Bit4201 Mobile Computing PDF

Mount Kenya University
P.O. Box 342-01000 Thika
Email: info@mku.ac.ke
Web: www.mku.ac.ke
DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY
COURSE CODE: BIT4201

COURSE TITLE: MOBILE COMPUTING
Instructional manual for BBIT – Distance Learning

TABLE OF CONTENT
TABLE OF CONTENT ...................................................................................................................................... 2
COURSE OUTLINE .......................................................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKING ................................................................. 11
Definitions ............................................................................................................................................... 11
Network Topologies ................................................................................................................................ 16
Network Protocols .................................................................................................................................. 20
Open System Interconnection(OSI) Protocol .......................................................................................... 21
Network Operating Systems ................................................................................................................... 22
Switching Techniques ............................................................................................................................. 25
Multiplexing ............................................................................................................................................ 30
Analog and Digital Data transmission ..................................................................................................... 34
Chapter Review Questions ...................................................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER TWO: INTRODUCTION TO MOBILE COMPUTING AND WIRELESS COMMUNICATION................ 37
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 38
Definitions ............................................................................................................................................... 39
Mobile Computing Advantages............................................................................................................... 40
Limitations of mobile computing ............................................................................................................ 41
CHAPTER THREE: MOBILE COMPUTING ARCHITECTURE ............................................................................ 45
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 45
Public switched telephone network ....................................................................................................... 45
Data Communications............................................................................................................................. 49
Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) Technology ..................................................................................... 50
Specialized Mobile Radio ........................................................................................................................ 57

General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) ..................................................................................................... 58
GPRS Network Architecture ............................................................................................................... 63
Advanced Mobile Phone System ............................................................................................................ 66
Digital - Advanced Mobile Phone System (D-AMPS) .............................................................................. 68
GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) .................................................................................. 69
High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD) ............................................................................................ 87
EDGE (Enhanced Data GSM Environment) ............................................................................................. 87
CHAPTER FOUR: WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES ............................................................................................... 90
WiFi ......................................................................................................................................................... 90
WiFi Hotspots .......................................................................................................................................... 93
Building a Wireless Network ................................................................................................................... 93
WAP......................................................................................................................................................... 95
The Cellular Explosion ............................................................................................................................. 96
Wireless Markup Language..................................................................................................................... 96
Wireless Application Protocol ................................................................................................................. 97
The Evolution of Wireless Network Security .......................................................................................... 99
Wireless Mesh Networks ...................................................................................................................... 102
Wireless Mesh Technology ................................................................................................................... 104
Applications for Wireless Mesh Networks ............................................................................................ 105
Wireless Internet Cards for Laptops, Desktops and PDAs .................................................................... 111
Comparing Wireless Internet Connection Cards .................................................................................. 112
Wireless Networks ................................................................................................................................ 113
Chapter Review Questions .................................................................................................................... 114
CHAPTER FIVE: SATELLITES ....................................................................................................................... 115

Introduction to Satellites ...................................................................................................................... 115
Whose Satellite Was the First to Orbit Earth? ...................................................................................... 116
How Is a Satellite Launched into an Orbit? ........................................................................................... 117
Orbital Velocity and Altitude ................................................................................................................ 118
What Is a Satellite Launch Window? .................................................................................................... 120
How Are Satellite Orbits Predicted? ..................................................................................................... 123
Satellite Altitudes .................................................................................................................................. 123
80 to 1,200 miles -- Asynchronous Orbits ........................................................................................ 123
3,000 to 6,000 miles -- Asynchronous Orbits ................................................................................... 124
6,000 to 12,000 miles - Asynchronous Orbits................................................................................... 124
22,223 Miles - Geostationary Orbits ................................................................................................. 126
What Is AMSAT?.................................................................................................................................... 127
Satellite Internet ................................................................................................................................... 128
Global Positioning System (GPS) ........................................................................................................... 130
CHAPTER SIX: VOICE OVER INTERNET PROTOCOL (VoIP) ......................................................................... 137
Introduction to VoIP.............................................................................................................................. 137
Using VoIP ............................................................................................................................................. 138
Circuit Switching ................................................................................................................................... 140
Packet Switching ................................................................................................................................... 141
Advantages of Using VoIP ..................................................................................................................... 142
Disadvantages of Using VoIP................................................................................................................. 144
CHAPTER SEVEN: BLUETOOTH .................................................................................................................. 147
Introduction to bluetooth ..................................................................................................................... 147

How Bluetooth Creates a Connection................................................................................................... 148
Why is it called Bluetooth? ................................................................................................................... 149
How Bluetooth Operates ...................................................................................................................... 149
Bluetooth Piconets................................................................................................................................ 151
CHAPTER EIGHT: SAMPLE PAPERS ............................................................................................................ 154

COURSE OUTLINE
BIT4201: Mobile Computing
Contact hours 42
Prerequisite: BIT 2203 Introduction to Data Communication and Computer Networks
Purpose: To describe the development of wireless and mobile tools techniques and technologies.
To develop applications that exploits the interface between information and communication
technologies.
Objectives: By the end of the course unit a learner shall be:

 Conversant with computer networking technologies
 Describe wireless and mobile communications.
 Explain the foundations of wireless and mobile technologies.
 Conversant with wireless and mobile application protocols.
 Explain cellular telephony
 Be aware of paging systems.
Teaching methodology
Lectures, tutorials and laboratory exercises
Assessment
CAT’s 30%, End of Semester exam 70%
Required text books
Rogers G.S & Edwards J. S, Wireless technology, Prentice Hall (ISBN 0-13-09486)
Martin J. (2001) Telecommunications and the computer, Prentice Hall International

Course Outline
ONE: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKING
 Definitions
 Network Topologies
 Network Protocols
 Open System Interconnection(OSI) Protocol
 Network Operating Systems
 Switching Techniques
 Multiplexing
 Analog and Digital Data transmission
 TWO: INTRODUCTION TO MOBILE COMPUTING AND WIRELESS

COMMUNICATION
 Introduction
 Definitions
 Mobile Computing Advantages
 Limitations of mobile computing
THREE: MOBILE COMPUTING ARCHITECTURE
 Introduction
 Public switched telephone network
 Data Communications
 Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) Technology

 Specialized Mobile Radio
 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
 GPRS Network Architecture
 Advanced Mobile Phone System
 Digital - Advanced Mobile Phone System (D-AMPS)
 GSM (Global System for Mobile communication)
 High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD)
 EDGE (Enhanced Data GSM Environment)
FOUR: WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES
 WiFi
 WiFi Hotspots
 Building a Wireless Network
 WAP
 The Cellular Explosion
 Wireless Markup Language
 Wireless Application Protocol
 The Evolution of Wireless Network Security
 Wireless Mesh Networks
 Wireless Mesh Technology
 Applications for Wireless Mesh Networks
 Wireless Internet Cards for Laptops, Desktops and PDAs

 Comparing Wireless Internet Connection Cards
 Wireless Networks
FIVE: SATELLITES
 Introduction to Satellites
 Whose Satellite Was the First to Orbit Earth?
 How Is a Satellite Launched into an Orbit?
 Orbital Velocity and Altitude
 What Is a Satellite Launch Window?
 How Are Satellite Orbits Predicted?
 Satellite Altitudes
 80 to 1,200 miles -- Asynchronous Orbits
 3,000 to 6,000 miles -- Asynchronous Orbits
 6,000 to 12,000 miles - Asynchronous Orbits
 22,223 Miles - Geostationary Orbits
 What Is AMSAT?
 Satellite Internet
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
SIX: VOICE OVER INTERNET PROTOCOL (VoIP)
 Introduction to VoIP
 Using VoIP
 Circuit Switching
 Packet Switching
 Advantages of Using VoIP
 Disadvantages of Using VoIP
SEVEN: BLUETOOTH
 Introduction to bluetooth
 How Bluetooth Creates a Connection
 Why is it called Bluetooth?
 How Bluetooth Operates
 Bluetooth Piconets
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
NETWORKING
Learning Objectives:
By the end of this chapter the learner shall be able to;

i. Understand the overview of computer networks
ii. Understand network topologies
Definitions
Network - A group of computers connected together in a way that allows information to be
exchanged between the computers.
Node - Anything that is connected to the network. While a node is typically a computer, it can
also be devices such as:
– Mainframes, minicomputers, supercomputers
– Workstations
– Printers, disk servers, robots
– X-terminals
– Gateways, switches, routers, bridges
– Cellular phone, Pager.
– Refrigerator, Television, Video Tape Recorder
Segment - Any portion of a network that is separated, by a switch, bridge or router, from other
parts of the network.
Backbone - The main cabling of a network that all of the segments connect to. Typically, the
backbone is capable of carrying more information than the individual segments. For example,
each segment may have a transfer rate of 10 Mbps (megabits per second: 1 million bits a
second), while the backbone may operate at 100 Mbps.
Topology - The way that each node is physically connected to the network.
Network Types (classification based on Network size)
LAN - Local Area Network - A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance.
A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes
one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN
will span a group of nearby buildings.
Metropolitan Area Network - a network spanning a physical area larger than a LAN but
smaller than a WAN, such as a city. A MAN is typically owned an operated by a single entity
such as a government body or large corporation.
WAN - Wide Area Network - As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The
Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth. A WAN is a geographically-dispersed
collection of LANs. A network device called a router connects LANs to a WAN.
Basic Components of Network
The most common components of a network are:
Terminal
Over the years, the data terminal market has increased substantially and there are now literally
hundreds of manufactures and many different kinds if terminal. However, the fact is that all of
these terminals have been designed primarily to input and display information in some form or
another. Therefore, even though specific characteristics such as screen size and keyboard layout
may differ, they can generally be categorized into three simple groups.
1. Dumb Terminals
Dumb terminals are those which have limited functions and are driven with information from a
host computer. Normally, they consist of a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) display screen with a full
alphanumeric keyboard and can be connected directly to a computer system (host computer)
through some sort of communications interface. In most cases, data is transmitted directly
through the communication interface as it is typed on the keyboard.
2. Intelligent Terminals
The category of intelligent or programmable terminals is probably the largest and widest ranging
group. Unlike dumb terminals, intelligent terminals are equipped with a processor that can
support an instruction set to direct the basic functions of the terminal. Like any other type of
computer that has a processor, these terminals normally have additional memory and storage
devices such as disc drives.
Intelligent terminal are, therefore, capable of stand-alone processing and can support a variety of
software applications which, in turn, enable them to support a variety of communications
interfaces through the use of emulation program. This is also means that, unlike dumb terminals,
intelligent terminals are able to use addresses and sophisticated access method to transmit and
receive messages.
3. Graphic Terminals
Graphic terminals are display devices that provide a means not only for displaying data in
graphical form, but also for manipulating and modifying the data presented. Generally, graphic
terminal keyboards have a number of specific or programmable function keys in addition to the
full alphanumeric keys of a normal keyboard and the resolution of the display screen is normally
a lot higher to enable more detailed displays
Workstation
A workstation is a client. More specifically, it is a standalone computer equipped with it‘s own
processor, system and application software. It can perform its functions independent of the
network. To expand its resources and knowledge, it may get connected to a network.
Server
Network plays one of two basic roles at any given moment, the computer is either acting s a
client or as a server. A server is a computer that shares its
Resources across the network, and a client are one that accesses shared resources. Depending on
the size and requirements of the network, servers can be classified as below:
1. File Server
A file server allows user to share files. It several LAN users need access to an application such as
word processing, only one copy of the application software needs to reside on a file server. This
copy can be shared among all the users. When a user requests to start an application, that
application is downloaded into the users workstation.
Consider the saving in disk space in a company having 100 users for application package that
requires 10 MB of disk storage. Storage on the file server requires only 10 MB of disk space for
all users. Storing the same application on 100 users‘ local disk drives will require 1,000 MB of
disk space.
This is only an example of one application. Same logic can be applied when hundreds of
different application programs needed.
2. Database Server
The database server was developed to solve the problem of passing an entire file over the
medium. The most common example of a database server is the SQL server. Structured Query
Language (SQL) is standard database definition, access, and update language for relational
database. An SQL server accepts a database request, accesses all necessary records locally, and
then sends only the result back to the requester (not the whole database).
3. Print Server
Print server allows anyone on the network to have access to a printing service.
4. Disk Server
It is server with large storage. A portion of storage is given to each user to store their files/data. It
is very useful in university where each student is given a user account with password and some
storage space in disk server. Once the student completes the education the same space can be
assigned to new student.
5. Dedicated Vs Non-Dedicated Server
Many networks will let their user run standard programs while their computer is
simultaneously functioning as a server to others. A computer that both runs standard programs
and lets other user see its data at the same time is said to be ―non-dedicated server‖. Non-
dedicated servers can be clever way of setting up a small LAN without having to buy any extra
system. Dedicated server are specially assigned for network management and provided no
general-purpose services.
Network Interface Card
Attaching a computer to a network requires a physical interface between computer and the
networking medium. For PCs, this interface resides in a special network interface card (NIC),
also known as network adapter or a network card that plugs into an adapter slot inside the
computer‘s case. Laptops and other computers may include built-in interface or use special
modular interface such as PC card interface, to accommodate a network adapter of some kind.
For any computer, a NIC performs following crucial tasks:
1. It establishes and manages the computer‘s network connection.
2. it translates digital data( of source computer) into signals (appropriate for the networking
medium) for outgoing messages, and translates from signals into digital computer data for
incoming messages.
3. Converts serial incoming data via cable into parallel data to for CPU, and vice versa.
4. It has some memory, which acts as a holding tank or buffer. It buffers the data to control the
data flow.
Other Network Devices
Network Functions OSI Model
Component
Modem Puts a message (baseband signal) on a Physical (Layer 1)
carrier for efficient transmission; takes
the baseband signal from the carrier.
Repeater Receives signal, amplifies it, and then Physical (Layer 1)
(Regenerator) retransmits it.
Bridge Connects networks with different Layer 2 Data Link (Layer 2)
protocols; divides a network into several
segments to filter traffic.
Hub Connects computers in a network; Physical (Layer 1)
receives a packet from a sending
computer and transmits it to all other
computers.
Switch Connects computers in a network; Data Link (Layer 2)
receives a packet from a sending
computer and transmits it only to its
destination.
Access Point Connects computers in a wireless Data Link (Layer 2)
network; connects the wireless network
to wired networks; connects it to the
Internet.
Router Forwards a packet to its destination by Network (Layer 3)
examining the packet destination network
address.
Residential Gateway Connects a home network to the Internet; Network (Layer 3)
hides all computers in the home network
from the Internet.
Gateway Connects two totally different networks; All layers
translates one signaling/protocol into
another.
Network Topologies
A network topology can be physical or logical.
Physical Topology is the actual layout of a network and its connections. Logical Topology is the
way in which data accesses the medium and transmits packets. There are several network
topologies:
Physical Bus Topology
Each node is daisy-chained (connected one right after the other) along the same backbone.
Information sent from a node travels along the backbone until it reaches its destination node.
Each end of a bus network must be terminated with a resistor to keep the packets from getting
lost.
Physical Ring Topology
Similar to a bus network, rings have nodes daisy chained, but the end of the network in a ring
topology comes back around to the first node, creating a complete circuit. Each node takes a turn
sending and receiving information through the use of a token. The token along with any data is
sent from the first node to the second node which extracts the data addressed to it and adds any
data it wishes to send. Then second node passes the token and data to the third node, etc. until it
comes back around to the first node again. Only the node with the token is allowed to send data.
All other nodes must wait for the token to come to them.
Physical Star Topology
In a star network, each node is connected to a central device called a hub. The hub takes a signal
that comes from any node and passes it along to all the other nodes in the network. A hub does
not perform any type of filtering or routing of the data. A hub is a junction that joins all the
different nodes together.
Logical Topologies
There are three logical topologies (bus, ring, and switching) which are usually implemented as a
physical star.
Logical Bus Topology
Modern Ethernet networks are Star Topologies (physically) but logically they are bus topologies.
The Hub is at the centre, and defines a Star Topology. In any network, computers communicate
by sending information across the media as a series of signals. In a logical bus topology, the
signals travel along the length of the cable in all directions until they weaken enough so as not to
be detectable or until they encounter a device that absorbs them. This traveling across the
medium is called signal propagation
When a computer has data to send, it addresses that data, breaks it into manageable chunks, and
sends it across the network as electronic signals
 All computers on a logical bus receive them
 Only the destination computer accepts the data
 All users must share the available amount of transmission time, implying network
performance is reduced
 Collisions are bound to occur since all nodes are sharing same bus.
Logical Ring Topology

Data in a logical ring topology travels from one computer to the next computer until the data
reaches its destination. Token passing is one method for sending data around a ring
Token is a small packet which passes around the ring to each computer in turn.
If a computer (sender) has packets to send, it modifies the token, adds address and data, and
sends it around the ring. The receiver returns an acknowledgement packet to the sender.
Upon receiving the acknowledgement packet, the sender releases the tokens and sends it around
the ring for another sender to use.
Logical ring can be implemented on a physical star. Modern logical ring topologies use “smart
hubs” that recognize a computer‘s failure and remove the computer from the ring automatically.
One advantage of the ring topology lies in its capability to share network resources fairly.
Switching
A switch takes a signal coming from a device connected and builds a circuit on the fly to
forward the signal to the intended destination computer Superior to other logical topologies
because unlike bus and ring, multiple computers can communicate simultaneously without
affecting each other. Switching is the dominant logical topology in LAN design.
Transmission Media
This refers to the mode in which messages are delivered from one node to another over the
network. There are several types of media:
Guided Transmission Media - uses a conductor cable to transmit data e.g. twisted
pair(shielded/unshielded), coaxial cable.
Twisted pair is two insulated copper wires that are twisted around each other to minimize
interference and noise from other wires. Based on the presence of individual shield and overall
(outer) shield, there are three types of twisted pair, i.e. UTP(unshielded twisted pair),
STP(shielded twisted pair), and ScTP(Screened twisted pair). Individual shield encloses a single
twisted pair, while outer shield encloses all twisted pairs in a cable. A shield is a protective
sheath that is made from conductive material (metal) and functions to protect the twisted pair
from external interference. An insulator is made from non-conductive material, such as plastic.
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) is a cable containing several twisted pairs that is only insulated
but not shielded. UTP is the most widely used cable in telephone and computer networks because
it is relatively cheaper than other cables and performs well in normal electrical environment such
as inside an office or a house.
Coaxial cable contains a solid or stranded wire in the core that is insulated with a dielectric layer,
then protected with a solid or braided metallic shield, and covered with an outer insulator.
Electromagnetic wave propagation in a coaxial cable is confined within the space between the
core and the outer conductors. The structure of a coaxial cable makes it less susceptible to
interference, noise, and crosstalk than the twisted pair cable.
Glass or plastic - Uses optical technology to transmit data using light waves e.g. fiber optics
Fiber-optic cable or optical fiber provides a medium for signals using light rather than electricity.
Light waves are immune to electromagnetic interference and crosstalk. Optical fiber can be used
for much longer distances before the signal must be amplified. Data transmission using optical
fiber is many times faster than with electrical methods.
Wireless transmission - Uses air interface to transmit e.g. microwave, satellite. Microwave links
are widely used to provide communication links when it is impractical or too expensive to install
physical transmission media. Two properties of microwave transmission place restrictions on its
use. First, microwaves travel in a straight line and will not follow the earth’s curvature. Second,
atmospheric conditions and solid objects interfere with microwaves. For example, they cannot
travel through buildings.
Satellite transmission is microwave transmission in which one of the stations is a satellite
orbiting the earth. A microwave beam is transmitted to the satellite from the ground. This beam
is received and retransmitted (relayed) to the predetermined destination. Receiver and transmitter
in satellites are known as transponder. The optimum frequency range for satellite transmission is
in the range 1 to 10 GHz. Below 1 GHz, there is significant noise from natural sources,
atmospheric noise, and noise from electronic devices. Above 10 GHz, the signal is attenuated by
atmospheric absorption.
Network Protocols
Communication between devices on a network is governed by a set of rules called protocols.
There are two types of network protocols, TCP/IP and OSI.
TCP/IP Protocol
TCP/IP is responsible for a wide range of activity: it interfaces with hardware, route data to
appropriate nodes, provides error control, and much more. The developers of TCP/IP designed a
modular protocol stack- meaning that the TCP/IP system was divided into separate components
or layers. But why use a modular design? Not only does it aid in the education process, but it
also lets manufacturers easily adapt to specific hardware and operating system needs.
For example- if we had a token ring network and an extended star network, we surely wouldn‘t
want to create entirely different network software builds for each one. Instead, we can just edit
the network layer, called the Network Access Layer, to allow compatibility. Not only does this
benefit manufacturers, but it greatly aids networking students in education. The TCP/IP suite is
divided into four layers.
Network Access Layer – The Network Access Layer is fairly self explanatory- it interfaces with
the physical network. It formats data and addresses data for subnets, based on physical hardware
addresses. More importantly, it provides error control for data delivered on the physical network.
Internet Layer – The Internet Layer provides logical addressing. More specifically, the internet
layer relates physical addresses from the network access layer to logical addresses. This can be
an IP address, for instance. This is vital for passing along information to subnets that aren‘t on
the same network as other parts of the network. This layer also provides routing that may reduce
traffic, and supports delivery across an internetwork. (An internetwork is simply a greater
network of LANs, perhaps a large company or organization.)
Transport Layer – The Transport Layer provides flow control, error control, and serves as an
interface for network applications. An example of the transport layer would be Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) - a protocol suite that is connection-oriented. We may also use
UDP(User Datagram Protocol)- a connectionless means of transporting data.
Application Layer – Lastly, we have the Application Layer. We use this layer for
troubleshooting, file transfer, internet activities, and a slew of other activities. This layer interacts
with many types of applications, such as a database manager, email program, or Telnet.
Open System Interconnection(OSI) Protocol

The International Organization of Standardization (ISO) defined procedures for computer
communications which was called Open System Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model or OSI
Model for short. The OSI Model describes how data flows from one computer to another
computer in a network.
The OSI Model
The Open System Interconnection Model, more commonly known as simply OSI, is another
model that can help break the TCP/IP suite into modules. Technically speaking, it is exactly the
same as the TCP/IP model, except that it has more layers. This is currently being pushed by
Cisco since it aids in learning the TCP/IP stack in an easier manner.
 Physical Layer – They Physical Layer converts data into streams of electric or analog
pulses- commonly referred to as “1‘s and 0‘s.” Data is broke down into simple electric
pulses, and rebuilt at the receiving end.
 Data Link Layer – The Data Link layer provides an interface with the network adapter,
and can also perform basic error checking. It also maintains logical links for subnets, so
that subnets can communicate with other parts of the network without problem.
 Network Layer – Much like the Transport Layer of the TCP/IP model, the Network
Layer simply supports logical addressing and routing. The IP protocol operates on the
Network Layer.
 Transport Layer – Since we left out the error and flow control in the Network Layer, we
introduce it into the Transport Layer. The Transport Layer is responsible for keeping a
reliable end-to-end connection for the network.
 Session Layer – The Session Layer establishes sessions between applications on a
network. This may be useful for network monitoring, using a login system, and reporting.
The Session Layer is actually not used a great deal over networks, although it does still
serve good use in streaming video and audio, or web conferencing.
 Presentation Layer – The Presentation Layer translates data into a standard format,
while also being able to provide encryption and data compression. Encryption or data
compression does not have to be done at the Presentation Layer, although it is commonly
performed in this layer.
 Application Layer – The Application Layer provides a network interface for
applications and supports network applications. This is where many protocols such as
FTP, SMTP, POP3, and many others operate. Telnet can be used at this layer to send a
ping request- if it is successful, it means that each layer of the OSI model should be
functioning properly.
Network Operating Systems

