GENERIC NAME: clozapine

BRAND NAME: Clozaril

DRUG CLASS AND MECHANISM: Clozapine is an anti-psychotic medication that works by blocking receptors in the
brain for several neurotransmitters (chemicals that nerves use to communicate with each other) including dopamine
type 4 receptors, serotonin type 2 receptors, norepinephrine receptors, acetylcholine receptors, and histamine
receptors. Unlike traditional anti-psychotic agents, such as chlorpromazine (Thorazine) and haloperidol (Haldol) as
well as the newer anti-psychotics, risperidone (Risperdal) and olanzapine (Zyprexa), clozapine only weakly blocks
dopamine type 2 receptors.

PRESCRIPTION: Yes

GENERIC AVAILABLE: Yes

PREPARATIONS: Tablets: 25 and100 mg.

STORAGE: Tablets should be kept below 30°C (86 °F).

PRESCRIBED FOR: Clozapine is use in the management of psychotic disorders including schizophrenia. Because of
concern for the side effect of agranulocytosis (see side effects), clozapine should be reserved for patients who have
failed to respond to other standard medications or who are at risk for recurring suicidal behavior.

DOSING: Clozapine is given once, twice, or three times daily. The dose often is increased slowly until the optimal
dose is found. The full effects of clozapine may not be seen until several weeks after treatment is begun.

DRUG INTERACTIONS: Risperidone (Risperdal) may cause an increase in the amount of clozapine in the blood.
This could lead to an increased risk of side effects from clozapine.

PREGNANCY: There are no adequate studies of clozapine in pregnant women. Studies in animals suggest no
important effects on the fetus. Clozapine can be used in pregnancy if the physician feels that it is necessary.

NURSING MOTHERS: Animal studies suggest that clozapine is secreted in breast milk. Therefore, women taking
clozapine should not nurse their infants.

SIDE EFFECTS: Clozapine may cause a severe reduction in white blood cell count, a condition known as
agranulocytosis, in approximately1 in 100 patients who take it for at least one year. White blood cells fight infections,
and a severe reduction in white blood cells can result in severe infections. If not caught early, agranulocytosis can be
fatal. Therefore, the white blood cell countshould bemeasured (with a blood test) prior to starting treatment and
regularly (weekly) while patients receive this medication, and for 4 weeks after it is stopped.

Among elderly patients with dementia-related psychosis, treatment with clozapine is associated with an increased risk
of death for unclear reasons. Clozapine is not approved for use in dementia-related psychosis.

Seizures have occurred in approximately 1 of every 20 to 30 persons receiving clozapine. Patients receiving higher
doses seem to be at higher risk.

Dizziness may occur in 1 of 5 persons taking clozapine. In some cases this may be due to orthostatic hypotension, a
marked decrease in blood pressure that occurs when going from a lying or sitting position to a standing position. The
drop in blood pressure may lead to loss of consciousness or even cardiac and respiratory arrest.This reaction is more
common during the first few weeks of therapy while the dose is increasing, when drug is stopped briefly, or when
patients are taking benzodiazepinessuch asdiazepam (Valium) or other anti-psychotic drugs.

The most common side effect of clozapine is drowsiness. Other side effects include increased heart rate, increased
salivation, headache, tremor, low blood pressure, and fever. Clozapine has anticholinergic effects that interfere with
the function of smooth muscles. This can lead to blurred vision and difficulty urinating (when there isenlargement of
 the prostate) due to effects on the muscles of the eye and bladder. Clozapine slows the intestine and leads to
constipation in approximately 14% of patients. Paralysis of the intestinal muscles can lead to paralytic ileus, a
conditionin which the intestine stops working.

CLOZAPINE
( kloe' za peen)
Clozaril
PREGNANCY CATEGORY B

Drug classes
Therapeutic actions
Indications
Contraindications and cautions
Available forms
Dosages
Adults
Pediatric patients
Pharmacokinetics
Adverse effects
Interactions
Drug-drug
Nursing considerations
CLINICAL ALERT!
Assessment
Interventions
Teaching points

Drug classes
Antipsychotic
Dopaminergic blocking agent

Therapeutic actions
Mechanism not fully understood: blocks dopamine receptors in the brain, depresses the RAS; anticholinergic,
antihistaminic (H 1), and alpha-adrenergic blocking activity may contribute to some of its therapeutic (and adverse)
actions. Clozapine produces fewer extrapyramidal effects than other antipsychotics.

Indications
• Management of severely ill schizophrenics who are unresponsive to standard
antipsychotic drugs.
• Reduction of the risk of recurrent suicidal behavior in patients with schizophrenia
or schizoaffective disorder.

Contraindications and cautions

• Contraindicated with allergy to clozapine, myeloproliferative disorders, history of
clozapine-induced agranulocytosis or severe granulocytopenia, severe CNS
depression, comatose states, history of seizure disorders, lactation.
• Use cautiously with CV disease, prostate enlargement, narrow-angle glaucoma,
pregnancy.

Available forms
Tablets—25, 100 mg

Dosages

Adults
Initial: 25 mg PO daily or bid; then gradually increase with daily increments of 25–50
mg/day, if tolerated, to a dose of 300–450 mg/day by the end of second week.
Adjust later dosage no more often than twice weekly in increments < 100 mg. Do
not exceed 900 mg/day.
Maintenance: Maintain at the lowest effective dose for remission of symptoms.
Discontinuation: Gradual reduction over a 2-wk period is preferred. If abrupt
discontinuation is required, carefully monitor patient for signs of acute psychotic
symptoms.
Reinitiation of treatment: Follow initial dosage guidelines, use extreme care;
increased risk of severe adverse effects with re-exposure.

Pediatric patients
Safety and efficacy in patients < 16 yr not established.

Pharmacokinetics

Route Onset Peak Duration

Oral Varies 1–6 hr Weeks

Metabolism: Hepatic; T ½: 4–12 hr

Distribution: Crosses placenta; enters breast milk

Excretion: Urine and feces

Adverse effects
Adverse effects in Italics are most common; those in Bold are life-threatening.

• CNS: Drowsiness, sedation, seizures, dizziness, syncope, headache, tremor,

disturbed sleep, nightmares, restlessness, agitation, increased salivation, sweating,
tardive dyskinesia, neuroleptic malignant syndrome
• CV: Tachycardia, hypotension, ECG changes, hypertension
• GI: Nausea, vomiting, constipation, abdominal discomfort, dry mouth
• GU: Urinary abnormalities
• Hematologic: Leukopenia, granulocytopenia, agranulocytopenia
• Other: Fever, weight gain, rash

Interactions

Drug-drug
• Increased therapeutic and toxic effects with cimetidine
• Decreased therapeutic effect with phenytoin, mephenytoin, ethotoin

Nursing considerations

CLINICAL ALERT!
Name confusion has occurred with Clozaril (clozapine) and Colazal (balsalazide);
dangerous effects could occur. Use extreme caution.

