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The manuscript was received on 10 September 2004 and was accepted after revision for publication on 12 December 2005.
DOI: 10.1243/09596518JSCE96
JSCE96 © IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering
Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering JSCE96 © IMechE 2006
2.2 Modelling of the induction machine electrical machine of this kind can be modelled
easily. The network graph of a three-phase induction
In general an induction machine consists of a stator
machine is shown in Fig. 3.
and a rotor, which are connected by a revolute joint.
From the above network graph the fundamental
An induction machine possessing a three-phase wind-
loop matrix can be written as
ing system in the stator and a further three-phase
winding system in the rotor is of special interest in t1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 uT
this research work. In order to formulate the model N N
for the induction machine the following conditions N0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0N
N N
are assumed to be fulfilled: N0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0N
A= N
1. The windings can be replaced by concentrated 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0N
N N
windings. N0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0N
2. The magnetization characteristic is linear and N N
without saturation. v0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1w
3. The magnetomechanical interactions are deter- This three-phase induction machine has seven quasi
mined by the field distribution in the air gap degrees of freedom. Accordingly,
between the rotor and stator.
4. Dissipative core losses and temperature depend- q=(qm; ql)=(q , q , q , q , q , q ; q )
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
ence of the resistances and inductances are =(q , q , q , q , q , q ; h )
neglected. as bs cs ar br cr rm
is the vector of the generalized coordinates, where q ,
Figure 2 shows the model of an idealized three-phase j
jµ{1, … , 6}, denotes the charge in the fundamental
induction machine. In the following considerations, loop j and q is the mechanical rotation angle h of
the indices s and r denote quantities referring to 7 rm
the rotor. Consequently,
stator and rotor, while a, b, and c denote the three
phases. The inductances arranged in the stator and q̇=(q̇m; q̇l)=(q̇ , q̇ , q̇ , q̇ , q̇ , q̇ ; q̇ )
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
rotor windings are then represented by three coils =(i , i , i , i , i , i ; v )
staggered by 2p/3 in each case. Each of these six as bs cs ar br cr rm
coils forms a fundamental loop together with an is the vector of the generalized velocities, where q̇ ,
j
Ohm’s resistance and a voltage source. If no voltage jµ{1, … , 6}, denotes the current in the fundamental
source is applied in the rotor windings, a so-called loop j and q̇ is the mechanical angular velocity v
7 rm
asynchronous machine is obtained. of the rotor.
With the help of the electromechanical modelling If the induction machine possesses p poles
components contained in alaska, e.g. capacitors (C), ( p =p/2 pole pairs), a so-called electrical angle h
p r
coils (L), resistors (R), and voltage sources (V), an of the rotor can be introduced in accordance with
h =p h
r p rm
Consequently, the electrical angular velocity is
defined by
v =p v
r p rm
The parameters describing the physical properties of
the electrical components are still required for the
complete description of the induction machine. In
Fig. 2 Idealized model of a three-phase induction Fig. 3 Network graph of a three-phase induction
machine machine
JSCE96 © IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering
accordance with the fundamental assumptions, the 2.3 Electromechanical steering system in a full
Ohm’s resistances r of the stator windings and r of vehicle model
s r
the rotor windings are constant. The inductances
The electrical machine as discussed above was
of the induction machine can be written in matrix
implemented in the steering system of a multibody
form as
full vehicle model according to the double pinion
t Lls+Lss L
sm
L
sm
L0
sr
Lp
sr
Lm u
sr concept. For the purpose of describing the forces
N N
N Lsm L +L L Lm L0 Lp N between the road and the wheel hub, the tyre model
ls ss sm sr sr sr
N
L L L +L Lp Lm L0 N
N RMOD-K is used (see references [10] to [12]). The
L=N sm sm ls ss sr sr sr
N L0 Lm Lp L +L L L N parking torque and the steering torque at a standstill
N sr sr sr lr rr rm rm N of the vehicle can also be calculated with this tyre
N Lp L0 Lm L L +L L N
N sr sr sr rm lr rr rm N model. The multibody full vehicle model in com-
v Lm Lp L0 L L L +L w bination with the electromechanical steering system
sr sr sr rm rm lr rr
The parameter L denotes the self-inductance of is shown in Fig. 4.
ss
the stator windings and L =L cos(2p/3) the The differential equations of this model are
sm ss
mutual inductance between two stator windings. L generated automatically by the program alaska. Due
rr
is the self-inductance of the rotor windings and to the inductances the mechanical coordinate h
rm
L =L cos(2p/3) the mutual inductance between enters the electrical part (2) of the motion equations.
