmission of
around 80%) but offer less range in pulsewidth adjustment. Conversely, a grating pair
located here will have an estimated transmission of 25% of the seed but will offer
greater pulsewidth tunability. Since we hoped that the seed would still amplify to
saturation level, the grating pair was attempted first.
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Experimental Work
The grating pair allowed a tunability from 300 fs up to 2 ps in pulsewidth, as seen in

Fig. 4.3. This demonstrates that the positive chirp generated in the excimer (due to gas
and window material) can be partially compensated since the pulsewidth can be
reduced from around 450 fs with no pre-chirping apparatus to around 300 fs with such
a system. Ideally, the pulsewidth should be reduceable to the 200 fs observed at 745 nm
going into our frequency tripler. It is important to note that the grating pair approach
was quite lossy, to the point that there was not enough seed pulse (and thus too much
noise) being amplified. To combat this problem, a pre-chirping prism pair has been
installed with an observably superior seed transmission. Testing of the temporal
tunability is forthcoming.
Ionization cross-section measurements
Now that we know the pulsewidth of our UV laser beam we are able to perform exact
ionization cross-section measurements. For that purpose we have built a setup (see Fig.
4.4) that is very similar to the autocorrelation setup (in fact that is the reason we choose
that autocorrelation setup in the first place). The laser beam is sent through a 50%
beamsplitter that reflects one part into a vacuum cell and directs the other part into an
energy meter. We now know the intensity of the beam (energy/pulsewidth) and we
know the number of ions created because that is proportional to the measured current.
The number of neutral atoms is known from the pressure inside the cell. That means
(see eq. 1) that the ionization coefficient can be exactly determined. One big challenge
is to provide a very constant low (10-4 Torr) pressure. We therefore constructed a fairly
elaborate vacuum setup that "bleeds" the desired gas into our gas cell and is constantly
pumped out by a diffusion pump. That way we establish a constant flow of very pure
gas at a fixed low pressure. This means of course special caution while working with
toxic gases like NO. One should note that these ionization coefficients have never been
measured for the kind of beams we are dealing with. There is a great deal of interest to
find out how these coefficients depend on pulsewidth and wavelength for various
gases. So we will not only be able to improve our own computer simulations but we
will also be able to verify theoretical studies that have been done on that subject during
the last few years.
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Experimental Work
Energy meter
BS
Vacuum tube
with electrodes
Various
Leak valve gases
Shut off
valve
Diffusion pump, forepump

nitrogen trap
Figure 4-4
Experimental setup for multiphoton ionization measurements.
The Alexandrite Laser
Simultaneous irradiation with an extended Q-switched alexandrite laser pulse is being

investigated to reduce the impact of electron attachment to oxygen. Tests with a free-
running alexandrite laser have shown an influence on the discharge when a spike of the
alexandrite pulse comb coincides temporally with the femtosecond UV pulse. By
photodetaching the negative oxygen ions, the alexandrite laser ensures a higher air
conductivity for the time required to initiate the discharge.
In standard Q-switch operation, the Alexandrite laser can produce pulses of a half Joule
energy and 50 ns duration. The desired mode of operation is a continuous output over
several microseconds. This goal was achieved by using a combination of an electro-
optic Q-switcher and a two photon absorber (ZnS) for pulse stretching (Fig. 4.5). The
function of the two-photon absorber is to limit the intracavity energy, thereby slowing
down the rate of depletion of the gain and extending the pulse duration.
4-7
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Experimental Work
Telescope
EM W ZnSe PC
Osc. Gain QWP OC Amp.

Gain
Figure 4-5
Sketch of the alexandrite laser cavity (top) and typical waveform (below)
Typical Discharges
The UV pulse is sent through a hole in the grounded plate electrode of the high voltage
cell and exits an opposite hole in the positive plane electrode charged up to 95 kV (dc),
spaced 22 cm away. The cell can be sealed by a Lucite cylinder and CaF2 windows in
order to conduct tests at different pressures and with different gases.
Comparative thresholds for self- and laser induced breakdowns are plotted in Fig. 4.6
as a function of pressure, up to atmospheric pressure. With a beam of 3 mJ focused
about 4 cm from the charged electrode, breakdown occurred at significantly lower
voltages -- halving the voltage threshold for N2 at 250 Torr. A 7 mJ beam focused at the
same point induced breakdown in air at atmospheric pressure at a threshold of 74 kV
(corresponding to an E-field of 344 kV/m). The self-breakdown for air at this electrode
spacing, according to refs [17,28], should be 680 kV.
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Experimental Work
Breakdown Threshold (kV) 90

