Experiment 1

Tensile Testing (Universal Tester)

Objectives

1. To understand the principles of tensile testing.

2. To determine the stress-strain relationship for several materials and to obtain approximate
values for the elongation at fracture, tensile strength (UTS) and yield strength (offset of
0.2%).

Theory

If a load is static or changed relatively slowly with time and is applied uniformly over a cross
section /surface of a member, the mechanical behaviour may be ascertained by a simple stress-
strain test. These tests are most commonly conducted for metals at room temperature. There are
three principal ways in which the load may be applied: tension, compression and shear.

Tension is one of the most common mechanical stress-strain tests. A standard specimen is
deformed, usually to fracture with a gradually increasing tensile load that is applied uniaxially
along the long axis of a specimen. Most of the tension tests for metals are conducted according
to the ASTM Standard E 8 and E 8M, “Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic
Materials”.

a) Fundamental Principles of the Tensile Test

The tensile test is the best-known test in material testing. It
determines tensile strength, one of the most important
properties of material. Further more, it is also possible to
determine elongation at fracture as a toughness
measurement of the material.
In the tensile test, a mono-axial stress is generated in a
material sample. This stress is induced via external loading
of the sample in a longitudinal direction via a tensile force.
There is then an eve distribution of direct stress in the test
cross-section of the sample.
In order to determine the strength of the material, loading of
the sample is slowly and continuously increased until its fails.
The maximum test force occurring is a measurement of the
strength of the material. The so- called tensile strength, RM
calculated from the maximum test force, FB and the initial
cross-section, AO of the sample.
F
RM = B
AO

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The simplest way of determining the maximum test force is via the maximum pointer on the force
display. In the tensile test itself, the cross-section of the sample is reduced – it is constricted, and
the actual stresses are considerably higher.

The elongation at fracture, A refers to the change in

length of the sample compared with its original length,
LO and is calculated using the length, LU of the sample
after fracture.
L − LO
A= U X 100%
L0
In order to measure the lengths, two measuring marks
are applied to the test bar. After fracture, two ends of
the sample are placed together neatly at the fracture
point and the distance between the two measuring
marks is measured.

b) Fundamental principles of stress-strain diagram

The stress-strain diagram shows the different behaviour

of the individual materials particularly clearly. Each
material has a characteristic pattern of stress and strain.

Important material data can be read from the stress-

strain diagram. In addition to tensile strength, RM , the
limit proportionality, Rp is particularly interesting.
Beneath this limit, the material conforms to Hooke’s
Law with the Modulus of Elasticity, E: Strain, ε is
proportional to stress, σ.
σ
E=
ε
When this stress is exceeded, deformation is no longer
proportional to the load.

One particularly important parameter from technical point of view is the yield pint, RE. from this
point onwards, the material becomes continuously plastically deformed. Deformation remains
when load is relieved. To safeguard the function of the component, it should not be loaded any
further.

With some materials, such as annealed soft steel, pronounced creeping occurs from the yield
onwards. The sample is elongated without the load being increased further. In materials without
pronounced creeping, the proof stress Rp0.2 is specified. In such a case, the material has a
permanents elongation of 0.2%, which remains after relief of the load.

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 The adjacent diagram shows, for example, the
curves of hardened steel (1), tempered steel (2),
soft steel (3) and an aluminium alloy (4).

The hardened steel ruptures virtually without

plastic deformation but has a very high tensile
strength.
The tempered steel is far tougher but still has a
high strength.

The soft annealed steel, has a very high elongation

but a low tensile strength. In this case, there is
pronounced creeping in the transition to plastic
behaviour.

In the aluminium alloy, the stress-strain curve rises

less steeply in the elastic zone than the other steel
materials because of the lower modulus of
elasticity.

The stress-strain diagram is produce from the values for force and elongation recorded during the
tensile test.

F L − LO
σ = , and ε = U
AO LO

Alternatively, the load extension diagram may be

drawn directly for pre-determined sample dimensions.
In such a case, the characteristics remain unaltered,
but the time-consuming conversion of measurements
into strain and stress is unnecessary.

Poisson’s ratio

∈x
Poisson’s ratio defined as ν = −
∈z
Where ∈x = the strain perpendicular to the tensile axis
∈z = the longitudinal strain

In general ν increases during the run, starting about 0.3 in the elastic region and about 0.5 after
the material begin to deform plastically.

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Technical description of the Equipment

The WP 300 materials testing device is a robust unit designed specifically for technical instruction
and is one of the classical material testing device in materials science. The flexible design of the
unit permits a wide range of different tests requiring tensile or compressive force. Thanks to its
clear, sample layout, the unity is ideally suite for both students’ experiments and for
demonstrations. Its compact dimensions and relatively low weight permit mobile use and erection
on all common laboratory benches.

Basic

In its basic form, the unit does not require any

external connections. The test force is generated
via a manually actuated hydraulic system and
displayed via a large, easily legible display
instrument with a trailing pointer. Elongation of the
samples is recorded via a dial gauge. All
accessories are screwed to the cross members.
This means that the test unit can be quickly and
easily refitted for various tests.

The basic unit essentially consists of the following

elements:
• machine base (1) with handgrip (11)
• support with cross-head (2)
• load frame with upper (3) and lower cross-
member (4)
• hydraulic system consisting of a main cylinder
(5) and a master cylinder with hand wheel (6)
• force display (7)
• elongation display via a dial gauge (8)
gripping heads (9) with sample (10)
Machine Base

The rigid machine base made of cast iron forms the

foundation and ensures stability of the test unit in
connection with 4 rubbers feat. The machine base
supports the hydraulics and the frame.

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Support

The posts (1) and cross-head (2) form fixed support of the test
unit. The various fixed sample receptacles are fastened to the
cross-head. The mobile load frame is also mounted on it low-
friction linear ball bearings.

Load Frame

The load frame consists of the upper (1) and lower cross-
member (2) and the guide rod (3). The load frame transmits
the test force from the hydraulic main cylinder to the relevant
sample. The load frame is slide-mounted in the cross-head of
the support. Tensile samples are clamped between the upper
cross-member and the cross-head, whilst compressive
samples are clamped between the lower cross-member and
the cross-head.

Hydraulic system

The test force is generated by hydraulic means. A

piston in the master cylinder (2) actuated via the hand
wheel (1) and the threaded spindle creates a
hydrostatic pressure, which induces the test force in the
main cylinder (3). The hydraulic transmission ration is
2.77:1, whilst the mechanical transmission ratio hand
wheel / spindle is 503:1. Excluding friction losses, this
would correspond to a manual force of 1 N per 1.3 kN
test force. The full stroke of the main cylinder of 45 mm
requires 83 revolutions of the hand wheel.

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Force display & elongation measurement

The force measuring device operates according to the

manometer principle. It measures the hydrostatic
pressure in the hydraulic system. The large display
with a diameter of 160 mm facilitates precise reading.
A maximum pointer stores the maximum force. The
elongation is measured via an adjustably mounted dial
gauge. The dial gauge indicates the relative
displacement between the upper cross member and
the cross-head.

Gripping heads

The gripping heads are designed for tensile samples

with an M10 threaded head. In addition, flat
compression pads can easily be inserted in the cross-
head and cross-member and are held by nut.

Tensile sample

Round samples with an M10 threaded head in accordance

with DIN 50125 made of aluminium, copper, brass and
steel are supplied with the machine.

Tensile sample B6 x 30 DIN 50125

This is a short proportional test bar with a measuring length

of 30 mm and a diameter of 6 mm.

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Procedure

The test device is set up as follows:

• Untwist the hand wheel on the master cylinder as far as it will go and
move the load frame down to its lowest position. (if this has not been
done, insert the gripping heads in the upper cross-member and cross-
head).
• Screw down the gripping heads with the short bolt at the bottom and with
pressure pad.
• Gripping head with the long bolt at the top

Insert the required tensile sample.

• Measure and note down the test length LO of the sample between two
marks.
• Screw the sample by hand into the lower gripping head as far as the end
stop.
• Screw the sample into the upper gripping head as far as the end stop, by
rotating the gripping head itself.
• Tighten the nut on the upper gripping head by hand until he gripping
head is seated without slack in the upper cross-member.

Adjust the dial gauge.

• Push the dial gauge upwards on the support bar

until the tracer pin is touching the drive.
• Set the rotating scale on the dial gauge to zero.
• Set the maximum pointer on the force display to
zero.

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• Slowly and constantly loaded by rotating the hand wheel.
• Application of the force should spread over a time interval of 5-10 minutes
• It is essential to avoid sudden, jerky force application.
• Observe the dial gauge and the sample. Read the force from the force display every 0.1
mm and make a note of it with the corresponding extension. From 1 mm extension, the
reading interval can be extended to 0.2 mm.
• Monitor the sample and note when constriction begins. From now on, the force will be no
longer increase, but instead, will tend to decrease.
• ATTENTION: don’t be startled! Particularly with some material, fracture will occur with a loud
bang.
• Read the maximum test force from the maximum pointer and make a note of it
• Remove the sample from the gripping heads
• Twist back the hand wheel on the master cylinder as far as it will go and move the load frame
down.
• Repeat with other specimen.

Questions

By using spreadsheet:

1. Table the result (Load and Elongation)

2. Calculate the engineering stress and engineering strain. Plot the graph.
3. Based on graph determine:
a. the elongation at fracture
b. tensile strength (UTS)
c. yield strength (offset of 0.2%) and
d. Modulus of Elasticity (E)
4. Compare the Modulus of Elasticity (E) for the material with theoretical value.
5. Concrete is strong in compression but relatively very weak in tension. How to improve
such mechanical properties in order to transmit better tensile force?