rm rr
two rotor windings. L is the leakage inductance of On the other hand, the electromagnetic torque
ls
the stator windings and L the leakage inductance occurs as an additional force in the mechanical
lr
of the rotor windings. The relations L0 =L cos h , part (1) of the motion equations. The simultaneous
sr sr r
Lp =L cos(h +2p/3), Lm =L cos(h −2p/3) are con- solution of the motion equations of both model
sr sr r sr sr r
sidered, where L is the peak value of the mutual parts guarantees the correct description of all
sr
inductance between the stator and rotor windings. electromechanical interactions occurring in the
To generate the differential equations of an EMS model.
the program alaska requires the derivatives of the
parameters describing the physical properties of 2.4 A driver model for testing the
the electrical components with respect to both the electromechanical steering system
mechanical coordinates and the time. It is recognized
In order to simulate the dynamical behaviour of the
that the parameters L0 , Lp , and Lm of the inductance
sr sr sr electromechanical steering system with different,
matrix depend on the time-dependent rotor angle h .
rm more or less complicated driving manoeuvres, a
Therefore, the partial derivative of the inductance
driver model is used. This driver model consists of
matrix with respect to the rotor angle h is not zero
rm both a trace controller and a velocity controller. It
and must be indicated as
has proven itself in various applications [12]. The
t 0 0 0 L0∞ Lp∞ Lm∞ u concept of the trace controller, which works with
sr sr sr N
N preview, is sketched in Fig. 5.
N 0 0 0 Lm∞ L0∞ Lp∞ N
sr sr sr The prescribed target trace C (s) that the vehicle
qL
N
0 0 0 Lp∞ Lm∞ L0∞
N t
sr sr sr N model has to follow lies in the (E , E ) plane of
=N x y
qh the inertial system and uses the arc length s as
rm N L0∞ Lm∞ Lp∞ 0 0 0 N
N
sr sr sr N the representation or curve parameter. The local
N Lp∞ L0∞ Lm∞ 0 0 0 N
N sr sr sr N
v Lm∞ Lp∞ L0∞ 0 0 0 w
sr sr sr
with L0∞ =−p L sin h , Lp∞ =−p L sin(h +2p/3)
sr p sr r sr p sr r
and Lm∞ =−p L sin(h −2p/3). The time derivative
sr p sr r
of the inductance matrix can then be written as
t 0 0 0 L0∞ Lp∞ Lm∞ u
N sr sr sr N
N 0 0 0 Lm∞
sr
L0∞ Lp∞ N
sr sr
N N
dL 0 0 0 Lp∞ Lm∞ L0∞ N
=v N sr sr sr
dt rm N L0∞ Lm∞ Lp∞ 0 0 0 N
N sr sr sr N
N Lp∞ L0∞ Lm∞ 0 0 0 N
N sr sr sr N Fig. 4 A multibody full vehicle model with electro-
v Lm∞ Lp∞ L0∞ 0 0 0 w mechanical steering system
sr sr sr
Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering JSCE96 © IMechE 2006
M =k (v −v ), (6)
A A soll x
where k is a gain factor of the drive torque
A
regulation. A detailed description of this driver model
can be found in reference [13].
JSCE96 © IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering
dY
u = br +i r
br dt br r
dY
u = cr +i r
cr dt cr r
(10)
Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering JSCE96 © IMechE 2006
This system of coupled differential equations (9) The quantities to be transformed may be voltages,
to (12) shows that the induction machine is a non- currents, or flux linkages. The inverse transformation
linear, multivariable system. In order to control it, a matrix from the q–d–0 to the a–b–c reference frame
field-oriented scheme [16, 17] is employed in this can be written as
research work. The decoupling of the equations can
C D
be achieved by substituting the a–b–c reference cos Q sin Q 1
frame with a so-called q–d–0 reference frame. T(Q)−1= cos(Q−2p/3) sin(Q−2p/3) 1
3.2 Model equations of an induction machine in cos(Q+2p/3) sin(Q+2p/3) 1
the q–d–0 reference frame
Applying this transformation to the voltage and
A so-called q–d–0 reference frame rotating with an constitutive equations in the a–b–c reference frame,
electrical angular velocity v in the same direction the corresponding equations in the q–d–0 reference
as the rotor is shown in Fig. 7. In the special case frame are the following ones.