80
70
60
50
40 LIB
30 SB
20
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
N2 Pressure (Torr)
Figure 4-6
Self and laser-induced breakdown threshold vs. N2 pressure.
4-9
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Experimental Work
80
78
76
LIB Threshold (kV)
74
72
70
68
66
64 f=75 cm
62 f=1m
60
58
56
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Focal position w.r.t. charged electrode (cm)
Figure 4-7
Laser-induced breakdown versus focal position.
In order to minimize the laser-induced breakdown threshold, lens position and focal
length can be selected, to allow adjustment of beam focal position and depth of focus.
Here a 3-4 mJ beam is sent through a 75 cm focal length lens and enters 366 Torr of N2
(½ atm). Breakdown thresholds were determined as a function of focus proximity to
the charged electrode. Subsequently, 1 m and 1.5 m focal length have been tried with
less positive results (Fig. 4.7). The f=1.5 m lens failed to give a laser-induced discharge
because space availability kept the focus too far away from the positively charged
electrode. The net result is that there appears to be a significant reduction in
breakdown threshold when the focus is near the positive electrode.
Placing the focal position relatively close to the charged electrode and using the shorter
focal length lens is the combination that most effectively reduces breakdown threshold.
In this configuration the plasma has the highest density, even if over a smaller depth of
focus, and the focal region near the electrode produces an efficient streamer facilitating
breakdown. When focused near this electrode, breakdown threshold is lowered but
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Experimental Work
guidance is poor. The spark guidance is longest when the beam focus is at mid cell, as
shown in the Fig. 4.8, but the breakdown threshold is greater.
Figure 4-8
Laser-induced break-down near the top electrode (left) and mid cell (right). The
weaker traces are reflections off the plexiglas cylinder enclosing the electrodes.
Electron density measurements by spectral interferometry
Background
In order to properly understand the effectiveness of a laser-induced plasma in high

voltage discharges, it is useful to study the actual dynamics involved. This is to say
that the theory of an evolving electron distribution should be reinforced by concrete
measurements, specifically a time-resolved study of the electron density and ionization
front. Plasma diagnostics via optical techniques have been long explored [29-34]. The
parameters of concern for our experiment include the electron density both spatially
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Experimental Work
and temporally as well as the velocity distribution in space and time. Exploration of
the electron density and velocities can entail several approaches.
The simplest techniques, at least conceptually, for determining electron densities

involve a measurement of the plasma-induced refractive index change via some
interferometric method [33,35,36]. These methods have potentially better temporal
resolution (down to femtoseconds), and are better suited to low density plasma than
methods based on stimulated Raman scattering [29] and Thomson scattering.
Spectral interferometry or frequency-domain interferometry [31,37,38] has already been

applied to plasma electron density measurements [30] (although these were for dense
laser-produced plasmas from ablation of a target). Essentially a Mach-Zehnder
interferometer is used with one arm as reference and one arm as a test arm. In
applications such as this one requiring temporal resolution, ultrashort pulses are used
to probe the sample. The two pulses corresponding to either arm of the Mach Zehnder
interferometer are no longer overlapping, hence do not interfere anymore with each
other. The traditional solution to restore interferences is to send the beam into a high
resolution spectrometer [37]. If the resolution of the spectrometer is better than the
inverse of the delay between the two pulses generated by the Mach Zehnder,
interference fringes will be seen in the spectrum, spaced by the inverse of the optical
delay between the pulses.
In this particular application, it is the growth of the plasma that is of interest to us. In
order to measure changes in index of refraction, rather than absolute values, the sample
will be located after the Mach Zehnder (Fig. 4.9), rather than in one arm, as in
conventional spectral interferometry [37]. A change in index, induced by the growth or
decay of the plasma between the two pulses, will result in a change in fringe spacing.
Usually, spatial information on the index can be recovered along the direction of the
spectrometer slit. The bonus to such an approach is that, in addition to the plasma-
induced phase shift, the dispersion data (i.e. phase-shift with respect to wavelength)
can be determined. As noted earlier, the maximum time range that can be covered is
determined by the spectrometer resolution. In order to have the pulses from the
sequence interfere, the spectrometer has to broaden them by an amount at least equal to
their temporal spacing.
We have designed a variation of this method that does not involve a spectrometer, and
therefore has no intrinsic limitation on the time scale that can be covered. Before
detailing our technique, we will briefly discuss the basic principles and limitations of
the measurement as it applies to data recorded by a standard spectrometer.
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Experimental Work
Standard spectral interferometry
In order to measure the time evolution of a change in index of refraction, the sample is
placed after one of the two outputs of the Mach Zehnder interferometer, as sketched in
Fig. 4.9.
PLASMA
∆n(t)
τ τd
LASER
d
Frequency slit
SPECTRO-
METER
CCD
Transverse dimension
Figure 4-9
Sketch of conventional spectral interferometry.
In the case of best contrast (i.e. pulse spacing smaller than the inverse of the spectral
resolution), the observed fringe intensity pattern S(Ω) in frequency space Ω in terms of
the signal and reference intensities Isig(Ω) and Iref(Ω) is [31]:
S (Ω) = I sig (Ω) + I ref (Ω) + 2 I sig (Ω) I ref (Ω} cos[Ωτ d + φ ref (Ω ) − φ sig (Ω)] (eq. 4-2)
...where τd is the delay between the reference and signal pulses and φ represents the
appropriate spectral phases. The spectral phase difference is ∆φ=φref(Ω)-
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Experimental Work
φsig(Ω)=∆(nk0d)=(∆n)(k0d) where k0 is the wavenumber in vacuum, and d is length of