Any modern Operating System contains built-in software designed to simplify networking of a
computer. Typical O/S software includes an implementation of TCP/IP protocol stack and
related utility programs like ping and traceroute(is a computer network diagnostic tool for
displaying the route (path) and measuring transit delays of packets across an Internet Protocol
(IP) network.). This includes the necessary device drivers and other software to automatically
enable a device's Ethernet interface. Mobile devices also normally provide the programs needed
to enable Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or other wireless connectivity.
The early versions of Microsoft Windows did not provide any computer networking support.
Microsoft added basic networking capability into its operating system starting with Windows 95
and Windows for Workgroups. Microsoft also introduced its Internet Connection Sharing (ICS)
feature in Windows 98 Second Edition (Win98 SE). Contrast that with Unix, which was
designed from the beginning with networking capability. Nearly any consumer O/S today
qualifies as a network operating system due to the popularity of the Internet.
Network operating systems (NOSs) distribute their functions over a number of networked
computers they add functions that allow access to shared resources by a number of users
concurrently. Client systems contain specialized software that allows them to request shared
resources that are controlled by server systems responding to a client request. The NOS enhances
the reach of the client PC by making remote services available as extensions of the local native
operating system. NOSs also support multiple user accounts at the same time and enables
concurrent access to shared resources by multiple clients. A NOS server is a multitasking system.
Several clients in a network
Choosing a NOS
The main features to consider when selecting a NOS include:
 Performance
 Management and monitoring tools
 Security
 Scalability
 Robustness/fault tolerance
Types
There are two popular competing NOS families. Windows based and Unix based. The former is
proprietary whereas the latter is open source.
Windows NOS
Windows server-based networks that run Windows NT Server or Windows 2000 Server are
based on the concept of the domain. A domain is a group of computers and users that serves a
boundary of administrative authority. Windows NT domains and Windows 2000 domains,
although similar in function, interact with one another differently. In Windows NT 4.0, the
Domain Structure of Windows NT was entirely different from the Domain Structure in Windows
2000.
Instead of Active Directory, Windows NT provides an administrative tool called the User
Manager for Domains. It is accessed from the domain controller and is used to create, manage,
and remove domain user accounts. Each NT domain requires one Primary Domain Controller
(PDC). A domain can also have one or more Backup Domain Controllers (BDCs).
Windows 2000 and 2003 Family of Operating Systems includes:
– Windows 2000 Professional
– Windows 2000 Server
– Windows 2000 Advanced Server
Unix/Linux
Linux is an operating system similar to UNIX. It runs on many different computers and was first
released in 1991. Linux is portable, which means versions can be found running on name brand
or clone PCs. It offers many features adopted from other versions of UNIX.
The UNIX NOS was developed in 1969, and it has evolved into many varieties.
The source code is opened, that is, available at no cost to anyone who wants to modify it. It is
written in C programming language so businesses, academic institutions, and even individuals
can develop their own versions. There are hundreds of different versions of UNIX. Linux is
sometimes referred to as "UNIX Lite", and it is designed to run on Intel-compatible PCs. Linux
brings the advantages of UNIX to home and small business computers.
The following are a few of the most popular types:
• Red Hat Linux
• Linux Mandrake
• Caldera eDesktop and eServer
• Debian GNU/Linux
• Corel Linux
• Turbo Linux
• Ubuntu
Other Software and Programs
A popular use of a Linux system is a web server. Web server software uses Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) to deliver files to users that request them, using a web browser from their
workstation. A Mail Server is a system that is configured with the proper programs and services
that enable handling the exchange of e-mail sent from one client to another.
Switching Techniques
The main objective of networking is to connect all the devices so that resources and information
can be shared efficiently. Whenever we have multiple devices, we have problem of connecting
them to make one-to-one connection possible. One solution is to install a point to point link
between each pair of devices such as in mesh topology or between a central device and every
other device as in star topology. These methods, however, are impractical and wasteful when
applied to very large network. The number and length of the links require too many
infrastructures to be cost efficient; and majority of those links would be idle most of the time.
A better solution is to uses switching. A switch network consists of a series of inter-linked nodes,
called switches. Switched are hardware and/or software capable of creating temporary
connection between two or more devices linked to switch but not to each other.
Traditionally, three methods of switching have been important:
 Circuit switching
 Packet switching and
 Message switching
Circuit Switching
Communication via circuit switching implies that there is a dedicated communication path
between two stations. The path is a connected sequence of links between network nodes. On
each physical link, a channel is dedicated to the connection. A common example of circuit
switching is the telephone network..
Communication via circuit switching involves three phases:
Circuit Switching Network
1. Circuit Establishment
Before any signals can be transmitted, an end-to-end (station to station) circuit must be
established. For example, station A wants to communicate with station E. station A sends a
request to node 4 requesting a connection to station E. typically, the link from A to 4 is a
dedicated line, so that part of connection already exists. On the basis of routing information and
measures availability and perhaps cost, lets assume that node 4,5, and 6 are used to complete the
connection. In completing the connection, a test is made to determine if station E is busy or is
prepared to accept the connection.
2. Information Transfer
Information now can transmit from A through the network to E the transmission may be analog
voice, or binary data. Generally the connection is full duplex, and signals may be transmitted in
both direction simultaneously.
3. Circuit Disconnection
One the transmission is completed, the connection is terminated, usually by the action of one of
the two station. Signals must be propagated to the nodes 4,5, and 6 to deallocate the dedicated
resources.
Circuit switching can be rather inefficient. Channel capacity is dedicated for the duration of a
connection, even if no data are being transferred. The connection provides for transmission at a
constant data rate. Thus, each of the devices that are connected must transmit and receive at the
same data rate as the other.
Packet Switching
In a packet switching data are transmitted in short packets. A typical packet length is 1000 byte.
If a source has longer message to send, the message is broken up into a series of packets. Each
packet contains a portion (or the entire short message) of the user‘s data plus some control
information. These packets
Packet Switching Networks

Above figure illustrate the basic operation. A transmitting computer or other device sends a
message as a sequence of packets. Each packet includes control information including the
destination station. The packets are initially sent to the node to which the sending station
attaches. As each packet arrives at these nodes, the node stores the packet briefly, and determines
the next available link. When the link is available, the packet is transmitted to the next node. The
entire packet eventually delivered to the intended node.
There are two popular approaches to packet switching: datagram and virtual circuit.
a) Datagram Approach
In the datagram approach to packet switching, each packet is treated independently from all
others and each packet can be sent via any available path, with no reference to packet that have
gone before. In the datagram approach packets, with the same destination address, do not all
follow the same route, and they may arrive out of sequence at the exit point.
Virtual Switching Network
b) Virtual Circuit
In this approach, a preplanned route is established before any packets are sent. Once the route is
established, all the packets between a pair of communicating parties follow this same route
through the network. Each packet now contains a virtual circuit identifier as well as the data.
Each node on the pre-established route knows where to direct such packet. No routing decisions
are required. At any time, each station can have more than one virtual circuit to any other station
and can have virtual circuits to more than one station.
Message Switching
The descriptive term store and forward best know message switching. In this mechanism, a
anode (usually a special computer with number of disks) receives a message, stores it until the
appropriate route is free, then send it along. Note that in message switching the messages are
stored and relayed from the secondary storage (disk), while in packet switching the packets are
stored and forward from primary storage (RAM).
The primary uses of message switching have been to provide high-level network service (e.g.
delayed delivery, broadcast) for unintelligent devices. Since such devices have been replaced,
message switching has virtually disappeared. Also delays inherent in the process, as well as the
requirement for large capacity storage media at each node, make it unpopular for direct
communication.
Multiplexing
Multiplexing is the process of combining separate signal channels into one composite
stream. It is carried out to increase the utilization of transmission channel. In a multiplexed
system, n devices share the capacity of one link. In the following figure, four devices on the
left direct their transmission stream to a multiplexer (MUX) which combines them into a
single stream (many to one). At the receiving end, the stream is fed into a demultiplexer
(DEMX), which separates the stream back into its component transmissions (one to many)
and directs them to their receiving devices.
Frequency Division Multiplexing

FDM is an analogue technique that works by dividing slicing the total bandwidth of a
media into a number of narrow bandwidth units known as channels.
These channels are separated by further narrower slices, known as guard bands, to prevent
inter-channel interface. This actual waste of bandwidth is offset by the lower costs of the
filter (frequency selection device). The closer the channels are together (the narrower the
guard bands (the more critical and expensive the channel filter become.
Bellow figure gives a conceptual view of FDM. In this illustration, the transmission path is
divided into three parts (based on different frequencies), each representing a channel to
carry one transmission.
As an analogy, imagine a point where three separate narrow roads merge to form a three-
lane highway. Each of the three roads corresponds to a lane of the highway. Each car
merging into the highway from one of the road still has its own lane and can travel without
interfering with cars in other lane.
Example: Cable Television

A familiar application of FDM is cable television. The coaxial cable used in a cable
television system has a bandwidth of approximately 500 MHz. An individual television
channel requires about 6 MHz of bandwidth for transmission. The coaxial cable, therefore,
can carry many multiplexed channels (theoretically 83 channels, but actually fewer to allow
for guard band). A demultiplexer at your television allows you to select which of those
channels you wish to receive.
Time Division Multiplexing

In this method, multiplexer allocates the same time slot to each device at all time, whether
or not a device has anything to transmit. IF there are n input line than there must be n time
slots in the frame (time slots are grouped into frames). Time slot (lets say T), for example,
is assigned to device (lets say D) alone and can not be used by any other device. Each time
its allocated time slot comes in (in a round robin fashion), Device D has the opportunity to
send a portion of its data for time slot T. If the device D is unable to transmit or does not
have data to send, its time slot remains empty and no other device can use it, another words
it is wasted.
Asynchronous TDM(Statistical TDM)

Asynchronous TDM provide better utilization of media. Like synchronous TDM,
asynchronous TDM allows a number of lower speed input lines to be multiplexed to a
single higher speed line. Unlike synchronous TDM, however, in asynchronous TDM the
total speed of input line can be greater than the capacity of the media. In asynchronous
TDM the number of slots in the frame are less than numbers of input lines. Slots are not
preassigned, each slot is available to any of the attached input lines that has data to send.
The multiplexer scans the input line, accepts the portion of data until a frame is filed, and
then sends the frame across the link. Since the slots are not pre-assigned for each input line,
line address must be added along with the data to send.
Analog and Digital Data transmission
Analog Signals
A continuously varying electromagnetic wave that may be propagated over a variety of media,
depending on frequency. Examples of media:
 Copper wire media (twisted pair and coaxial cable)
 Fiber optic cable
 Atmosphere or space propagation
Analog signals can propagate analog and digital data

Digital Signals
A sequence of voltage pulses that may be transmitted over a copper wire medium, generally
cheaper than analog signaling, less susceptible to noise interference, Suffer more from
attenuation. Digital signals can propagate analog and digital data
Reasons for Choosing Data and Signal Combinations
Digital data, digital signal - Equipment for encoding is less expensive than digital-to-analog
equipment
Analog data, digital signal - Conversion permits use of modern digital transmission and
switching equipment
Digital data, analog signal - Some transmission media will only propagate analog signals,
Examples include optical fiber and satellite
Analog data, analog signal - Analog data easily converted to analog signal
Analog Transmission
Transmit analog signals without regard to content , Attenuation limits length of transmission
link, Cascaded amplifiers boost signal’s energy for longer distances but cause distortion and
Analog data can tolerate distortion, Introduces errors in digital data
Digital Transmission
Concerned with the content of the signal, Attenuation endangers integrity of data, Digital Signal,
Repeaters achieve greater distance, Repeaters recover the signal and retransmit, Analog signal
carrying digital data, Retransmission device recovers the digital data from analog signal and
Generates new, clean analog signal
Chapter Review Questions

1. Discuss analogue and digital signals
2. Discuss different multiplexing techniques
References
1. Rogers G.S & Edwards J. S, Wireless technology, Prentice Hall (ISBN 0-13-09486)
2. Martin J. (2001) Telecommunications and the computer, Prentice Hall International

CHAPTER TWO: INTRODUCTION TO MOBILE
COMPUTING AND WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

i. Understanding the overview of wireless technologies
ii. Understanding the overview of Mobile Computing
Introduction
Mobile computing is human–computer interaction by which a computer is expected to be
transported during normal usage. Mobile computing involves mobile communication, mobile
hardware, and mobile software. Communication issues include ad-hoc and infrastructure
networks as well as communication properties, protocols, data formats and concrete
technologies. Hardware includes mobile devices or device components. Mobile software deals
with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications.
Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of
electrical conductors or wires.
The term "Wireless" came into public use to refer to a radio receiver or transceiver (a dual
purpose receiver and transmitter device),today the term is used to describe modern wireless
connections such as in cellular networks and wireless broadband Internet. It is also used in a
general sense to refer to any type of operation that is implemented without the use of wires, such
as "wireless remote control", "wireless energy transfer", etc. regardless of the specific technology
(e.g., radio, infrared, ultrasonic, etc.) that is used to accomplish the operation.
Wireless communications is generally considered to be a branch of telecommunications.

Wireless communications encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable two way
radios, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAsWireless computer mice, keyboards
and headsets, satellite television and cordless telephones.
The term "wireless" has become a generic and all-encompassing word used to describe
communications in which electromagnetic waves or RF carry a signal over part or the entire
communication path. Common examples of wireless equipment in use today include:
 Global Positioning System (GPS)

 Cordless Computer Peripherals
 Cordless Telephone Sets
 Satellite Television
 Wireless Gaming
The term "wireless" should not be confused with the term "cordless", which is generally used to
refer to powered electrical or electronic devices that are able to operate from a portable power
source (e.g., a battery pack) without any cable or cord to limit the mobility of the cordless device
through a connection to the mains power supply.
Wireless communication can be via;
 Radio frequency
 Microwave (i.e. long-range and line-of-sight via antennas or short range
communications)
 GSM
 GPRS
 3G
 GPS
 ZigBee
Definitions
Mobile computing is "taking a computer and all necessary files and software out into the field."
"Mobile computing: being able to use a computing device even when being mobile and therefore
changing location. Portability is one aspect of mobile computing."
"Mobile computing is the ability to use computing capability without a pre-defined location
and/or connection to a network to publish and/or subscribe to information ." Uwe Vieille,
ACM.org
Mobile Computing is a variety of wireless devices that has the mobility to allow people to
connect to the internet, providing wireless transmission to access data and information from
where ever location they may be.
Mobile Computing is a modified and new way of interacting with the computer device and to
facilitate the other computing capabilities being present at different mobile locations.
Wireless telecommunications is the transfer of information between two or more points that are
not physically connected. Distances can be short, such as a few metres for television remote
control, or as far as thousands or even millions of kilometres for deep-space radio
communications. It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable two-way radios,
cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless networking. Other examples
of wireless technology include GPS units, Garage door openers or garage doors, wireless
computer mice, keyboards and Headset (audio), headphones, radio receivers, satellite television,
broadcast television and cordless telephones.
Mobile Computing Advantages

The following are the advantages of mobile computing: -
 Location Flexibility: You no longer need to stay plugged in (literally!) to a specific

location for performing computing activities. Mobile computing allows you
unprecedented flexibility to move about and perform computing activities at the same
time! This is, indeed, the chief among all other benefits of portable computing. Traveling
abroad for work and missing family and friends? Mobile computing enables you to
connect with near and dear ones while you're in transit, thanks to evolution of the mobile
technology!
 Saves Time: Doesn't it get boring when you're on a 12 hour-long flight across the globe?
Don't you feel you could use some of these 12 hours to get some office work done?
Mobile computing technology is just the thing to use such transit time more effectively! It
also allows to instantly connect with your family anywhere and anytime. Missing your
parents during the college tour? Not any more! You can connect with them over Internet
using portable computing devices such as Internet phones and share the fun!
 Enhanced Productivity: Increased work flexibility is directly proportionate to enhanced
work productivity - the fact that you can do your work from any place you want, without
waiting for, and making efforts to, get access to computing facility translates into people
being able to do more work with greater flexibility. This is the reason why most
companies these days offer home-computing access to employees. Suppose a national
emergency is declared or any natural calamity occurs (or any other reason) due to which
offices stay closed, work can still go on as people are no longer dependent upon office
computing systems to get their work done!
 Ease of Research: Mobile computing and the flexibility offered by it enable students as
well as professionals to conduct in-depth research on just about any topic or subject even
when on the go!
 Entertainment: Nowadays, with the advent and advance of mobile communication
technology, no time is wasted time anymore! Getting bored is so last-decade now what
with zillions of entertainment options available on mobile communication and computing
devices these days - games, movies, music, videos, you name it!
 Improved decision making: Mobile Computing lets you conduct business at the point of
activity. The ability to collect, access and evaluate critical business information quickly
and accurately means better decision making that can have a far-reaching effect on your
company's ability to compete successfully
 Improved customer relations: The success of a business can often be measured by its
ability to satisfy customers. Mobile computers gives your field worker the ability to
answer customer questions, check order status and provide other services anytime their
customers need them from wherever they happen to be.
Limitations of mobile computing

The following are the limitations of mobile computing: -
 Insufficient bandwidth: Mobile Internet access is generally slower than direct cable
connections, using technologies such as GPRS and EDGE, and more recently HSDPA
and HSUPA 3G networks. These networks are usually available within range of
commercial cell phone towers. Higher speed wireless LANs are inexpensive but have
very limited range.
 Security standards: When working mobile, one is dependent on public networks,
requiring careful use of VPN. Security is a major concern while concerning the mobile
computing standards on the fleet. One can easily attack the VPN through a huge number
of networks interconnected through the line.
 Power consumption: When a power outlet or portable generator is not available, mobile
computers must rely entirely on battery power. Combined with the compact size of many
mobile devices, this often means unusually expensive batteries must be used to obtain the
necessary battery life.
 Transmission interferences: Weather, terrain, and the range from the nearest signal point
can all interfere with signal reception. Reception in tunnels, some buildings, and rural
areas is often poor.
 Potential health hazards: People who use mobile devices while driving are often
distracted from driving and are thus assumed more likely to be involved in traffic
accidents. (While this may seem obvious, there is considerable discussion about whether
banning mobile device use while driving reduces accidents or not.) Cell phones may
interfere with sensitive medical devices. Questions concerning mobile phone radiation
and health have been raised.
 Human interface with device: Screens and keyboards tend to be small, which may make
them hard to use. Alternate input methods such as speech or handwriting recognition
require training.
Portable computing devices

The following is a list of mobile computing devices: -
 A portable computer is a general-purpose computer that can be easily moved from place to
place, but cannot be used while in transit, usually because it requires some "setting-up" and
an AC power source. The most famous example is the Osborne 1. Portable computers are
also called a "transportable" or a "luggable" PC.
 A tablet computer that lacks a keyboard (also known as a non-convertible tablet) is shaped
like a slate or a paper notebook. Instead a physical keyboard it has a touchscreen with some
combination of virtual keyboard, stylus and/or handwriting recognition software. Tablets
may not be best suited for applications requiring a physical keyboard for typing, but are
otherwise capable of carrying out most of the tasks of an ordinary laptop.
 A personal digital assistant (PDA) is a small, usually pocket-sized, computer with limited
functionality. It is intended to supplement and to synchronize with a desktop computer,
giving access to contacts, address book, notes, e-mail and other features.
 A PDA with a web browser is an Internet tablet, an Internet appliance in tablet form. It does
not have as much computing power as a full tablet computer and its applications suite is
limited, and it can not replace a general purpose computer. Internet tablets typically feature
an MP3 and video player, a web browser, a chat application and a picture viewer.A
 An ultra mobile PC is a full-featured, PDA-sized computer running a general-purpose
operating system.
 A smartphone has a wide range of features and installable applications.
 A carputer is installed in an automobile. It operates as a wireless computer, sound system,
GPS, and DVD player. It also contains word processing software and is bluetooth
compatible.
 A Fly Fusion Pentop Computer is a computing device the size and shape of a pen. It
functions as a writing utensil, MP3 player, language translator, digital storage device, and
calculator.
 A laptop computer is a personal computer for mobile use. A laptop utilizes most of the same
components as a desktop computer, including a display, a keyboard, a pointing device such
as a touchpad (also known as a trackpad) and/or a pointing stick, and speakers into a single
unit. A laptop is powered by mains electricity via an AC adapter, and can be used away from
an outlet using a rechargeable battery. Laptops are also sometimes called notebook
computers, notebooks or netbooks.
 Netbooks are a category of small, lightweight, legacy-free, and inexpensive laptop
computers. At their inception in late 2007 as smaller notebooks optimized for low weight and
low cost netbooks omitted certain features (e.g., the optical drive), featured smaller screens
and keyboards, and offered reduced computing power when compared to a full-sized laptop.
Over the course of their evolution, netbooks have ranged in size from below 5" screen
diagonal to 12". A typical weight is 1 kg (2–3 pounds). Often significantly less expensive
than other laptops. In the short period since their appearance, netbooks grew in size and
features, and converged with smaller, lighter notebooks and subnotebooks. By August 2009,
when comparing a Dell netbook to a Dell notebook, CNET called netbooks "nothing more
than smaller, cheaper notebooks," noting, "the specs are so similar that the average shopper
would likely be confused as to why one is better than the other," and "the only conclusion is
that there really is no distinction between the devices."However, by 2011, the increasing
popularity of tablet computers, particularly the iPad, had led to a decline in netbook sales.

i. Define Mobile Computing
ii. what are the advantages of mobile computing
References

CHAPTER THREE: MOBILE COMPUTING
ARCHITECTURE

i. Understand the cellular telephony
ii. Understand the Mobile computing architecture
Introduction
Mobile Computing : A technology that allows transmission of data, via a computer, without
having to be connected to a fixed physical link. Mobile voice communication is widely
established throughout the world and has had a very rapid increase in the number of subscribers
to the various cellular networks over the last few years. An extension of this technology is the
ability to send and receive data across these cellular networks. This is the principle of mobile
computing. Mobile data communication has become a very important and rapidly evolving
technology as it allows users to transmit data from remote locations to other remote or fixed
locations. This proves to be the solution to the biggest problem of business people on the move -
mobility.
Public switched telephone network

The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is the network of the world's public circuit-
switched telephone networks. It consists of telephone lines, fiber optic cables, microwave
transmission links, cellular networks, communications satellites, and undersea telephone cables,
all inter-connected by switching centers, thus allowing any telephone in the world to
communicate with any other. Originally a network of fixed-line analog telephone systems, the
PSTN is now almost entirely digital in its core and includes mobile as well as fixed telephones.
The technical operation of the PSTN utilizes standards created by the ITU-T. These standards
allow different networks in different countries to interconnect seamlessly. There is also a single
global address space for telephone numbers based on the E.163 and E.164 standards. The
combination of the interconnected networks and the single numbering plan make it possible for
any phone in the world to dial any other phone.
PSTN History
The first telephones had no network but were in private use, wired together in pairs. Users who
wanted to talk to different people had as many telephones as necessary for the purpose. A user
who wished to speak whistled into the transmitter until the other party heard.
Soon, however, a bell was added for signalling, and then a switch hook, and telephones took
advantage of the exchange principle already employed in telegraph networks. Each telephone
was wired to a local telephone exchange, and the exchanges were wired together with trunks.
Networks were connected in a hierarchical manner until they spanned cities, countries,
continents and oceans. This was the beginning of the PSTN, though the term was unknown for
many decades.
Automation introduced pulse dialing between the phone and the exchange, and then among
exchanges, followed by more sophisticated address signaling including multi-frequency,
culminating in the SS7 network that connected most exchanges by the end of the 20th century.
The growth of the PSTN meant that traffic engineering techniques needed to be deployed to
deliver quality of service (QoS) guarantees for the users. The work of A.K. Erlang established
the mathematical foundations of methods required to determine the capacity requirements and
configuration of equipment and the number of personnel required to deliver a specific level of
service.
In the 1970s the telecommunications industry began implementing packet switched network data
services using the X.25 protocol transported over much of the end-to-end equipment as was
already in use in the PSTN.
In the 1980s the industry began planning for digital services assuming they would follow much
the same pattern as voice services, and conceived a vision of end-to-end circuit switched
services, known as the Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network (B-ISDN). The B-ISDN
vision has been overtaken by the disruptive technology of the Internet.
At the turn of the 21st century, the oldest parts of the telephone network still use analog
technology for the last mile loop to the end user. Digital services have been increasingly rolled
out to end users using services such as DSL, ISDN, FTTx and cable modem systems.
Several large private telephone networks are not linked to the PSTN, usually for military
purposes. There are also private networks run by large companies which are linked to the PSTN
only through limited gateways, like a large private branch exchange (PBX).
Cellular Network Architecture
Mobile telephony took off with the introduction of cellular technology which allowed the
efficient utilisation of frequencies enabling the connection of a large number of users. During the
1980's analogue technology was used. Among the most well known systems were the NMT900
and 450 (Nordic Mobile Telephone) and the AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service). In the
1990's the digital cellular technology was introduced with GSM (Global System Mobile) being
the most widely accepted system around the world. Other such systems are the DCS1800
(Digital Communication System) and the PCS1900 (Personal Communication System).
A cellular network consists of mobile units linked together to switching equipment, which
interconnect the different parts of the network and allow access to the fixed Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN). The technology is hidden from view; it's incorporated in a number
of tranceivers called Base Stations (BS). Every BS is located at a strategically selected place and
covers a given area or cell - hence the name cellular communications. A number of adjacent cells
grouped together form an area and the corresponding BSs communicate through a so called
Mobile Switching Centre (MSC). The MSC is the heart of a cellular radio system. It is
responsible for routing, or switching, calls from the originator to the destinator. It can be thought
of managing the cell, being responsible for set-up, routing control and termination of the call, for
management of inter-MSC hand over and supplementary services, and for collecting charging
and accounting information. The MSC may be connected to other MSCs on the same network or
to the PSTN.
Mobile Switching Centre
The frequencies used vary according to the cellular network technology implemented. For GSM,
890 - 915 MHz range is used for transmission and 935 -960 MHz for reception. The DCS
techology uses frequencies in the 1800MHz range while PCS in the 1900MHz range.
Each cell has a number of channels associated with it. These are assigned to subscribers on
demand. When a Mobile Station (MS) becomes 'active' it registers with the nearest BS. The
corresponding MSC stores the information about that MS and its position. This information is
used to direct incoming calls to the MS.
If during a call the MS moves to an adjacent cell then a change of frequency will necessarily
occur - since adjacent cells never use the same channels. This procedure is called hand over and
is the key to Mobile communications. As the MS is approaching the edge of a cell, the BS
monitors the decrease in signal power. The strength of the signal is compared with adjacent cells
and the call is handed over to the cell with the strongest signal.
During the switch, the line is lost for about 400ms. When the MS is going from one area to
another it registers itself to the new MSC. Its location information is updated, thus allowing MSs
to be used outside their 'home' areas.
Data Communications
Data Communications is the exchange of data using existing communication networks. The term
data covers a wide range of applications including File Transfer (FT), interconnection between
Wide-Area-Networks (WAN), facsimile (fax), electronic mail, access to the internet and the
World Wide Web (WWW).
Mobile Communications Overview
Data Communications have been achieved using a variety of networks such as PSTN, leased-
lines and more recently ISDN (Integrated Services Data Network) and ATM (Asynchronous
Transfer Mode)/Frame Relay. These networks are partly or totally analogue or digital using
technologies such as circuit - switching, packet - switching e.t.c.
Circuit switching implies that data from one user (sender) to another (receiver) has to follow a
prespecified path. If a link to be used is busy , the message can not be redirected , a property
which causes many delays.
Packet switching is an attempt to make better utilisation of the existing network by splitting the
message to be sent into packets. Each packet contains information about the sender, the receiver,
the position of the packet in the message as well as part of the actual message. There are many
protocols defining the way packets can be send from the sender to the receiver. The most widely
used are the Virtual Circuit-Switching system, which implies that packets have to be sent
through the same path, and the Datagram system which allows packets to be sent at various paths
depending on the network availability. Packet switching requires more equipment at the receiver,
where reconstruction of the message will have to be done.
The introduction of mobility in data communications required a move from the Public Switched
Data Network (PSDN) to other networks like the ones used by mobile phones. PCSI has come up
with an idea called CDPD (Cellular Digital Packet Data) technology which uses the existing
mobile network (frequencies used for mobile telephony).
Mobility implemented in data communications has a significant difference compared to voice

communications. Mobile phones allow the user to move around and talk at the same time; the
loss of the connection for 400ms during the hand over is undetectable by the user. When it comes
to data, 400ms is not only detectable but causes huge distortion to the message. Therefore data
can be transmitted from a mobile station under the assumption that it remains stable or within the
same cell.
Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) Technology

Today, the mobile data communications market is becoming dominated by a technology called
CDPD.
There are other alternatives to this technology namely Circuit Switched Cellular, Specialised
Mobile Radio and Wireless Data Networks. As can be seen from the table below the CDPD
technology is much more advantageous than the others.
Cellular Digital Circuit Proprietary
Specialized Mobile
Packet Data Switched Wireless Data
Radio (Extended)
(CDPD) Cellular Networks
Speed best best good good
Security best better good better
Ubiquity best best good better
Cost of Service best better better good
Cost of
best best better good
Deployment
Mobility best good better good
Interoperability best good good better
CDPD's principle lies in the usage of the idle time in between existing voice signals that are
being sent across the cellular networks. The major advantage of this system is the fact that the
idle time is not chargeable and so the cost of data transmission is very low. This may be regarded
as the most important consideration by business individuals.
CDPD networks allow fixed or mobile users to connect to the network across a fixed link and a
packet switched system respectively. Fixed users have a fixed physical link to the CDPD
network. In the case of a mobile end user, the user can, if CDPD network facilities are non-
existent, connect to existing circuit switched networks and transmit data via these networks. This
is known as Circuit Switched CDPD (CS-CDPD).
Circuit Switched CDPD
Service coverage is a fundamental element of providing effective wireless solutions to users and
using this method achieves this objective. Where CDPD is available data is split into packets and
a packet switched network protocol is used to transport the packets across the network. This may
be of either Datagram or Virtual Circuit Switching form.
The data packets are inserted on momentarily unoccupied voice frequencies during the idle time
on the voice signals. CDPD networks have a network hierarchy with each level of the hierarchy
doing its own specified tasks.
CDPD Overview
The hierarchy consists of the following levels :
 Mobile End User Interface - Using a single device such as a Personal Digital Assistant or
personal computer which have been connected to a Radio Frequency (RF) Modem which
is specially adapted with the antennae required to transmit data on the cellular network,
the mobile end user can transmit both data and voice signals. Voice signals are
transmitted via a mobile phone connected to the RF Modem Unit. RF Modems transfer
data in both forward and reverse channels using Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
modulation , a modified form of Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) at modulation index of
0.5 .
 Mobile Data Base Station (MDBS) - In each cell of the cellular reception area, there is a
Mobile Data Base Station (MDBS) which is responsible for detection of idle time in
voice channels, for relaying data between the mobile units and the Mobile Data
Intermediate Systems (MDIS), sending of packets of data onto the appropriate
unoccupied frequencies as well as receiving data packets and passing them to the
appropriate Mobile end user within its domain.
o Detection of idle time -This is achieved using a scanning receiver(also known as

sniffer) housed in the MDBS. The sniffer detects voice traffic by measuring the
signal strength on a specific frequency, hence detecting an idle channel.
o Relaying data packets between mobile units and networks - If the sniffer detects
two idle channels then the MDBS establishes two RF air-links between the end
user unit and itself. Two channels are required to achieve bidirectional
communications. One channel is for forward communication from the MDBS to
the mobile units. This channel is unique to each mobile unit and hence
contentionless. The reverse channels are shared between a number of Mobile units
and as a result, two mobile units sharing a reverse link cannot communicate to
each other.
Reverse channels are accessed using a Digital Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (DSMA - CD) protocol which is similar to the protocol used
in Ethernet communication which utilises Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA - CD). This protocol allows the collision of two data
packets on a common channel to be detected so that the Mobile unit can be alerted
by the MDBS to retry transmission at a later time.
Once a link is established, the MDBS can quickly detect if and when a voice
signal is ramping up (requesting) this link and within the 40ms it takes for the
voice signal to ramp up and get a link, the MDBS disconnects from the current
air-link and finds another idle channel establishing a new link. This is known as
channel hopping.
The speed at which the MDBS hops channels ensures that the CDPD network is
completely invisible to the existing cellular networks and it doesn't interfere with
transmission of existing voice channels.
When the situation occurs that all voice channels are at capacity, then extra
frequencies specifically set aside for CDPD data can be utilised. Although this
scenario is very unlikely as each cell within the reception area has typically 57
channels, each of which has an average of 25 - 30% of idle time.
 Mobile Data Intermediate Systems (MDIS) - Groups of MDBS that control each cell in
the cellular network reception area are connected to a higher level entity in the network
hierarchy, the Mobile Data Intermediate Systems. Connection is made via a wideband
trunk cable. Data packets are then relayed by MDBS to and from mobile end users and
MDIS.
These MDIS use a Mobile Network Location Protocol (MNLP) to exchange location
information about Mobile end users within their domain. The MDIS maintains a database
for each of the M-ES in its serving area. Each mobile unit has a fixed home area but may
be located in any area where reception is available. So, if a MDIS unit recieves a data
packet addressed to a mobile unit that resides in its domain, it sends the data packet to the
appropriate MDBS in its domain which will forward it as required. If the data packet is
addressed to a mobile unit in another group of cells, then the MDIS forwards the data
packet to the appropriate MDIS using the forward channel. The MDIS units hide all
mobility issues from systems in higher levels of the network hierarchy.
In the reverse direction, where messages are from the Mobile end user, packets are routed
directly to their destination and not necessarily through the mobile end users home
MDIS.
 Intermediate Systems (IS) - MDIS are interconnected to these IS which form the
backbone of the CDPD system. These systems are unaware of mobility of end-users, as
this is hidden by lower levels of the network hierarchy. The ISs are the systems that
provide the CDPD interface to the various computer and phone networks.
The IS's relay data between MDIS's and other IS's throughout the network. They can be
connected to routers that support Internet and Open Systems Interconnection
Connectionless Network Services (OSI-CLNS), to allow access to other cellular carriers
and external land- based networks.
CDPD Network
CDPD Network Reliability
There are some actions that are necessary in order to obtain reliability over a network.
 User Authentication - The procedure which checks if the identity of the subscriber
transferred over the radio path corresponds with the details held in the network.
 User Anonymity - Instead of the actual directory telephone number , the International
Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) number is used within the network to uniquely
identify a mobile subscriber.
 Fraud Prevention - Protection against impersonation of authorised users and fraudulent

use of the network is required.
 Protection of user data - All the signals within the network are encrypted and the
identification key is never transmitted through the air. This ensures maximum network
and data security.
The information needed for the above actions are stored in data bases. The Home Location
Register (HLR) stores information relating the Mobile Station (MS) to its network. This includes
information for each MS on subscription levels , supplementary services and the current or most
recently used network and location area. The Authentication Centre (AUC) provides the
information to authenticate MSs using the network , in order to guard against possible fraud ,
stolen subsciber cards , or unpaid bills. The Visitor Location Register (VLR) stores information
about subscription levels , supplementary services and location for a subscriber who is currently
in, or has very recently been ,in that area. It may also record whether a subscriber is currently
active , thus avoiding delay and unnecessary use of the network in trying to call a switched off
terminal.
The data packets are transmitted at speeds of typically 19.2 Kilobits/second to the MDBS, but
actual throughput may be as low as 9.6 Kilobits/second due to the extra redundant data that is
added to transmitted packets. This information includes sender address, reciever address and in
the case of Datagram Switching, a packet ordering number. Check data is also added to allow
error correction if bits are incorrectly recieved. Each data packet is encoded with the check data
using a Reed-Solomon forward error correction code. The encoded sequence is then logically
OR'ed with a pseudo-random sequence, to assist the MDBS and mobile units in synchronisation
of bits. The transmitted data is also encrypted to maintain system security.
CDPD follows the OSI standard model for packet switched data communications. The CDPD
architecture extends across layers one, two and three of the OSI layer model. The mobile end
users handle the layer 4 functions (transport) and higher layers of the OSI model such as user
interface.
Specialized Mobile Radio

Specialized Mobile Radio (SMR) may be an analog or digital trunked two-way radio system,
operated by a service in the VHF, 220, UHF, 700, 800 or 900 MHz bands. Some systems with
advanced features are referred to as an Enhanced Specialized Mobile Radio, (ESMR).
Specialized Mobile Radio is a term defined in US Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
regulations. The term is of US regulatory origin but may be used in other regions to describe
similar commercial systems which offer a radio communications service to businesses.
Compatibility and purpose
Any company, such as a taxi service, towing service, or construction company, may use an SMR
service. These concerns may rent radios from the SMR operator or may buy compatible radios.
SMR systems use differing protocols, frequency ranges, and modulation schemes: not every
radio is compatible with every SMR system.
These systems generally consist of one or more repeaters used to maintain communications
between a dispatch fleet of mobile or hand-held walkie talkie radios. One- to five-channel
systems may be conventional two-way radio repeaters. More than five channel systems must be
trunked.
Fees
The radio system is operated by a commercial service. Paying a fee allows users to utilize the
radio system backbone, increasing their range. Some SMR systems offer telephone interconnect.
This allows telephone calls to be made from the mobile radio or walkie talkie. Some systems
may also offer selective calling, allowing customers to communicate with individual radios or
segments of their entire radio fleet. Users are charged a fee for some combination of:
 Air time (the amount of time any of the user's radio units is talking).
 A monthly fee covering site lease costs, engineering, maintenance, and overhead.
 Rental of radio units, in some cases.
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)

GPRS is a packet oriented mobile data service on the 2G and 3G cellular communication
system's global system for mobile communications (GSM). GPRS was originally standardized
by European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in response to the earlier CDPD
and i-mode packet-switched cellular technologies. It is now maintained by the 3rd Generation
Partnership Project (3GPP). GPRS usage is typically charged based on volume of data. This
contrasts with circuit switching data, which is typically billed per minute of connection time,
regardless of whether or not the user transfers data during that period. GPRS data is typically
supplied either as part of a bundle (e.g., 5 GB per month for a fixed fee) or on a pay-as-you-use
basis. Usage above the bundle cap is either charged per megabyte or disallowed. The pay-as-you-
use charging is typically per megabyte of traffic.
GPRS is a best-effort service, implying variable throughput and latency that depend on the
number of other users sharing the service concurrently, as opposed to circuit switching, where a
certain quality of service (QoS) is guaranteed during the connection. In 2G systems, GPRS
provides data rates of 56–114 kbit/second. 2G cellular technology combined with GPRS is
sometimes described as 2.5G, that is, a technology between the second (2G) and third (3G)
generations of mobile telephony. It provides moderate-speed data transfer, by using unused time
division multiple access (TDMA) channels in, for example, the GSM system. GPRS is integrated
into GSM Release 97 and newer releases.
General Packet Radio Service, more commonly known as GPRS, is a new non-voice, value
added, high-speed, packet-switching technology, for GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communications) networks. It makes sending and receiving small bursts of data, such as email
and web browsing, as well as large volumes of data over a mobile telephone network possible. A
simple way to understand packet switching is to relate it to a jigsaw puzzle. Imagine how you
buy a complete image or picture that has been divided up into many pieces and then placed in a
box. You purchase the puzzle and reassemble it to form the original image. Before the
information is sent, it is split up into separate packets and it is then reassembled at the receivers
end.
GPRS offers a continuous connection to the Internet for mobile phone and computer users.
Experience has shown that most data communication applications do not require continuous data
transfer. Users may need to be connected to a data communication network (such as a LAN,
WAN, the Internet, or a corporate Intranet), but that does not mean they are sending and
receiving data at all times. Data transfer needs are not generally balanced. In the majority of
cases, users will tend to send out small messages but receive large downloads. Therefore, most of
the data transfer is in one direction.
GPRS is expected to provide a significant boost to mobile data usage and usefulness. It is
expected to greatly alter and improve the end-user experience of mobile data computing, by
making it possible and cost-effective to remain constantly connected, as well as to send and
receive data at much higher speeds than today. Its main innovations are that it is packet based,
that it will increase data transmission speeds, and that it will extend the Internet connection all
the way to the mobile PC – the user will no longer need to dial up to a separate ISP.
GPRS History
Like the GSM standard itself, GPRS will be introduced in phases. Phase 1 became available
commercially in the year 2000/2001.Point to Point GPRS, which is sending information to a
single GPRS user, was supported, but not Point to Multipoint which is sending the same
information to several GPRS users at the same time. GPRS Phase 2 is not yet fully defined, but is
expected to support higher data rates through the possible incorporation of techniques such as
EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution), in addition to Point-to-Multipoint support. See
Figure below for a timeline history of GPRS.
DATE MILESTONE
Throughout Network operators place trial and commercial contracts for GPRS
1999-2000 infrastructure.
Incorporation of GPRS infrastructure into GSM networks.
Summer of 2000 First trial GPRS services become available.
Typical single user throughput is likely to be 28 kbps.
For example, T-Mobil is planning a GPRS trial at Expo2000 in

Hanover in the Summer of 2000.
Start of 2001 Basic GPRS capable terminals begin to be available in commercial
quantities.
Throughout 2001 Network operators launch GPRS services commercially an roll out
GPRS.
Vertical market and executive GPRS early adopters begin using it

regularly for nonvoice mobile communications.
2001/2002 Typical single user throughput is likely to be 56 kbps.
New GPRS specific applications, higher bitrates, greater network

capacity solutions, more capable terminals become available, fueling
GPRS usage.
2002 Typical single user throughput is likely to be 112 kbps.
GPRS Phase 2/EDGE begins to emerge in practice.
2002 GPRS is routinely incorporated into GSM mobile phones and has
reached critical mass in terms of usage. (This is the equivalent to the
status of SMS in 1999)
2002/2003 3GSM arrives commercially.
GPRS Shortcomings
 LIMITED RADIO RESOURCES - There are only limited radio resources that can be
deployed for different uses – use for one purpose precludes simultaneous use for another.
For example, voice and GPRS calls both use the same network resources.
 SPEEDS MUCH LOWER IN REALITY - Attaining the highest GPRS data transmission
speed of 171.2 kbps would require a single user taking over all eight timeslots; therefore,
maximum GPRS speeds should be compared against constraints in the GPRS terminals
and networks. It is highly unlikely that a GSM network operator would allow all
timeslots to be used by a single GPRS user. The initial GPRS terminals are expected to
only support one to three timeslots, which will be severely limiting to users. The reality is
that mobile networks are always likely to have lower data transmission speeds than fixed
networks. Mobile cellular subscribers often like to jump on the fact that a certain
technology has high data transmission speeds, when the figure in all reality could be a
theoretical number that is based on the perfect situation. Consumers should, therefore,
compare all available mobile services and use the one that bests suits their needs.
 NO SUPPORT OF MOBILE TERMINATED CALLS - There has been no confirmation

by any mobile phone provider that initial GPRS terminals will support mobile terminated
GPRS calls (receipt of GPRS calls on the mobile phone).When a mobile phone user
initiates a GPRS session, they are agreeing to pay for the content to be delivered by the
GPRS service. Internet sources originating unsolicited content may not be chargeable. A
worst case scenario would be that a mobile user would then be made responsible for
paying for the unsolicited junk content that they received. This is one main reason why
mobile vendors are not willing to support mobile terminated GPRS calls in their
terminals.
 SUBOPTIMAL MODULATION - GPRS is based on a modulation technique known as

Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK). EDGE is based on a new modulation scheme
that allows a much higher bit rate across the air interface – that is called eight-phase-shift
keying (8 PSK) modulation. Since 8 PSK will also be used for 3GSM, network operators
will need to incorporate it at some stage to make the transition to third generation mobile
phone systems.
 TRANSIT DELAYS - GPRS packets are sent in many different directions to reach the
same destination. This makes room for the possibility for some of the packets to get lost
or damaged during the transmission over the radio link. The GPRS standards are aware of
this issue regarding wireless packet technologies and have worked to integrate data
integrity and retransmission approaches to solving these problems. The result of this
leads to possible transit delays.
 NO STORE AND FORWARD - Currently, there is not a storage mechanism integrated

into the GPRS standard.
Method Of Operation
GPRS gives GSM subscribers access to data communication applications such as e-mail,
corporate networks, and the Internet using their mobile phones. The GPRS service uses the
existing GSM network and adds new packet-switching network equipment. GPRS employs
packet switching, which means that the GPRS mobile phone has no dedicated circuit assigned to
it. Only when data is transferred is a physical channel created. After the data has been sent, it can
be assigned to other users. This allows for the most efficient use of the network.
When packet-switched data leaves the GPRS/GSM network, it is transferred to TCP-IP networks
such as the Internet or X.25.Thus, GPRS includes new transmission and signaling procedures as
well as new protocols for interworking with the IP world and other standard packet networks.
Figure below is a diagram of the GPRS Network Architecture.
GPRS Network Architecture
User Features
 SPEED - The maximum speed of 171.2 kbps, available through GPRS, is nearly three
times as fast as the data transmission speeds of fixed telecommunications networks and
ten times as fast as the current GSM network services.
 INSTANT CONNECTIONS – IMMEDIATE TRANSFER OF DATA - GPRS will allow

for instant, continuous connections that will allow information and data to be sent
whenever and wherever it is needed. GPRS users are considered to be always connected,
with no dial-up needed. Immediacy is one of the advantages of GPRS (and SMS) when
compared to Circuit Switched Data.High immediacy is a very important feature for time
critical applications such as remote credit card authorization where it would be
unacceptable to keep the customer waiting for even thirty extra seconds.
 NEW AND BETTER APPLICATIONS - General Packet Radio Service offers many new
applications that were never before available to users because of the restrictions in speed
and messaged length. Some of the new applications that GPRS offers is the ability to
perform web browsing and to transfer files from the office or home and home
automation, which is the ability to use and control in-home appliances.
 SERVICE ACCESS - To use GPRS, the user will need:
o A mobile phone or terminal that supports GPRS (existing GSM phones do not
support GPRS)
o A subscription to a mobile telephone network that supports GPRS – use of GPRS

must be enabled for that user. Automatic access to the GPRS may be allowed by
some mobile network operators, others will require a specific opt-in
o Knowledge of how to send and/or receive GPRS information using their specific
model of mobile phone, including software and hardware configuration (this
creates a customer service requirement)
o A destination to send or receive information through GPRS.(Whereas with SMS

this was often another mobile phone, in the case of GPRS, it is likely to be an
Internet address, since GPRS is designed to make the Internet fully available to
mobile users for the first time.
Network Features
GPRS offers many new network features to mobile service operators. These include packet
switching, spectrum efficiency, Internet aware, and the support of TDMA and GSM.
 PACKET SWITCHING - From a network operator perspective, GPRS involves

overlaying packet based air interference on the existing circuit switched GSM network.
This gives the user an option to use a packet-based data service. To supplement a circuit
switched network architecture with packet switching is quite a major upgrade. The GPRS
standard is delivered in a very elegant manner – with network operators needing only to
add a couple of new infrastructure nodes and making a software upgrade to some existing
network elements.
 SPECTRUM EFFICIENCY - Packet switching means that GPRS radio resources are
used only when users are actually sending or receiving data. Rather than dedicating a
radio channel to a mobile data user for a fixed period of time, the available radio resource
can be concurrently shared between several users. This efficient use of scarce radio
resources means that large number of GPRS users can potentially share the same
bandwidth and be served from a single cell.
The actual number of users supported depends on the application being used and how
much data is being transferred. Because of the spectrum efficiency of GPRS, there is less
need to build in idle capacity that is only used in peak hours. GPRS therefore lets
network operators maximize the use of their network resources in a dynamic and flexible
way, along with user access to resources and revenues.
GPRS should improve the peak time capacity of a GSM network since it simultaneously:
o Allocates scarce radio resources more efficiently by supporting virtual connectivity
o Migrates traffic that was previously sent using Circuit Switch Data to GPRS instead
o Reduces SMS Center and signaling channel loading by migrating some traffic that
previously was sent using SMS to GPRS instead using the GPRS/SMS interconnect
that is supported by the GPRS standards.
 INTERNET AWARE - For the first time, GPRS fully enables Mobile Internet
functionality by allowing interworking between the existing Internet and the new GPRS
network. Any service that is used over the fixed Internet today – File Transfer Protocol
(FTP), web browsing, chat, email, telnet – will be as available over the mobile network
because of GPRS. In fact, many network operators are considering the opportunity to use
GPRS to help become wireless Internet Service Providers in their own right.
Because it uses the same protocols, the GPRS network can be viewed as a sub-network of
the Internet with GPRS capable mobile phones being viewed as mobile hosts. This means
that each GPRS terminal can potentially have its own IP address and will be addressable
as such.
 SUPPORTS TDMA AND GSM - It should be noted that the General Packet Radio
Service is not only a service designed to be deployed on mobile networks that are based
on the GSM digital phone standard.
Nordic Mobile Telephone
NMT (Nordisk Mobil Telefoni or Nordiska MobilTelefoni-gruppen, Nordic Mobile Telephony

in English) is the first fully automatic cellular phone system. It was specified by Nordic
telecommunications administrations (PTTs) and opened for service in 1 October 1981 as a
response to the increasing congestion and heavy requirements of the manual mobile phone
networks: ARP (150 MHz) in Finland and MTD (450 MHz) in Sweden and Denmark and OLT
in Norway.
NMT is based on analog technology (first generation or 1G) and two variants exist: NMT-450
and NMT-900. The numbers indicate the frequency bands uses. NMT-900 was introduced in
1986 because it carries more channels than the previous NMT-450 network.
The NMT specifications were free and open, allowing many companies to produce NMT
hardware and pushing the prices down. The success of NMT meant a lot to Nokia (then Mobira)
and Ericsson. First Danish implementers were Storno (then owned by General Electric, later
taken over by Motorola) and AP (later taken over by Philips). Initial NMT phones were designed
to mount in the trunk of a car, with a keyboard/display unit at the drivers seat. "Portable"
versions existed: one could definitely move them, but they were bulky, and battery lifetime was a
big problem. Latter-day models (such as Benefon's) were as small as 100 mm (3.9 inches) and
weighed only about 100 grams.
Advanced Mobile Phone System

Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) is an analog mobile phone system standard developed
by Bell Labs, and officially introduced in the Americas in 1978, Israel in 1986, and Australia in
1987. It was the primary analog mobile phone system in North America (and other locales)
through the 1980s and into the 2000s. As of February 18, 2008, carriers in the United States were
no longer required to support AMPS and companies such as AT&T and Verizon have
discontinued this service permanently. AMPS was discontinued in Australia in September 2000.
AMPS is a first-generation cellular technology that uses separate frequencies, or "channels", for
each conversation. It therefore required considerable bandwidth for a large number of users. In
general terms, AMPS was very similar to the older "0G" Improved Mobile Telephone Service,
but used considerably more computing power in order to select frequencies, hand off
conversations to PSTN lines, and handle billing and call setup.
What really separated AMPS from older systems is the "back end" call setup functionality. In
AMPS, the cell centers could flexibly assign channels to handsets based on signal strength,
allowing the same frequency to be re-used in various locations without interference. This
allowed a larger number of phones to be supported over a geographical area. AMPS pioneers
fathered the term "cellular" because of its use of small hexagonal "cells" within a system.
It suffered from some weaknesses when compared to today's digital technologies. Since it was an
analog standard, it is very susceptible to static and noise and has no protection from
eavesdropping using a scanner. In the 1990s, "cloning" was an epidemic that cost the industry
millions of dollars. An eavesdropper with specialized equipment could intercept a handset's ESN
(Electronic Serial Number) and MIN (Mobile Identification Number, aka the telephone number).
An Electronic Serial Number is a packet of data which is sent by the handset to the cellular
system for billing purposes, effectively identifying that phone on the network. The system then
allows or disallows calls and or features based on its customer file. If an ESN/MIN Pair is
intercepted, it could then be cloned onto a different phone and used in other areas for making
calls without paying.
Cell phone cloning became possible with off-the-shelf technology in the 1990s. Three key items
were needed. The first was a radio receiver, such as the Icom PCR-1000, that could tune into the
Reverse Channel, which is the frequency that the phones transmit data to the tower on. The
second item was PC with a sound card and a software program called Banpaia, and the third item
was a phone that could easily be used for cloning, such as the Oki 900. By tuning the radio to the
proper frequency, it would receive the signal transmitted by the cell phone to be cloned,
containing the phone's ESN/MIN Pair. This signal would be fed into the sound card audio input
of the PC, and Banpaia would decode the ESN/MIN pair from this signal and display it on the
screen. The person could then input that data into the Oki 900 phone and reboot it, after which
the phone network could not distinguish the Oki from the original phone whose signal had been
received. This gave the cloner, through the Oki phone, the ability to use the mobile phone service
of the legitimate subscriber whose phone was cloned just as if that phone had been physically
stolen instead, except that the subscriber was not without his or her phone and was not aware that
the phone had been cloned—at least until that subscriber received his or her next bill.
The problem became so large that some carriers required the use of a PIN before making calls.
Eventually, the cellular companies initiated a system called RF Fingerprinting, where it could
determine subtle differences in the signal of one phone from another and shut down some cloned
phones. Some legitimate customers had problems with this though if they made certain changes
to their own phone, such as replacing the battery and/or antenna. The Oki 900 was the ultimate
tool of cell phone hackers because it could listen in to AMPS phone calls right out of the box
with no hardware modifications.
Digital - Advanced Mobile Phone System (D-AMPS)