of v=0 there is a stationary reference frame. Setting
v=v , where v is the so-called synchronous
e e Voltage equations for the stator
electrical angular velocity of the magnetic field of the
stator, a synchronously rotating reference frame can dY
u = qs +vY +r i
be obtained. The transformation of a quantity from qs dt ds s qs
the a–b–c to the q–d–0 reference frame can be carried
out with the following matrix dY
u = ds −vY +r i
ds dt qs s ds
C D
cos Q cos(Q−2p/3) cos(Q+2p/3)
2 dY
T(Q)= sin Q sin(Q−2p/3) sin(Q+2p/3) u = 0s +r i
3 0s dt s 0s
1/2 1/2 1/2
(13)
The matrix T(Q) in fact describes a linear transform-
ation in the velocity space of the planar electrical
Voltage equations for the rotor
machine. Looking at Fig. 7, it is clear that Q=h=
∆ t v(t) dt+h(0) applies to the quantities belonging dY
0 u = qr +(v−v )Y +r i
to the stator and Q=h−h to the quantities of the qr dt r dr r qr
r
rotor. Applying the matrix T(Q) to the stator or rotor
quantities, the following transformation relation holds dY
u = dr −(v−v )Y +r i
dr dt r qr r dr
CD CD
f f
q a dY
f =T(Q) f u = 0r +r i
d b 0r dt r 0r
f f
0 c (14)
Constitutive equations
t Y u t L∞ 0 0 L 0 0 uti u
N qs N N s m N N qs N
N Yds N N 0 L∞s 0 0 L
m
0 NNi N
ds
N N N NN N
Y
N 0s N N 0 0 L 0 0 0 i
ls N N 0s N
NY N = NL 0 0 L∞ 0 0 NNi N
N qr N N m r N N qr N
NY N N 0 L 0 0 L∞ 0 N N i N
N dr N N m r N N dr N
vY w v 0 0 0 0 0 L wvi w
0r lr 0r
(15)
JSCE96 © IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering
the air gap torque generated by the electical machine into equation (20) the following relation holds
can be expressed in the following form (see, for
example, reference [18]) L∞ dYe 1
r dr + Ye =ie (21)
r L dt L dr ds
m = 3 p (Y i −Y i ) (16) r m m
E 2 p qr dr dr qr
This relation means that the rotor flux linkage Ye
3.3 Field-oriented control of the asynchronous dr
can be controlled, in principle, by adjusting the d
machine
component of the stator current ie . Since its
ds
Selecting, for example, a synchronously rotating dynamic behaviour is limited by the rotor circuit time
q–d–0 reference frame whose d axis is aligned with constant L∞ /r , the control of Ye is not suitable for
r r dr
the rotor field (see Fig. 8, where all quantities in this fast changes in torque. Considering equation (19),
reference frame are characterized by the index e), this task can be carried out more successfully by
the q component of the rotor flux is always zero controlling the q component of the stator current
ie ; if the rotor flux linkage Ye is not disturbed, the
Ye =L ie +L∞ ie =0 qs dr
qr m qs r qr air gap torque can be independently adjusted by ie
qs
Hence without delay.
If Ye ¬0, the voltage equation for the q axis of the
L qr
ie =− m ie (17) rotor winding without any applied voltages (ue =0)
qr L∞ qs qr
r reduces to
With Ye =0 the expression (16) for the air gap torque
qr ue =(v −v )Ye +r ie =0 (22)
reduces to qr e r dr r qr
m =− 3 p Ye ie (18) Inserting equation (17) into equation (22) yields the
E 2 p dr qr
following control condition
Substituting the current ie using equation (17),
qr
equation (18) can be written in the desired form
r L ie
v =v + r m qs =v +v (23)
3 L e r L∞ Ye r 2
m = p m Ye ie (19) r dr
E 2 p L∞ dr qs
r
Equation (23) determines the angular velocity of the
which shows that the air gap torque can be con-
q–d–0 reference frame, so that alignment of the d
trolled by adjusting either the q component of the
axis with the rotor field takes place and therefore
stator current or the rotor flux linkage.
Ye ¬0 is dynamically guaranteed.
Since for asynchronous machines there are no qr
The discussed field-oriented control scheme is an
voltages applied to the rotor windings, then ue =0.
