FINAL MANGELETE WATER PROJECT - Repaired

Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
HYDROGEOLOGICAL SURVEY REPORT

FOR
BOREHOLE SITE SURVEY
AT
UTU AREA, KAMBU DIVISION
OF
KIBWEZI DISTRICT
DECEMBER 2010
CLIENT CONSULTANTS
THE CHAIRMAN
MANG’ELETE WATER PROJECT Justus T. Ituli /Kithome®
P.O BOX ….. Registered Hydro-geologists
NGWATA P.O. Box 51259 – 00200

NAIROBI.
Date: 15/12/2010
1
Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
SUMMARY
Background
The consultants were commissioned by the Mang’elete Water Project/ World Vision
Mtito-Andei IPA to undertake investigations for suitable borehole site within UTU village,
Mang’elete Location of Kambu Division in different community designated areas with the
objective of supplying safe and clean water to the target communities. The current report
describes the objectives of the programme, the overview of the project area, the methodology
and the expected output. The report also describes the results of the geophysical surveys carried
between 26th November and 27th November 2010.
Project objectives and scope

The overall objective of the Project is to improve the water supply in various community areas
within the domain of Mang’elete Water project in Kibwezi district and ensure reliable
and safe water by increasing the supply of potable water within the affected communities
where distances to safe water points are long and in places there are no safe water sources at
all and the communities have to depend on surface water.
The specific objectives of this Study were to:-

 To undertake hydrogeological/geophysical investigation on the occurrence of
groundwater in various community areas with a view to identifying suitable
borehole drilling site.
 Identify the most promising site for the proposed borehole drilling and advise the
client on the best drilling method.
 Present, to the client, a detailed qualitatative and quantitative report of the overall
findings and advice on project investment viability and substantial groundwater
abstraction feasibility
 Recommend the best method of the proposed borehole drilling
 Obtain the necessary groundwater water authorizations and permits on behalf of
the client and advice on the requirement of an EIA ahead of the actual drilling
2
Project area
The Project Area is located at the southern tip of Kibwezi District and is bounded
by latitudes 2°5'S and 3°5'S and longitudes 37°20'E and 38°35'E (Fig. 2).The
physiography is characterised by flat lowland, with an altitude varying from 300m
to 900m above mean sea level (amsl). It has been described by Pulfrey (1960) and
Ojany (1966) as the low foreland plateau. It borders Cenozoic lava highlands,
represented by the Chyulu Range (2000m amsl), to the west and an
intermediate lava plateau, the Yatta Plateau (900m
amsl), to the far east of the study area.
The current water demand for the investigated community areas is not known due to lack of
proper demographic data. It is however reported that the community anticipates about 20m3
of water daily to meet their envisaged purposes.
Hydrogeological System
Conventionally, the semi-humid highland environment of Chyullu ranges about 3km away from
the study site appears to offer reasonable groundwater recharge potential to the investigated
area. The relatively high rainfall, undulating topography and deep weathering are all
comparatively favorable hydrological/hydrogeological characteristics. The presence of
pronounced relief in some places results in relatively high hydraulic gradients. As a result,
groundwater may be quickly drained from areas of high relief to low-lying areas where it
remains longer (available) for abstraction.
The hydrogeology of an area is determined by the nature of the parent rock, structural
features, weathering processes and precipitation patterns. Lava flows rarely possess significant
primary pore space; instead, groundwater occurs within secondary features, such as fissure
zones, fractures, sedimentary beds, lithological contacts and Old Land Surfaces (OLS). The
weathered zones or “Old Land Surfaces” (OLS) characterize periods of erosion between
volcanic eruptions and subsequent lava flows. These potential aquifers comprise soils,
weathered rocks and water-lain material of volcanic origin. The thickness of the OLS is
variable, but the water-producing zones, which are usually sandy or gravelly, rarely exceed a
few meters. Unlike lava flows, pyroclastic deposits and especially volcanic sediments (e.g.
3
those embedded in the Chyullu Basalts) are generally porous: the cavities between the mineral
grains are usually open and interconnected. Consequently, they can contain and transmit
water. Whereas sedimentary deposits of pure, unconsolidated sands are highly transmissive,
the permeability rapidly decreases in the presence of clays, even if their portion is very small.
Heavy clays, marked by porosity as high as 50%, are generally impermeable. Tuff layers and
ashes generally possess unfavourable hydraulic characteristics, similar to those of clays.
Below this volcanic carpet, the metamorphic Basements rocks are generally hard and compact,
and posses no primary porosity. Groundwater occurrence in the Basement rocks is likely to be
localized, and limited to relatively small and isolated pockets. However, depending on the parent
material, water may be struck in the weathered top layers (regolith and saprock). The underlying
fresh Basement is in most cases dry, and significant amounts of groundwater can only be
expected in fractures (cracks, joints, fissures, and faults).
Geophysical Investigations
Combined geophysical and hydrogeological fieldwork was carried out between 26th - 27th
November,2010. The main aim of the geophysical investigations was to get an insight into the
hydrogeological conditions prevailing within the selected areas designated by the community
as well as identifying optimum borehole drilling sites in those particular community areas.
These investigations were carried out in six(6) community areas identified previously by
Mang’elete Water Project/World Vision Mtito-Andei IPA as areas that require intervention due
high water demand. In total Six (6)no.VES soundings and One(1) km of profiling was
executed. In the course of the fieldwork, rains caused some slight delays but no significant
amount of rain derailed the project execution. A Garmin e-trex GPS Satellite Navigator
and a Magellan Thales Mapper(Data logger) with GPS and Terrasync software was
used to obtain accurate co-ordinates of the measured/surveyed points and log the identified
VESs as well as collecting secondary hydrogeological data. All electrical measurements were
undertaken using a TERRAMETER SAS 300C with depth booster and LUND-Imaging.
Data analysis was qualitatively plotted in the field on Bi-logarithmic graph paper and later
detailed quantatitive interpretations were undertaken in the office using Interpex-1D and
Nile software as well forward modelling and inversion using LOKE software
Results and Discussion
4
Vertical electrical soundings (VES) provide quantitative depth-resistivity information for a