Assessment
• History: Allergy to clozapine, myeloproliferative disorders, history of clozapine-
induced agranulocytosis or severe granulocytopenia, severe CNS depression,
comatose states, history of seizure disorders, CV disease, prostate enlargement,
narrow-angle glaucoma, lactation, pregnancy
• Physical: T, weight; reflexes, orientation, intraocular pressure, ophthalmologic
exam; P, BP, orthostatic BP, ECG; R, adventitious sounds; bowel sounds, normal
output, liver evaluation; prostate palpation, normal urine output; CBC, urinalysis,
liver and kidney function tests, EEG

Interventions
• Use only when unresponsive to conventional antipsychotic drugs.
• Obtain clozapine through the Clozaril Patient Management System.
• Dispense only 1 wk supply at a time.
• Monitor WBC carefully prior to first dose.
• Weekly monitoring of WBC during treatment and for 4 wk thereafter. Dosage may
be adjusted based on WBC count.
• Monitor T. If fever occurs, rule out underlying infection, and consult physician for
comfort measures.
• Monitor elderly patients for dehydration. Institute remedial measures promptly;
sedation and decreased thirst related to CNS effects can lead to dehydration.
• Encourage voiding before taking drug to decrease anticholinergic effects of
urinary retention.
• Follow guidelines for discontinuation or reinstitution of the drug.

Teaching points
• Weekly blood tests will be taken to determine safe dosage; dosage will be
increased gradually to achieve most effective dose. Only 1 wk of medication can be
dispensed at a time. Do not take more than your prescribed dosage. Do not make
up missed doses, instead contact care provider. Do not stop taking this drug
suddenly; gradual reduction of dosage is needed to prevent side effects.
• These effects may occur as a result of drug therapy: drowsiness, dizziness,
sedation, seizures (avoid driving or performing tasks that require concentration);
dizziness, faintness on arising (change positions slowly); increased salivation
(reversible); constipation (consult care provider for correctives); fast heart rate
(rest, take your time).
• This drug cannot be taken during pregnancy. If you think you are pregnant or wish
to become pregnant, contact your care provider.
• Report lethargy, weakness, fever, sore throat, malaise, mouth ulcers, and flu-like
symptoms.

Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Amy M. Karch
2004 Lippincott's Nursing Drug Guide
 Home

Health

Health Topics A-Z

Health Topics A-Z

Top of Form

Search

Bottom of Form

Health Topics A-Z

Share

Print

Discuss in our Forum

From Apply Now, Former About.com Guide

In-Depth Reports
Home

In This Report

Highlights

Introduction

Causes

Risk Factors

Complications

Symptoms
 Diagnosis

Treatment

Medications

Psychotherap
y

Other
Treatments

Resources

References

Encyclopedia

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia -
disorganize...

Schizophrenia -
paranoid ty...

More Features

Printer-friendly
version

Schizophrenia

Highlights

Causes of Schizophrenia

The causes of schizophrenia are unknown. Multiple factors may play a role such as
genetics and brain chemistry.

Risk Factors for Schizophrenia

Risk factors for schizophrenia include:

Age. Schizophrenia can occur at any age, but it tends to first develop (or at least
become evident) between adolescence and young adulthood.
Gender. Schizophrenia affects both men and women, although males tend to
develop it at a slightly younger age (teens and 20s) than females (20s and 30s).

Family History. Schizophrenia often runs in families. Older paternal age is also being
investigated as a risk factor for schizophrenia.

Complications of Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia can have a devastating impact on patients and their families.

Patients with schizophrenia have increased risk for self-destructive behaviors and
suicide. The antipsychotic drugs used to treat schizophrenia can have severe side
effects, including increasing the risk of obesity and diabetes.

Medications

Schizophrenia is a chronic condition, which is usually treated with antipsychotic

medication. There are two main classes of these drugs:

Typical antipsychotics include haloperidol (Haldol), chlorpromazine (Thorazine),

perphenazine (Trilafon), thioridazine (Mellaril), mesoridazine (Serentil),
trifluoperazine (Stelazine), and fluphenazine (Prolixin). Side effects involving the
nerves and muscle movement and coordination occur in up to 70% of patients.
Typical antipsychotics are sometimes referred to as first-generation to distinguish
them from newer second-generation atypical antipsychotics.

Atypical antipsychotics include clozapine (Clozaril), risperidone (Risperdal),

olanzapine (Zyprexa), quetiapine (Seroquel), ziprasidone (Geodon), aripiprazole
(Abilify), and palperidone (Invega). These newer drugs may produce fewer
unpleasant symptoms than the older antipsychotics but new research shows they
pose a similar risk of adverse effects on the heart, which may include sudden death.
In addition, recent research indicates that these drugs are no more effective than
typical antipsychotics in treating some types of schizophrenia.

Introduction

Schizophrenia is a group of psychotic disorders that interfere with thinking and

mental or emotional responsiveness. It is a disease of the brain. The term
schizophrenia, which means "split mind," was first used in 1911 by Swiss
psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler to categorize patients whose thought processes and
emotional responses seemed disconnected. Despite its name, the condition does
not cause a split personality.
Schizophrenia is a group of psychotic disorders characterized by disturbances in
perception, behavior, and communication that last longer than 6 months. (This
includes psychotic behavior.) A person with schizophrenia has deteriorated
occupational, interpersonal, and self-supportive abilities.

Schizophrenia is characterized by the following symptoms:

Delusions

Hallucinations

Disordered thinking

Emotional unresponsiveness

Because symptoms of schizophrenia arise from various physical processes and

respond differently to treatments, some doctors recommend classifying the disease
based on the presence of the following symptom groups:

Negative symptoms (including apathy and social withdrawal)

Psychotic symptoms

Disordered thinking

Some psychiatrists group psychotic and disordered thinking into a single category
called positive symptoms.
The disease is complicated by the fact that although a schizophrenic patient may
have more than one symptom, the patient rarely has all of them. Symptoms also
often go into remission.

Causes

No single cause can account for schizophrenia. Rather, it appears to be the result of
multiple causes such as genetic factors, environmental and psychological assaults,
and possible hormonal changes that alter the brain's chemistry.

Abnormalities in Brain Structure, Circuitry, and Chemicals

Brain scans using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have shown a number of
abnormalities in the brain's structure associated with schizophrenia. Such problems
can cause nerve damage and disconnections in the pathways that carry brain
chemicals.