The first digital version of AMPS, also using the 800 MHz spectrum. Still used (though not
widely) in certain countries including Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, El Salvador, Israel, Malaysia,
Myanmar, Panama, Russia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam.
Personal communications network
Personal communications network (PCN) is the European digital cellular mobile telephone
network, developed in accordance with GSM standards. The PCN system was first initiated by
Lord Young, UK Secretary of State for Trade and Industry, in 1988. The main characteristics of
PCN are as follows:
 Operating frequency – 1.7–1.88 GHz (1710–1785 MHz and 1805–1880 MHz).
 Uses 30 GHz or up for microwave back bone system.
 Covers both small cells and large cells.
 Coverage inside and outside buildings.
 Hand over.
 Cell delivery.
 Portable hand set.
 User intelligent network.
PCN uses the DCS-1800 systems, which is similar to GSM, but up converts the frequency to
1.7–1.88 GHz, therefore the network structure, the signal structure and the transmission
characteristics are similar between PCN and GSM, but operational frequencies are different.
GSM (Global System for Mobile communication)

GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) is a digital mobile telephony system that is
widely used in Europe and other parts of the world. GSM uses a variation of time division
multiple access (TDMA) and is the most widely used of the three digital wireless telephony
technologies (TDMA, GSM, and CDMA). GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it
down a channel with two other streams of user data, each in its own time slot. It operates at
either the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz frequency band.
Mobile services based on GSM technology were first launched in Finland in 1991. Today, more
than 690 mobile networks provide GSM services across 213 countries and GSM represents
82.4% of all global mobile connections. According to GSM World, there are now more than 2
billion GSM mobile phone users worldwide. GSM World references China as "the largest single
GSM market, with more than 370 million users, followed by Russia with 145 million, India with
83 million and the USA with 78 million users."
Since many GSM network operators have roaming agreements with foreign operators, users can
often continue to use their mobile phones when they travel to other countries. SIM cards
(Subscriber Identity Module) holding home network access configurations may be switched to
those will metered local access, significantly reducing roaming costs while experiencing no
reductions in service.
GSM, together with other technologies, is part of the evolution of wireless mobile
telecommunications that includes High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD), General Packet
Radio System (GPRS), Enhanced Data GSM Environment (EDGE), and Universal Mobile
Telecommunications Service (UMTS).
History of GSM
During the early 1980s, analog cellular telephone systems were experiencing rapid growth in
Europe, particularly in Scandinavia and the United Kingdom, but also in France and Germany.
Each country developed its own system, which was incompatible with everyone else's in
equipment and operation. This was an undesirable situation, because not only was the mobile
equipment limited to operation within national boundaries, which in a unified Europe were
increasingly unimportant, but there was also a very limited market for each type of equipment, so
economies of scale and the subsequent savings could not be realized.
The Europeans realized this early on, and in 1982 the Conference of European Posts and
Telegraphs (CEPT) formed a study group called the Groupe Spécial Mobile (GSM) to study and
develop a pan-European public land mobile system. The proposed system had to meet certain
criteria:
 Good subjective speech quality
 Low terminal and service cost
 Support for international roaming
 Ability to support handheld terminals
 Support for range of new services and facilities
 Spectral efficiency
 ISDN compatibility
In 1989, GSM responsibility was transferred to the European Telecommunication Standards

Institute (ETSI), and phase I of the GSM specifications were published in 1990. Commercial
service was started in mid-1991, and by 1993 there were 36 GSM networks in 22 countries.
Although standardized in Europe, GSM is not only a European standard. Over 200 GSM
networks (including DCS1800 and PCS1900) are operational in 110 countries around the world.
In the beginning of 1994, there were 1.3 million subscribers worldwide, which had grown to
more than 55 million by October 1997. With North America making a delayed entry into the
GSM field with a derivative of GSM called PCS1900, GSM systems exist on every continent,
and the acronym GSM now aptly stands for Global System for Mobile communications.
The developers of GSM chose an unproven (at the time) digital system, as opposed to the then-
standard analog cellular systems like AMPS in the United States and TACS in the United
Kingdom. They had faith that advancements in compression algorithms and digital signal
processors would allow the fulfillment of the original criteria and the continual improvement of
the system in terms of quality and cost. The over 8000 pages of GSM recommendations try to
allow flexibility and competitive innovation among suppliers, but provide enough
standardization to guarantee proper interworking between the components of the system. This is
done by providing functional and interface descriptions for each of the functional entities defined
in the system.
Services provided by GSM
From the beginning, the planners of GSM wanted ISDN compatibility in terms of the services
offered and the control signalling used. However, radio transmission limitations, in terms of
bandwidth and cost, do not allow the standard ISDN B-channel bit rate of 64 kbps to be
practically achieved.
Using the ITU-T definitions, telecommunication services can be divided into bearer services,
teleservices, and supplementary services. The most basic teleservice supported by GSM is
telephony. As with all other communications, speech is digitally encoded and transmitted
through the GSM network as a digital stream. There is also an emergency service, where the
nearest emergency-service provider is notified by dialing three digits (similar to 911).
A variety of data services is offered. GSM users can send and receive data, at rates up to 9600
bps, to users on POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service), ISDN, Packet Switched Public Data
Networks, and Circuit Switched Public Data Networks using a variety of access methods and
protocols, such as X.25 or X.32. Since GSM is a digital network, a modem is not required
between the user and GSM network, although an audio modem is required inside the GSM
network to interwork with POTS.
Other data services include Group 3 facsimile, as described in ITU-T recommendation T.30,
which is supported by use of an appropriate fax adaptor. A unique feature of GSM, not found in
older analog systems, is the Short Message Service (SMS). SMS is a bidirectional service for
short alphanumeric (up to 160 bytes) messages. Messages are transported in a store-and-forward
fashion. For point-to-point SMS, a message can be sent to another subscriber to the service, and
an acknowledgement of receipt is provided to the sender. SMS can also be used in a cell-
broadcast mode, for sending messages such as traffic updates or news updates. Messages can
also be stored in the SIM card for later retrieval .
Supplementary services are provided on top of teleservices or bearer services. In the current
(Phase I) specifications, they include several forms of call forward (such as call forwarding when
the mobile subscriber is unreachable by the network), and call barring of outgoing or incoming
calls, for example when roaming in another country. Many additional supplementary services
will be provided in the Phase 2 specifications, such as caller identification, call waiting, multi-
party conversations.
Architecture of the GSM network
A GSM network is composed of several functional entities, whose functions and interfaces are
specified. Figure below shows the layout of a generic GSM network. The GSM network can be
divided into three broad parts. The Mobile Station is carried by the subscriber. The Base Station
Subsystem controls the radio link with the Mobile Station. The Network Subsystem, the main
part of which is the Mobile services Switching Center (MSC), performs the switching of calls
between the mobile users, and between mobile and fixed network users. The MSC also handles
the mobility management operations. Not shown is the Operations and Maintenance Center,
which oversees the proper operation and setup of the network. The Mobile Station and the Base
Station Subsystem communicate across the Um interface, also known as the air interface or radio
link. The Base Station Subsystem communicates with the Mobile services Switching Center
across the A interface.
Mobile Station
The mobile station (MS) consists of the mobile equipment (the terminal) and a smart card called
the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). The SIM provides personal mobility, so that the user can
have access to subscribed services irrespective of a specific terminal. By inserting the SIM card
into another GSM terminal, the user is able to receive calls at that terminal, make calls from that
terminal, and receive other subscribed services.
The mobile equipment is uniquely identified by the International Mobile Equipment Identity
(IMEI). The SIM card contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) used to
identify the subscriber to the system, a secret key for authentication, and other information. The
IMEI and the IMSI are independent, thereby allowing personal mobility. The SIM card may be
protected against unauthorized use by a password or personal identity number.
Base Station Subsystem
The Base Station Subsystem is composed of two parts, the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) and
the Base Station Controller (BSC). These communicate across the standardized Abis interface,
allowing (as in the rest of the system) operation between components made by different
suppliers.
The Base Transceiver Station houses the radio tranceivers that define a cell and handles the
radio-link protocols with the Mobile Station. In a large urban area, there will potentially be a
large number of BTSs deployed, thus the requirements for a BTS are ruggedness, reliability,
portability, and minimum cost.
The Base Station Controller manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs. It handles radio-
channel setup, frequency hopping, and handovers, as described below. The BSC is the
connection between the mobile station and the Mobile service Switching Center (MSC).
Network Subsystem
The central component of the Network Subsystem is the Mobile services Switching Center
(MSC). It acts like a normal switching node of the PSTN or ISDN, and additionally provides all
the functionality needed to handle a mobile subscriber, such as registration, authentication,
location updating, handovers, and call routing to a roaming subscriber. These services are
provided in conjuction with several functional entities, which together form the Network
Subsystem. The MSC provides the connection to the fixed networks (such as the PSTN or
ISDN). Signalling between functional entities in the Network Subsystem uses Signalling System
Number 7 (SS7), used for trunk signalling in ISDN and widely used in current public networks.
The Home Location Register (HLR) and Visitor Location Register (VLR), together with the
MSC, provide the call-routing and roaming capabilities of GSM. The HLR contains all the
administrative information of each subscriber registered in the corresponding GSM network,
along with the current location of the mobile. The location of the mobile is typically in the form
of the signalling address of the VLR associated with the mobile station. The actual routing
procedure will be described later. There is logically one HLR per GSM network, although it may
be implemented as a distributed database.
The Visitor Location Register (VLR) contains selected administrative information from the
HLR, necessary for call control and provision of the subscribed services, for each mobile
currently located in the geographical area controlled by the VLR. Although each functional
entity can be implemented as an independent unit, all manufacturers of switching equipment to
date implement the VLR together with the MSC, so that the geographical area controlled by the
MSC corresponds to that controlled by the VLR, thus simplifying the signalling required. Note
that the MSC contains no information about particular mobile stations --- this information is
stored in the location registers.
The other two registers are used for authentication and security purposes. The Equipment
Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile equipment on the
network, where each mobile station is identified by its International Mobile Equipment Identity
(IMEI). An IMEI is marked as invalid if it has been reported stolen or is not type approved. The
Authentication Center (AuC) is a protected database that stores a copy of the secret key stored in
each subscriber's SIM card, which is used for authentication and encryption over the radio
channel.
Radio link aspects
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which manages the international allocation
of radio spectrum (among many other functions), allocated the bands 890-915 MHz for the
uplink (mobile station to base station) and 935-960 MHz for the downlink (base station to mobile
station) for mobile networks in Europe. Since this range was already being used in the early
1980s by the analog systems of the day, the CEPT had the foresight to reserve the top 10 MHz of
each band for the GSM network that was still being developed. Eventually, GSM will be
allocated the entire 2x25 MHz bandwidth.
Multiple access and channel structure
Since radio spectrum is a limited resource shared by all users, a method must be devised to
divide up the bandwidth among as many users as possible. The method chosen by GSM is a
combination of Time- and Frequency-Division Multiple Access (TDMA/FDMA). The FDMA
part involves the division by frequency of the (maximum) 25 MHz bandwidth into 124 carrier
frequencies spaced 200 kHz apart. One or more carrier frequencies are assigned to each base
station. Each of these carrier frequencies is then divided in time, using a TDMA scheme. The
fundamental unit of time in this TDMA scheme is called a burst period and it lasts 15/26 ms (or
approx. 0.577 ms). Eight burst periods are grouped into a TDMA frame (120/26 ms, or approx.
4.615 ms), which forms the basic unit for the definition of logical channels. One physical
channel is one burst period per TDMA frame.
Channels are defined by the number and position of their corresponding burst periods. All these
definitions are cyclic, and the entire pattern repeats approximately every 3 hours. Channels can
be divided into dedicated channels, which are allocated to a mobile station, and common
channels, which are used by mobile stations in idle mode.
Traffic channels
A traffic channel (TCH) is used to carry speech and data traffic. Traffic channels are defined
using a 26-frame multiframe, or group of 26 TDMA frames. The length of a 26-frame
multiframe is 120 ms, which is how the length of a burst period is defined (120 ms divided by 26
frames divided by 8 burst periods per frame). Out of the 26 frames, 24 are used for traffic, 1 is
used for the Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) and 1 is currently unused . TCHs for
the uplink and downlink are separated in time by 3 burst periods, so that the mobile station does
not have to transmit and receive simultaneously, thus simplifying the electronics.
In addition to these full-rate TCHs, there are also half-rate TCHs defined, although they are not
yet implemented. Half-rate TCHs will effectively double the capacity of a system once half-rate
speech coders are specified (i.e., speech coding at around 7 kbps, instead of 13 kbps). Eighth-rate
TCHs are also specified, and are used for signalling. In the recommendations, they are called
Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channels (SDCCH).
Control channels
Common channels can be accessed both by idle mode and dedicated mode mobiles. The
common channels are used by idle mode mobiles to exchange the signalling information required
to change to dedicated mode. Mobiles already in dedicated mode monitor the surrounding base
stations for handover and other information. The common channels are defined within a 51-
frame multiframe, so that dedicated mobiles using the 26-frame multiframe TCH structure can
still monitor control channels. The common channels include:
 Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) - Continually broadcasts, on the downlink,
information including base station identity, frequency allocations, and frequency-hopping
sequences.
 Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH) and Synchronisation Channel (SCH) - Used to
synchronise the mobile to the time slot structure of a cell by defining the boundaries of
burst periods, and the time slot numbering. Every cell in a GSM network broadcasts
exactly one FCCH and one SCH, which are by definition on time slot number 0 (within a
TDMA frame).
 Random Access Channel (RACH) - Slotted Aloha channel used by the mobile to request
access to the network.
 Paging Channel (PCH) - Used to alert the mobile station of an incoming call.
 Access Grant Channel (AGCH) - Used to allocate an SDCCH to a mobile for signalling
(in order to obtain a dedicated channel), following a request on the RACH.
Burst structure
There are four different types of bursts used for transmission in GSM [16]. The normal burst is
used to carry data and most signalling. It has a total length of 156.25 bits, made up of two 57 bit
information bits, a 26 bit training sequence used for equalization, 1 stealing bit for each
information block (used for FACCH), 3 tail bits at each end, and an 8.25 bit guard sequence. The
156.25 bits are transmitted in 0.577 ms, giving a gross bit rate of 270.833 kbps.
The F burst, used on the FCCH, and the S burst, used on the SCH, have the same length as a
normal burst, but a different internal structure, which differentiates them from normal bursts
(thus allowing synchronization). The access burst is shorter than the normal burst, and is used
only on the RACH.
Speech coding
GSM is a digital system, so speech which is inherently analog, has to be digitized. The method
employed by ISDN, and by current telephone systems for multiplexing voice lines over high
speed trunks and optical fiber lines, is Pulse Coded Modulation (PCM). The output stream from
PCM is 64 kbps, too high a rate to be feasible over a radio link. The 64 kbps signal, although
simple to implement, contains much redundancy. The GSM group studied several speech coding
algorithms on the basis of subjective speech quality and complexity (which is related to cost,
processing delay, and power consumption once implemented) before arriving at the choice of a
Regular Pulse Excited -- Linear Predictive Coder (RPE--LPC) with a Long Term Predictor loop.
Basically, information from previous samples, which does not change very quickly, is used to
predict the current sample. The coefficients of the linear combination of the previous samples,
plus an encoded form of the residual, the difference between the predicted and actual sample,
represent the signal. Speech is divided into 20 millisecond samples, each of which is encoded as
260 bits, giving a total bit rate of 13 kbps. This is the so-called Full-Rate speech coding.
Recently, an Enhanced Full-Rate (EFR) speech coding algorithm has been implemented by some
North American GSM1900 operators. This is said to provide improved speech quality using the
existing 13 kbps bit rate.
Channel coding and modulation
Because of natural and man-made electromagnetic interference, the encoded speech or data
signal transmitted over the radio interface must be protected from errors. GSM uses
convolutional encoding and block interleaving to achieve this protection. The exact algorithms
used differ for speech and for different data rates. The method used for speech blocks will be
described below.
Recall that the speech codec produces a 260 bit block for every 20 ms speech sample. From
subjective testing, it was found that some bits of this block were more important for perceived
speech quality than others. The bits are thus divided into three classes:
 Class Ia 50 bits - most sensitive to bit errors

 Class Ib 132 bits - moderately sensitive to bit errors
 Class II 78 bits - least sensitive to bit errors
Class Ia bits have a 3 bit Cyclic Redundancy Code added for error detection. If an error is
detected, the frame is judged too damaged to be comprehensible and it is discarded. It is replaced
by a slightly attenuated version of the previous correctly received frame. These 53 bits, together
with the 132 Class Ib bits and a 4 bit tail sequence (a total of 189 bits), are input into a 1/2 rate
convolutional encoder of constraint length 4. Each input bit is encoded as two output bits, based
on a combination of the previous 4 input bits. The convolutional encoder thus outputs 378 bits, to
which are added the 78 remaining Class II bits, which are unprotected. Thus every 20 ms speech
sample is encoded as 456 bits, giving a bit rate of 22.8 kbps.
To further protect against the burst errors common to the radio interface, each sample is
interleaved. The 456 bits output by the convolutional encoder are divided into 8 blocks of 57
bits, and these blocks are transmitted in eight consecutive time-slot bursts. Since each time-slot
burst can carry two 57 bit blocks, each burst carries traffic from two different speech samples.
Recall that each time-slot burst is transmitted at a gross bit rate of 270.833 kbps. This digital
signal is modulated onto the analog carrier frequency using Gaussian-filtered Minimum Shift
Keying (GMSK). GMSK was selected over other modulation schemes as a compromise between
spectral efficiency, complexity of the transmitter, and limited spurious emissions. The
complexity of the transmitter is related to power consumption, which should be minimized for
the mobile station. The spurious radio emissions, outside of the allotted bandwidth, must be
strictly controlled so as to limit adjacent channel interference, and allow for the co-existence of
GSM and the older analog systems (at least for the time being).
Multipath equalization
At the 900 MHz range, radio waves bounce off everything - buildings, hills, cars, airplanes, etc.
Thus many reflected signals, each with a different phase, can reach an antenna. Equalization is
used to extract the desired signal from the unwanted reflections. It works by finding out how a
known transmitted signal is modified by multipath fading, and constructing an inverse filter to
extract the rest of the desired signal. This known signal is the 26-bit training sequence
transmitted in the middle of every time-slot burst. The actual implementation of the equalizer is
not specified in the GSM specifications.
Frequency hopping
The mobile station already has to be frequency agile, meaning it can move between a transmit,
receive, and monitor time slot within one TDMA frame, which normally are on different
frequencies. GSM makes use of this inherent frequency agility to implement slow frequency
hopping, where the mobile and BTS transmit each TDMA frame on a different carrier frequency.
The frequency hopping algorithm is broadcast on the Broadcast Control Channel. Since
multipath fading is dependent on carrier frequency, slow frequency hopping helps alleviate the
problem. In addition, co-channel interference is in effect randomized.
Discontinuous transmission
Minimizing co-channel interference is a goal in any cellular system, since it allows better service
for a given cell size, or the use of smaller cells, thus increasing the overall capacity of the
system. Discontinuous transmission (DTX) is a method that takes advantage of the fact that a
person speaks less that 40 percent of the time in normal conversation, by turning the transmitter
off during silence periods. An added benefit of DTX is that power is conserved at the mobile
unit.
The most important component of DTX is, of course, Voice Activity Detection. It must
distinguish between voice and noise inputs, a task that is not as trivial as it appears, considering
background noise. If a voice signal is misinterpreted as noise, the transmitter is turned off and a
very annoying effect called clipping is heard at the receiving end. If, on the other hand, noise is
misinterpreted as a voice signal too often, the efficiency of DTX is dramatically decreased.
Another factor to consider is that when the transmitter is turned off, there is total silence heard at
the receiving end, due to the digital nature of GSM. To assure the receiver that the connection is
not dead, comfort noise is created at the receiving end by trying to match the characteristics of
the transmitting end's background noise.
Discontinuous reception
Another method used to conserve power at the mobile station is discontinuous reception. The
paging channel, used by the base station to signal an incoming call, is structured into sub-
channels. Each mobile station needs to listen only to its own sub-channel. In the time between
successive paging sub-channels, the mobile can go into sleep mode, when almost no power is
used.
Power control
There are five classes of mobile stations defined, according to their peak transmitter power, rated
at 20, 8, 5, 2, and 0.8 watts. To minimize co-channel interference and to conserve power, both
the mobiles and the Base Transceiver Stations operate at the lowest power level that will
maintain an acceptable signal quality. Power levels can be stepped up or down in steps of 2 dB
from the peak power for the class down to a minimum of 13 dBm (20 milliwatts).
The mobile station measures the signal strength or signal quality (based on the Bit Error Ratio),
and passes the information to the Base Station Controller, which ultimately decides if and when
the power level should be changed. Power control should be handled carefully, since there is the
possibility of instability. This arises from having mobiles in co-channel cells alternatingly
increase their power in response to increased co-channel interference caused by the other mobile
increasing its power. This in unlikely to occur in practice but it is (or was as of 1991) under
study.
Network aspects
Ensuring the transmission of voice or data of a given quality over the radio link is only part of
the function of a cellular mobile network. A GSM mobile can seamlessly roam nationally and
internationally, which requires that registration, authentication, call routing and location updating
functions exist and are standardized in GSM networks. In addition, the fact that the geographical
area covered by the network is divided into cells necessitates the implementation of a handover
mechanism. These functions are performed by the Network Subsystem, mainly using the Mobile
Application Part (MAP) built on top of the Signalling System No. 7 protocol.
The signalling protocol in GSM is structured into three general layers , depending on the
interface. Layer 1 is the physical layer, which uses the channel structures discussed above over
the air interface. Layer 2 is the data link layer. Across the Um interface, the data link layer is a
modified version of the LAPD protocol used in ISDN, called LAPDm. Across the A interface,
the Message Transfer Part layer 2 of Signalling System Number 7 is used. Layer 3 of the GSM
signalling protocol is itself divided into 3 sublayers.
 Radio Resources Management - Controls the setup, maintenance, and termination of

radio and fixed channels, including handovers.
 Mobility Management - Manages the location updating and registration procedures, as
well as security and authentication.
 Connection Management - Handles general call control, similar to CCITT
Recommendation Q.931, and manages Supplementary Services and the Short Message
Service.
Signalling between the different entities in the fixed part of the network, such as between the
HLR and VLR, is accomplished throught the Mobile Application Part (MAP). MAP is built on
top of the Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP, the top layer of Signalling System
Number 7. The specification of the MAP is quite complex, and at over 500 pages, it is one of the
longest documents in the GSM recommendations.
Radio resources management
The radio resources management (RR) layer oversees the establishment of a link, both radio and
fixed, between the mobile station and the MSC. The main functional components involved are
the mobile station, and the Base Station Subsystem, as well as the MSC. The RR layer is
concerned with the management of an RR-session , which is the time that a mobile is in
dedicated mode, as well as the configuration of radio channels including the allocation of
dedicated channels.
An RR-session is always initiated by a mobile station through the access procedure, either for an
outgoing call, or in response to a paging message. The details of the access and paging
procedures, such as when a dedicated channel is actually assigned to the mobile, and the paging
sub-channel structure, are handled in the RR layer. In addition, it handles the management of
radio features such as power control, discontinuous transmission and reception, and timing
advance.
Handover
In a cellular network, the radio and fixed links required are not permanently allocated for the
duration of a call. Handover, or handoff as it is called in North America, is the switching of an
on-going call to a different channel or cell. The execution and measurements required for
handover form one of basic functions of the RR layer.
There are four different types of handover in the GSM system, which involve transferring a call
between:
 Channels (time slots) in the same cell
 Cells (Base Transceiver Stations) under the control of the same Base Station Controller
(BSC),
 Cells under the control of different BSCs, but belonging to the same Mobile services
Switching Center (MSC), and
 Cells under the control of different MSCs.
The first two types of handover, called internal handovers, involve only one Base Station
Controller (BSC). To save signalling bandwidth, they are managed by the BSC without
involving the Mobile services Switching Center (MSC), except to notify it at the completion of
the handover. The last two types of handover, called external handovers, are handled by the
MSCs involved. An important aspect of GSM is that the original MSC, the anchor MSC, remains
responsible for most call-related functions, with the exception of subsequent inter-BSC
handovers under the control of the new MSC, called the relay MSC.
Handovers can be initiated by either the mobile or the MSC (as a means of traffic load
balancing). During its idle time slots, the mobile scans the Broadcast Control Channel of up to 16
neighboring cells, and forms a list of the six best candidates for possible handover, based on the
received signal strength. This information is passed to the BSC and MSC, at least once per
second, and is used by the handover algorithm.
The algorithm for when a handover decision should be taken is not specified in the GSM
recommendations. There are two basic algorithms used, both closely tied in with power control.
This is because the BSC usually does not know whether the poor signal quality is due to
multipath fading or to the mobile having moved to another cell. This is especially true in small
urban cells.
The 'minimum acceptable performance' algorithm gives precedence to power control over
handover, so that when the signal degrades beyond a certain point, the power level of the mobile
is increased. If further power increases do not improve the signal, then a handover is considered.
This is the simpler and more common method, but it creates 'smeared' cell boundaries when a
mobile transmitting at peak power goes some distance beyond its original cell boundaries into
another cell.
The 'power budget' method uses handover to try to maintain or improve a certain level of signal
quality at the same or lower power level. It thus gives precedence to handover over power
control. It avoids the 'smeared' cell boundary problem and reduces co-channel interference, but it
is quite complicated.
Mobility management
The Mobility Management layer (MM) is built on top of the RR layer, and handles the functions
that arise from the mobility of the subscriber, as well as the authentication and security aspects.
Location management is concerned with the procedures that enable the system to know the
current location of a powered-on mobile station so that incoming call routing can be completed.
Location updating
A powered-on mobile is informed of an incoming call by a paging message sent over the
PAGCH channel of a cell. One extreme would be to page every cell in the network for each call,
which is obviously a waste of radio bandwidth. The other extreme would be for the mobile to
notify the system, via location updating messages, of its current location at the individual cell
level. This would require paging messages to be sent to exactly one cell, but would be very
wasteful due to the large number of location updating messages. A compromise solution used in
GSM is to group cells into location areas. Updating messages are required when moving between
location areas, and mobile stations are paged in the cells of their current location area.
The location updating procedures, and subsequent call routing, use the MSC and two location
registers: the Home Location Register (HLR) and the Visitor Location Register (VLR). When a
mobile station is switched on in a new location area, or it moves to a new location area or
different operator's PLMN, it must register with the network to indicate its current location. In
the normal case, a location update message is sent to the new MSC/VLR, which records the
location area information, and then sends the location information to the subscriber's HLR. The
information sent to the HLR is normally the SS7 address of the new VLR, although it may be a
routing number. The reason a routing number is not normally assigned, even though it would
reduce signalling, is that there is only a limited number of routing numbers available in the new
MSC/VLR and they are allocated on demand for incoming calls. If the subscriber is entitled to
service, the HLR sends a subset of the subscriber information, needed for call control, to the new
MSC/VLR, and sends a message to the old MSC/VLR to cancel the old registration.
For reliability reasons, GSM also has a periodic location updating procedure. If an HLR or
MSC/VLR fails, to have each mobile register simultaneously to bring the database up to date
would cause overloading. Therefore, the database is updated as location updating events occur.
The enabling of periodic updating, and the time period between periodic updates, is controlled by
the operator, and is a trade-off between signalling traffic and speed of recovery. If a mobile does
not register after the updating time period, it is deregistered.
A procedure related to location updating is the IMSI attach and detach. A detach lets the network
know that the mobile station is unreachable, and avoids having to needlessly allocate channels
and send paging messages. An attach is similar to a location update, and informs the system that
the mobile is reachable again. The activation of IMSI attach/detach is up to the operator on an
individual cell basis.
Authentication and security
Since the radio medium can be accessed by anyone, authentication of users to prove that they are
who they claim to be, is a very important element of a mobile network. Authentication involves
two functional entities, the SIM card in the mobile, and the Authentication Center (AuC). Each
subscriber is given a secret key, one copy of which is stored in the SIM card and the other in the
AuC. During authentication, the AuC generates a random number that it sends to the mobile.
Both the mobile and the AuC then use the random number, in conjuction with the subscriber's
secret key and a ciphering algorithm called A3, to generate a signed response (SRES) that is sent
back to the AuC. If the number sent by the mobile is the same as the one calculated by the AuC,
the subscriber is authenticated.
The same initial random number and subscriber key are also used to compute the ciphering key
using an algorithm called A8. This ciphering key, together with the TDMA frame number, use
the A5 algorithm to create a 114 bit sequence that is XORed with the 114 bits of a burst (the two
57 bit blocks). Enciphering is an option for the fairly paranoid, since the signal is already coded,
interleaved, and transmitted in a TDMA manner, thus providing protection from all but the most
persistent and dedicated eavesdroppers.
Another level of security is performed on the mobile equipment itself, as opposed to the mobile
subscriber. As mentioned earlier, each GSM terminal is identified by a unique International
Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number. A list of IMEIs in the network is stored in the
Equipment Identity Register (EIR). The status returned in response to an IMEI query to the EIR
is one of the following:
 White-listed - The terminal is allowed to connect to the network.