material traversed. The change in index of refraction ∆n (in the time interval between
the first and second pulse) is assumed to be slow compared to the pulse duration.
There is a fundamental limitation to this method, set by the spectral resolution ∆νsp of
the spectrometer. The pulse spacing τd cannot exceed the inverse of the spectrometer
resolution: τd ≤ 1/∆νsp. The larger τd, the smaller the contrast of the fringes, and the
largest the minimum ∆φ that can be measured. The length of material that can be
probed is also limited to the pulse spacing cτd where c is the speed of light in the
medium traversed. The smallest index change that can thus be measured by this
technique is:
∆ν sp ∆ν sp
∆n ≥ ∆φ = ∆φ (eq. 4-3)
k0c ω 0 n0
...where n0 is the background index of refraction of the sample. If “fringe counting” is

used, the error in ∆φ is simply one fringe over the total number of fringes, or:
∆φ ≈ τ∆ν sp (eq. 4-4)
...which is the criterium used by Reynaud [37]. Substituting in Eq. 4.3, on finds that
this criterium implies that the minimum measurable index change is the product of the
spectral bandwidth relative to the optical frequency, times the spectral bandwidth
relative to the pulse bandwidth. Consequently, the smallest detectable index shift over
a distance d=cτd is now:
 1010 
∆n ≥ (2 ⋅ 10 −13 × 1010 )  ≈ 10 −8
15 
(eq. 4-5)
 2.5 ⋅ 10 
...where we have used, for illustration purpose, a spectrometer resolution of 10 GHz,

and ω0=2πc/λ0 = 2.5 ⋅1015 s-1. If the plasma is shorter than the delay between pulses, this
figure has to be increased by the multiplicative factor cτd/d. For probing a plasma
transversally, the minimum detectable index change will be at least two orders of
magnitude larger than that indicated by Eq. 4.5.
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Experimental Work
Minimum detectable electron density
In the case of interest to us, the index change is associated with a change in electron
density in air ∆Ne. For a light frequency far above the plasma frequency [39] ωp (given
by ωp =Nee2/(meε0):
2
ω p2 Nee2
n ≈ ( n0 − ) ≈ ( n0 − ) (eq. 4-6)
2Ω 2
2me ε 0 Ω 2
The phase shift is directly related to the change in electron density ∆Ne by:
 ∆N e e 2 
∆φ = − k d
2  0
(eq. 4-7)
ε
 e 0 
2 m Ω
For our wavelength of 750 nm, Eq. 4.7} show a phase shift/(electron density change) of
∆φ = ∆Neγd with γ= 2.09 x 10 (m ). For ∆Ne of 10 cm (or 10 m ), and d =0.5 cm, ∆φ=
-21 2 11 -3 17 -3
10-6. If we use Reynaud's criterium [37] or Eq. 4.4, we require a spectrometer resolution
of:
1 d
∆ν = ∆φ (eq. 4-8)
τ cτ d
For a pulse duration of 200 fs, a pulse spacing of 50 cm (τd ≈1.5ns), we find that we
require a spectrometer with a resolution of ∆ν≈50 kHz.
The best grating spectrometers can reach a resolution around 0.001 nm (which is about
540 MHz). Such a spectrometer would only be able to measure electron density
changes at a rate above 1015 cm-3/ 1.5 ns over 0.5 cm. Instruments S.A. sells a 1.25 m
length spectrometer (Model 1250) with a resolution of 0.006 nm for ≈$28,500.
McPherson sells a 2 m long spectrometer (double pass configuration) with a practical
resolution of 0.0005 nm for ≈$61,140.
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Experimental Work
Spectral Interferometry without spectrometer
Principle of the measurement
There are technical limitations to the method outlined before, beyond the requirement
of a spectrometer of extreme resolution. The larger the pulse separation, the worse the
contrast of the fringes, and the more difficult it becomes to measure a small phase shift.
An obvious question that arises is: why not use the Mach Zehnder delay generator itself
as a spectrum analyzer? Such a device is sketched in Fig. 4.10.
TRIPLER -FS UV
AMPLIFIER
I
.
HV
P t
λ/2
LASER
CCD
Figure 4-10
Sketch of our spectral interferometry set-up without spectrometer.
If we reflect back the pulse sequence into the Mach Zehnder, after it has passed through
the sample, the second transmission through the instrument will consist in a sequence
of three pulses. Only the middle of these three pulses contains interference
information. A detector would indeed see fringes due to interference between the first
pulse having passed through a longer delay, and the second one having passed
4-16
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Experimental Work
through the shorter delay, but these interferences would ride over a very large
background. A half wave plate, combined with a polarizer at the detection, as sketched
in Fig. 4.10, can be used to eliminate the background. In the arrangement of Fig. 4.10, a
Faraday isolator has to be used to prevent the ambiguity created by two successive
interrogation sent through the sample, one from each port of the Mach Zehnder.
There are several variations possible for the basic arrangement of Fig. 4.10. For
instance, a single output port of the Mach Zehnder can be used, and the beam can be
retroreflected through the sample, instead of being re-directed to the other port. In
either arrangement, a first probe pulse traverses the sample. The index of refraction of
the sample is modified by a strong UV pulse, which photoionizes the air. The second
probe pulse traverses a sample that has been perturbed by the UV sample. The change
in interferences is monitored by a CCD camera. The perturbation can be directly
induced by the UV radiation, or it can be the result of a current or discharge induced by
the UV pulse. Thus our diagnostic will allow us to time-resolve the decay of an UV
induced plasma (without external electric field), or to time resolve the electron density
growth (in an external E-field), or to determine the effectiveness of photodetachment.
Contrast and sensitivity
Particularly important in this configuration is the quality of the optics and the two-
dimensional detection instrumentation. If the change in index of refraction takes place
over a diameter of the order of millimeters or less, then optical magnification is needed
to be able to resolve the spatial structure of the changing index on the CCD. Any
aberration of the optics will ultimately affect the contrast, hence the sensitivity of the
measurement.
In order to achieve maximum sensitivity, it is essential that the CCD be adjusted to be