Because these problems tend to show up on brain scans of people with chronic
schizophrenia rather than newly diagnosed patients, some doctors believe they may
be a result of the disease and its treatments rather than a cause. (Medications used
for schizophrenia can also cause brain shrinkage over time.)

Abnormal Brain Chemicals. Schizophrenia is associated with an unusual imbalance

of neurotransmitters (chemical messengers between nerve cells) and other brain
chemicals, such as dopamine overactivity, glutamate, reelin, and others. Whether
any changes in these chemicals in the brain is a cause or a consequence of
schizophrenia remains unclear.

Abnormal Circuitry. Abnormalities in brain structure are also reflected in the

disrupted connections between nerve cells that are observed in schizophrenia. Such
miswiring could impair information processing and coordination of mental functions.
For example, auditory hallucinations may be due to miswiring in the circuits that
govern speech processing. Strong evidence suggests that schizophrenia involves
decreased communication between the left and right sides of the brain.

Genetic Factors

Schizophrenia undoubtedly has a genetic component. The risk for inheriting

schizophrenia is 10% in those who have one immediate family member with the
disease and about 40% if the disease affects both parents or an identical twin.
Family members of patients also appear to have higher risks for the specific
symptoms (negative or positive) of the relative with schizophrenia.

Researchers are seeking the specific genetic factors that may be responsible for
schizophrenia in such cases. Current evidence suggests that there are a multitude
of genetic abnormalities involved in schizophrenia, possibly originating from one or
two changes in genetic expression. Scientists are beginning to discover the ways in
which specific genes affect particular brain functions and cause specific symptoms.
Genes that have been studied include the neuregulin-1 gene, the OLIG2 gene, and
the COMT gene.

Heredity does not explain all cases of the disease. About 60% of people with
schizophrenia have no close relatives with the illness.

Infectious Factors

The case for viruses as a cause of schizophrenia rests mainly on circumstantial

evidence, such as living in crowded conditions. The risk is higher for people who are
born in cities than in the country. The longer one lives in the city, the higher the
risk. The following are some studies suggesting an association:

Winter and Spring Births. The risk for schizophrenia worldwide is 5 - 8% higher for
those born during winter and spring, when colds and viruses are more prevalent.

Large Families. The risk for schizophrenia is also greater in large families in which
there are short intervals between siblings (2 or fewer years). Such observations
suggest that exposure to infection early in infancy may help set the stage for later
development of the disease.

Pregnant Mother's Exposure to Viruses. The mother's exposure to viral infections

such as rubella, measles, chicken pox, or others while the infant is in the womb has
also been associated with a higher risk for schizophrenia in her child.

Researchers are trying to identify specific viruses that may be responsible for some
cases. Of particular interest is research finding evidence of a virus that belongs to
the HERV-W retrovirus family in 30% of people with acute schizophrenia.

Some research has found an association between some cases of schizophrenia and
toxoplasmosis, a parasite carried by cats and other domestic animals. Several
studies suggest that patients with schizophrenia have an increased prevalence of
antibodies to toxoplasmosis. Toxoplasmosis can lie dormant in the nervous system
and migrate to the brain over many years.

Psychologic Factors

Although parental influence is no longer believed to play a major role in the

development of schizophrenia, it would be irresponsible to ignore outside pressures
and influences that may exacerbate or trigger symptoms. The prefrontal lobes of
the brain, the brain areas often thought to lead to this disease, are extremely
responsive to environmental stress. Given the fact that schizophrenic symptoms
naturally elicit negative responses from the patient's circle of family and
acquaintances, negative feedback may intensify deficits in a vulnerable brain and
perhaps even trigger and exacerbate existing symptoms.
Risk Factors

Schizophrenia is the most common psychotic condition.

Age

Schizophrenia can occur at any age, but it tends to first develop (or at least become
evident) between adolescence and young adulthood. Schizophrenia in children is
likely to be severe. Although the risk of schizophrenia declines with age, its
incidence has been known to peak in those who are about 45 years old, and again
in people who are in their mid-60s (mostly women). Late-onset schizophrenia that
develops in the 40s is most likely to be the paranoid subtype with fewer negative
symptoms or learning impairment. Such patients usually have functioned at a near-
normal level until structural deficits in the brain break down.

Gender

Although schizophrenia affects both men and women, there are some differences:

Men tend to develop schizophrenia between the ages of 15 - 24. Paranoid

schizophrenia may be more common in men, and symptoms tend to be more
severe.

The onset in women is usually slightly later, between ages 25 - 34, and the
symptoms tend to be less severe. The earlier a girl starts menstruation, the longer
she is protected against schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is more severe during a
woman's menstrual cycle when estrogen levels are low. Such findings and other
evidence suggest that estrogen may have nerve-protecting properties. For example,
the higher the estrogen levels in female patients with schizophrenia, the better their
mental functions.

Intelligence

People with schizophrenia span the full range of intelligence. In fact, one study
reported that a higher than expected number of people who develop schizophrenia
had been intellectually gifted children. Research suggests, however, that a decline
in IQ scores during childhood may be a sign of potential psychotic symptoms in
adults.

Cultural and Geographic Factors

No cultural or geographic group is immune from schizophrenia, although the course

of the disease seems to be more severe in developed countries. However, the
content of delusions may vary depending on a person's culture. According to one
study, European patients were more apt to have delusions of poisoning or religious
guilt while in Japan the delusions were most often related to being slandered.

Socioeconomic Factors
Schizophrenia occurs twice as often in unmarried and divorced people as in married
or widowed individuals. Furthermore, people with schizophrenia are eight times
more likely to be in the lowest socioeconomic groups. However, these findings are
likely to be a result of schizophrenia rather than a cause. Nevertheless, low income
and poverty increases the risk for delayed diagnosis and treatment, and such delays
could lead to more severe disease in patients with fewer resources.

Famine and Malnutrition

Prenatal malnutrition may also play a role in the development of schizophrenia.

Some studies have found that people who are born during times of famine are more
than twice as likely to develop schizophrenia as those born during years of
adequate food. The association between famine and schizophrenia illustrates how
environmental and biologic factors are connected. For example, scientists think that
malnourished mothers may not get enough folate in their diet. Folate is a
micronutrient important for genetic processes. Folate deficiencies may cause
genetic mutations in the developing fetus that can lead to schizophrenia.

Other Factors Associated with Schizophrenia

Being Left- or Mixed-Handed. The rate of left-handedness or mixed-handedness is

significantly higher among patients with schizophrenia than the general population.
This suggests that some neurologic pattern that may be responsible for each. (A
large minority of the population is non-right handed, and very few of these people
develop schizophrenia.)