 Grey-listed - The terminal is under observation from the network for possible problems.
 Black-listed - The terminal has either been reported stolen, or is not type approved (the
correct type of terminal for a GSM network). The terminal is not allowed to connect to
the network.
Communication management
The Communication Management layer (CM) is responsible for Call Control (CC),
supplementary service management, and short message service management. Each of these may
be considered as a separate sublayer within the CM layer. Call control attempts to follow the
ISDN procedures specified in Q.931, although routing to a roaming mobile subscriber is
obviously unique to GSM. Other functions of the CC sublayer include call establishment,
selection of the type of service (including alternating between services during a call), and call
release.
Call routing
Unlike routing in the fixed network, where a terminal is semi-permanently wired to a central
office, a GSM user can roam nationally and even internationally. The directory number dialed to
reach a mobile subscriber is called the Mobile Subscriber ISDN (MSISDN), which is defined by
the E.164 numbering plan. This number includes a country code and a National Destination Code
which identifies the subscriber's operator. The first few digits of the remaining subscriber
number may identify the subscriber's HLR within the home PLMN.
An incoming mobile terminating call is directed to the Gateway MSC (GMSC) function. The
GMSC is basically a switch which is able to interrogate the subscriber's HLR to obtain routing
information, and thus contains a table linking MSISDNs to their corresponding HLR. A
simplification is to have a GSMC handle one specific PLMN. It should be noted that the GMSC
function is distinct from the MSC function, but is usually implemented in an MSC.
The routing information that is returned to the GMSC is the Mobile Station Roaming Number
(MSRN), which is also defined by the E.164 numbering plan. MSRNs are related to the
geographical numbering plan, and not assigned to subscribers, nor are they visible to subscribers.
The most general routing procedure begins with the GMSC querying the called subscriber's HLR
for an MSRN. The HLR typically stores only the SS7 address of the subscriber's current VLR,
and does not have the MSRN (see the location updating section). The HLR must therefore query
the subscriber's current VLR, which will temporarily allocate an MSRN from its pool for the
call. This MSRN is returned to the HLR and back to the GMSC, which can then route the call to
the new MSC. At the new MSC, the IMSI corresponding to the MSRN is looked up, and the
mobile is paged in its current location area.
High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD)

High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD) is circuit-switched wireless data transmission for
mobile users at data rates up to 38.4 Kbps, four times faster than the standard data rates of the
Global System for Mobile (GSM) communication standard in 1999. HSCSD is comparable to the
speed of many computer modems that communicate with today's fixed telephone networks.
EDGE (Enhanced Data GSM Environment)

EDGE (Enhanced Data GSM Environment) is a faster version the Global System for Mobile
(GSM) wireless service designed to deliver data at rates up to 384 Kbps and enable the delivery
of multimedia and other broadband applications to mobile phone and computer users. The EDGE
standard is built on the existing GSM standard, using the same time-division multiple access
(TDMA) frame structure and existing cell arrangements. Ericsson notes that its base stations can
be updated with software.
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service)
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service) is a third-generation (3G) broadband,

packet-based transmission of text, digitized voice, video, and multimedia at data rates up to 2
megabits per second (Mbps). UMTS offers a consistent set of services to mobile computer and
phone users, no matter where they are located in the world. UMTS is based on the Global
System for Mobile (GSM) communication standard. It is also endorsed by major standards
bodies and manufacturers as the planned standard for mobile users around the world. Once
UMTS is fully available, computer and phone users can be constantly attached to the Internet
wherever they travel and, as they roam, will have the same set of capabilities. Users will have
access through a combination of terrestrial wireless and satellite transmissions. Until UMTS is
fully implemented, users can use multi-mode devices that switch to the currently available
technology (such as GSM 900 and 1800) where UMTS is not yet available.
Previous cellular telephone systems were mainly circuit-switched, meaning connections were
always dependent on circuit availability. A packet-switched connection uses the Internet Protocol
(IP), meaning that a virtual connection is always available to any other end point in the network.
UMTS also makes it possible to provide new services like alternative billing methods or calling
plans. For instance, users can choose to pay-per-bit, pay-per-session, flat rate, or asymmetric
bandwidth options. The higher bandwidth of UMTS also enables other new services like video
conferencing or IPTV. UMTS may allow the Virtual Home Environment (VHE) to fully
develop, where a roaming user can have the same services to either at home, in the office or in
the field through a combination of transparent terrestrial and satellite connections.
The electromagnetic radiation spectrum for UMTS has been identified as frequency bands 1885-
2025 MHz for future IMT-2000 systems, and 1980-2010 MHz and 2170-2200 MHz for the
satellite portion of UMTS systems

i. What is GSM?
ii. What is EDGE?
iii. discuss Public switched telephone network
iv. discuss Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) TECHNOLOGY
v. Discuss General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)

References

CHAPTER FOUR: WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES

i. Understand the various wireless technologies and devices
ii. Understand the WiFi
WiFi
If you've been in an airport, coffee shop, library or hotel recently, chances are you've been right
in the middle of a wireless network. Many people also use wireless networking, also called WiFi
or 802.11 networking, to connect their computers at home, and some cities are trying to use the
technology to provide free or low-cost Internet access to residents. In the near future, wireless
networking may become so widespread that you can access the Internet just about anywhere at
any time, without using wires.
WiFi has a lot of advantages. Wireless networks are easy to set up and inexpensive. They're also
unobtrusive -- unless you're on the lookout for a place to use your laptop, you may not even
notice when you're in a hotspot. In this article, we'll look at the technology that allows
information to travel over the air. We'll also review what it takes to create a wireless network in
your home.
What Is WiFi?
A wireless network uses radio waves, just like cell phones, televisions and radios do. In fact,
communication across a wireless network is a lot like two-way radio communication. Here's
what happens:
1. A computer's wireless adapter translates data into a radio signal and transmits it using an
antenna.
2. A wireless router receives the signal and decodes it. The router sends the information to
the Internet using a physical, wired Ethernet connection.
The process also works in reverse, with the router receiving information from the Internet,
translating it into a radio signal and sending it to the computer's wireless adapter.
The radios used for WiFi communication are very similar to the radios used for walkie-talkies,
cell phones and other devices. They can transmit and receive radio waves, and they can convert
1s and 0s into radio waves and convert the radio waves back into 1s and 0s. But WiFi radios
have a few notable differences from other radios:
 They transmit at frequencies of 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz. This frequency is considerably higher
than the frequencies used for cell phones, walkie-talkies and televisions. The higher
frequency allows the signal to carry more data.
 They use 802.11 networking standards, which come in several flavors: 802.11a transmits
at 5 GHz and can move up to 54 megabits of data per second. It also uses orthogonal
frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), a more efficient coding technique that splits
that radio signal into several sub-signals before they reach a receiver. This greatly
reduces interference. 802.11b is the slowest and least expensive standard. For a while, its
cost made it popular, but now it's becoming less common as faster standards become less
expensive. 802.11b transmits in the 2.4 GHz frequency band of the radio spectrum. It can
handle up to 11 megabits of data per second, and it uses complementary code keying
(CCK) modulation to improve speeds. 802.11g transmits at 2.4 GHz like 802.11b, but it's
a lot faster -- it can handle up to 54 megabits of data per second. 802.11g is faster because
it uses the same OFDM coding as 802.11a. 802.11n is the newest standard that is widely
available. This standard significantly improves speed and range. For instance, although
802.11g theoretically moves 54 megabits of data per second, it only achieves real-world
speeds of about 24 megabits of data per second because of network congestion. 802.11n,
however, reportedly can achieve speeds as high as 140 megabits per second. The standard
is currently in draft form -- the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) plans to formally ratify 802.11n by the end of 2009.
 Other 802.11 standards focus on specific applications of wireless networks, like wide
area networks (WANs) inside vehicles or technology that lets you move from one
wireless network to another seamlessly.
 WiFi radios can transmit on any of three frequency bands. Or, they can "frequency hop"
rapidly between the different bands. Frequency hopping helps reduce interference and
lets multiple devices use the same wireless connection simultaneously.
As long as they all have wireless adapters, several devices can use one router to connect to the
Internet. This connection is convenient, virtually invisible and fairly reliable; however, if the
router fails or if too many people try to use high-bandwidth applications at the same time, users
can experience interference or lose their connections.
WiFi Hotspots
If you want to take advantage of public WiFi hotspots or start a wireless network in your home,
the first thing you'll need to do is make sure your computer has the right gear. Most new laptops
and many new desktop computers come with built-in wireless transmitters. If your laptop
doesn't, you can buy a wireless adapter that plugs into the PC card slot or USB port. Desktop
computers can use USB adapters, or you can buy an adapter that plugs into the PCI slot inside
the computer's case. Many of these adapters can use more than one 802.11 standard.
Once you've installed your wireless adapter and the drivers that allow it to operate, your
computer should be able to automatically discover existing networks. This means that when you
turn your computer on in a WiFi hotspot, the computer will inform you that the network exists
and ask whether you want to connect to it. If you have an older computer, you may need to use a
software program to detect and connect to a wireless network.
Being able to connect to the Internet in public hotspots is extremely convenient. Wireless home
networks are convenient as well. They allow you to easily connect multiple computers and to
move them from place to place without disconnecting and reconnecting wires. In the next
section, we'll look at how to create a wireless network in your home.
Building a Wireless Network
If you already have several computers networked in your home, you can create a wireless
network with a wireless access point. If you have several computers that are not networked, or if
you want to replace your Ethernet network, you'll need a wireless router. This is a single unit that
contains:
1. A port to connect to your cable or DSL modem

2. A router
3. An Ethernet hub
4. A firewall
5. A wireless access point
A wireless router allows you to use wireless signals or Ethernet cables to connect your
computers to one another, to a printer and to the Internet. Most routers provide coverage for
about 100 feet (30.5 meters) in all directions, although walls and doors can block the signal. If
your home is very large, you can buy inexpensive range extenders or repeaters to increase your
router's range.
As with wireless adapters, many routers can use more than one 802.11 standard. 802.11b routers
are slightly less expensive, but because the standard is older, they're slower than 802.11a,
802.11g and 802.11n routers. Most people select the 802.11g option for its speed and reliability.
Once you plug in your router, it should start working at its default settings. Most routers let you
use a Web interface to change your settings. You can select:
 The name of the network, known as its service set identifier (SSID) -- The default
setting is usually the manufacturer's name.
 The channel that the router uses -- Most routers use channel 6 by default. If you live in
an apartment and your neighbors are also using channel 6, you may experience
interference. Switching to a different channel should eliminate the problem.
 Your router's security options -- Many routers use a standard, publicly available sign-
on, so it's a good idea to set your own username and password.
Security is an important part of a home wireless network, as well as public WiFi hotspots. If you
set your router to create an open hotspot, anyone who has a wireless card will be able to use your
signal. Most people would rather keep strangers out of their network, though. Doing so requires
you to take a few security precautions.
It's also important to make sure your security precautions are current. The Wired Equivalency
Privacy (WEP) security measure was once the standard for WAN security. The idea behind WEP
was to create a wireless security platform that would make any wireless network as secure as a
traditional wired network. But hackers discovered vulnerabilities in the WEP approach, and
today it's easy to find applications and programs that can compromise a WAN running WEP
security.
To keep your network private, you can use one of the following methods:
 WiFi Protected Access (WPA) is a step up from WEP and is now part of the 802.11i
wireless network security protocol. It uses temporal key integrity protocol (TKIP)
encryption. As with WEP, WPA security involves signing on with a password. Most
public hotspots are either open or use WPA or 128-bit WEP technology, though some
still use the vulnerable WEP approach.
 Media Access Control (MAC) address filtering is a little different from WEP or WPA. It
doesn't use a password to authenticate users -- it uses a computer's physical hardware.
Each computer has its own unique MAC address. MAC address filtering allows only
machines with specific MAC addresses to access the network. You must specify which
addresses are allowed when you set up your router. This method is very secure, but if you
buy a new computer or if visitors to your home want to use your network, you'll need to
add the new machines' MAC addresses to the list of approved addresses. The system isn't
foolproof. A clever hacker can spoof a MAC address -- that is, copy a known MAC
address to fool the network that the computer he or she is using belongs on the network.
Wireless networks are easy and inexpensive to set up, and most routers' Web interfaces are
virtually self-explanatory.
WAP
You and millions of other people around the world use the Internet every day -- to communicate
with others, follow the stock market, keep up with the news, check the weather, make travel
plans, conduct business, shop, entertain yourself and learn. Staying connected has become so
important that it's hard to get away from your computer and your Internet connection because
you might miss an e-mail message, an update on your stock or some news you need to know.
With your business or your personal life growing more dependent on electronic communication
over the Internet, you might be ready to take the next step and get a device that allows you to
access the Internet on the go.
That's where wireless Internet comes in. You've probably seen news or advertising about cell
phones and PDAs that let you receive and send e-mail. This seems a logical next step, but there
are some questions that come up when you think about going mobile with the Internet. Will you
still be able to surf the Web? How fast will you be able to get the information you need? You
might have heard of the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) and wonder how it works.
Learn just what WAP is, why it is needed and what devices use it.
The Cellular Explosion
Probably the most important factor in the birth of wireless Internet has been the proliferation of
digital cell phones in the last few years. The expanding network of digital cellular and personal
communication services (PCS) has created a solid foundation for wireless Internet services. It is
estimated that there are more than 50 million Web-enabled cell phones in use. In 1997, Nokia,
Motorola, Ericsson and Phone.com came together to create the WAP because they believed that
a universal standard is critical to the successful implementation of wireless Internet. Since then,
more than 350 companies have joined them in the WAP Forum.
Making a Web site accessible through a wireless device is quite a challenge. So far, only a small
portion of the more than a billion Web sites provide any wireless Internet content. As the use of
WAP-enabled devices grows, you can expect that many more Web sites will be interested in
creating wireless content.
WAP is designed to work on any of the existing wireless services, using standards such as:
 Short Message Service (SMS)

 High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (CSD)
 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
 Unstructured Supplementary Services Data (USSD)
Wireless Markup Language
WAP uses Wireless Markup Language (WML), which includes the Handheld Device Markup
Language (HDML) developed by Phone.com.
WML can also trace its roots to eXtensible Markup Language (XML). A markup language is a
way of adding information to your content that tells the device receiving the content what to do
with it. The best known markup language is Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). Unlike
HTML, WML is considered a meta language. Basically, this means that in addition to providing
predefined tags, WML lets you design your own markup language components. WAP also
allows the use of standard Internet protocols such as UDP, IP and XML.
There are three main reasons why wireless Internet needs the Wireless Application Protocol:
 Transfer speed
 Size and readability
 Navigation
Most cell phones and Web-enabled PDAs have data transfer rates of 14.4 Kbps or less.
Compare this to a typical 56 Kbps modem, a cable modem or a DSL connection. Most Web
pages today are full of graphics that would take an unbearably long time to download at 14.4
Kbps. Wireless Internet content is typically text-based in order to solve this problem.
The relatively small size of the LCD on a cell phone or PDA presents another challenge. Most
Web pages are designed for a resolution of 640x480 pixels, which is fine if you are reading on a
desktop or a laptop. The page simply does not fit on a wireless device's display, which might be
150x150 pixels. Also, the majority of wireless devices use monochrome screens. Pages are
harder to read when font and background colors become similar shades of gray.
Navigation is another issue. You make your way through a Web page with points and clicks
using a mouse; but if you are using a wireless device, you often use one hand to scroll keys.
WAP takes each of these limitations into account and provides a way to work with a typical
wireless device.
Wireless Application Protocol
Here's what happens when you access a Web site using a WAP-enabled device:
 You turn on the device and open the minibrowser.

 The device sends out a radio signal, searching for service.
 A connection is made with your service provider.
 You select a Web site that you wish to view.
 A request is sent to a gateway server using WAP.
 The gateway server retrieves the information via HTTP from the Web site.
 The gateway server encodes the HTTP data as WML.
 The WML-encoded data is sent to your device.
 You see the wireless Internet version of the Web page you selected.
To create wireless Internet content, a Web site creates special text-only or low-graphics versions
of the site. The data is sent in HTTP form by a Web server to a WAP gateway. This system
includes the WAP encoder, script compiler and protocol adapters to convert the HTTP
information to WML. The gateway then sends the converted data to the WAP client on your
wireless device.
What happens between the gateway and the client relies on features of different parts of the
WAP protocol stack. Let's take a look at each part of the stack:
 WAE - The Wireless Application Environment holds the tools that wireless Internet
content developers use. These include WML and WMLScript, which is a scripting
language used in conjunction with WML. It functions much like Javascript.
 WSP - The Wireless Session Protocol determines whether a session between the device
and the network will be connection-oriented or connectionless. What this is basically
talking about is whether or not the device needs to talk back and forth with the network
during a session. In a connection-oriented session, data is passed both ways between the
device and the network; WSP then sends the packet to the Wireless Transaction Protocol
layer (see below). If the session is connectionless, commonly used when information is
being broadcast or streamed from the network to the device, then WSP redirects the
packet to the Wireless Datagram Protocol layer (see below).
 WTP - The Wireless Transaction Protocol acts like a traffic cop, keeping the data
flowing in a logical and smooth manner. It also determines how to classify each
transaction request: Reliable two-way Reliable one-way Unreliable one-way The WSP
and WTP layers correspond to Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) in the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
 WTLS - Wireless Transport Layer Security provides many of the same security features
found in the Transport Layer Security (TLS) part of TCP/IP. It checks data integrity,
provides encryption and performs client and server authentication.
 WDP - The Wireless Datagram Protocol works in conjunction with the network carrier
layer (see below). WDP makes it easy to adapt WAP to a variety of bearers because all
that needs to change is the information maintained at this level.
 Network carriers - Also called bearers, these can be any of the existing technologies
that wireless providers use, as long as information is provided at the WDP level to
interface WAP with the bearer.
Once the information is received by the WAP client, it is passed to the minibrowser. This is a
tiny application built into the wireless device that provides the interface between the user and the
wireless Internet.
The minibrowser does not offer anything more than basic navigation. Wireless Internet is still a
long way from being a true alternative to the normal Internet. It is really positioned right now for
people who need the ability to connect no matter where they are. The WAP Forum is continually
working on the specifications of the WAP standard to ensure that it evolves in a timely and
useful manner.
The Evolution of Wireless Network Security
One of the first major complaints that arose from wireless networking was from the security
community. Quite rightly, the complaint was that with RF signals being broadcast over the air,
nothing can stop someone from reaching out and grabbing them. At least with wired networking,
a person had to be physically connected to the same hubs or switches to be able to eavesdrop on
a network conversation.
To deal with this issue, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) was introduced. The goal of WEP was
to provide the same level of privacy that you would have if you were still connected to a wired
network. WEP involved two sets of mechanisms:
* Authentication: You need to prove your identity before participating in the network.
* Encryption: You want everything you send over the airwaves to be encrypted.
The basis of WEP encryption is tied to an encryption key; today you typically see either 64-bit
WEP or 128-bit WEP encryption keys. With 64-bit WEP, you use a 40-bit key that is joined with
a 24-bit initialization vector (IV) to generate an RC4 (Rivest Cipher 4) stream cipher. A 128-bit
WEP uses a 104-bit encryption key, which is then joined with the 24-bit IV to create the RC4
cipher.
While this gives you a quick and efficient way to encrypt and decrypt traffic at high speed, it has
some serious flaws. Even if you cannot read the data, you can still capture data packets off a
wireless network because they are just traveling over the air. One of the issues is that the IV must
be unique for every packet that is sent over a time period, and because it is only 24 bits long, it
can start repeating in as little as 5,000 packets, making it not as random or secure as it can be.
The goal of WEP was good, but as with a better-built mousetrap, you just end up with smarter
mice. These days, WEP can be broken with readily available software in less than a minute.
Given this, it is not considered reliably secure for networks. The Payment Card Industry (PCI),
which sets standards for credit and debit card transactions, prohibits the use of WEP in any part
of a credit card transaction.
Due to the limitations of WEP, Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) was developed. WPA uses most
of the recommendations that are included in the IEEE 802.11i specification, which lays out
security standards for wireless networks. WPA2 followed later, implementing all the IEEE
802.11i mandatory elements.
Rather than using a static encryption key, as is used with WEP, WPA uses the Temporal Key
Integrity Protocol (TKIP), which can easily be implemented because it is a minor but effective
upgrade to WEP. Rather than using a plain text IV, it combines the IV with a secret root key. It
also implements a sequence counter, so all packets must arrive at the AP in the correct order or
they are rejected. Finally, it provides a method of rekeying or updating the encryption key,
neutralizing people trying to break the key.
There are still many documented attacks that can be successfully carried out on a WPA network
using TKIP, and as such, it required additional updating. The implementation of AES (Advanced
Encryption Standard) increased encryption to a level that is still considered to be the safest on the
market.
How is PCS wireless different than cellular service?
Personal Communications Service (PCS) is very similar to digital cellular, and in some cases the
two terms are interchangeable. PCS is a wireless phone service that emphasizes personal service,
and it was developed especially for extensive mobility. Both systems operate through a network
of cells spread throughout each geographic area. Areas are divided into cells that use different
frequencies, so that the user can be traveling -- passing through different cells on the
communications network -- and get continuous phone connectivity. PCS also includes other
services in the same package, such as caller ID, email and paging.
Cell phones were originally developed for use as car phones. The PCS phone service was
designed from the start with mobility in mind. The cells that the network runs on are smaller,
with more antennas covering each area. The frequencies PCS uses, 1850-MHz to 1990-MHz
bands, are different than the ones that cellular phones in the U.S. typically operate in, which are
824-MHz to 894-MHz. Digital cellular service usually has 30-kHz channel spacing and three
time slots, while PCS has 200-kHz channel spacing and eight time slots.
Cell phones have different options for operating modes. Multiple band phones operate in one
mode, but they can switch frequencies as needed. Multiple mode phones can switch between
modes, for example from TDMA to AMPS (analog). Other cell phone models offer multiple
frequency bands and transmission mode options, with the ability to switch transmission types
and frequencies automatically. PCS is based on TDMA technology, which is usually the default
option for cell phones. Connecting at the 1900-MHz TDMA frequency is usually tried first;
phones that support multiple modes will always try digital mode before analog. This is important
for people who need continuous uninterrupted phone service while traveling.
Wireless Mesh Networks
Wireless mesh networks, an emerging technology, may bring the dream of a seamlessly
connected world into reality.
Wireless mesh networks can easily, effectively and wirelessly connect entire cities using
inexpensive, existing technology. Traditional networks rely on a small number of wired access
points or wireless hotspots to connect users. In a wireless mesh network, the network connection
is spread out among dozens or even hundreds of wireless mesh nodes that "talk" to each other to
share the network connection across a large area.
Mesh nodes are small radio transmitters that function in the same way as a wireless router.
Nodes use the common WiFi standards known as 802.11a, b and g to communicate wirelessly
with users, and, more importantly, with each other.
Nodes are programmed with software that tells them how to interact within the larger network.
Information travels across the network from point A to point B by hopping wirelessly from one
mesh node to the next. The nodes automatically choose the quickest and safest path in a process
known as dynamic routing.
The biggest advantage of wireless mesh networks -- as opposed to wired or fixed wireless
networks -- is that they are truly wireless. Most traditional "wireless" access points still need to
be wired to the Internet to broadcast their signal. For large wireless networks, Ethernet cables
need to be buried in ceilings and walls and throughout public areas.
In a wireless mesh network, only one node needs to be physically wired to a network connection
like a DSL Internet modem. That one wired node then shares its Internet connection wirelessly
with all other nodes in its vicinity. Those nodes then share the connection wirelessly with the
nodes closest to them. The more nodes, the further the connection spreads, creating a wireless
"cloud of connectivity" that can serve a small office or a city of millions.
Wireless mesh networks advantages include:

 Using fewer wires means it costs less to set up a network, particularly for large areas of
coverage.
 The more nodes you install, the bigger and faster your wireless network becomes.
 They rely on the same WiFi standards (802.11a, b and g) already in place for most
wireless networks.
 They are convenient where Ethernet wall connections are lacking -- for instance, in
outdoor concert venues, warehouses or transportation settings.
 They are useful for Non-Line-of-Sight (NLoS) network configurations where wireless
signals are intermittently blocked. For example, in an amusement park a Ferris wheel
occasionally blocks the signal from a wireless access point. If there are dozens or
hundreds of other nodes around, the mesh network will adjust to find a clear signal.
 Mesh networks are "self configuring;" the network automatically incorporates a new node
into the existing structure without needing any adjustments by a network administrator.
 Mesh networks are "self healing," since the network automatically finds the fastest and
most reliable paths to send data, even if nodes are blocked or lose their signal.
 Wireless mesh configurations allow local networks to run faster, because local packets
don't have to travel back to a central server.
 Wireless mesh nodes are easy to install and uninstall, making the network extremely
adaptable and expandable as more or less coverage is needed.
In this article, we'll explain how wireless mesh networks work, how they increase network
access for a wide variety of industries, and how they might make our dream of a seamlessly
connected world come true.
Wireless Mesh Technology
The graphic below shows how a wireless mesh network functions when sharing an Internet
connection across a Local Area Network (LAN). As you see, only one node in the wireless mesh
network needs to be directly wired to the Internet. That wired node shares the Internet connection
wirelessly with the nearest cluster of nodes, which then share it with their nearest cluster of
nodes and so on.
That means that each individual node doesn't need to be wired to anything. It only needs a power
supply such as traditional AC plugs, batteries, or solar panels if outdoors. Outdoor nodes are
encased in a weatherproof, protective shield and can be mounted anywhere including telephone
pools, roofs, etc.
Wireless mesh networks are effective in sharing Internet connectivity because the more nodes
that are installed, the further the signal can travel. And the more nodes you have, the stronger and
faster the Internet connection becomes for the user.
How does the Internet connection become stronger and faster?
 If your laptop computer is in the broadcast range of four nodes, you're tapping into four
times the bandwidth of one traditional wireless router.
 Distance plays a huge role in wireless signal strength. If you reduce the distance between
your computer and the nearest wireless node by two, the signal strength is four times as
strong.
 Nodes can also provide Internet connectivity to wired devices within the network like
VoIP phones, video cameras, servers, and desktop workstations using traditional Ethernet
cables. Most nodes come with two or more Ethernet ports, and through a technology
called Power Over Ethernet (PoE), the node can provide power to stand-alone devices
like surveillance cameras without having to plug the camera into an electrical outlet.
Applications for Wireless Mesh Networks
Cities and Municipalities
With wireless mesh networks, cities can connect citizens and public services over a widespread
high-speed wireless connection.
A growing number of downtown areas are installing public WiFi hotspots. Mesh networks allow
cities to inexpensively and simply link all those hotspots together to cover the entire
municipality.
Some advantages of municipal mesh networks:
 Commuters can check their e-mail on the train, in the park, at a restaurant.
 Public works officials can monitor the diagnostics of the city's power and water supply
by installing wireless nodes in water treatment facilities, sewers and generators. There's
no need to dig trenches to run cables.
 Public safety and emergency workers can access secure virtual networks within the larger
network to keep communication lines open, even when regular phone or cellular service
is down. With mesh nodes mounted on streetlights and stop lights, police and firefighters
can remain connected to the network, even while moving.
According to a report by MuniWireless.com in March 2007, 81 U.S. cities have already installed
citywide or region-wide municipal wireless networks and 164 more are actively building such
networks. The report also says that 38 U.S. cities already have municipal wireless networks for
the exclusive use of public safety and city employees.
Not all existing municipal wireless networks are mesh networks, however. Some are powered by
a technology called WiMAX which has the ability to broadcast signals over large distances using
powerful microwave transmissions. Other municipal networks use a combination of mesh,
WiMAX and others.
Developing CountriesWireless mesh networks are useful in countries without a widespread

wired infrastructure, such as telephone service or even electricity. Solar-powered nodes can be
connected to one cellular or satellite Internet connection, which could keep a whole village
online.
Isolated Locations, Rugged TerrainEven in developed countries, there are rugged locations too
far off the grid for traditional high-speed Internet service providers. Wireless mesh networks are
being considered for these areas. A series of nodes would be mounted from the nearest available
wired access point out to the hard-to-reach area.
EducationMany colleges, universities and high schools are converting their entire campuses to
wireless mesh networks. This solution eliminates the need to bury cables in old buildings and
across campuses. With dozens of well-placed indoor and outdoor nodes, everyone will be
connected all the time.
Mesh networks also have the capacity to handle the high-bandwidth needs required by students
who need to download large files.
Students can connect anywhere.
Schools can also rig their entire public safety system up to the network, monitoring security
cameras and keeping all personnel in constant communication in emergency situations.
HealthcareMany hospitals are spread out through clusters of densely constructed buildings that
were not built with computer networks in mind. Wireless mesh nodes can sneak around corners
and send signals short distances through thick glass to ensure access in every operating room, lab
and office.
The ability to connect to the network is crucial as more doctors and caregivers maintain and
update patient information -- test results, medical history, even insurance information -- on
portable electronic devices carried from room to room.
HospitalityHigh-speed Internet connectivity at hotels and resorts has become the rule, not the
exception. Wireless mesh networks are quick and easy to set up indoors and outdoors without
having to remodel existing structures or disrupt business.
Temporary VenuesConstruction sites can capitalize on the easy set-up and removal of wireless
mesh networks. Architects and engineers can stay wired to the office, and Ethernet-powered
surveillance cameras can decrease theft and vandalism. Mesh nodes can be moved around and
supplemented as the construction project progresses.
Other temporary venues like street fairs, outdoor concerts and political rallies can set-up and tear
down wireless mesh networks in minutes.
WarehousesThere is simply no effective way to keep track of stock and shipping logistics
without the types of Ethernet-enabled handheld scanners used in modern warehouses. Wireless
mesh networks can ensure connectivity throughout a huge warehouse structure with little effort.
Future ApplicationsThe U.S. military, which helped develop wireless mesh technology,
foresees a day when thousands of microchip-size mesh nodes can be dropped onto a battlefield to
set up instant scouting and surveillance networks. Information can be routed to both ground
troops and headquarter personnel.
Carmakers and telecom companies are working to develop Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS)
powered by street and highway-based wireless mesh networks. Using an automated network of
surveillance cameras and in-car sensors, public safety officials can tightly monitor traffic
accidents and dangerous road conditions.
PC Magazine reports that there's even technology in the works that would alert a driver when a
nearby car deploys its airbag. Mobile mesh networks also promise upgrades for in-car
entertainment options like digital music and movie downloads.
Chipmakers and network software developers like Ember Corporation already sell automated
home and automated building solutions that employ mesh networks to control and remotely
monitor surveillance systems, climate control and entertainment systems. The future applications
for wireless mesh networks are limited only by our imaginations.
Wireless Internet Cards
Walk into any coffee shop and you'll see scores of people pecking away at their laptop
computers. If you feel like everywhere you go -- from college campuses and libraries to
Starbucks and McDonald's -- has wireless connectivity, you're not alone. Currently, 241,506
WiFi hot spots are scattered throughout 134 countries, and some of those "spots" are entire
cities
These hot spots usually connect to the larger Internet community by wires or cables and
broadcast the Internet signal wirelessly to individual computers using radio frequencies. Many
personal computers pick up that signal using a wireless Internet card, a small device about the
size of a credit card.
Wireless Internet cards, also known as Local Area Network, or LAN, cards, are one of the
many types of adapter cards that add capabilities to your computer. Other adapter cards can
enable teleconferencing, improve sound systems or download photos from a digital camera.
Wireless Internet cards come in several forms. Different cards exist for laptops, desktops and
PDAs. Many computers come with one preinstalled, but they can also be purchased relatively
inexpensively and self-installed or simply inserted into a slot on the side of the computer.
The sheer number of WiFi hot spots has made wireless Internet cards even more desirable.
Initially used mostly in homes or businesses so that multiple people could share an Internet
connection, they are a hot commodity for anyone with a computer, especially with entire cities
going wireless.
Wireless Internet Background
To understand the mechanism behind wireless Internet cards, you first have to grasp how the
wireless Internet itself works. Rather than transmitting data through a phone line, digital
subscriber line (DSL) or high-speed cable, a wireless Internet network transmits data the same
way that radios and cell phones do: radio waves.
A WiFi hot spot, usually a wireless router or access point, first receives information from the
Internet the old-fashioned way: through wires. It then translates that data from the binary form
(the computer code of 1s and 0s) into radio waves. Next it broadcasts those radio waves into the
surrounding area. Wireless signals typically travel between 75 feet and 150 feet (23 meters and
46 meters). In a wide open area with no obstacles, however, they have been known to transmit up
to 1,000 feet (305 meters) and, with optimal conditions, even a mile (1.6 kilometers). More on
those optimal conditions in a little bit.
Wireless Internet cards within the range of the radio signal pick it up using a tiny antenna and
translate it back into binary code for your computer to read. The process also works in the
opposite direction, with the card translating your computer's information into radio waves to
send to the router, where it is put back into binary form and sent to the Internet over the wires.
The radio communication used by wireless networks is slightly different from that of radios and
cell phones. For instance, wireless Internet cards are designed to work at higher frequencies to
handle more data -- typically either 2.4 gigahertz or 5 gigahertz. In addition, the cards and the
routers can communicate on one of three different frequency channels. In cases where many
people are using the wireless signal, like an airport crowded with business travelers, the cards
and the routers can also jump between channels to reduce interference.
Wireless cards operate under networking standards that are a variation of the basic 802.11
standard. These standards were developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers to differentiate between the various technologies. The 802.11b and 802.11g standards
are the most common, while the faster 802.11n, which was recently released, is not as
widespread.
Although WiFi radio signals have some benefits over regular radio signals, they are still subject
to interference by physical obstacles. Interference happens when a signal is hampered by
distance or a physical obstacle. For instance, microwaves and many cordless phones operate in
the same frequency used by some WiFi networks, so you might notice a slowdown in your
service if you're trying to warm your latte while you sign on. Likewise, if you move to another
room or if an elephant comes to stand between you and the hot spot, the signal could be lost.
Don't worry if you don't have your own wireless network at home or at work. You can purchase
prepaid wireless Internet cards in the U.S. from companies such as T-Mobile, which allow you
access to all the T-Mobile hot spots. This can get kind of pricey, though, so you may want to
kick in the cash to set up your own network or find a local spot that advertises a free Wi-Fi
connection.
Wireless Internet Cards for Laptops, Desktops and PDAs
If you've ever gone into a computer store and looked in the section devoted to adapter cards,
you're aware of how many different kinds await you. Cards labeled as PCI refer to the specific
language the card uses to communicate with the computer's central processor. PCI stands for
Peripheral Component Interconnect, which is an industry standard that refers to the way an
attached device talks to the computer through a central pathway called the bus.
PCI network adapters come in many different shapes and sizes called form factors. Two
common form factors are the mini PCI, which is a wireless network card that comes embedded
inside a laptop computer, and the PCI wireless adapter card for desktops. Since a desktop
computer's bus is located inside the computer, wireless Internet cards for desktops have to be
installed inside the unit, and most computers come with one preinstalled. If you want an external
Internet adapter, you need to look for one that connects through the USB.
Other labels you might see are the PC Card or ExpressCard designations. Whereas PCI
wireless network adapters communicate through a computer's bus, PC Card adapters just fit into
a slot on the side and are used mainly in laptops because of their thin design. The newer
ExpressCard technology has gradually been replacing PC Card adapters.
The PC Card and ExpressCard designations come from PCMCIA, the Personal Computer
Memory Card International Association, which is the organization that developed a standard
network adapter using the PC form factor. You'll sometimes see these cards labeled as PCMCIA
cards. Regardless of the name, they all insert into a slot on the laptop's side, and typically stick
out a little bit to better transmit and receive signals with their built-in WiFi antennas.
You also can buy USB keys that plug in to use as wireless adapters. These devices, which
resemble the memory sticks or flash drives you stick into an available USB port on the side of
your computer, seem to be an increasingly popular choice.
Yet another type of wireless Internet card exists for PDAs. For people who haven't yet jumped
on the BlackBerry bandwagon, there is WCF. Wireless CompactFlash cards, like PC Cards, fit
into a slot on the side or back of a PDA and enable it to communicate with the Internet.
Comparing Wireless Internet Connection Cards
You'll need to pay attention to several things when purchasing a wireless Internet card, such as
the networking standard that the card uses. For example, 802.11b, which used to be the dominant
WiFi standard, is meant for wireless networks operating in the 2.4-gigahertz range. It supports a
bandwidth of 11 megabits of data per second. The bandwidth refers to how much data can be
transferred in a set amount of time. The higher the number, the faster the rate of transfer. So
802.11g and 802.11n, which send data over the Internet at speeds of 54 and 140 megabits per
second, respectively, are going to stream your video faster than the clunkier 802.11b standard.
Paying attention to the network standard on the card you purchase is important because you need
it to be able to communicate with the other wireless products you'll be using. For instance, if
your home network uses the 2.4-gigahertz frequency, and you buy a card that just works in the 5-
gigahertz range, you'll be out of luck. However, if you buy a card that is WiFi-certified for the
same frequency band and with the same features (such as encryption codes) of the other products
you'll be using, you're good to go. If you want a card that works on different frequencies, you can
get a dual-band one, which will be compatible with all WiFi-certified products.
In addition, don't forget to look at the card's transfer rate, range and the operating system it
requires. Also, consider whether you want a card with an external or internal antenna. Last but
not least is security. Wireless networks are notoriously easier to hack into than wired ones, which
means you have to take extra measures to protect yourself. The Wi-Fi Alliance suggests always
connecting through a trusted provider that uses encryption technologies, enabling security if you
have your own network and buying products that are WiFi-certified for WiFi Protected Access
(WPA).
Wireless technology shows no signs of stopping its quest to allow you to check your e-mail
anytime, anywhere. Soon you may even be able to surf the net while flying at 30,000 feet (9,144
meters).
Wireless Networks
The easiest, least expensive way to connect the computers in your home is to use a wireless
network, which uses radio waves instead of wires. The absence of physical wires makes this
kind of network very flexible. For example, you can move a laptop from room to room without
fiddling with network cables and without losing your connection. The downside is that wireless
connections are generally slower than Ethernet connections and they are less secure unless you
take measures to protect your network.
If you want to build a wireless network, you'll need a wireless router. Signals from a wireless
router extend about 100 feet (30.5 meters) in all directions, but walls can interrupt the signal.
Depending on the size and shape of your home and the range of the router, you may need to
purchase a range extender or repeater to get enough coverage.
You'll also need a wireless adapter in each computer you plan to connect to the network. You
can add printers and other devices to the network as well. Some new models have built-in
wireless communication capabilities, and you can use a wireless Ethernet bridge to add
wireless capabilities to devices that don't. Any devices that use the Bluetooth standard can also
connect easily to each other within a range of about 10 meters (32 feet), and most computers,
printers, cell phones, home entertainment systems and other gadgets come installed with the
technology.
If you decide to build a wireless network, you'll need to take steps to protect it -- you don't want
your neighbors hitchhiking on your wireless signal. Wireless security options include:
 Wired Equivalency Privacy (WEP)

 WiFi Protected Access (WPA)
 Media Access Control (MAC) address filtering
You can choose which method (or combination of methods) you want to use when you set up
your wireless router. The IEEE has approved each of these security standards, but studies have
proven that WEP can be broken into very easily. If you use WEP, you may consider adding
Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) to your operating system. TKIP is a wrapper with
backward compatibility, which means you can add it to your existing security option without
interfering with its activity. Think of it like wrapping a bandage around a cut finger -- the
bandage protects the finger without preventing it from carrying out its normal functions.

i. Discuss the wireless technologies
ii. Explain how is PCS wireless different than cellular service?
References

CHAPTER FIVE: SATELLITES

i. Understand the satellite communication
ii. Understand the different types of satellite orbits
Introduction to Satellites
Not so long ago, satellites were exotic, top-secret devices. They were used primarily in a military
capacity, for activities such as navigation and espionage. Now they are an essential part of our
daily lives. We see and recognize their use in weather reports, television transmission by
DIRECTV and the DISH Network, and everyday telephone calls. In many other instances,
satellites play a background role that escapes our notice:
 Some newspapers and magazines are more timely because they transmit their text and
images to multiple printing sites via satellite to speed local distribution.
 Before sending signals down the wire into our houses, cable television depends on
satellites to distribute its transmissions.
 The most reliable taxi and limousine drivers are sometimes using the satellite-based
Global Positioning System (GPS) to take us to the proper destination.
 The goods we buy often reach distributors and retailers more efficiently and safely
because trucking firms track the progress of their vehicles with the same GPS. Sometimes
firms will even tell their drivers that they are driving too fast.
 Emergency radio beacons from downed aircraft and distressed ships may reach search-
and-rescue teams when satellites relay the signal (read this page for details).
What Is a Satellite?
A satellite is basically any object that revolves around a planet in a circular or elliptical path. The
moon is Earth's original, natural satellite, and there are many man-made (artificial) satellites,
usually closer to Earth.
 The path a satellite follows is an orbit. In the orbit, the farthest point from Earth is the
apogee, and the nearest point is the perigee.
 Artificial satellites generally are not mass-produced. Most satellites are custom built to
perform their intended functions. Exceptions include the GPS satellites (with over 20
copies in orbit) and the Iridium satellites (with over 60 copies in orbit).
 Approximately 23,000 items of space junk -- objects large enough to track with radar that
were inadvertently placed in orbit or have outlived their usefulness -- are floating above
Earth. The actual number varies depending on which agency is counting. Payloads that
go into the wrong orbit, satellites with run-down batteries, and leftover rocket boosters all
contribute to the count. This online catalog of satellites has almost 26,000 entries!
Although anything that is in orbit around Earth is technically a satellite, the term "satellite" is
typically used to describe a useful object placed in orbit purposely to perform some specific
mission or task. We commonly hear about weather satellites, communication satellites and
scientific satellites.
Whose Satellite Was the First to Orbit Earth?
The Soviet Sputnik satellite was the first to orbit Earth, launched on Oct. 4, 1957.
Because of Soviet government secrecy at the time, no photographs were taken of this famous
launch. Sputnik was a 23-inch (58-centimeter), 184-pound (83-kilogram) metal ball. Although it
was a remarkable achievement, Sputnik's contents seem meager by today's standards:
 Thermometer
 Battery
 Radio transmitter - changed the tone of its beeps to match temperature changes
 Nitrogen gas - pressurized the interior of the satellite
On the outside of Sputnik, four whip antennas transmitted on short-wave frequencies above and
below what is today's Citizens Band (27 MHz). According to the Space Satellite Handbook, by
Anthony R. Curtis:
After 92 days, gravity took over and Sputnik burned in Earth's atmosphere. Thirty days after the
Sputnik launch, the dog Laika orbited in a half-ton Sputnik satellite with an air supply for the
dog. It burned in the atmosphere in April 1958.
How Is a Satellite Launched into an Orbit?
All satellites today get into orbit by riding on a rocket. Many used to hitch a ride in the cargo bay
of the space shuttle. Several countries and businesses have rocket launch capabilities, and
satellites as large as several tons make it safely into orbit regularly.
For most satellite launches, the scheduled launch rocket is aimed straight up at first. This gets the
rocket through the thickest part of the atmosphere most quickly and best minimizes fuel
consumption.
After a rocket launches straight up, the rocket control mechanism uses the inertial guidance
system to calculate necessary adjustments to the rocket's nozzles to tilt the rocket to the course
described in the flight plan. In most cases, the flight plan calls for the rocket to head east
because Earth rotates to the east, giving the launch vehicle a free boost. The strength of this
boost depends on the rotational velocity of Earth at the launch location. The boost is greatest at
the equator, where the distance around Earth is greatest and so rotation is fastest.
How big is the boost from an equatorial launch? To make a rough estimate, we can determine
Earth's circumference by multiplying its diameter by pi (3.1416). The diameter of Earth is
approximately 7,926 miles (12,753 kilometers). Multiplying by pi yields a circumference of
something like 24,900 miles (40,065 kilometers). To travel around that circumference in 24
hours, a point on Earth's surface has to move at 1,038 mph (1,669 kph). A launch from Cape
Canaveral, Florida, doesn't get as big a boost from Earth's rotational speed. The Kennedy Space
Center's Launch Complex 39-A, one of its launch facilities, is located at 28 degrees 36 minutes
29.7014 seconds north latitude. The Earth's rotational speed there is about 894 mph (1,440 kph).
The difference in Earth's surface speed between the equator and Kennedy Space Center, then, is
about 144 mph (229 kph). (Note: The Earth is actually oblate -- fatter around the middle -- not a
perfect sphere. For that reason, our estimate of Earth's circumference is a little small.)
Considering that rockets can go thousands of miles per hour, you may wonder why a difference
of only 144 mph would even matter. The answer is that rockets, together with their fuel and their
payloads, are very heavy. For example, the Feb. 11, 2000, lift-off of the space shuttle Endeavour
with the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission required launching a total weight of 4,520,415
pounds (2,050,447 kilograms). It takes a huge amount of energy to accelerate such a mass to 144
mph, and therefore a significant amount of fuel. Launching from the equator makes a real
difference.
Once the rocket reaches extremely thin air, at about 120 miles (193 kilometers) up, the rocket's
navigational system fires small rockets, just enough to turn the launch vehicle into a horizontal
position. The satellite is then released. At that point, rockets are fired again to ensure some
separation between the launch vehicle and the satellite itself.
Orbital Velocity and Altitude
A rocket must accelerate to at least 25,039 mph (40,320 kph) to completely escape Earth's
gravity and fly off into space (for more on escape velocity, visit this article at kidsplanet.com).
Earth's escape velocity is much greater than what's required to place an Earth satellite in orbit.
With satellites, the object is not to escape Earth's gravity, but to balance it. Orbital velocity is
the velocity needed to achieve balance between gravity's pull on the satellite and the inertia of
the satellite's motion -- the satellite's tendency to keep going. This is approximately 17,000 mph
(27,359 kph) at an altitude of 150 miles (242 kilometers). Without gravity, the satellite's inertia
would carry it off into space. Even with gravity, if the intended satellite goes too fast, it will
eventually fly away. On the other hand, if the satellite goes too slowly, gravity will pull it back to
Earth. At the correct orbital velocity, gravity exactly balances the satellite's inertia, pulling down
toward Earth's center just enough to keep the path of the satellite curving like Earth's curved
surface, rather than flying off in a straight line (read this page for details on orbits).
The orbital velocity of the satellite depends on its altitude above Earth. The nearer Earth, the
faster the required orbital velocity. At an altitude of 124 miles (200 kilometers), the required
orbital velocity is just over 17,000 mph (about 27,400 kph). To maintain an orbit that is 22,223
miles (35,786 kilometers) above Earth, the satellite must orbit at a speed of about 7,000 mph
(11,300 kph). That orbital speed and distance permits the satellite to make one revolution in 24
hours. Since Earth also rotates once in 24 hours, a satellite at 22,223 miles altitude stays in a
fixed position relative to a point on Earth's surface. Because the satellite stays right over the
same spot all the time, this kind of orbit is called "geostationary." Geostationary orbits are ideal
for weather satellites and communications satellites.
The moon has an altitude of about 240,000 miles (384,400 kilometers), a velocity of about 2,300
mph (3,700 kph) and its orbit takes 27.322 days. (Note that the moon's orbital velocity is slower
because it is farther from Earth than artificial satellites.)
 To get a better feel for orbital velocities at different altitudes, check out NASA's orbital
velocity calculator.
 To learn more about orbits and other topics in space flight, check out JPL's Basics of
Space Flight Learners' Workbook.
 A detailed technical treatment of orbital mechanics can be found at this site.
In general, the higher the orbit, the longer the satellite can stay in orbit. At lower altitudes, a
satellite runs into traces of Earth's atmosphere, which creates drag. The drag causes the orbit to
decay until the satellite falls back into the atmosphere and burns up. At higher altitudes, where
the vacuum of space is nearly complete, there is almost no drag and a satellite can stay in orbit
for centuries (take the moon as an example).
Satellites usually start out in an orbit that is elliptical. The ground control station controls small
onboard rocket motors to provide correction. The goal is to get the orbit as circular as possible.
By firing a rocket when the orbit is at the apogee of its orbit (its most distant point from Earth),
and applying thrust in the direction of the flight path, the perigee (lowest point from Earth)
moves farther out. The result is a more circular orbit.
What Is a Satellite Launch Window?
A launch window is a particular period of time in which it will be easier to place the satellite in
the orbit necessary to perform its intended function.
With the space shuttle, an extremely important factor in choosing the launch window was the
need to bring down the astronauts safely if something went wrong. The astronauts had to be able
to reach a safe landing area with rescue personnel standing by. For other types of flights,
including interplanetary exploration, the launch window must permit the flight to take the most
efficient course to its very distant destination. If weather is bad or a malfunction occurs during a
launch window, the flight must be postponed until the next launch window appropriate for the
flight. If a satellite were launched at the wrong time of the day in perfect weather, the satellite
could end up in an orbit that would not pass over any of its intended users. Timing is everything!
What Is Inside a Typical Satellite?
Satellites come in all shapes and sizes and play a variety of roles. For example:
 Weather satellites help meteorologists predict the weather or see what's happening at the
moment. Typical weather satellites include the TIROS, COSMOS and GOES satellites.
The satellites generally contain cameras that can return photos of Earth's weather, either
from fixed geostationary positions or from polar orbits.
 Communications satellites allow telephone and data conversations to be relayed through
the satellite. Typical communications satellites include Telstar and Intelsat. The most
important feature of a communications satellite is the transponder -- a radio that
receives a conversation at one frequency and then amplifies it and retransmits it back to
Earth on another frequency. A satellite normally contains hundreds or thousands of
transponders. Communications satellites are usually geosynchronous.
 Broadcast satellites broadcast television signals from one point to another (similar to
communications satellites).
 Scientific satellites perform a variety of scientific missions. The Hubble Space Telescope
is the most famous scientific satellite, but there are many others looking at everything
from sun spots to gamma rays.
 Navigational satellites help ships and planes navigate. The most famous are the GPS
NAVSTAR satellites.
 Rescue satellites respond to radio distress signals (read this page for details).
 Earth observation satellites observe the planet for changes in everything from
temperature to forestation to ice-sheet coverage. The most famous are the LANDSAT
series.
 Military satellites are up there, but much of the actual application information remains
secret. Intelligence-gathering possibilities using high-tech electronic and sophisticated
photographic-equipment reconnaissance are endless. Applications may include relaying
encrypted communication, nuclear monitoring, observing enemy movements, early
warning of missile launches, eavesdropping on terrestrial radio links, radar imaging,
photography (using what are essentially large telescopes that take pictures of militarily
interesting areas)
Despite the significant differences between all of these satellites, they have several things in
common. For example:
 All of them have a metal or composite frame and body, usually known as the bus. The
bus holds everything together in space and provides enough strength to survive the
launch.
 All of them have a source of power (usually solar cells) and batteries for storage. Arrays
of solar cells provide power to charge rechargeable batteries. Newer designs include the
use of fuel cells. Power on most satellites is precious and very limited. Nuclear power has
been used on space probes to other planets (read this page for details). Power systems are
constantly monitored, and data on power and all other onboard systems is sent to Earth
stations in the form of telemetry signals.
 All of them have an onboard computer to control and monitor the different systems.
 All of them have a radio system and antenna. At the very least, most satellites have a
radio transmitter/receiver so that the ground-control crew can request status information
from the satellite and monitor its health. Many satellites can be controlled in various
ways from the ground to do anything from change the orbit to reprogram the computer
system.
 All of them have an attitude control system. The ACS keeps the satellite pointed in the
right direction.
The Hubble Space Telescope has a very elaborate control system so that the telescope can point
at the same position in space for hours or days at a time (despite the fact that the telescope travels
at 17,000 mph/27,359 kph!). The system contains gyroscopes, accelerometers, a reaction wheel
stabilization system, thrusters and a set of sensors that watch guide stars to determine position.
What Are the Types of Satellite Orbits?
There are three basic kinds of orbits, depending on the satellite's position relative to Earth's
surface:
1. Geostationary orbits (also called geosynchronous or synchronous) are orbits in which

the satellite is always positioned over the same spot on Earth. Many geostationary
satellites are above a band along the equator, with an altitude of about 22,223 miles, or
about a tenth of the distance to the Moon. The "satellite parking strip" area over the
equator is becoming congested with several hundred television, weather and
communication satellites! This congestion means each satellite must be precisely
positioned to prevent its signals from interfering with an adjacent satellite's signals.
Television, communications and weather satellites all use geostationary orbits.
Geostationary orbits are why a DSS satellite TV dish is typically bolted in a fixed
position.
2. The scheduled space shuttles used a much lower, asynchronous orbit, which means they
passed overhead at different times of the day. Other satellites in asynchronous orbits
average about 400 miles (644 kilometers) in altitude.
3. In a polar orbit, the satellite generally flies at a low altitude and passes over the planet's
poles on each revolution. The polar orbit remains fixed in space as Earth rotates inside
the orbit. As a result, much of Earth passes under a satellite in a polar orbit. Because
polar orbits achieve excellent coverage of the planet, they are often used for satellites that
do mapping and photography.
How Are Satellite Orbits Predicted?
Special satellite software, available for personal computers, predicts satellite orbits. The software
uses Keplerian data to forecast each orbit and shows when a satellite will be overhead. The
latest "Keps" are available on the Internet for amateur radio satellites, too.
Satellites use a variety of light-sensitive sensors to determine their position. The satellite
transmits its position to the ground station.
Satellite Altitudes
Looking up from Earth, satellites are orbiting overhead in various bands of altitude. It's
interesting to think of satellites in terms of how near or far they are from us. Proceeding roughly
from the nearest to the farthest, here are the types of satellites whizzing around Earth:
80 to 1,200 miles -- Asynchronous Orbits
Observation satellites, typically orbiting at altitudes from 300 to 600 miles (480 to 970
kilometers), are used for tasks like photography. Observation satellites such as the Landsat 7
perform tasks such as:
 Mapping
 Ice and sand movement
 Locating environmental situations (such as disappearing rainforests)
 Locating mineral deposits
 Finding crop problems
Search-and-rescue satellites act as relay stations to rebroadcast emergency radio-beacon signals

from a downed aircraft or ship in trouble.
The space shuttle was the familiar manned satellite, usually with a fixed duration and number of
orbits. Manned missions often have the task of repairing existing expensive satellites or building
future space stations.
The "glass cockpit" on space shuttle Atlantis, March 1, 2000
Teledesic, with the financial backing of Bill Gates, promises broadband (high-speed)
communications using many planned low Earth orbiting (LEO) satellites.
3,000 to 6,000 miles -- Asynchronous Orbits
Science satellites are sometimes in altitudes of 3,000 to 6,000 miles (4,800 to 9,700 kilometers).
They send their research data to Earth via radio telemetry signals. Scientific satellite applications
include:
 Researching plants and animals

 Earth science, such as monitoring volcanoes
 Tracking wildlife
 Astronomy, using the Infrared Astronomy Satellite
 Physics, by NASA's future study of microgravity and the current Ulysses Mission
studying solar physics
6,000 to 12,000 miles - Asynchronous Orbits
For navigation, the U.S. Department of Defense built the Global Positioning System, or GPS.
The GPS uses satellites at altitudes of 6,000 to 12,000 miles to determine the exact location of
the receiver. The GPS receiver may be located:
 In a ship at sea
 In another spacecraft
 In an airplane
 In an automobile
 In your pocket
As consumer prices for GPS receivers come down, the familiar paper map may face tough
competition. No more getting lost leaving the rental car agency at an unfamiliar airport!
 The U.S. military and the forces of allied nations used more than 9,000 GPS receivers
during Operation Desert Storm.
 The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) used GPS to measure
the exact height of the Washington Monument.
Taken while the Clementine spacecraft was orbiting the moon

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite, launched in 1993, used multiple antennas
for narrow-beam transmissions.
22,223 Miles - Geostationary Orbits
Weather forecasts visually bombard us each day with images from weather satellites, typically
22,223 miles over the equator. You can directly receive many of the actual satellite images using
radio receivers and special personal-computer software. Many countries use weather satellites for
their weather forecasting and storm observations.
Data, television, image and some telephone transmissions are routinely received and rebroadcast
by communications satellites. Typical satellite telephone links have 550 to 650 milliseconds of
round-trip delay that contribute to consumer dissatisfaction with this type of long-distance
carrier. It takes the voice communications that long to travel all the way up to the satellite and
back to Earth. The round-trip delay forces many to use telephone conversations via satellite only
when no other links exist. Currently, voice over the Internet is experiencing a similar delay
problem, but in this case due to digital compression and bandwidth limitations rather than
distance.
Communications satellites are essentially radio relay stations in space. Satellite dishes get
smaller as satellites get more powerful transmitters with focused radio "footprints" and gain-type
antennas. Subcarriers on these same satellites carry:
 Press agency news feeds

 Stock market, business and other financial information
 International radio broadcasters moving from short-wave to (or supplementing their
short-wave broadcasts with) satellite feeds using microwave uplink feeds
 Global television, such as CNN and the BBC
 Digital radio for CD-quality audio
What Is AMSAT?
AMSAT is a non-profit organization of ham radio operators worldwide that uses its own
membership-supported satellites. The official name for AMSAT is the Radio Amateur Satellite
Corporation. Hams that belong to AMSAT participate in:
 The actual development and assembly of over 40 satellites to date

 Ground control after the satellite is in orbit
 Conversations using the satellite and listening to others using the satellite as a radio relay
link
AMSAT satellites can often be heard by use of a short-wave receiver or a radio scanner. Ham
operators make use of the satellites during natural disasters when terrestrial links and cell phone
systems may be down or overloaded.
The AMSAT-built satellites "hitch" a rocket launch on a "payload-space-available" basis. The

first AMSAT satellite orbited in 1961 and was called OSCAR (Orbiting Satellite Carrying
Amateur Radio). Tracking software is available for personal computers. Various AMSAT
satellites have a combination of data, image and voice capabilities.
What Causes Space Junk?
Debris in orbit can come from many sources:

 Exploding rockets - This leaves behind the most debris in space.
 The slip of an astronaut's hand - Suppose an astronaut doing repair in space drops a
wrench -- it's gone forever. The wrench then goes into orbit, probably at a speed of
something like 6 miles per second. If the wrench hits any vehicle carrying a human crew,
the results could be disastrous. Larger objects like a space station make a larger target for
space junk, and so are at greater risk.
 Jettisoned items - Parts of launch canisters, camera lens caps, etc.
Items initially placed into high orbits stay in space the longest.
The European Space Agency tracks more than 7,500 orbiting items with a width of 4 inches (10
centimeters) or more. Space debris may also be a reason why space shuttles typically orbited
with their windows to the rear. This protected the astronauts onboard, at least to some degree.
A special NASA satellite called Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) was put in orbit to
study the long-term effects of collisions with space junk. The LDEF was later brought back to
Earth via a space shuttle for analysis.
Satellite Internet
How do you access the Internet other than dial-up if you live too far from a phone company
office for DSL and there is no cable TV on your street? Satellite Internet access may be worth
considering. It's ideal for rural Internet users who want broadband access. Satellite Internet does
not use telephone lines or cable systems, but instead uses a satellite dish for two-way (upload
and download) data communications. Upload speed is about one-tenth of the 500 kbps
download speed. Cable and DSL have higher download speeds, but satellite systems are about 10
times faster than a normal modem.
Firms that offer or plan to offer two-way satellite Internet include StarBand, Pegasus Express,
Teledesic and Tachyon. Tachyon service is available today in the United States, Western Europe
and Mexico. Pegasus Express is the two-way version of DirecPC.
Two-way satellite Internet consists of:

 Approximately a two-foot by three-foot dish
 Two modems (uplink and downlink)
 Coaxial cables between dish and modem
The key installation planning requirement is a clear view to the south, since the orbiting
satellites are over the equator area. And, like satellite TV, trees and heavy rains can affect
reception of the Internet signals.
Two-way satellite Internet uses Internet Protocol (IP) multicasting technology, which means up
to 5,000 channels of communication can simultaneously be served by a single satellite. IP
multicasting sends data from one point to many points (at the same time) by sending data in
compressed format. Compression reduces the size of the data and the bandwidth. Usual dial-up
land-based terrestrial systems have bandwidth limitations that prevent multicasting of this
magnitude.
Some satellite-Internet service still requires you to have a dial-up or cable modem connection for
the data you send to the Internet. The satellite data downlink is just like the usual terrestrial link,
except the satellite transmits the data to your computer via the same dish that would allow you to
receive a Pay-Per-View television program.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Our ancestors had to go to pretty extreme measures to keep from getting lost. They erected
monumental landmarks, laboriously drafted detailed maps and learned to read the stars in the
night sky.
Things are much, much easier today. For less than $100, you can get a pocket-sized gadget that
will tell you exactly where you are on Earth at any moment. As long as you have a GPS receiver
and a clear view of the sky, you'll never be lost again.
In this article, we'll find out how these handy guides pull off this amazing trick. As we'll see, the
Global Positioning System is vast, expensive and involves a lot of technical ingenuity, but the
fundamental concepts at work are quite simple and intuitive.
When people talk about "a GPS," they usually mean a GPS receiver. The Global Positioning
System (GPS) is actually a constellation of 27 Earth-orbiting satellites (24 in operation and
three extras in case one fails). The U.S. military developed and implemented this satellite
network as a military navigation system, but soon opened it up to everybody else.
Each of these 3,000- to 4,000-pound solar-powered satellites circles the globe at about 12,000
miles (19,300 km), making two complete rotations every day. The orbits are arranged so that at
any time, anywhere on Earth, there are at least four satellites "visible" in the sky.
A GPS receiver's job is to locate four or more of these satellites, figure out the distance to each,
and use this information to deduce its own location. This operation is based on a simple
mathematical principle called trilateration. Trilateration in three-dimensional space can be a
little tricky, so we'll start with an explanation of simple two-dimensional trilateration.
2-D Trilateration
Imagine you are somewhere in the United States and you are TOTALLY lost -- for whatever
reason, you have absolutely no clue where you are. You find a friendly local and ask, "Where am
I?" He says, "You are 625 miles from Boise, Idaho."
This is a nice, hard fact, but it is not particularly useful by itself. You could be anywhere on a
circle around Boise that has a radius of 625 miles, like this:
You ask somebody else where you are, and she says, "You are 690 miles from Minneapolis,
Minnesota." Now you're getting somewhere. If you combine this information with the Boise
information, you have two circles that intersect. You now know that you must be at one of these
two intersection points, if you are 625 miles from Boise and 690 miles from Minneapolis.
If a third person tells you that you are 615 miles from Tucson, Arizona, you can eliminate one of
the possibilities, because the third circle will only intersect with one of these points. You now
know exactly where you are -- Denver, Colorado.
This same concept works in three-dimensional space, as well, but you're dealing with spheres
instead of circles. In the next section, we'll look at this type of trilateration.
3-D Trilateration
Fundamentally, three-dimensional trilateration isn't much different from two-dimensional

trilateration, but it's a little trickier to visualize. Imagine the radii from the previous examples
going off in all directions. So instead of a series of circles, you get a series of spheres.
If you know you are 10 miles from satellite A in the sky, you could be anywhere on the surface
of a huge, imaginary sphere with a 10-mile radius. If you also know you are 15 miles from
satellite B, you can overlap the first sphere with another, larger sphere. The spheres intersect in a
perfect circle. If you know the distance to a third satellite, you get a third sphere, which intersects
with this circle at two points.
The Earth itself can act as a fourth sphere -- only one of the two possible points will actually be
on the surface of the planet, so you can eliminate the one in space. Receivers generally look to
four or more satellites, however, to improve accuracy and provide precise altitude information.
In order to make this simple calculation, then, the GPS receiver has to know two things:
 The location of at least three satellites above you

 The distance between you and each of those satellites
The GPS receiver figures both of these things out by analyzing high-frequency, low-power radio
signals from the GPS satellites. Better units have multiple receivers, so they can pick up signals
from several satellites simultaneously.
Radio waves are electromagnetic energy, which means they travel at the speed of light (about
186,000 miles per second, 300,000 km per second in a vacuum). The receiver can figure out how
far the signal has traveled by timing how long it took the signal to arrive. In the next section,
we'll see how the receiver and satellite work together to make this measurement.
GPS Calculations
On the previous page, we saw that a GPS receiver calculates the distance to GPS satellites by
timing a signal's journey from satellite to receiver. As it turns out, this is a fairly elaborate
process.
At a particular time (let's say midnight), the satellite begins transmitting a long, digital pattern
called a pseudo-random code. The receiver begins running the same digital pattern also exactly
at midnight. When the satellite's signal reaches the receiver, its transmission of the pattern will
lag a bit behind the receiver's playing of the pattern.
The length of the delay is equal to the signal's travel time. The receiver multiplies this time by
the speed of light to determine how far the signal traveled. Assuming the signal traveled in a
straight line, this is the distance from receiver to satellite.
In order to make this measurement, the receiver and satellite both need clocks that can be
synchronized down to the nanosecond. To make a satellite positioning system using only
synchronized clocks, you would need to have atomic clocks not only on all the satellites, but also
in the receiver itself. But atomic clocks cost somewhere between $50,000 and $100,000, which
makes them a just a bit too expensive for everyday consumer use.
The Global Positioning System has a clever, effective solution to this problem. Every satellite
contains an expensive atomic clock, but the receiver itself uses an ordinary quartz clock, which it
constantly resets. In a nutshell, the receiver looks at incoming signals from four or more satellites
and gauges its own inaccuracy. In other words, there is only one value for the "current time" that
the receiver can use. The correct time value will cause all of the signals that the receiver is
receiving to align at a single point in space. That time value is the time value held by the atomic
clocks in all of the satellites. So the receiver sets its clock to that time value, and it then has the
same time value that all the atomic clocks in all of the satellites have. The GPS receiver gets
atomic clock accuracy "for free."
When you measure the distance to four located satellites, you can draw four spheres that all
intersect at one point. Three spheres will intersect even if your numbers are way off, but four
spheres will not intersect at one point if you've measured incorrectly. Since the receiver makes
all its distance measurements using its own built-in clock, the distances will all be
proportionally incorrect.
The receiver can easily calculate the necessary adjustment that will cause the four spheres to
intersect at one point. Based on this, it resets its clock to be in sync with the satellite's atomic
clock. The receiver does this constantly whenever it's on, which means it is nearly as accurate as
the expensive atomic clocks in the satellites.
In order for the distance information to be of any use, the receiver also has to know where the
satellites actually are. This isn't particularly difficult because the satellites travel in very high and
predictable orbits. The GPS receiver simply stores an almanac that tells it where every satellite
should be at any given time. Things like the pull of the moon and the sun do change the satellites'
orbits very slightly, but the Department of Defense constantly monitors their exact positions and
transmits any adjustments to all GPS receivers as part of the satellites' signals.
Differential GPS
So far, we've learned how a GPS receiver calculates its position on earth based on the
information it receives from four located satellites. This system works pretty well, but
inaccuracies do pop up. For one thing, this method assumes the radio signals will make their way
through the atmosphere at a consistent speed (the speed of light). In fact, the Earth's atmosphere
slows the electromagnetic energy down somewhat, particularly as it goes through the ionosphere
and troposphere. The delay varies depending on where you are on Earth, which means it's
difficult to accurately factor this into the distance calculations. Problems can also occur when
radio signals bounce off large objects, such as skyscrapers, giving a receiver the impression that
a satellite is farther away than it actually is. On top of all that, satellites sometimes just send out
bad almanac data, misreporting their own position.
Differential GPS (DGPS) helps correct these errors. The basic idea is to gauge GPS inaccuracy
at a stationary receiver station with a known location. Since the DGPS hardware at the station
already knows its own position, it can easily calculate its receiver's inaccuracy. The station then
broadcasts a radio signal to all DGPS-equipped receivers in the area, providing signal correction
information for that area. In general, access to this correction information makes DGPS receivers
much more accurate than ordinary receivers.
The most essential function of a GPS receiver is to pick up the transmissions of at least four
satellites and combine the information in those transmissions with information in an electronic
almanac, all in order to figure out the receiver's position on Earth.
Once the receiver makes this calculation, it can tell you the latitude, longitude and altitude (or
some similar measurement) of its current position. To make the navigation more user-friendly,
most receivers plug this raw data into map files stored in memory.
You can use maps stored in the receiver's memory, connect the receiver to a computer that can
hold more detailed maps in its memory, or simply buy a detailed map of your area and find your
way using the receiver's latitude and longitude readouts. Some receivers let you download
detailed maps into memory or supply detailed maps with plug-in map cartridges.
A standard GPS receiver will not only place you on a map at any particular location, but will also
trace your path across a map as you move. If you leave your receiver on, it can stay in constant
communication with GPS satellites to see how your location is changing. With this information
and its built-in clock, the receiver can give you several pieces of valuable information:
 How far you've traveled (odometer)

 How long you've been traveling
 Your current speed (speedometer)
 Your average speed
 A "bread crumb" trail showing you exactly where you have traveled on the map
 The estimated time of arrival at your destination if you maintain your current speed

i. Discuss the types of satellite orbits
ii. Discuss how satellite internet works
iii. Discuss how Global Positioning System (GPS)works
References

CHAPTER SIX: VOICE OVER INTERNET PROTOCOL (VoIP)

i. Understand the VoIP technology
ii. Understand packet switching
Introduction to VoIP
If you've never heard of VoIP, get ready to change the way you think about long-distance phone
calls. VoIP, or Voice over Internet Protocol, is a method for taking analog audio signals, like
the kind you hear when you talk on the phone, and turning them into digital data that can be
transmitted over the Internet.
How is this useful? VoIP can turn a standard Internet connection into a way to place free phone
calls. The practical upshot of this is that by using some of the free VoIP software that is available
to make Internet phone calls, you're bypassing the phone company (and its charges) entirely.
VoIP is a revolutionary technology that has the potential to completely rework the world's phone
systems. VoIP providers like Vonage have already been around for a while and are growing
steadily. Major carriers like AT&T are already setting up VoIP calling plans in several markets
around the United States, and the FCC is looking seriously at the potential ramifications of VoIP
service.
Above all else, VoIP is basically a clever "reinvention of the wheel." In this article, we'll explore
the principles behind VoIP, its applications and the potential of this emerging technology, which
will more than likely one day replace the traditional phone system entirely.
The interesting thing about VoIP is that there is not just one way to place a call. There are three
different "flavors" of VoIP service in common use today:
 ATA -- The simplest and most common way is through the use of a device called an
ATA (analog telephone adaptor). The ATA allows you to connect a standard phone to
your computer or your Internet connection for use with VoIP. The ATA is an analog-to-
digital converter. It takes the analog signal from your traditional phone and converts it
into digital data for transmission over the Internet. Providers like Vonage and AT&T
CallVantage are bundling ATAs free with their service. You simply crack the ATA out of
the box, plug the cable from your phone that would normally go in the wall socket into
the ATA, and you're ready to make VoIP calls. Some ATAs may ship with additional
software that is loaded onto the host computer to configure it; but in any case, it's a very
straightforward setup.
 IP Phones -- These specialized phones look just like normal phones with a handset,
cradle and buttons. But instead of having the standard RJ-11 phone connectors, IP phones
have an RJ-45 Ethernet connector. IP phones connect directly to your router and have all
the hardware and software necessary right onboard to handle the IP call. Wi-Fi phones
allow subscribing callers to make VoIP calls from any Wi-Fi hot spot.
 Computer-to-computer -- This is certainly the easiest way to use VoIP. You don't even
have to pay for long-distance calls. There are several companies offering free or very
low-cost software that you can use for this type of VoIP. All you need is the software, a
microphone, speakers, a sound card and an Internet connection, preferably a fast one like
you would get through a cable or DSL modem. Except for your normal monthly ISP fee,
there is usually no charge for computer-to-computer calls, no matter the distance.
If you're interested in trying VoIP, then you should check out some of the free VoIP software
available on the Internet. You should be able to download and set it up in about three to five
minutes. Get a friend to download the software, too, and you can start tinkering with VoIP to get
a feel for how it works.
Using VoIP
Chances are good you're already making VoIP calls any time you place a long-distance call.
Phone companies use VoIP to streamline their networks. By routing thousands of phone calls
through a circuit switch and into an IP gateway, they can seriously reduce the bandwidth they're
using for the long haul. Once the call is received by a gateway on the other side of the call, it's
decompressed, reassembled and routed to a local circuit switch.
Although it will take some time, you can be sure that eventually all of the current circuit-
switched networks will be replaced with packet-switching technology (more on packet
switching and circuit switching later). IP telephony just makes sense, in terms of both economics
and infrastructure requirements. More and more businesses are installing VoIP systems, and the
technology will continue to grow in popularity as it makes its way into our homes. Perhaps the
biggest draws to VoIP for the home users that are making the switch are price and flexibility.
With VoIP, you can make a call from anywhere you have broadband connectivity. Since the IP
phones or ATAs broadcast their info over the Internet, they can be administered by the provider
anywhere there's a connection. So business travelers can take their phones or ATAs with them on
trips and always have access to their home phone. Another alternative is the softphone. A
softphone is client software that loads the VoIP service onto your desktop or laptop. The Vonage
softphone has an interface on your screen that looks like a traditional telephone. As long as you
have a headset/microphone, you can place calls from your laptop anywhere in the broadband-
connected world.
Most VoIP companies are offering minute-rate plans structured like cell phone bills for as little
as $30 per month. On the higher end, some offer unlimited plans for $79. With the elimination of
unregulated charges and the suite of free features that are included with these plans, it can be
quite a savings.
Most VoIP companies provide the features that normal phone companies charge extra for when
they are added to your service plan. VoIP includes:
 Caller ID
 Call waiting
 Call transfer
 Repeat dial
 Return call
 Three-way calling
There are also advanced call-filtering options available from some carriers. These features use
caller ID information to allow you make a choice about how calls from a particular number are
handled. You can:
 Forward the call to a particular number