detected as a dark fringe. In that case, the CCD can be used at its maximum
sensitivity, and any drift of index between the pulses will appear as a signal above zero
background. In Fig. 4.10, the beam is sent as a “bright fringe” towards the sample, and
collected as a “dark fringe” on the CCD. It should be remembered that there is always
an irradiation of the sample, since the pulses are shorter than the delay of the Mach
Zehnder.
To maintain the destructive interference at the detector, active stabilization of the Mach
Zehnder is necessary. A He-Ne laser is used to monitor the delay of the Mach Zehnder
and a feedback loop is used to control piezo elements to maintain a fringe maximum or
minimum. The setup is sketched in Fig. 4.11.
4-17
11194449
Experimental Work
TRIPLER -FS UV
AMPLIFIER
DITHER
AND I
FEEDBACK .
HV
T
PZ t
λ/2
LASER
P
P
.
F
Fi He-Ne
CCD P2
Figure 4-11
Sketch of the set up to measure the evolution of charge density with the laser-
induced discharge.
Two dichroic polarizing beam splitters P (each > 99% reflecting for s polarization) are
used to deflect the useful output of the mach Zehnder towards the CCD camera. A
color cut-off filter rejects the He-Ne radiation that has also been reflected. A sheet
polarizer P2 is adjusted to balance the He-Ne radiation from the two arms of the
interferometer, hence get optimum contrast of the He-Ne fringes. An interference filter
Fi is used to reject the 744 nm radiation that leaked through the first polarizer P. To
stabilize to a maximum or minimum of a He-Ne interference, a dither oscillation is
applied (at 500 Hz or 1 kHz) to a piezo element controlling the position of one of the
mirrors of the Mach Zehnder. Phase sensitive detection is made of the resulting
modulation seen by the detector D. The output of the lock-in amplifier is fed back to
the piezo. By adjusting the phase of the lock-in amplifier detector, it is possible to
maintain constructive or destructive interference at the detector D.
The feedback loop maintains either constructive or destructive interference for the He-
Ne wavelength only. A condition of destructive interference for the He-Ne laser: l delay =
4-18
11194449
Experimental Work
(2 N + 1)(633/2)nm can also be a condition of destructive interference for the 744 nm

radiation ldelay = (2 M + 1)(744/2)nm, provided the delay ldelay is a common multiple of
the two wavelengths. The periodicity of this condition is 0.471 mm. The smallest delay
step for which we can exploit the full sensitivity of this technique is thus 0.471/c = 1.57
ps. If finer steps in time are required, it will be necessary to stabilize the Mach Zehnder
interferometer on a point of arbitrary phase on the He-Ne fringe. This is possible, but
requires a more sophisticated stabilization loop than the one we presently use, which
simply locks on a maximum or a minimum of the He-Ne Interference.
4-19
11194449
11194449
5
A NEW SOLID STATE SOURCE
The laser source used for the laboratory experiments includes 10 major components,
each made up of over 20 optical elements that have to be aligned within a few seconds
of arc. The support is a large optical table, 2 m wide by 5.5 m long and 1 m thick. The
power consumption of the chain is close to 100 kW, taking into account the heat
removal from the argon laser. Such a system can be purchased from individual
components at a price of approximately $500,000. Aside from the low “wall-plug”
efficiency, this source is clearly not suitable for field operation. Furthermore, this
complicated laser system requires sophisticated timing electronics, thus making it very
vulnerable for RF interference which are a big concern due to the high electric fields
associated with lightning.
For laser induced lightning to become a practical reality, it is essential to design an