dr effective approach for decoupling the non-linear
Taking Ye =0 into account the voltage equation for
qr multivariable system of equations of an asynchronous
the d axis of the rotor reduces to
machine. The aim of the control strategy is to keep
dYe the rotor flux Ye as exactly as possible through
ue = dr +r ie =0 (20) dr
dr dt r dr adjusting the d component of the stator current ie
ds
and to control the air gap torque by adjusting the q
Inserting the flux linkage equation component of the stator current ie as well as the
qs
Ye −L ie angular velocity v . If a desired rotor flux Ye* is given,
ie = dr m ds e dr
dr the required d component of the stator current ie*
L∞
r ds
can be determined in accordance with equation (21)
by
L∞ dYe* 1
ie* = r dr + Ye* (24)
ds r L dt L dr
r m m
To generate the desired air gap torque m* the
E
required q component of the stator current ie* can
qs
be calculated according to equation (19) as follows
2 1 L∞ m*
ie* = r E (25)
Fig. 8 q-d-0 reference frame by rotor field orientation qs 3 p L Ye*
p m dr
Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering JSCE96 © IMechE 2006
From equation (23) the following expression yields system is necessary in practical applications. In such
a field-oriented control scheme the response speed
r L ie*
v* =v + r m qs =v +v* (26) of the electrical machine is limited in principle only
e r L∞ Ye* r 2
r dr by the delay of the current regulation.
The rotation angle h* which determines the field
e
orientation will be obtained by numerical integration
of the angular velocity v* . This angle is used to 4 RESULTS
e
transform the quantities from the q–d–0 to the a–b–c
reference frame. In order to test and demonstrate the dynamical
In this research work a controlled stator current behaviour of the developed model and control
supply is employed. The stator current components scheme for the electromechanical steering system, a
ie* , ie* , and ie* are realized by voltage supply with set of full vehicle simulations is carried out. Some
as bs cs
additional current regulations. numerical results, obtained by the simulation pro-
The block diagram of the control concept for the gram alaska, are shown in Fig. 10. In detail, an ISO
electromechanical steering system is shown in Fig. 9. lane change and a sinusoidal steering manoeuvre at
The desired value of the rotor flux is matched to the standstill have been simulated.
mechanical angular velocity of the rotor and is weak- The results demonstrate that the desired support
ened beyond the base speed. Due to the physical torque can be generated by the electrical machine in
limitations of power switches this field-weakening a sufficiently exact manner. A complete and correct
JSCE96 © IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering
description of all interactions between the mechanical 8 Maißer, P. and Steigenberger, J. Zugang zur Theorie
and electrical subsystems of the steering system elektromechanischer Systeme mittels klassischer
has been achieved through a uniform modelling Mechanik, Teil 1: Elektrische Systeme in Ladungs-
formulierung. Wiss. Z. TH Ilmenau, 1974, 20(6),
technique of the whole system.
105–123.
9 Maißer, P. Ein Beitrag zur Theorie diskreter elektro-
mechanischer Systeme mit Anwendungen in der
5 SUMMARY Manipulator-/Robotertechnik, Dissertation B, Tech-
nische Hochschule Ilmenau.
In this research work, an electromechanical steering 10 Oertel, Ch., Eichler, M., and Fandre, A. RMOD-K
6.0 Manual, 1999 (Gedas GmbH).
system is modelled on the basis of a uniform theory
11 Eichler, E. A ride comfort tyre model for vibration
for discrete electromechanical systems. To control anaylsis in full vehicle simulations. In Tyre models
the electrical machine in this steering system, a field- for vehicle dynamic analysis (Eds F. Böhm and
oriented control scheme is applied. For the purpose H. P. Willumeit) Supplement to Vehicle System
of validating and testing the electromechanical steer- Dynamics, 1997, 27, 109–122.
ing system, it is implemented in a multibody full 12 Eichler, M. and Lion, A. Gesamtfahrzeug-
vehicle model. To this end, an ISO lane change and simulationen auf Prüfstrecken zur Bestimmung von
a standstill steering manoeuvre have been simulated. Lastkollektiven. In Berechnung und Simulation im
Fahrzeugbau, 2000, Vol. 1559, pp. 369–398 (VDI-
The numerical results show that the electrical Berichte).
machine generates the desired support torque with 13 Lion, A. Ein Kurs- und Geschwindigkeitsregler für
excellent accuracy. Based on this conceptual work EVP-Gesamtfahrzeugsimulationen mit dem Pro-
the investigation of other interesting steering con- grammsystem ADAMS/CAR. Volkswagen report,
cepts is possible (e.g. a variable steering gear ratio, 2003.
vehicle dynamics control with active steering, etc.). 14 Maißer, P. and Jungnickel, U. Stability of con-
Such an electromechanical steering system may also trolled motion of a gymnast in high-speed mid air
maneuvers. In Proceedings of IUTAM Symposium
serve as a basis for the implementation of steer by
on Recent Developments in Non-linear Oscillations
wire functionalities. of Mechanical Systems, Hanoi, Vietnam, 1999,
pp. 121–129.
15 Müller, G. Elektrische Maschinen – Betriebsverhalten
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Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering JSCE96 © IMechE 2006
JSCE96 © IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering