Principles of Communication .

. • For the FM Signal Bandwidth, the higher the modulation Signal to noise ratio is better Signal to noise ratio is inferior Vm = peak modulating signal amplitude (V)
**Created and Prepared by John Mark Padilla index, the greater the number of significant sidebands and than that of PM. to that in FM. For PM system:
September 18, 2019 : 4:00AM the wider the bandwidth of the signal. FM is widely used. PM is used in some mobile • The phase deviation or modulation index (m) is given by:
. ANGLE MODULATION . • Bandwidth of FM signal can be determined using the systems. 𝒎 = ∆𝜽 = 𝒌 𝟏 𝐕𝒎
Carson’s Rule: In FM, the frequency deviation In PM, the frequency deviation Where:
Principles of Frequency Modulation (FM)
is proportional to the is proportional to both the m = Δθ = modulation index or peak phase deviation (rad)
• The carrier amplitude remains constant. 𝑩𝑾 = 𝟐[ 𝒇𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙) + 𝒇𝒎 (𝒎𝒂𝒙)]
Where: modulating voltage only. modulating voltage and k1 = deviation sensitivity of the PM modulator (rad/V)
• Carrier frequency is being changed by the modulating signal. modulating frequency.
• The time-domain amplitude is constant. BW = bandwidth fd(max) = maximum frequency deviation Vm = peak modulating signal amplitude (V)
• Frequency domain is spread widely. fm(max) = maximum modulating frequency
Modulation Index and Sidebands
• Frequency Deviation is given as:
• FM waveform is created by a frequency deviation (fd) which • It is said that in any modulation process, sidebands are
Principles of Phase Modulation (PM) 𝜹 = 𝒌 𝟏 𝐕𝒎 𝒇𝒎
is proportional to the voltage of the modulating signal at a produced.
• The phase of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the Where:
given instant. • In FM and PM, as in AM, sum and difference sideband
message signal. δ = peak frequency deviation of PM waveform (Hz)
• Frequency deviation (f d) is also the amount of change in frequencies are produced.
• As the modulating signal goes positive, the amount of k1 = deviation sensitivity of the PM modulator (rad)
carrier frequency produced. • Note that sidebands are spaced from the carrier fc and from Vm = peak modulating signal amplitude (V)
phase lag and thus the delay of the carrier output increases
• For any FM system in which the modulation index is less another from one another by a frequency equal to the
with the amplitude of the modulating signal. f m = modulating signal frequency (Hz)
than 𝜋/2 (mf < 𝜋/2) is called a narrowband FM. modulating frequency f m.
• In PM, the modulation index is proportional only to the
• Instantaneous value of FM signal is given as:
amplitude of the modulation signal, and is independent of • The Percentage Modulation (%M) for both FM and PM is
𝑣 FM = Vc sin[2ᴨ𝑓 𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚 𝑓 sin(2ᴨ𝑓 𝑚𝑡)] given by:
the frequency of the modulating signal.
where: δ 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍
• The deviation is proportional to the amplitude and %𝑴 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Vc = peak value of unmodulated carrier fc = carrier frequency
frequency of the modulating signal. δ 𝒎𝒂𝒙
mf = FM modulation index t = period
• Applications of PM is not different from frequency Where:
fm = modulating frequency
modulation. And is also used with binary signals. %M = percentage modulation for FM and PM
• The expression for a PM wave is: δ actual = actual frequency deviation of carrier signal (Hz)
𝑣 PM = Vc sin(2𝜋 𝑓 𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑝sin 2𝜋 𝑓 𝑚𝑡) δ max = maximum frequency deviation (Hz)
where:
Vc = peak value of unmodulated carrier fc = carrier frequency • The Deviation Ratio (DR) for both FM and PM is given by:
δ 𝒎𝒂𝒙
mp = PM modulation index t = period 𝑫𝑹 =
fm = modulating frequency 𝒇𝒎(𝒎𝒂𝒙)
Figure 3.2 Frequency Spectrum of FM signal
Where:
Note: The carrier and sideband amplitudes shown in figure 3.2
DR = deviation ratio for FM and PM waveform
are just examples. The amplitudes depend upon the
modulation index mf. δ max = maximum peak frequency deviation of the carrier
signal (Hz).
f m(max) = maximum modulating frequency (Hz)
For FM system:
• The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulatin g
frequency is known as the modulating index (mf), given as:
Figure 3.0 (a) Modulating Signal. (b) FM Signal.
𝒇𝒅
𝒎𝒇 =
Some major advantages of FM to AM are: 𝒇𝒎
• Noise immunity. The main benefit of FM over AM. FM can Table 3.1 Bessel
Where:
nevertheless tolerate a much higher noise level than AM for Functions
mf = modulating index fd = frequency deviation
a given carrier amplitude. fm = modulating frequency NOTE: Frequency
• Capture Effect. Interfering signals on the same frequency modulation and phase
Figure 3.1 (a) Modulating Signal. (b) PM Signal modulation both
are effectively rejected in FM. If one is more than twice the or modulating index (mf) can be:
occur whenever either
amplitude of the other, the stronger signal captures the
FM comparison with PM 𝒌 𝟐𝑽𝒎 form of angle
channel, totally eliminating the weaker signal.
FM PM 𝒎𝒇 = modulation is used.
• Transmitter Efficiency. FM signals have constant amplitude, 𝒇𝒎
𝑣FM = Vc sin[2ᴨ𝑓𝑐𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓 sin(2ᴨ𝑓𝑚𝑡)] 𝑣PM = Vc sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 + 𝑚𝑝 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡) The main difference
and it is therefore not necessary to use linear amplifiers to Where:
Frequency deviation is Phase deviation is proportional between the two lies
increase their power level. proportional to modulating to the modulating voltage.
mf = modulation index or peak phase deviation (radians) in which property of
While some of the disadvantages are: voltage. the carrier (the
• Excessive spectrum use. The bandwidth of an FM signal is, Associated with the change in Associated with the change in k2 = deviation sensitivity for the FM modulator (rad/s.V)
Vm = peak modulating signal amplitude (V) frequency or the
in general considerably wider than that of an AM signal fc , there is some phase change. phase, there is some fc .
fm = modulating signal frequency (Hz) phase) is directly
transmitting similar information. Although it is possible to mf is proportional to the mp is proportional only to the
varied by the
keep the modulation index low to minimize bandwidth , modulating voltage as well as modulating voltage.
modulating signal and
reducing the modulation index also reduces the noise the modulating frequency fm • Frequency Deviation is given as:
It is possible to receive FM on a It is possible to receive PM on a which is indirectly
immunity of an FM signal.
varied.
• Circuit complexity. One major disadvantage of FM in the PM receiver. FM receiver. 𝜹 = 𝒌 𝟐 𝐕𝒎
past involved the complexity of the circuits used for Noise immunity is better than Noise immunity is better than Where:
frequency modulation and demodulation in comparison AM and PM. AM, but not on FM. δ = peak frequency deviation of FM waveform (Hz)
with the simple circuits used for AM. Amplitude of the FM wave is Amplitude of the PM wave is k2 = deviation sensitivity for the FM modulator (rad/s.V)
constant. constant.
. RADIO RECEIVERS
Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
Selectivity
• The measure of the ability of a receiver to accept a given
band of frequencies and rejects all other
• defined as the measure of the extent to which a receiver
can differentiate between the desired information signals
and disturbances or information signal at other frequencies
Shape Factor
• The measure of the steepness of the skirts, or the skirt
selectivity of a receiver
• skirts are the sides of a tuned circuit response curve.
• It is also defined as the ratio of the 60-dB-down bandwidth
to the 6-db-down bandwidth of a tuned circuit or filter.
• Given as:
𝒇𝟒 − 𝒇𝟑 𝑩 −𝟔𝟎𝒅𝑩
𝑺𝒉𝒂𝒑𝒆 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = 𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒔 =
𝒇𝟐 − 𝒇𝟏 𝑩 −𝟔𝒅𝑩
Figure 4.0 Practical Response Curve Showing Shape Factor
. • By controlling the Q of the resonant circuit, you can set the
desired selectivity.
• The optimum bandwidth in a receiver is wide enough to
pass the signal and its sidebands but also narrow enough
to eliminate or greatly attenuate signals on adjacent
frequency.
Sensitivity
• Defined as the receiver’s ability to amplify weak signals.
• Defined in terms of voltage which must be applied at the
receiver input terminals to provide a standard output power
measured at the output terminals.
• Essentially determined by the noise level encountered in the
receiver.
• Can be expressed as signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), noise factor
(NF), or SINAD.
• It can also be expressed as microvolt level of input signal.
Dynamic Range
• The difference between the minimum input level
necessary to discern a signal and the input that will
overdrive the receiver and produce distortion
Fidelity
• The measure of the ability of a communication system to
produce, at the output of the receiver, an exact replica of
the original source information.
• The ability of a receiver to reproduce all the modulatin g
frequencies equally.
• Depends on the frequency response of the AF amplifier.
Typical Receiver Circuits
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver
• The simplest radio receiver.
Superheterodyne Receivers Automatic Gain Control (AGC) Circuit
• Converts all incoming signals to a lower frequency, known • The recovered signal, which usually is AC (alternatin g
as the intermediate frequency (IF). current), is rectified and filtered into a DC (direct current)
• The incoming signal is mixed with a local oscillator signal by the AGC circuit.
to produce the conversion. • To control receiver gain, the DC voltage of the AGC circuit is
fed back to the IF amplifiers and sometimes to the RF
amplifier.
• help maintain a constant output voltage level over a wide
range of RF input signal levels
• They also help the receiver to function over a wide range so
that strong signals do not produce performance-degradin g
distortion.
Squelch Circuit
• Also called muting circuit.
Figure 4.3 Block diagram of a Superheterodyne Receiver
• Used to keep the receiver audio turned off until an RF signal
appears at the receiver input.
Antenna
• The antenna picks up the weak radio signal and feeds it to
the RF amplifier or also called low-noiseamplifier (LNA). Note: Today, most receivers are made up of circuits fully
integrated on a single chip of silicon or other semiconductor
Radio Frequency (RF) Amplifier material.
• processes the very weak input signals, increasing their
amplitude prior to mixing. It also minimizes oscillator
radiation.
• between the mixer and the antenna isolates the two,
significantly reducing any local oscillator radiation.
• It is essential that low-noise components be used to ensure
a sufficiently high SNR.
Mixer
• receives the output of the RF amplifier and the frequency
synthesizer from the local oscillator.
• outputs the input signal, the local oscillator signal, and the
sum and difference frequencies of such signals.
• The output of the mixer is an intermediate frequency (IF)
signal containing the same modulation that appeared on the
input RF signal.

Local Oscillator
• The local oscillator is made tunable so that its frequency
can be adjusted over a relatively wide range. As its
Figure 4.2 TRF Receiver Block Diagram
frequency changed, the mixer translates a wide range of
input frequencies to the fixed IF.
• Antenna is where the signals from different sources such as
stations are present. Intermediate Frequency (IF) Amplifier
• The desired signal is selected in the antenna but since it is
• The signal from the mixer’s output is amplified by one or
very weak, it is amplified by the radio frequency (RF) more intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier stages, and
Figure 4.1 Ideal Response Curve
amplifier in the RF stage.
Note: The lower the shape factor, the steeper the skirts and the most of the receiver gain is obtained in these stages.
• The RF stage generally contains two or three RF amplifiers.
better selectivity. The ideal shape factor is 1. Shape factors • Can provide a gain in the 10- to 30-dB range.
These amplifiers are tuned RF amplifiers, they have variabl e
approaching 1 can be achieved with DSP filters. • Two or more IF amplifiers are usually used to adequate .
tuned circuit at the input and output sides.
overall gain.
• The amplified signal is applied to the demodulator, which
Quality Factor and Bandwidth • They provide higher selectivity, require no tuning or
translates the modulated signal back into the baseband
• Given the bandwidth and the resonant frequency of a tuned adjustment and smaller compared to LC tuned circuits.
signal (i.e. audio signal).
circuit, the equation for Q is:
𝒇𝑹 • This audio signal is amplified by the audio amplifier, and is
Demodulator
𝑸= further amplified by an audio power amplifier up to the
𝑩𝑾 • The highly amplified IF signal is finally applied to the
Where: desired power level to drive the loudspeaker.
demodulator or detector, which recovers the origin al
Q = Quality Factor • The loudspeaker is a transducer which changes electrical
modulating information.
signal into sound signal.
fR = resonant frequency of a tuned circuit • may be a diode detector (for AM), a quadrature detector
BW = bandwidth (for FM), or product detector (for SSB).