economic and efficient laser source that can be transported. We succeeded in designing
such a new solid-state source based on a Nd:YAG laser and frequency mixing in
nonlinear crystals. Nd:YAG lasers are very efficient compared to Argon-Ion pumped
Ti:Sapphire lasers (~10% compared to ~0.01% “wall-plug” efficiency) and are
established as reliable and well-understood laser sources. Our new laser occupies half
the space of the “old” Ti:Sapphire system consisting of the Nd:YAG laser with three
amplifiers and several nonlinear crystals. In comparison, the Ti:Sapphire system
consists of the Ti:Sapphire laser itself, Nd:YAG as well as Argon-Ion pump lasers,
stretcher and compressor units, frequency tripling unit and all these elements have to
be exactly synchronized by numerous timing units. As a result, the initial as well as the
operating costs of our new source are far more attractive compared to the Ti:Sapphire
based system. We are also convinced that the Ti:Sapphire system would be too
challenging to be maintained by technicians in the field.
The new solid state source is based on a Nd:YAG laser and parametric
oscillators/amplifiers and frequency mixing. There are three major innovations that
have made such a system possible. First, the Nd:YAG laser has been stabilized by
passive negative feedback to provide pulses of less than 10 ps duration [40]. Second,
the 1.06 µm radiation is compressed down to 300 fs in a new frequency doubling (532
nm pulse) process [41]. Third, we use pulse compression in synchronously pumped
parametric oscillators to create a 250 fs pulse at 928 nm [42]. This 928 nm short pulse is
amplified in a LBO parametric amplifier crystal pumped by the compressed 532 nm
pulse, and thereafter frequency doubled before being summed with another
5-1
11194449
A New Solid State Source
compressed 532 nm pulse, to produce the required pulse seed at 248 nm for the excimer
amplifier.
The Nd:Yag Laser System
The new solid-state source is based on the flashlamp pumped, active/passive

modelocked and Q-Switched Nd:YAG laser system PY-61C from Continuum, Inc.
Figure 5-1
Schematic of Nd:YAG Oscillator
This system provides a single-pulse output of 30 to 50 ps duration and 150 µJ energy at

a repetition rate of 10 Hz. Due to the nature of the nonlinear frequency mixing
processes incorporated in our new solid state system, amplitude fluctuations had to be
minimized. Hence, we incorporated the technique of Passive Negative Feedback
[40,43,44] to minimize amplitude fluctuations to less than 1%, resulting also in pulse
shortening down to 10 ps! Furthermore, the system was modified to provide a train of
pulses in addition to the single pulse output.
The amplifier chain
In order to prevent feedback, the single pulse output (10 ps, 200 µJ) is sent through an
optical isolator (an element acting as a optical diode) before it is amplified up to 100 mJ
in a double-pass configuration followed by a single-pass amplification.
5-2
11194449
Figure 5-2
Current amplifier arrangement for single pulse. Note that a divergent beam is
needed.
Due to the high energies involved, the beam cross-section increases constantly as the
beam passes through the amplifiers, hereby keeping the intensities at acceptable levels.
The result is that self-phase modulation is minimized from 200% to 10%. Minimum
phase modulation is important in nonlinear frequency mixing processes and especially
in our pulse compression scheme because it severely limits the energy conversion
efficiency.
Figure 5-3
With greater divergence in the amplifier, self-phase modulation can be drastically
improved.
The pulsetrain, consisting of about 60 pulses, has a total energy of 8 mJ and is amplified
in the double-pass configuration (shown in Fig. 5.6) to about 23 mJ.
5-3
11194449
Figure 5-4
Schematic of the new solid state laser system.
Optical parametric oscillator
The amplified pulsetrain is frequency tripled (THG) to a wavelength of 355 nm and

then used to synchronously pump an Optical Parametric Oscillator (OPO), leading to a
train of approximately 20 pulses at a wavelength of 928 nm. The single pulse, amplified
to about 20 mJ, is compressed down to about 300 fs in SHG, leading to a single pulse at
532 nm. The compressed pulse at 532 nm and an energy of about 2 mJ is split into two
pulses, one of which is used to pump an optical parametric amplifier (OPA). Inside the
OPA, the strong (1 mJ) and short (300 fs) green pulse (532 nm) amplifies one of the
weak (µJ) and long (~1 ps) pulses --- coming out of the OPO at 928 nm --- by up to a
factor of 1000, compressing it to 300 fs in the process. The amplified single pulse at 928
5-4
11194449
nm is then frequency doubled (SHG) to 464 nm before it is frequency mixed (SFG) with
the second short green pulse (532 nm, 300 fs, 1mJ) to give our desired wavelength of
248nm.
Figure 5-5
The synchronously pumped Optical Parametric Oscillator
After amplification, a train of pulses at 1064 nm is first frequency doubled to 532 nm

inside a Lithium Triborate (LBO) crystal and then frequency mixed with the
fundamental wavelength inside a β-Barium Borate (BBO) crystal to the third harmonic
frequency of 355 nm. The train of approximately 40 to 60 pulses is then used to
synchronously pump an Optical Parametric Oscillator (OPO), singly resonant at the
idler wavelength of 928 nm. It has been shown [42] that detuning of the OPO cavity
can lead to pulse compression. In our case, this leads to pulses with duration of about 1
ps.
Figure 5-6
Frequency tripled pump beam at 355nm and the resulting 928nm pulse train after
the OPO.
5-5
11194449
Second Harmonic pulse compression
The technique of Second Harmonic Pulse Compression using a second order nonlinear
medium has been predicted [45] and shown [41,46] to be a powerful tool to compress
bandwidth limited pulses. Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate (KDP) has properties
which make this crystal an formidable tool to compress pulses at a wavelength of 1064
nm (Nd:YAG laser) in time. In order to transform the somewhat tedious alignment
procedure into a reliable one, we have developed a new computer simulation, which
allows us to predict the parameters, which should lead to maximum pulse
compression. This new computer simulation predicted compression of our 10 ps pulses
at 1064 nm and intensity of 3.2 GW/cm2 down to 230 fs inside a 6 cm long KDP crystal.
Figure 5-7
These curves show a successful pulse compression from 17ps down to 309fs.
This is very close to the supported phase-matching bandwidth of 220 fs.

Experimentally, we have shown compression down to 309 fs at an energy conversion
rate of 10%. This is the highest compression (factor 45) shown so far [47]. The setup for
pulse compression is shown in Fig. 5.8.
5-6
11194449
Figure 5-8
Setup for the pulse compression.
Optical Parametric Amplification and Sum Frequency Generation
The Optical Parametric Oscillator yields a train of approximately 20 pulses at a nJ to µJ

energy level with duration of about 1 ps. We now select one pulse out of the train and
amplify it a 1000 times by the much shorter (309 fs) green pulse at 532 nm inside the
Optical Parametric Amplifier (OPA). The beauty hereby is that the amplified 928 nm
pulse has the same pulse duration as the amplifying (green) pulse, therefore leading to
a fs scale 928 nm pulse. The following pictures (Fig. 5.9) indicate the amplification
level:
Figure 5-9
Amplified 928nm pulse.
Temperature tuned LBO was the crystal of choice for the OPA providing non-critical
phasematching thus eliminating walkoff. After amplification, the 928 nm pulse is
frequency doubled to 464 nm inside a BBO crystal. The fs scale 464 nm pulse is then
5-7
11194449
frequency mixed together with the second fs scale green (532 nm, 309 fs, 1µJ) leading to
a fs 248 nm pulse.
Figure 5-10
Additional amplification, second harmonic generation and frequency mixing lead
to the 248nm beam that is amplified in a KrF excimer.
The following picture (Fig. 5.11) was taken behind the last BBO crystal(248 nm output).
The beam exhibits an excellent gaussian spatial profile:
Figure 5-11
Beam profile of the outcoming 248.6nm.
5-8
11194449
Remarks regarding the New Laser System
The Nd:Yag Laser
The laser oscillator is presently Q-Switched with a saturable absorber dye #9740. It is
desirable to replace the dye with a solid state device. We are currently investigating a
new source with a Multiple Quantum Well Structure (MQW) as replacement of the
saturable absorber dye. A NATO grant was herefore requested and development is
already in progress. It is clear that the replacement of an uncontrollable dye solution
would be a major improvement of this source. Researchers at Continuum, Inc. have
taken a different approach using Cr:YAG crystals to replace the dye. It is our opinion
that this approach will not lead to a high energy source providing pulses of 20 ps or
less duration due to the slow relaxation times associated with YAG crystals. In fact, the
shortest pulse duration they have been able to obtain is 100 ps.
The quality of the spatial beam profile obtained directly from the resonator was less
than satisfying and not suitable for nonlinear frequency mixing techniques. We had to
go great lengths to improve the beam profile in order to get the results shown above.
Nevertheless, we are convinced that we have found a solution to this problem requiring
only minor design changes of the laser resonator. We discussed these problems with
the manufacturer and found that they were not aware of this problem. They expressed
“willingness” to resolve this problem,...at a price tag of $45,000.
Long term drift issues have made it very hard to work with the laser source. A
complete realignment of the laser source has to be done nearly every two weeks.
According to the manufacturer (Continuum, Inc.), the laser should have much better
long term stability, requiring alignment only every 6 months. We visited the
manufacturer and discussed our point of view. We believe that the solution to this
problem is the replacement of all old elements (those beyond 10 years of age) in the
laser system.
Pulse Compression
It has been shown [48] that the technique of “Pulse Tilting” can be used to generate the
right conditions needed to achieve pulse compression in sum frequency generation.
Presently, modification of our computer simulations to incorporate this technique is
underway. We believe that shorter pulses can be generated by an application of this
technique in second harmonic generation (doubling of 928 nm) and sum frequency
generation (SFG) in the last BBO crystal.
5-9
11194449
Higher Energies
The energy available in the UV pulse (248.6 nm) is given by the fs green (532 nm)
pulses obtained from Second Harmonic Pulse Compression and used in the OPA and
SFG processes. We used only 20 mJ out of the maximum available single-pulse energy
of 100 mJ due to the lack of larger optical elements. One of the important factors in
pulse compression is the intensity of the fundamental pulses. Due to constrains in the
size of our mirrors, an energy of 20 mJ could not be exceeded. This leaves room for
improvement by a factor of five by simply replacing the mirrors. We have already
ordered larger optics.
Tests with the New Source at Mississippi State University
The 248 nm seed beam is sent in a three pass configuration through an excimer
amplifier (see Fig. 5.12). A second excimer laser was brought to Mississippi, but
despite weeks of passivation, it was impossible to obtain sufficient gain from that laser.
In addition, the emf and ground loops from that sparkgap triggered laser destroyed
several electronic components.
5-10
11194449
Figure 5-12
Triple pass amplification of the 248.6nm seed pulse in a KrF excimer.
The amplified 248 nm beam and that of the alexandrite laser are combined with a
dichroic beam splitter, expanded with a negative lens, and recollimated by a 16 cm
diameter off-axis parabolic reflector. The beams can be focused at the desired distance
by adjusting the distance between the negative and positive lenses. A large (30 cm
diameter) flat mirror, honeycomb structure, is used to steer the beam towards the
electrodes. Further details can be found in [49,50].
5-11
11194449
Screen room
Diagnostics,
Triggering
Solid State
oscillator
A E
Control room
(humidity
control)
Figure 5-13
The solid state source as it was set-up at the facility of Mississippi State
University (left). Top right: laser guided discharge at 140 kV dc, electrode spacing
30 cm. Bottom right: laser triggered discharge for an ac voltage of 400 kV,
electrode spacing 1 m. In both cases, the irradiation was 10 ps, 10 mJ UV pulse,
and 200 mJ, 2 µs alexandrite laser.
5-12
11194449
Figure 5-14
High Voltage Testsite at MSU.
Figure 5-15
Left: Part of the new Nd:YAG system. Right: J.-C. Diels standing between the two
excimer amplifiers and the alxandrite laser.
5-13
11194449
Figure 5-16
Pictorial Overview of the experiment at MSU. Here we show the successful longest
UV discharge.
5-14
11194449
A
TABLE OF LASER LIGHTNING EFFORTS
Table A-1
Table comparing several lightning efforts around the world.
Group Members Funding Approach Comments

Osaka University S. Uchida, 120,000 Yen/year Two high energy CO 2 Rep rate of 1 pulse/ 5 min;
Y.Shimada, since lasers 2,000 Joules each; Non-transportable lasers
H.Yasuda 1989 (appro. (Electron beam pumped);
S.Motokoshi, 1M$/year) Lightning Tower with Recognized shielding of
T.Yamanaka, + Lasers left over dielectric cover; static rod by space charges;
C.Yamanaka, from Laser Fusion Ionizing pulse at 266 Recognized need for
Z.-I. Kawasaki, projects nm, picosecond pulse; ultrashort UV seed pulse;
K.Tsubakimoto, Measured breakdown
T.-O.Ushio, Dedicated building on threshold versus plasma
A.Onuki, top of mountain; bead spacing;
M. Adachi , First observation of Proved lasers can trigger
Y.Ishikubo laser triggered lightning. lightning.
Kansai Electric Co Y. Sonoi, T. Nagai, Unknown High energy CO 2 Very large laser, low rep.
H. Yasuda Rate.
Kyoto University R.Itatani, M. Kubo, Unknown High energy CO 2 Very large laser, low rep.
M. Jinno… Rate.
CRIEPI T. Shindo, M. Miki, Unknown High energy CO 2 No or little reduction of
Y. Aihara, A. Wada, (1 kJ level); laser induced breakdown
T. Suzuki. Observation of laser versus self-breakdown;
guided discharges Used pointed electrodes;
over 7 m; 1 Joule of UV needed for 70
Long pulse UV work cm discharge.
(excimer laser).
Hydro-Quebec and H.P. Mercure, 1M$/year, started Ultrashort UV pulses, Have confirmed the need
INRS H. Pepin, 1997; HV facility photodetaching laser; for photo-detaching laser;
F. Rizk, from Hydro
J.-L. Lachambre, Quebec, plasma Are duplicating our Calculated decay of
J.-C. Kieffer, physicists from approach with a larger electrons through
T.W. Johnston, Tokamac fusion team and larger attachment to O 2;
La Fontaine, project, lasers investment;
Vidal, from laser Repeated our calculation of
D. Comtois, plasma research Achieved discharge at field enhancement and
C.-Y. Chien, (J.-C. Kieffer, 30 cm, 350 torr confirmed results.
A. Desparois H.Pepin)
RICT. (Research Yu. A. Rezunkov, Lasers from “Star Long pulses, high Facility size of a building,
Insti. M.F. Borisov, Wars” research, energy, long repetition rate < 5
For Complex Test.) V.M. Gromovenko, 1KJ Nd:glass, wavelength, giant pulse/5min.
Sosnovy Bor, V.A. Lapshin, unique facility to systems and optics
Russia A.N. Malinin, study laser
V.P. Saveljena, propagation over
V.V. Stepanov km distan.
General Institute, V. Apollonov, etc… Lawrence High energy CO 2 lasers Has constructed the lasers
Moscow Livermore Labs, for the CRIEPI project.
Strategic Defense
Initiative!
CEA Grenoble Eybert-Berard, etc… unknown Large excimer (UV) “Father” of the rocket wire
lasers, field tests, lightning triggering
lightning research technique.
facility
Univ. of New J.-C. Diels, P.K. EPRI, App. 200 High repetition (10 pps) 2 patents;
Mexico Rambo, Jens Biegert, K$/year since compact lasers, 2 Largest enhancement
Jens Schwarz, Aaron 1996; wavelength, ultrashort reported;
Bernstein Collab. with UV (<1 ps) and long Smallest laser constructed
Techn. Univ. visible (>1 µs) pulses for this application;
Prague (V. First long pulse alexandrite;
Kubecek), and Worlds’ longest UV
CATHODE group triggered discharge (1m)
(European Union) with a 200 times less laser
on theory pulse energy than the
Japanese UV for 70 cm.
A-1
11194449
11194449
B
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High Voltage Laboratory Testing of