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) affects a

significant number of schizophrenic patients. OCD is an anxiety disorder marked by
obsessions (recurrent or persistent mental images, thoughts, or ideas) that may
result in compulsive behaviors, repetitive, rigid, and self-prescribed routines that
are intended to prevent the manifestation of the obsession. Some doctors believe
the behaviors exhibited in the disorder may actually be protective in people with
schizophrenia in early stages.

Behavioral and Motor Problems in Childhood. Children who later develop

schizophrenia often suffer from the following certain problems, including excessive
shyness or minor early physical and motor-control problems. Such problems are so
common, however, that their presence without any other risk factors is no cause for
concern.

Fathers Age. According to some studies, the older a father is when a child is born,
the greater the risk is for schizophrenia in his offspring, perhaps because of a
greater chance of genetic mutations in the sperm that can be passed on. In one
study, children of fathers who were 50 years old or more faced a three-fold risk for
schizophrenia compared to children of fathers who were 25 or younger.
Epilepsy. A family history of epilepsy increases the chance for developing
schizophrenia or similar psychosis. Scientists think that epilepsy and schizophrenia
may share similar genetic or environmental factors.

Complications

Schizophrenia has a devastating effect on all aspects of human thought, emotion,

and expression. Only about 20% of patients reach full recovery after a first episode,
but new drugs are offering significant hope for improving quality of life.

Medical Illnesses

Studies have reported that people with severe mental illnesses suffer more from
serious health problems than those without mental disorders, and they are less
likely to receive medical help. Substance abuse is a significant factor in this higher
risk.

Research has suggested an increased risk of diabetes among people with

schizophrenia. In addition, many new antipsychotic medications can elevate blood
sugar levels. Patients taking atypical antipsychotics drugs -- such as clozapine,
olanzapine, risperidone, aripiprazole, quetiapine fumarate, and ziprasidone -- should
receive a baseline blood sugar level reading and be monitored for any increases in
blood sugar levels. (See Diabetes Risk and Atypical Antipsychotics in Medications
section.)

Depression

Depression is common later in adulthood. Although this mood disorder can certainly
be a result of the negative social impact of schizophrenia, some doctors believe that
depression is part of the disease process itself.

Effect on Social Status

Studies indicate that after 20 - 30 years, half of patients are able to care for
themselves, work, and participate socially. Support services and appropriate
housing improve this outcome. Unsurprisingly, the decline in status, including the
inability to earn a living, is less steep when there are more financial resources and
fewer emotional disorders at the outset of symptoms. Also, on average, the later
the onset of the disease, the milder the social impact. The long-term effects on work
and relationships, however, are usually severe and difficult to repair, even if
symptoms improve.

Effect on Intelligence

In one study, about half of patients experienced some decline in IQ (10 points or
more), but intelligence scores remained the same in the other half. Researchers
believe that a decline in IQ reflects early nerve damage but that it is not an
inevitable consequence of the disease process.

Suicide

In spite of the sometimes frightening behavior, people with schizophrenia are no

more likely to behave violently than are those in the general population. In fact,
these patients are more apt to withdraw from others or to harm themselves.

Suicide. Between 20 - 50% of patients with schizophrenia attempt suicide, and an

estimated 9 - 13% commit suicide.

The general risk for suicide is higher at certain times in the course of the disease:

Within the first 5 years of onset of the disease

During the first 6 months after hospitalization

Following an acute psychotic episode

The widespread use of antipsychotic drugs over the past decade does not appear to
have had much effect on suicide rates. In fact, evidence suggests that the use of
these drugs as a way of reducing hospitalization time is increasing the incidence of
suicide. Depression, not delusions, appears to be the most important motive for
suicide in these patients. Suicide risk is also associated with prior suicide attempts,
drug abuse, agitation, poor treatment compliance, fear of mental deterioration, and
personal loss.

Self-Destructive Behaviors

Smoking and Other Addictions. Most people with schizophrenia abuse nicotine,
alcohol, and other substances. Substance abuse, in addition to its other adverse
effects, increases non-compliance with antipsychotic drugs in the schizophrenic
patient and may worsen symptoms.

Smoking is of special interest. According to one study, up to 88% of schizophrenic

patients are nicotine dependent. Biologic and genetic factors may be partially
responsible for the addiction in this particular group. Nicotine helps reduce
psychotic symptoms and impulsivity, perhaps by inhibiting the activity of a protein
called monoamine oxidase B (MAO- B), which is linked to improved mood and
possibly to nerve protection. Smoking for schizophrenics, then, may be a form of
self-medication.

Obesity and Diabetes. Obesity is very common in patients with schizophrenia.

Factors that contribute to obesity and diabetes in these patients include unstable
lifestyle, low social economic status, and side effects of any antipsychotic
medications. Patients should be monitored closely for onset diabetes.
Effect on Family Members

Family members suffer from grief, long-term guilt, and many emotional issues when
faced with a schizophrenic loved one. If these patients commit suicide, the effects
can be devastating.

Lack of Social and Government Support

In the 1970s, tens of thousands of patients were put on antipsychotic drugs and
released from institutions into the community, a concept called
deinstitutionalization. In spite of these attempts to reduce mental hospital costs,
schizophrenia still accounts for 40% of all long-term hospitalization days. More than
half of patients with schizophrenia require public assistance within a year of their
reentry into the community.

Symptoms

Research indicates that symptoms in childhood strongly predict disease in

adulthood. In one long-term study, over 40% of people with schizophrenia who
developed the disease in young adulthood had reported psychotic symptoms by age
11. For children with a family history of schizophrenia, the following inherited traits
may be warning signs:

Deficits in working (short-term) and verbal memory

Impairments in gross motor skills (the child's ability to control different parts of the
body)

Attention deficits

A decline in verbal memory, IQ, and other mental functions

Any signs of hallucinations or delusions must be differentiated from normal

childhood fantasies.

Most often, early warning signs go unnoticed, and schizophrenia usually becomes
evident for the first time in late adolescence or early adulthood. Schizophrenia that
starts in childhood or adolescence tends to be severe. It should be strongly noted
that the traits discussed above, even combinations of them, can be present without
schizophrenia.

Negative Symptoms

A person with schizophrenia may have the following negative symptoms:

Lack of self confidence

Lack of emotions
Colorless speaking tones

Inappropriate reactions to events (such as laughing hysterically over a loss)

A general loss of interest in life and the ability to experience pleasure

Lack of responsiveness and poor sociability often appear in childhood as the first
indications of schizophrenia. Certain imaging techniques suggest that these findings
are based on biologic changes in specific parts of the brain. In many patients,
however, negative symptoms do not appear until after positive symptoms develop.
Negative symptoms tend to be more common than positive symptoms in older
patients and typically persist after positive symptoms have been treated.

Psychotic Symptoms

Psychotic symptoms, particularly delusions and hallucinations, are the most widely
recognized manifestations of schizophrenia.

Hallucinations. A hallucination is the experience of seeing, hearing, tasting,

smelling, or feeling something that doesn't really exist. Auditory hallucinations are
false senses of sound such as hearing voices that go unheard by others. They are
the most common psychotic symptoms, affecting about 70% of patients.

Delusions. A delusion is a fixed, false belief. It can be bizarre (such as invisible

aliens have entered the room through an electric socket) or nonbizarre (such as
unwarranted jealousy or the paranoid belief in being persecuted or watched).

Psychotic symptoms usually occur every now and then, alternating with periods of
remission. They typically occur in men ages 17 - 30 and in women ages 20 - 40.

Cognitive Impairment (Disordered Thinking)

The symptoms of cognitive impairment and disordered thinking may occur before
other symptoms of schizophrenia. They include:

A lack of attention.

Impaired information processing and an aberrant association between words and

ideas. Sometimes this condition is so extreme that speech becomes incoherent and
is referred to as "word salad." Patients may connect words because of similarity of
sound, rather than by meaning, a condition known as "clang associations."

Memory impairment. In keeping with other aspects of disordered thinking, memory

impairment in schizophrenia is likely to involve the inability to connect an event
with its source into a complete and whole memory. For instance, a patient may
recall and even feel a familiarity with a specific event but be unable to remember
where, when, or how it took place.
Backward masking dysfunction. This is a trait in which a distraction causes a person
to forget a preceding event. It might be an important symptom and a marker of
schizophrenia even in people with normal working memories.

People with schizophrenia do poorly on mental tasks requiring conscious awareness,

such as verbal fluency, short-term and working memory, and processing speed.
However, they are no worse than the general population in underlying (implicit)
learning, such as grammar skills, vocabulary, and spatial skills (such as map
reading). Some experts believe that impaired verbal memory in schizophrenia is a
consequence of depression and slowness, but not a result of the disease process.

Other Symptoms

People with schizophrenia may experience other symptoms, such as intolerance of

heat (often associated with antipsychotic medications) and a reduced sense of
smell.

Symptoms of Progression to Full-Blown Schizophrenia

The course of the disease varies from one patient to the next. Symptoms of
psychosis can become gradually or suddenly evident.

In up to a third of patients, the disease is unrelenting and progresses from the first
episode onward.

In others, schizophrenia follows a fluctuating course with psychotic flare-ups,

followed by remissions.

In one study, a third of patients experienced a complete remission of symptoms

within 3 years after one or more episodes. Women are more likely to go into
remission, possibly because of some protective effect of estrogen on the brain.

Typically, patients develop considerable cognitive dysfunction (disordered thinking)

within the first 4 - 5 years of the onset of psychotic symptoms. Some evidence
indicates that the physical disease process in schizophrenia is progressive, as with
Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. However, schizophrenia does not progress in
the same way as those two diseases. Unlike Parkinson's and Alzheimer's, cognitive
function usually eventually stabilizes. Psychosis, disorganized thought, and negative
symptoms often improve over time, although, even in such cases, deficits in verbal
memory usually persist. (Thought disorder often improves along with improvements
in negative symptoms.)

Diagnosis

The doctor will use one or more verbal screening tests to help determine whether a
patient's symptoms meet the criteria for schizophrenia. Because no single symptom
is specific to schizophrenia, a diagnosis may be made when one or more of the
following conditions is present:

If a patient has at least one active flare-up lasting a month or more. The flare-up
consists of at least two characteristic symptoms (such as hallucinations, delusions,
evidence of disorganized thinking, and emotional unresponsiveness with a flat
speaking tone).

If the patient has particularly bizarre delusions or hallucinations, even in the

absence of other characteristic symptoms.

If certain symptoms are present for at least 6 months, even in the absence of active
flare-ups. Such symptoms include marked social withdrawal, peculiar behavior
(talking to oneself, severe superstitiousness), vague and incoherent speech, or
other indications of disturbed thinking. The patient's social and personal
relationships would also have deteriorated since the onset of symptoms.

Ruling Out Other Conditions

The common hallmarks of schizophrenia are also symptoms that can occur in
dozens of other psychologic and medical conditions, as well as with certain
medications. Shared symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized and
incoherent speech, a flat tone of voice, and bizarrely disorganized or catatonic
behavior (such as lack of speech, muscular rigidity, and unresponsiveness).

Among the conditions that may resemble schizophrenia are the following:

Depression. Delusions that focus on a physical abnormality or disease that isn't real,
known as somatic delusions, sometimes occur in people with depression.

Bipolar Disorder. Paranoia and delusions of grandeur (the belief that one has a
special power or mission) can occur in people with bipolar disorder during the manic
phase. Sometimes it is difficult even for doctors to differentiate between these two
disorders. Evidence suggests that they may share certain genetic factors that make
some families vulnerable to either one.

Schizophrenia-Like Psychoses. Several other conditions exhibit schizophrenia-like

psychoses but do not meet the diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia. Such conditions
may be variations of entirely different diseases and are classified as schizoaffective
disorder, schizophreniform psychosis, and atypical and brief reactive schizophrenia.

Alcohol and Drug Abuse. Either substance abuse itself or withdrawal from drugs or
alcohol can trigger psychosis. Because of the high risk for substance abuse among
people with schizophrenia, it is important that the health professional distinguish
psychosis triggered by drugs or alcohol from a schizophrenic episode. Usually, the
diagnosis is confirmed if the psychosis ends after withdrawal from drugs or alcohol,
and returns if the patient returns to alcohol or substance abuse.
Medical Illnesses. Other causes of psychotic symptoms include cancer in the central
nervous system, encephalitis, neurosyphilis, thyroid disorders, Alzheimer's disease,
epilepsy, Huntington's disease, multiple sclerosis, stroke, Wilson's disease, some
vitamin B deficiencies, and systemic lupus erythematosus.

Medication Reactions. Many medications may induce psychosis as a side effect, and
some can precipitate delusions and severe confusion. Such medication-induced
symptoms are most often observed in elderly patients.

Imaging Techniques

Many brain imaging techniques can detect changes in the brain structure that relate
to specific sets of symptoms in schizophrenia. These imaging techniques include
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), single photon emission computed tomography
(SPECT), and positron emission tomography (PET). Such techniques are used as
research tools. However, research continues in evaluating whether they may be
useful for identifying candidates for early treatment among high-risk young people
with early warnings signs of schizophrenia and brain damage.

Treatment

Schizophrenia is categorized as a brain disease, not a psychological disorder, and

drug treatment is the primary therapy. Studies indicate, however, that an
integrated approach better prevents relapses than routine care (medication,
monitoring, and access to rehabilitation programs).

Integrated Approach. An integrated approach, which may help to ease psychotic

symptoms, may include:

Motivational interviewing to encourage the patient's commitment to change

Use of antipsychotic medications (generally atypical or novel antipsychotics) with

monitoring

Community-based rehabilitation and social skills training

Family psychotherapy

Cognitive-behavioral therapy to reduce delusions and hallucinations

Treatment of schizophrenia has traditionally focused on decreasing patients

negative symptoms. Today, an important shift is now taking place. Doctors are now
emphasizing patients ability to function -- shop, eat, cook, clean, do laundry, and in
some cases, work independently.

Early Treatment. The earlier schizophrenia is detected and treated, the better the
outcome. Patients who receive antipsychotic drugs and other treatments during
their first episode are admitted to the hospital less often during the following 5
years and may require less time to control symptoms than those who do not seek
help as quickly. In spite of strong evidence for the positive effects of early
treatment, patients usually do not receive treatment until after 10 months of
serious symptoms.

Classes of Drugs Used for Schizophrenia

Most drugs that treat schizophrenia work by blocking receptors of the

neurotransmitter dopamine. Dopamine is thought to play a major role in psychotic
symptoms. Although the drugs used to treat schizophrenia have important benefits,
they may also cause side effects. The most disturbing and common side effects are
those known as extrapyramidal symptoms, which involve the nerves and muscles
controlling movement and coordination.

The following drug classes are generally used for schizophrenia:

Typical antipsychotics. Until recently, these drugs were the mainstay treatments for
schizophrenia. They include haloperidol (Haldol), chlorpromazine (Thorazine),
perphenazine (Trilafon), thioridazine (Mellaril), mesoridazine (Serentil),
trifluoperazine (Stelazine), and fluphenazine (Prolixin). Side effects involving the
nerves and muscle movement and coordination occur in up to 70% of patients.
Typical antipsychotics are sometimes referred to as first-generation to distinguish
them from newer second-generation atypical antipsychotics.

Atypical antipsychotics. These newer drugs may be better tolerated than the older
antipsychotics but new research contradicts the belief that they are safer for the
heart. They include clozapine (Clozaril), risperidone (Risperdal), olanzapine
(Zyprexa), quetiapine (Seroquel), ziprasidone (Geodon), aripiprazole (Abilify), and
palperidone (Invega).

Which Type of Drug to Choose. Doctors have debated whether newer atypical
antipsychotics carry a treatment advantage over the older typical antipsychotics,
which are much less expensive.

Most practicing psychiatrists feel that atypical antipsychotics may work better than
the older drugs. However, the additional benefits may be modest for most patients.
Large, high-quality studies have compared newer and older drugs and generally
found that newer atypical antipsychotics work no better than older typical
antipsychotics such as haloperidol, at least for initial treatment of first-episode
schizophrenia Similarly, for treatment of children and adolescents with
schizophrenia, both atypical and typical antipsychotics appear to be equally
effective, but atypical antipsychotics carry a higher risk for metabolic side effects.

Side effect profiles between typical and atypical antipsychotics are different. Both
groups cause extrapyramidal side effects, (including muscle stiffness, tremors, and
abnormal movements), but the newer atypical drugs do not seem to cause them as
often. However, the atypical antipsychotics pose a higher risk for weight gain, which
can lead to diabetes as well as heart disease.

One problem with most of the studies that evaluate these medications is that often
more than half the patients discontinue the drugs either because of side effects or
because they do not feel the medications are helping them.

In 2007, risperidone and aripiprazole became the first atypical antipsychotics

approved for treatment of schizophrenia in adolescents (ages 13 - 17 years).
Doctors caution that more research is needed to determine the long-term safety
and efficacy of these drugs for pediatric patients.

Treating an Acute or Initial Phase

For the severe, active phase of schizophrenia, injections of an antipsychotic drug

are typically given every few hours until the patient is calm. Anti-anxiety drugs are
also often administered at the same time. Some of the newer atypical drugs, such
as olanzapine or risperidone, may prove to be as effective as the older
antipsychotics with significantly fewer severe side effects. In patients who are being
treated for the first time, improvement in psychotic symptoms may be evident
within 1 - 2 days of treatment, although the full benefit of the drug usually
manifests over about 6 - 8 weeks. Thought disturbances tend to abate more
gradually.

Maintenance

To reduce the risk of relapse, many doctors recommend that drugs be given daily
for at least 1 year. Atypical drugs are increasingly being used as maintenance for
those with new-onset psychosis, although the choice of the drug depends on many
factors. Side effects and effectiveness vary from individual to individual. Some trial
and error adjustments may be necessary when prescribing dosage amounts so that
the benefits of treatment outweigh the side effects of the therapy. The doctor must
monitor the drug effects carefully.

Keeping patients on maintenance therapy, however, is very difficult, and many

patients stop their medication. Factors that may contribute to poor compliance
include:

Lower occupational status

A history of alcohol or drugs abuse

Delusions of persecution

A history of stopping medications within the first 6 months after diagnosis

Stopping Medications
Nearly all patients experience some relapse or worsening of symptoms within 2
years of stopping maintenance medication. Recognizing signs of relapse and
starting medications immediately can help prevent rehospitalization for these
patients.

Supportive Drugs

Antidepressants and anti-anxiety drugs may also play an important role in treating
the patient with schizophrenia, particularly given the role of depression in the high
rates of suicide among these patients.

General Guidelines for Psychological Treatments

Psychiatrists generally agree that current treatment should offer both medical and
psychological treatment to the patient. Cognitive-behavioral approaches are
showing promise. Support to the family or other caregiver is also important for the
long-term improvement of people with schizophrenia.

Medications

Atypical Antipsychotic Drugs

Seven atypical antipsychotic drugs are currently approved in the United States:

Clozapine (Clozaril)

Risperidone (Risperdal)

Olanzapine (Zyprexa)

Quetiapine (Seroquel)

Aripiprazole (Abilify)

Ziprasidone (Geodon)

Paliperidone (Invega)

Clozapine was the first atypical drug approved (in 1989), and paliperodine the most
recent approved (in 2007). Clozapine appears to have more side effects than the
other atypical antipsychotics. Most of these drugs come in pill form, but some may
come in liquid form or as an injection. In general, it may take up to 6 months before
an atypical drug has an effect.

The atypical antipsychotics zotepine (Zoleptil) and amisulpride (Solian) are not
approved for use in the United States.

Benefits of Atypical Antipsychotics.

Affect both dopamine receptors and other neurotransmitters responsible for
psychotic symptoms.