 Send the call directly to voice mail
 Give the caller a busy signal
 Play a "not-in-service" message
 Send the caller to a funny rejection hotline
With many VoIP services, you can also check voice mail via the Web or attach messages to an e-
mail that is sent to your computer or handheld. Not all VoIP services offer all of the features
above. Prices and services vary, so if you're interested, it's best to do a little shopping.
Circuit Switching
Existing phone systems are driven by a very reliable but somewhat inefficient method for
connecting calls called circuit switching.
Circuit switching is a very basic concept that has been used by telephone networks for more than
100 years. When a call is made between two parties, the connection is maintained for the
duration of the call. Because you're connecting two points in both directions, the connection is
called a circuit. This is the foundation of the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
Here's how a typical telephone call works:
1. You pick up the receiver and listen for a dial tone. This lets you know that you have a
connection to the local office of your telephone carrier.
2. You dial the number of the party you wish to talk to.
3. The call is routed through the switch at your local carrier to the party you are calling.
4. A connection is made between your telephone and the other party's line using several
interconnected switches along the way.
5. The phone at the other end rings, and someone answers the call.
6. The connection opens the circuit.
7. You talk for a period of time and then hang up the receiver.
8. When you hang up, the circuit is closed, freeing your line and all the lines in between.
Let's say you talk for 10 minutes. During this time, the circuit is continuously open between the
two phones. In the early phone system, up until 1960 or so, every call had to have a dedicated
wire stretching from one end of the call to the other for the duration of the call. So if you were in
New York and you wanted to call Los Angeles, the switches between New York and Los
Angeles would connect pieces of copper wire all the way across the United States. You would
use all those pieces of wire just for your call for the full 10 minutes. You paid a lot for the call,
because you actually owned a 3,000-mile-long copper wire for 10 minutes.
Telephone conversations over today's traditional phone network are somewhat more efficient and
they cost a lot less. Your voice is digitized, and your voice along with thousands of others can be
combined onto a single fiber optic cable for much of the journey (there's still a dedicated piece of
copper wire going into your house, though). These calls are transmitted at a fixed rate of 64
kilobits per second (Kbps) in each direction, for a total transmission rate of 128 Kbps. Since
there are 8 kilobits (Kb) in a kilobyte (KB), this translates to a transmission of 16 KB each
second the circuit is open, and 960 KB every minute it's open. In a 10-minute conversation, the
total transmission is 9,600 KB, which is roughly equal to 10 megabytes (check out How Bits and
Bytes Work to learn about these conversions). If you look at a typical phone conversation, much
of this transmitted data is wasted.
Packet Switching
A packet-switched phone network is the alternative to circuit switching. It works like this: While
you're talking, the other party is listening, which means that only half of the connection is in use
at any given time. Based on that, we can surmise that we could cut the file in half, down to about
4.7 MB, for efficiency. Plus, a significant amount of the time in most conversations is dead air --
for seconds at a time, neither party is talking. If we could remove these silent intervals, the file
would be even smaller. Then, instead of sending a continuous stream of bytes (both silent and
noisy), what if we sent just the packets of noisy bytes when you created them?
Data networks do not use circuit switching. Your Internet connection would be a lot slower if it
maintained a constant connection to the Web page you were viewing at any given time. Instead,
data networks simply send and retrieve data as you need it. And, instead of routing the data over
a dedicated line, the data packets flow through a chaotic network along thousands of possible
paths. This is called packet switching.
While circuit switching keeps the connection open and constant, packet switching opens a brief
connection -- just long enough to send a small chunk of data, called a packet, from one system to
another. It works like this:
 The sending computer chops data into small packets, with an address on each one telling
the network devices where to send them.
 Inside of each packet is a payload. The payload is a piece of the e-mail, a music file or
whatever type of file is being transmitted inside the packet.
 The sending computer sends the packet to a nearby router and forgets about it. The
nearby router send the packet to another router that is closer to the recipient computer.
That router sends the packet along to another, even closer router, and so on.
 When the receiving computer finally gets the packets (which may have all taken
completely different paths to get there), it uses instructions contained within the packets
to reassemble the data into its original state.
Packet switching is very efficient. It lets the network route the packets along the least congested
and cheapest lines. It also frees up the two computers communicating with each other so that
they can accept information from other computers, as well.
Advantages of Using VoIP
VoIP technology uses the Internet's packet-switching capabilities to provide phone service. VoIP
has several advantages over circuit switching. For example, packet switching allows several
telephone calls to occupy the amount of space occupied by only one in a circuit-switched
network. Using PSTN, that 10-minute phone call we talked about earlier consumed 10 full
minutes of transmission time at a cost of 128 Kbps. With VoIP, that same call may have
occupied only 3.5 minutes of transmission time at a cost of 64 Kbps, leaving another 64 Kbps
free for that 3.5 minutes, plus an additional 128 Kbps for the remaining 6.5 minutes. Based on
this simple estimate, another three or four calls could easily fit into the space used by a single
call under the conventional system. And this example doesn't even factor in the use of data
compression, which further reduces the size of each call.
Let's say that you and your friend both have service through a VoIP provider. You both have
your analog phones hooked up to the service-provided ATAs. Let's take another look at that
typical telephone call, but this time using VoIP over a packet-switched network:
1. You pick up the receiver, which sends a signal to the ATA.

2. The ATA receives the signal and sends a dial tone. This lets you know that you have a
connection to the Internet.
3. You dial the phone number of the party you wish to talk to. The tones are converted by
the ATA into digital data and temporarily stored.
4. The phone number data is sent in the form of a request to your VoIP company's call
processor. The call processor checks it to ensure that it's in a valid format.
5. The call processor determines to whom to map the phone number. In mapping, the phone
number is translated to an IP address (more on this later). The soft switch connects the
two devices on either end of the call. On the other end, a signal is sent to your friend's
ATA, telling it to ask the connected phone to ring.
6. Once your friend picks up the phone, a session is established between your computer and
your friend's computer. This means that each system knows to expect packets of data
from the other system. In the middle, the normal Internet infrastructure handles the call as
if it were e-mail or a Web page. Each system must use the same protocol to
communicate. The systems implement two channels, one for each direction, as part of the
session.
7. You talk for a period of time. During the conversation, your system and your friend's
system transmit packets back and forth when there is data to be sent. The ATAs at each
end translate these packets as they are received and convert them to the analog audio
signal that you hear. Your ATA also keeps the circuit open between itself and your
analog phone while it forwards packets to and from the IP host at the other end.
8. You finish talking and hang up the receiver.
9. When you hang up, the circuit is closed between your phone and the ATA.
10. The ATA sends a signal to the soft switch connecting the call, terminating the session.
VoIP Terms
The central call processor is a piece of hardware running a specialized database/mapping
program called a soft switch.
Probably one of the most compelling advantages of packet switching is that data networks
already understand the technology. By migrating to this technology, telephone networks
immediately gain the ability to communicate the way computers do.
It will still be at least a decade before communications companies can make the full switch over
to VoIP. As with all emerging technologies, there are certain hurdles that have to be overcome.
Disadvantages of Using VoIP
The current Public Switched Telephone Network is a robust and fairly bulletproof system for
delivering phone calls. Phones just work, and we've all come to depend on that. On the other
hand, computers, e-mail and other related devices are still kind of flaky. Let's face it -- few
people really panic when their e-mail goes down for 30 minutes. It's expected from time to time.
On the other hand, a half hour of no dial tone can easily send people into a panic. So what the
PSTN may lack in efficiency it more than makes up for in reliability. But the network that makes
up the Internet is far more complex and therefore functions within a far greater margin of error.
What this all adds up to is one of the major flaws in VoIP: reliability.
 First of all, VoIP is dependant on wall power. Your current phone runs on phantom
power that is provided over the line from the central office. Even if your power goes out,
your phone (unless it is a cordless) still works. With VoIP, no power means no phone. A
stable power source must be created for VoIP.
 Another consideration is that many other systems in your home may be integrated into
the phone line. Digital video recorders, digital subscription TV services and home
security systems all use a standard phone line to do their thing. There's currently no way
to integrate these products with VoIP. The related industries are going to have to get
together to make this work.
 Emergency 911 calls also become a challenge with VoIP. As stated before, VoIP uses
IP-addressed phone numbers, not NANP phone numbers. There's no way to associate a
geographic location with an IP address. So if the caller can't tell the 911 operator where
he is located, then there's no way to know which call center to route the emergency call to
and which EMS should respond. To fix this, perhaps geographical information could
somehow be integrated into the packets.
Testing, Testing...
Wondering if your broadband connection could support VoIP service? Brix Network
offers a way to test your Internet connection to see how well it works.
 Because VoIP uses an Internet connection, it's susceptible to all the hiccups normally
associated with home broadband services. All of these factors affect call
quality:latency, jitter and packet loss. Phone conversations can become distorted, garbled
or lost because of transmission errors. Some kind of stability in Internet data transfer
needs to be guaranteed before VoIP could truly replace traditional phones
 VoIP is susceptible to worms, viruses and hacking, although this is very rare and VoIP
developers are working on VoIP encryption to counter this.
 Another issue associated with VoIP is having a phone system dependant on individual
PCs of varying specifications and power. A call can be affected by processor drain.
Let's say you are chatting away on your softphone, and you decide to open a program that
saps your processor. Quality loss will become immediately evident. In a worst case
scenario, your system could crash in the middle of an important call. In VoIP, all phone
calls are subject to the limitations of normal computer issues.
One of the hurdles that was overcome some time ago was the conversion of the analog audio
signal your phone receives into packets of data. How it is that analog audio is turned into packets
for VoIP transmission? The answer is codecs.
i. Discuss VoIP
ii. What are the advantages of VoIP
References

CHAPTER SEVEN: BLUETOOTH

i. Understand the Bluetooth technology
ii. Explain how you can use Bluetooth technology
Introduction to bluetooth
When you use computers, entertainment systems or telephones, the various pieces and parts of
the systems make up a community of electronic devices. These devices communicate with each
other using a variety of wires, cables, radio signals and infrared light beams, and an even greater
variety of connectors, plugs and protocols.
There are lots of different ways that electronic devices can connect to one another. For example:
 Component cables
 Electrical wires
 Ethernet cables
 WiFi
 Infrared signals
The art of connecting things is becoming more and more complex every day. In this article, we
will look at a method of connecting devices, called Bluetooth, that can streamline the process. A
Bluetooth connection is wireless and automatic, and it has a number of interesting features that
can simplify our daily lives.
The Problem
When any two devices need to talk to each other, they have to agree on a number of points
before the conversation can begin. The first point of agreement is physical: Will they talk over
wires, or through some form of wireless signals? If they use wires, how many are required -- one,
two, eight, 25? Once the physical attributes are decided, several more questions arise:
 How much data will be sent at a time? For instance, serial ports send data 1 bit at a time,
while parallel ports send several bits at once.
 How will they speak to each other? All of the parties in an electronic discussion need to
know what the bits mean and whether the message they receive is the same message that
was sent. This means developing a set of commands and responses known as a protocol.
Bluetooth offers a solution to the problem.
How Bluetooth Creates a Connection
Bluetooth takes small-area networking to the next level by removing the need for user
intervention and keeping transmission power extremely low to save battery power. Picture this:
You're on your Bluetooth-enabled cell phone, standing outside the door to your house. You tell
the person on the other end of the line to call you back in five minutes so you can get in the
house and put your stuff away. As soon as you walk in the house, the map you received on your
cell phone from your car's Bluetooth-enabled GPS system is automatically sent to your
Bluetooth-enabled computer, because your cell phone picked up a Bluetooth signal from your PC
and automatically sent the data you designated for transfer. Five minutes later, when your friend
calls you back, your Bluetooth-enabled home phone rings instead of your cell phone. The person
called the same number, but your home phone picked up the Bluetooth signal from your cell
phone and automatically re-routed the call because it realized you were home. And each
transmission signal to and from your cell phone consumes just 1 milliwatt of power, so your cell
phone charge is virtually unaffected by all of this activity.
Bluetooth is essentially a networking standard that works at two levels:
 It provides agreement at the physical level -- Bluetooth is a radio-frequency standard.

 It provides agreement at the protocol level, where products have to agree on when bits
are sent, how many will be sent at a time, and how the parties in a conversation can be
sure that the message received is the same as the message sent.
The big draws of Bluetooth are that it is wireless, inexpensive and automatic. There are other
ways to get around using wires, including infrared communication. Infrared (IR) refers to light
waves of a lower frequency than human eyes can receive and interpret. Infrared is used in most
television remote control systems. Infrared communications are fairly reliable and don't cost very
much to build into a device, but there are a couple of drawbacks. First, infrared is a "line of
sight" technology. For example, you have to point the remote control at the television or DVD
player to make things happen. The second drawback is that infrared is almost always a "one to
one" technology. You can send data between your desktop computer and your laptop computer,
but not your laptop computer and your PDA at the same time.
These two qualities of infrared are actually advantageous in some regards. Because infrared
transmitters and receivers have to be lined up with each other, interference between devices is
uncommon. The one-to-one nature of infrared communications is useful in that you can make
sure a message goes only to the intended recipient, even in a room full of infrared receivers.
Bluetooth is intended to get around the problems that come with infrared systems. The older
Bluetooth 1.0 standard has a maximum transfer speed of 1 megabit per second (Mbps), while
Bluetooth 2.0 can manage up to 3 Mbps. Bluetooth 2.0 is backward-compatible with 1.0 devices.
Let's find out how Bluetooth networking works.
Why is it called Bluetooth?
Harald Bluetooth was king of Denmark in the late 900s. He managed to unite Denmark and part
of Norway into a single kingdom then introduced Christianity into Denmark. He left a large
monument, the Jelling rune stone, in memory of his parents. He was killed in 986 during a battle
with his son, Svend Forkbeard. Choosing this name for the standard indicates how important
companies from the Nordic region (nations including Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Finland)
are to the communications industry, even if it says little about the way the technology works.
How Bluetooth Operates
Bluetooth networking transmits data via low-power radio waves. It communicates on a

frequency of 2.45 gigahertz (actually between 2.402 GHz and 2.480 GHz, to be exact). This
frequency band has been set aside by international agreement for the use of industrial, scientific
and medical devices (ISM).
A number of devices that you may already use take advantage of this same radio-frequency band.
Baby monitors, garage-door openers and the newest generation of cordless phones all make use
of frequencies in the ISM band. Making sure that Bluetooth and these other devices don't
interfere with one another has been a crucial part of the design process.
One of the ways Bluetooth devices avoid interfering with other systems is by sending out very
weak signals of about 1 milliwatt. By comparison, the most powerful cell phones can transmit a
signal of 3 watts. The low power limits the range of a Bluetooth device to about 10 meters (32
feet), cutting the chances of interference between your computer system and your portable
telephone or television. Even with the low power, Bluetooth doesn't require line of sight between
communicating devices. The walls in your house won't stop a Bluetooth signal, making the
standard useful for controlling several devices in different rooms.
Bluetooth can connect up to eight devices simultaneously. With all of those devices in the same
10-meter (32-foot) radius, you might think they'd interfere with one another, but it's unlikely.
Bluetooth uses a technique called spread-spectrum frequency hopping that makes it rare for
more than one device to be transmitting on the same frequency at the same time. In this
technique, a device will use 79 individual, randomly chosen frequencies within a designated
range, changing from one to another on a regular basis. In the case of Bluetooth, the transmitters
change frequencies 1,600 times every second, meaning that more devices can make full use of a
limited slice of the radio spectrum. Since every Bluetooth transmitter uses spread-spectrum
transmitting automatically, it’s unlikely that two transmitters will be on the same frequency at
the same time. This same technique minimizes the risk that portable phones or baby monitors
will disrupt Bluetooth devices, since any interference on a particular frequency will last only a
tiny fraction of a second.
When Bluetooth-capable devices come within range of one another, an electronic conversation
takes place to determine whether they have data to share or whether one needs to control the
other. The user doesn't have to press a button or give a command -- the electronic conversation
happens automatically. Once the conversation has occurred, the devices -- whether they're part of
a computer system or a stereo -- form a network. Bluetooth systems create a personal-area
network (PAN), or piconet, that may fill a room or may encompass no more distance than that
between the cell phone on a belt-clip and the headset on your head. Once a piconet is established,
the members randomly hop frequencies in unison so they stay in touch with one another and
avoid other piconets that may be operating in the same room. Let's check out an example of a
Bluetooth-connected system.
Bluetooth Piconets
Let's say you have a typical modern living room with typical modern stuff inside. There's an
entertainment system with a stereo, a DVD player, a satellite TV receiver and a television; there's
also a cordless telephone and a personal computer. Each of these systems uses Bluetooth, and
each forms its own piconet to talk between the main unit and peripheral.
The cordless telephone has one Bluetooth transmitter in the base and another in the handset. The
manufacturer has programmed each unit with an address that falls into a range of addresses it
has established for a particular type of device. When the base is first turned on, it sends radio
signals asking for a response from any units with an address in a particular range. Since the
handset has an address in the range, it responds, and a tiny network is formed. Now, even if one
of these devices should receive a signal from another system, it will ignore it since it's not from
within the network. The computer and entertainment system go through similar routines,
establishing networks among addresses in ranges established by manufacturers. Once the
networks are established, the systems begin talking among themselves. Each piconet hops
randomly through the available frequencies, so all of the piconets are completely separated from
one another.
Now the living room has three separate networks established, each one made up of devices that
know the address of transmitters it should listen to and the address of receivers it should talk to.
Since each network is changing the frequency of its operation thousands of times a second, it's
unlikely that any two networks will be on the same frequency at the same time. If it turns out that
they are, then the resulting confusion will only cover a tiny fraction of a second, and software
designed to correct for such errors weeds out the confusing information and gets on with the
network's business.
Bluetooth Security
In any wireless networking setup, security is a concern. Devices can easily grab radio waves out
of the air, so people who send sensitive information over a wireless connection need to take
precautions to make sure those signals aren't intercepted. Bluetooth technology is no different --
it's wireless and therefore susceptible to spying and remote access, just like WiFi is susceptible if
the network isn't secure. With Bluetooth, though, the automatic nature of the connection, which
is a huge benefit in terms of time and effort, is also a benefit to people looking to send you data
without your permission.
Bluetooth offers several security modes, and device manufacturers determine which mode to
include in a Bluetooth-enabled gadget. In almost all cases, Bluetooth users can establish "trusted
devices" that can exchange data without asking permission. When any other device tries to
establish a connection to the user's gadget, the user has to decide to allow it. Service-level
security and device-level security work together to protect Bluetooth devices from unauthorized
data transmission. Security methods include authorization and identification procedures that limit
the use of Bluetooth services to the registered user and require that users make a conscious
decision to open a file or accept a data transfer. As long as these measures are enabled on the
user's phone or other device, unauthorized access is unlikely. A user can also simply switch his
Bluetooth mode to "non-discoverable" and avoid connecting with other Bluetooth devices
entirely. If a user makes use of the Bluetooth network primarily for synching devices at home,
this might be a good way to avoid any chance of a security breach while in public.
Still, early cell-phone virus writers have taken advantage of Bluetooth's automated connection
process to send out infected files. However, since most cell phones use a secure Bluetooth
connection that requires authorization and authentication before accepting data from an unknown
device, the infected file typically doesn't get very far. When the virus arrives in the user's cell
phone, the user has to agree to open it and then agree to install it. This has, so far, stopped most
cell-phone viruses from doing much damage. See How Cell-phone Viruses Work to learn more.
Other problems like "bluejacking," "bluebugging" and "Car Whisperer" have turned up as
Bluetooth-specific security issues. Bluejacking involves Bluetooth users sending a business card
(just a text message, really) to other Bluetooth users within a 10-meter (32-foot) radius. If the
user doesn't realize what the message is, he might allow the contact to be added to his address
book, and the contact can send him messages that might be automatically opened because they're
coming from a known contact. Bluebugging is more of a problem, because it allows hackers to
remotely access a user's phone and use its features, including placing calls and sending text
messages, and the user doesn't realize it's happening. The Car Whisperer is a piece of software
that allows hackers to send audio to and receive audio from a Bluetooth-enabled car stereo. Like
a computer security hole, these vulnerabilities are an inevitable result of technological
innovation, and device manufacturers are releasing firmware upgrades that address new
problems as they arise.
i. Explain how Bluetooth operates

ii. Explain the advantages of Bluetooth
References

CHAPTER EIGHT: SAMPLE PAPERS
MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
EXAMINATION FOR BACHELOR OF BUSINESS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
BIT4201: Mobile Computing
Instructions
Answer question ONE and any other TWO questions Time: 2Hours
QUESTION 1
a) Define the following terms (10 Marks)

a. Mobile Computing
b. Segment
c. Backbone
d. Topology
e. LAN
b) Discuss the Layers in the OSI network Model (10 Marks)
c) What is Network Operating Systems (2 Marks)
d) What is a satellite (2 Marks)
e) Define Bluetooth (2 Marks)
f) Discuss what is GPS (4 Marks)
QUESTION 2
a) Discuss various message switching techniques (10 Marks)

b) Discuss how VoIP works (10 Marks)
QUESTION 3
a) Differentiate between analogue and digital signals (10 Marks)

b) Discuss the Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) Technology (10 Marks)
QUESTION 4
a) Discuss the advantages of mobile computing (10 Marks)

b) Differentiate between the computer wireless network and the cellular network (10 Marks)
QUESTION 5
a) Discuss the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) (10 Marks)

b) Discuss how WiFi works (10 Marks)
End of Exam
Mount Kenya University
BIT4201: MOBILE COMPUTING
QUESTION 1(30 Marks)
a. Outline the advantages of mobile computing (10 Marks)

b. Discuss the disadvantages of using VoIP (8
Marks)
c. Networking protocols facilitate the communication between computers using different
platforms. Discuss the TCP/IP protocol suite layers
(12 Marks)
QUESTION 2 (20 Marks)
a. A network topology dictates how network components are arranged. Discuss three
physical network topologies
(12 Marks)
b. These days many electronic gadgets have Bluetooth. Explain how Bluetooth operates?
(8
Marks)
a. Discuss how public switched telephone network works (10

Marks)
b. Outline how general packet radio service works (10 Marks)
a. Standardization allows for open connectivity. Discuss the layers in the OSI model
(10 Marks)
b. Discuss any THREE network types (10 Marks)
a. Satellites are used in modern communication. Discuss any types of satellite orbits
(10
Marks)
b. Discuss the actions necessary to make Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) network
reliable (10 Marks)

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Mount Kenya University

P.O. Box 342-01000 Thika

COURSE CODE: BIT4201

Instructional manual for BBIT – Distance Learning

COURSE OUTLINE .......................................................................................................................................... 6

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKING ................................................................. 11

Network Topologies ................................................................................................................................ 16

Network Protocols .................................................................................................................................. 20

Open System Interconnection(OSI) Protocol .......................................................................................... 21

Network Operating Systems ................................................................................................................... 22

Switching Techniques ............................................................................................................................. 25

Analog and Digital Data transmission ..................................................................................................... 34

Chapter Review Questions ...................................................................................................................... 37

CHAPTER TWO: INTRODUCTION TO MOBILE COMPUTING AND WIRELESS COMMUNICATION................ 37

Mobile Computing Advantages............................................................................................................... 40

Limitations of mobile computing ............................................................................................................ 41

Chapter Review Questions ...................................................................................................................... 44

CHAPTER THREE: MOBILE COMPUTING ARCHITECTURE ............................................................................ 45

Public switched telephone network ....................................................................................................... 45

Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) Technology ..................................................................................... 50

Specialized Mobile Radio ........................................................................................................................ 57

GPRS Network Architecture ............................................................................................................... 63

Advanced Mobile Phone System ............................................................................................................ 66

Digital - Advanced Mobile Phone System (D-AMPS) .............................................................................. 68

GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) .................................................................................. 69

High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD) ............................................................................................ 87

EDGE (Enhanced Data GSM Environment) ............................................................................................. 87

Chapter Review Questions ...................................................................................................................... 88

CHAPTER FOUR: WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES ............................................................................................... 90

WiFi Hotspots .......................................................................................................................................... 93

Building a Wireless Network ................................................................................................................... 93

The Cellular Explosion ............................................................................................................................. 96

Wireless Markup Language..................................................................................................................... 96

Wireless Application Protocol ................................................................................................................. 97

The Evolution of Wireless Network Security .......................................................................................... 99

Wireless Mesh Networks ...................................................................................................................... 102

Wireless Mesh Technology ................................................................................................................... 104

Applications for Wireless Mesh Networks ............................................................................................ 105

Comparing Wireless Internet Connection Cards .................................................................................. 112

Wireless Networks ................................................................................................................................ 113

Chapter Review Questions .................................................................................................................... 114

CHAPTER FIVE: SATELLITES ....................................................................................................................... 115

Whose Satellite Was the First to Orbit Earth? ...................................................................................... 116

How Is a Satellite Launched into an Orbit? ........................................................................................... 117

Orbital Velocity and Altitude ................................................................................................................ 118

What Is a Satellite Launch Window? .................................................................................................... 120

How Are Satellite Orbits Predicted? ..................................................................................................... 123

Satellite Altitudes .................................................................................................................................. 123

80 to 1,200 miles -- Asynchronous Orbits ........................................................................................ 123

3,000 to 6,000 miles -- Asynchronous Orbits ................................................................................... 124

6,000 to 12,000 miles - Asynchronous Orbits................................................................................... 124

22,223 Miles - Geostationary Orbits ................................................................................................. 126

What Is AMSAT?.................................................................................................................................... 127

Satellite Internet ................................................................................................................................... 128

Global Positioning System (GPS) ........................................................................................................... 130

Chapter Review Questions .................................................................................................................... 136

CHAPTER SIX: VOICE OVER INTERNET PROTOCOL (VoIP) ......................................................................... 137

Introduction to VoIP.............................................................................................................................. 137

Using VoIP ............................................................................................................................................. 138

Circuit Switching ................................................................................................................................... 140

Packet Switching ................................................................................................................................... 141

Advantages of Using VoIP ..................................................................................................................... 142

Disadvantages of Using VoIP................................................................................................................. 144