Femtosecond Laser Lightning

Final Report, December 1998

EPRI Project Manager

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS PACKAGE

University of New Mexico

This report was prepared by

University of New Mexico

This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.

Lightning causes extensive damage to industrial, commercial and residential facilities.

2 OTHER LASER APPROACHES ......................................................................................... 2-1

3 PHYSICS OF LASER INDUCED LIGHTNING .................................................................... 3-1

4 EXPERIMENTAL WORK..................................................................................................... 4-1

A TABLE OF LASER LIGHTNING EFFORTS .......................................................................A-1

• a continuous plasma cannot be created because the plasma is opaque to the

• a high intensity cannot be maintained over long distances because of diffraction.

Near infrared lasers

Laser induced lightning efforts around the world

The first international workshop on “Lightning protection by Lasers” held in Sosnovy

Ionization of the air

• the electrons generated by three-and four-photon ionization tend to de-focus the

A ω = 17 cm diameter diffraction limited beam can be focused at 180 m to a minimum

Evolution of the charges

The following computer simulation were performed assuming a constant

Work is in progress, with the collaboration of the European group CATHODE

System with chirped pulse amplification

Control and Measurement of UV pulse duration

To measure the ionization cross-section A, we have to know the intensity of the

Control of pulse duration

The grating pair allowed a tunability from 300 fs up to 2 ps in pulsewidth, as seen in

Ionization cross-section measurements

Diffusion pump, forepump

The Alexandrite Laser

Simultaneous irradiation with an extended Q-switched alexandrite laser pulse is being

Osc. Gain QWP OC Amp.

Breakdown Threshold (kV) 90

Electron density measurements by spectral interferometry

In order to properly understand the effectiveness of a laser-induced plasma in high

The simplest techniques, at least conceptually, for determining electron densities

Spectral interferometry or frequency-domain interferometry [31,37,38] has already been

Standard spectral interferometry

φsig(Ω)=∆(nk0d)=(∆n)(k0d) where k0 is the wavenumber in vacuum, and d is length of

...where n0 is the background index of refraction of the sample. If “fringe counting” is

∆φ ≈ τ∆ν sp (eq. 4-4)

...where we have used, for illustration purpose, a spectrometer resolution of 10 GHz,

Minimum detectable electron density

Spectral Interferometry without spectrometer

Principle of the measurement

Contrast and sensitivity

In order to achieve maximum sensitivity, it is essential that the CCD be adjusted to be

(2 N + 1)(633/2)nm can also be a condition of destructive interference for the 744 nm

For laser induced lightning to become a practical reality, it is essential to design an

The Nd:Yag Laser System

The new solid-state source is based on the flashlamp pumped, active/passive

This system provides a single-pulse output of 30 to 50 ps duration and 150 µJ energy at

The amplifier chain

Optical parametric oscillator

The amplified pulsetrain is frequency tripled (THG) to a wavelength of 355 nm and

After amplification, a train of pulses at 1064 nm is first frequency doubled to 532 nm

Second Harmonic pulse compression

This is very close to the supported phase-matching bandwidth of 220 fs.

Optical Parametric Amplification and Sum Frequency Generation

The Optical Parametric Oscillator yields a train of approximately 20 pulses at a nJ to µJ