Improve negative and positive symptoms.

May even improve working memory and mental functioning.

May reduce depression and hostility.

May reduce the risk for suicide (clozapine may be particularly helpful for suicide
prevention).

These drugs, particularly the newer atypicals, have fewer extrapyramidal side
effects than the typical antipsychotics.

Atypical antipsychotics have some significant limitations and complications, and

their benefits compared to each other and to other antipsychotics are not always
clear-cut. In-depth comparative studies are needed to determine which specific
drugs are more effective and have fewer side effects than others.

Side Effects of Atypical Antipsychotics.

Nasal congestion or runny nose

Drooling

Dizziness

Headache

Drowsiness -- although, sometimes the drugs may cause restlessness and insomnia

Constipation

Rapid heart beat

Difficulty urinating

Skin rash

Increased body temperature

Confusion, short-term memory problems, disorientation, and impaired attention

The following are more severe side effects or complications that may occur with
these drugs:

Diabetes
Weight gain and metabolic problems. The risk is highest for olanzapine, and lowest
for aripiprazole and ziprasidone.

Unhealthy cholesterol levels. Particularly with olanzapine, increased risk for high
levels of trigylcerides and total cholesterol.

Seizures.

Extreme and very serious increases in body temperature.

Sudden drop in blood pressure (hypotension).

A significant drop in white blood cell count (neutropenia), which can be severe,
occurs in 1% or more of patients, generally in the first 6 months after starting
treatment. Patients should have their white blood count and absolute neutrophil
count regularly monitored if they take clozapine.

Extrapyramidal side effects

Cataracts and worsening of any existing glaucoma.

Increased prolactin levels -- prolactin is a hormone associated with infertility and

impotence. High levels can cause menstrual abnormalities and may increase the
risk for osteoporosis and possibly breast cancer.

Heart problems, including sudden death.

Diabetes Risk and Atypical Antipsychotics

All atypical antipsychotic drugs carry a black box warning on their prescribing labels
advising that these drugs can increase the risk of high blood sugar (hyperglycemia)
and diabetes. (Olanzapine is more likely to cause high blood sugar levels than other
atypical antipsychotic medicines.) The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
recommends that:

Patients with an established diagnosis of diabetes who begin atypical antipsychotic

treatment should be regularly monitored for worsening of blood sugar control.

Patients with risk factors for diabetes (obesity, family history of diabetes) should
undergo fasting blood sugar testing at the beginning of atypical antipsychotic
treatment and periodically during treatment.

All patients treated with atypical antipsychotics should be monitored for high blood
sugar (hyperglycemia) symptoms.

Patients who develop hyperglycemia symptoms should undergo fasting blood sugar
testing.
There may also be an increased background risk of diabetes in patients with
schizophrenia. As a precaution, many doctors advise that all patients treated with
atypical antipsychotics receive a baseline blood sugar level reading and be
monitored for any increases in blood sugar levels during drug treatment. Patients
should also have their lipid and cholesterol levels monitored. [For more information,
see In-Depth Report #60: Diabetes - type 2.]

Typical Antipsychotic Drugs

The standard typical antipsychotic drug used for schizophrenia is haloperidol

(Haldol). Others include:

Chlorpromazine (Thorazine)

Perphenazine (Trilafon)

Thioridazine (Mellaril)

Mesoridazine (Serentil)

Trifluoperazine (Stelazine)

Fluphenazine (Prolixin)

Studies have not shown any significant difference in benefits among these drugs.

The beneficial impact of these drugs is greatest on psychotic symptoms, particularly

hallucinations and delusions in the early and midterm stages of the disorder. They
are not very successful in reducing negative symptoms. Because of their significant
side effects, many patient's stop taking the drug.

Depot therapy (long-lasting monthly injections, usually of haloperidol or

fluphenazine) has been used with success in people who have difficulty complying
with a daily regimen of these drugs. Researchers are studying low-dose regimens to
discover if they can be effective and cause fewer side effects.

Side Effects of Typical Antipsychotics. These drugs can have adverse side effects
related to many organs and systems in the body. These drugs are also known as
neuroleptics, a name that comes from the severe neurological side effects that
these medications can cause. Side effects include:

Extrapyramidal symptoms

Sleepiness and lethargy -- common in the beginning but usually decreases over
time

Insomnia and agitation -- in some cases

Dulling of the mind

Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, and heartburn

Dry mouth and blurred vision

Allergic reactions

Sexual dysfunction -- a common reason why patients stop taking the drug;
amantadine may help offset this side effect

Neuroleptic malignant syndrome -- rare, but can be fatal without prompt treatment

Increased prolactin levels -- prolactin is a hormone associated with infertility and

impotence. High levels can cause menstrual abnormalities and may increase the
risk for osteoporosis and possibly breast cancer

A sudden drop in blood pressure (hypotension)

An increased risk of sudden cardiac death

In general, higher potency drugs cause less drowsiness and drops in blood pressure
but pose a higher risk for extrapyramidal side effects. Lower-potency drugs (such as
chlorpromazine, thioridazine) are more sedating and have milder side effects.

Extrapyramidal Symptoms

Nearly every drug used to date for schizophrenia can cause extrapyramidal side
effects to some degree. These side effects involve the nerves and muscles
controlling movement and coordination.

Description of Extrapyramidal Side Effects. These effects resemble some of the

symptoms of Parkinson's disease and include the following conditions:

Tardive dyskinesia is the most serious extrapyramidal side effect. It often manifests
itself by repetitive and involuntary movements, or tics, most often of the mouth,
lips, or of the legs, arms, or trunk. Symptoms range from mild to severe, and
sometimes interfere with eating and walking. They may appear months or even
years after taking the drugs. After the drug is stopped, symptoms can sometimes
persist for weeks or months and may be permanent. Some people are more likely to
develop these symptoms, including older patients, women, smokers, people with
diabetes, and patients with movement disorders.

Acute dystonia typically develops shortly after taking an antipsychotic drug. This
syndrome includes abnormal muscle spasms, particularly sustained contortions of
the neck, jaw, trunk, and eye muscles.

Other extrapyramidal symptoms. Other effects are agitation, slow speech, tremor,
and retarded movement. It should be noted that sometimes these symptoms mimic
schizophrenia itself. In response, the doctor may be tempted erroneously to
increase the dosage.

