Experimental Chemistry

Measurement of : Instrument used

Time Digital stop watch

Temperature Thermometer (Mercury, Alcohol)

Electronic temperature sensor

Mass Electronic balance

Volume Measuring cylinder (accurate to nearest

cm3)
Pipette (accurate set volume 20, 25, 50)
Burette (0 to 50.0)

Volume of gas Gas syringe (up to 100cm3)

Electronic sensor

How to collect gases?

Conical flask, rubber bung and gas syringe
Purification is the separation of mixtures into pure substances

Method of separating solid-solid mixtures

Mixture of sand and sodium chloride

Use of suitable solvent e.g water

NaCl can dissolve in water but sand cannot. After dissolving NaCl, the sand can be
removed by filtration. Sand is obtained as the residue and NaCl solution obtained as
filtrate. Pure NaCl can then be obtained through crystallization.

Separating solid-liquid mixture (e.g. sand and water mixture)

Filtration
Apparatus required: filter paper and filter funnel
The solid is collected as the residue on the filter paper while the liquid is obtained as the
filtrate.

Crystallization
Solute: solid that dissolves Solvent: Liquid that dissolves solute
Heat to evaporate solvent
Hot solution is allowed to cool and solid appears as pure crystals
Cold solution is poured off to obtain crystals
Sublimation
Sublimation is a technique used by chemists to purify compounds. Typically a solid is
placed in a vessel which is then heated under vacuum. Under this reduced pressure the
solid volatilizes and condenses as a purified compound on a cooled surface, leaving the
non-volatile residue impurities behind. This cooled surface often takes the form of a cold
finger. Once heating ceases and the vacuum is released, the purified compound can be
collected from the cold surface. Usually this is done using a sublimation apparatus.

Example of substances that sublimes: Carbon dioxide, iodine

Separating liquid- liquid mixtures (miscible)

Miscible means that the liquids mix to for a homogenous solution
Fractional distillation

Example: separating alcohol from

water

The vapour from the boiling mixture of

ethanol and water contain a large
percentage of ethanol.

As the vapour mixture moves up the

fractionating column, it repeatedly
condenses and boils inside the column

Each time the mixture boils, the

percentage of ethanol increases
By the time the vapour reaches the top of
the fractionating column, it has almost
become pure ethanol.

This vapour then passes into the

condenser where it cools and condenses
into liquid ethanol

Separating liquids that are immiscible

Immiscible liquids,such as oil and water can be separated by using a separating funnel.
The mixture is put into a separating funnel, shaken and allowed to settle. The oil and
water from two separate layer. The liquid with higher density, in this case water forms
the lower layer. Remove the stopper and open the tap after standing. The water runs
out through the tap. The oil remains in the funnel and can be run out into another
beaker.

Paper chromatography
Separate and identify mixtures of small amounts of solid e.g. a mixture of dyes
A drop of dye is placed on chromatography paper
The paper is dipped into suitable solvent
The dyes dissolve in the solvent and move up with it
The components of the dye move with different speeds and become separated
The dyes can then be identified from their position on the paper
Chromatography can also be used to separate and identify colourless substance. The
chromatogram is sprayed with a locating agent to show where the substances are on
the paper.

A locating agent is a substance that reacts with the substance on the paper to produce
a coloured product.

Rf value= (Distance moved by the substance)/ (Distance moved by solvent)

Rf values can be used to identify substances

A pure substance has fixed melting point and boiling points.

An impure solid melts over a range of temperatures,
Impurities in a solid also lower its melting point

An impure liquid boils at a higher temperature than the pure liquid

Liquid mixtures also boil over a range of temperatures

Pure substances are used in industry to make useful products such as food and drugs.
Impurities in food and drugs can be dangerous because they can poison people.
Government labs routinely test medical products for harmful impurities and vegetables
for impurities such as poisonous pesticides.
 Sodium Hydroxide Ammonia

Ammonium Ammonia gas produced on Ammonia gas not produced

warming

Calcium White ppt insoluble in xs No precipitate formed

Copper(II) Blue ppt insoluble in xs Blue ppt soluble in xs to give dark

blue solution

Iron(II) Dirty green ppt insoluble in xs, Dirty green ppt insoluble in xs,
slowly turns brown slowly turns brown

Iron (III) Reddish brown ppt insoluble in xs Reddish brown ppt insoluble in xs

Lead(II) White ppt soluble in xs White ppt insoluble in xs

Zinc White ppt soluble in xs White ppt soluble in xs

 Anion Test Observations

Carbonate Addition of dilute acid Effervescence of colorless

Use of limewater to test for odourless gas that form white ppt
presence of CO2 with limewater

Chloride Add dilute nitric acid followed by White ppt of silver chloride is
aqueous silver nitrate solution obtained

Nitrate Add dilute sodium hydroxide Evolution of colourless pungent gas

followed by a little aluminum that turn damp red litmus paper
powder. Warm blue. Ammonia gas is produced.

Sulphate Add dilute nitric acid followed by White ppt of barium sulphate is
aqueous barium nitrate formed
 Gas Test Observation

Ammonia Use damp red litmus paper Damp red litmus paper turn blue

Carbon dioxide Bubble gas through limewater White ppt formed

Chlorine Use damp blue litmus paper Damp blue litmus paper turns
red and is then bleached

Hydrogen Put a burning splint near the Burning splint extinguishes with
gas a pop sound

Oxygen Put a glowing splint near the Glowing splint is relighted

gas

Sulphur dioxide Bubble gas through acidified Acidified orange potassium

potassium dichromate solution dichromate turns green
Chemical Symbols

Name Chemical Symbol Name Chemical Symbol

Ammonium ion Carbonate ion

Calcium ion Chloride ion

Copper(II) ion Nitrate ion

Iron(II) ion Sulphate ion

Iron (III) ion Ammonia

Lead(II) ion Carbon dioxide

Zinc ion Chlorine

Lithium ion Hydrogen

Beryllium ion Oxygen

Sodium ion Sulphur dioxide

Magnesium ion Sodium oxide

Aluminum ion Potassium ion

Calcium ion Iodide ion

Name Chemical Symbol Name Chemical Symbol

Silver chloride Barium sulphate

Lead (II) Iodide Barium ion

Hydroxide ion Calcium hydroxide

Copper(II) Water
hydroxide

Sodium chloride Sodium hydroxide

Copper (II) sulphate Sulphuric acid

Magnesium Magnesium oxide

hydroxide

Sodium sulphate Ammonium

sulphate

Calcium nitrate Calcium carbonate

Calcium oxide Hydrochloric acid

Sodium carbonate