Treatment of Extrapyramidal Side Effects. In general, if extrapyramidal side effects

occur from neuroleptic drugs, the doctor may first try to reduce the dosage or
switch to an atypical drug. Other approaches to reduce these symptoms include:

Anti-parkinsonism drugs known as anticholinergics increase dopamine levels and

help to restore balance. Among the anticholinergics sometimes used are
trihexyphenidyl (Artane, Trihexy) and benztropine (Cogentin). They are not helpful
for tardive dyskinesia, however. Some of these drugs may also help in managing
negative symptoms of schizophrenia. The use of these drugs, however, adds to the
cost and complicates management. These medicines also have their own,
sometimes serious, side effects. Most doctors recommend them only for patients
who cannot be monitored regularly, need very high doses of powerful antipsychotic
drugs, and are at risk for severe side effects. They should be stopped after 3 or 4
months, if possible. If symptoms recur, the drugs can be reinstituted. Withdrawal
from anticholinergics can cause depression that can worsen schizophrenia.

Benzodiazepines may also alleviate these symptoms.

Supportive Add-On Drugs

Antidepressants. Antidepressants are recommended along with antipsychotics to

alleviate the depression that is so common in people with schizophrenia. One study
indicated that taking antidepressants may even help prevent relapse. In spite of
their benefits, fewer than half of all patients take these medications.

Anti-Anxiety Drugs. Benzodiazepines are drugs normally used to treat anxiety. They
also have some modest effect on psychotic symptoms. They may be useful in the
early stages of a psychotic relapse for preventing a full attack. They also are
sometimes used to treat the restlessness and agitation that can occur with the use
of neuroleptics. Severe side effects, including respiratory arrest, very low blood
pressure, and loss of consciousness, have been reported in a few people taking anti-
anxiety medication and clozapine. There is no evidence, however, of a clear danger
associated with the use of these two drugs. In any case, prolonged use of anti-
anxiety drugs is generally not recommended in schizophrenia. Withdrawal from
these drugs should occur gradually.

Lithium. Lithium, ordinarily used for bipolar disorder, is useful for some
schizophrenic patients. It appears to help those with fewer negative symptoms and
without a family history of schizophrenia. However, there are no reliable criteria to
predict who will benefit.

Anti-Epileptic Drugs. Drugs ordinarily prescribed for epilepsy -- such as

carbamazepine (Tegretol), gabapentin (Neurontin), lamotrigine (Lamictal), or others
-- are occasionally used in combination with antipsychotic drugs for patients who do
not respond to standard drugs.

Estrogen Replacement in Women. Estrogen may be nerve-protective. Some

investigators have proposed using estrogen therapy to help with cognitive
impairment. However, evidence is weak, and cancer and cardiovascular risks of
estrogen therapy must be considered.

Psychotherapy

One-fifth to one-third of all patients with schizophrenia do not respond adequately

to drug treatment. Many patients who have been successfully treated with
medications experience the "awakenings" phenomena, which are painful reactions
that are manifested as inner emotions and the recognition of real losses. The effects
of the disease, in any case, are profoundly emotional. As a result, psychological
therapies can be helpful for many patients.

Cognitive-Behavioral and Other Psychosocial Therapies

The use of cognitive-behavioral therapy is showing particular promise for

improvement in both positive and negative symptoms in some patients, and the
benefits may persist after treatment has stopped. This approach attempts to
strengthen the patient's capacity for normal thinking, using mental exercises and
self-observation. More evidence is showing that improving patients' ability to learn,
remember, and pay attention allows them to better cope with ongoing positive
symptoms and lead independent lives. Patients with schizophrenia are taught to
critically analyze hallucinations and examine underlying beliefs in them.

Family and Outside Support Structures

Positive social interaction is extremely important for people with schizophrenia and
may help reduce symptoms, including the number of delusional moments.

Family Support. It is deeply painful for anyone to interact with a loved one whose
behavior is determined by a mysterious internal mechanism that has gone awry.
Given support and direction, however, families or other caregivers can be very
helpful in a number of ways:

They can encourage patients to comply with drug treatments and to recognize early
signs of serious treatment side effects.

They can be taught to recognize impending symptoms of relapse and help the
patient avoid situations that might trigger them. (Symptoms for an impending
relapse after remission may include feeling distant from family and friends, being
increasingly bothered by persistent thoughts, and having an increased interest in
religion.)
Unfortunately, the family's own mental health is often threatened. As a result,
caretakers also need help. Numerous studies have shown that patients with
schizophrenia do worse in families who are too emotional, hostile, critical, or even
overly involved. The problem is an emotional loop:

When affection and reason have failed to bring a loved one back to reality, overly
critical or emotional family members typically react with anger and frustration.

This generates anxiety and depression in patients.

The subsequent expression of these emotions by the patient triggers yet more
criticism or acting out. So the cycle continues.

Eventually, out of despair and fear, the family may reject the patient completely.

Studies indicate that once the patient receives appropriate treatment and support,
the family's over-emotional state also recedes. Some studies have reported that
when families receive help for themselves (group support or cognitive therapy) the
relapse rates for the related patients are significantly lower than for patients whose
families did not seek help. Still, only a small number of families of patients with
schizophrenia receive the support and education needed not only for the patient but
also for themselves.

Community Treatment Programs. Community treatment programs, in which a team

of professional caregivers provides treatment and support for patients in their
homes, is highly beneficial and cost effective (compared to frequent
hospitalization). At this time, however, only a small percentage of patients
participate in such programs.

Vocational Rehabilitation. Paid work may help the mental health of the patient. One
study reported that after 1 year, 40% of workers with schizophrenia who were paid
for their labor reported much improvement in all symptoms, and 50% reported
much improvement in positive symptoms. Those who were not paid for their work
did considerably less well. (The arts and crafts activities that are often used to
enhance self-esteem in rehabilitation programs offer few real benefits to the
patient.)

Unfortunately, at this time, few patients with schizophrenia are in programs that
help them find and keep jobs, and up to 90% of patients with severe mental
problems are unemployed.

Other Treatments

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), often called shock treatment, has received bad
press since it was introduced in the 1940s. However, refined techniques have
revived its use, particularly for those with severe depression. Imaging studies have
not found that current ECT techniques cause any damage to the brain's structure,
and some doctors feel it is safer than drug therapy. A recent review of many clinical
trials indicated that ECT combined with antipsychotic medication can provide rapid
improvements for patients who are suicidal or severely psychotic. The review found
that the combined treatment worked better than antipsychotics alone for these
patients. ECT treatments are usually given 2 - 3 times a week, for a total of 8 - 12
sessions.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Investigators are testing a procedure called slow repetitive transcranial magnetic

stimulation (rTMS), which affects brain activity in the cerebral cortex. The procedure
uses an electromagnet placed on the scalp to administer magnetic stimulation to
the brains cerebral cortex. This region of the brain appears to be associated with
auditory hallucinations. A review of 15 clinical trials indicated that rTMS may be an
effective treatment for auditory hallucinations. Further research is underway.