particular site. VES sites were selected at representative points in relation to anomalies picked
by profiling technique as well as GIS-remote sensing technique (satellite imagery
analysis). The geomorphologic observations combined with the satellite imagery analysis
during the desk study and field reconnaissance phase was used as the criteria for selection of
the profile sites. Locations for profiling were selected at locations mapped as having structural
lineaments and geormophological interruptions. The VES measurements were executed in an
expanding Schlumberger array, with electrode spreads of AB between 260 and 400 m. This
separation gives fairly reliable interpretations down to a depth of respectively 65 to 100 m,
but only approximate solutions for resistivity layering at deeper levels. Depths beyond this
level are only indicative, and do not give the precise position of the interpreted layers.
In general, most of the profiles were executed in an east – west direction as the fault/fracture
zones generally trend north – south or northwest – southeast. In most cases the profiles which
were carried out using schlumberger array did not exceed 500 m. They were carried out at
20m station intervals and an AB separation of 100 m. While carrying out this exercise, the
target was low anomalies which in this case indicate weathered or weak zones considering that
the bedrock in most places is fairly shallow. The points at which low anomalies were noted were
marked for vertical electrical soundings (VES). It is worth mentioning that in some cases, other
indicators like large trees( e.g. VES I (MIWA I), VESII(KWA NDIKI), VES III(KWA
PAUL),clearly marked the fault/fracture zones and this in combination with the profiles gave
very excellent results.
The VES measurements were executed on the anomalous points along the profile lines. The
most distinct characteristic noted on these measurements is the presence of weathered zones
between 50m and a maximum depth of 80 m bgl within the suspected aquifer zones. It is quite
clear that these aquifers are discontinuous and are not necessarily all connected. However in
some places, the resistivities observed from the measurements indicate the presence of clayey
material at depth and this is also noticeable where gullies expose the stratigraphy though to a
shallow depth of not more than 3 metres. In interpretation of the resultant curves, 6 – layer
5
models were adopted based on the trend of the curves. It should be noted that although there
was vastness of the area of investigations, there was a slightly distinct variation in the trend of
curves, hence similar layered models.
In general however, the most promising curves depict a high resistivity layer overlying the low
resistivity regime (aquifer) in most of the layers. In theory, this indicates that the main aquifer
does not derive its recharge locally but is connected to a wider, probably regional recharge
system which would mean a more reliable and stable supply. It is expected that such an aquifer
would be semi confined or confined depending on the recharge.
Conclusion and Recommendations

The results of the geophysical site investigations together with the recommended sites for
drilling and other relevant alternatives are summarised in Tables 5.1. It should be noted here
that the recommended depths are the maximum depths but should sufficient water be
encountered after striking the main aquifer but before attaining the final depth, then drilling
can be discontinued. It is also recommended that proper construction of the borehole after
drilling should be adhered to. This is one of the greatest problems affecting the boreholes that
lack proper supervision. In particular, proper installation of casings and screens as well as
installation of gravel pack is emphasized.
After borehole construction where possible, proper test pumping should be carried out to
determine the yield of the borehole and other aquifer parameters.
Investigated Sites
SITE Name VES No. Coordinates (UTM) WSL Max. Prospective
(m) Depth Yield(m3/hr)
(m)
1 KWA MIW’A I 37M 385938 9692967 40,80 160 8-12
2 KWA NDIKI II 37M 390438 9691183 40,80 130 6-10
3 KWA PAUL III 37M 391035 9694759 65 100 >8
4 KWA MIWA 2 IV 37M 394333 9695953 50,80 180 6-8
5 KWA MICHAEL V 37M 390282 9699376 63,120 120 4-6
6 KWA KAKULI VI 37M 388710 9696023 50,90 130 >6
7 CONTROL VES VII 37M 387871 9694264 40,60 130 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6
PROJECT SUMMARY SHEET ........................................................................................................ 7

1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION ........................................................................................... 13
3.1 Climate........................................................................................................................... 14
3.2 Physiography ............................................................................................................... 15
4.0 GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY ................................................................................. 15
4.1 GEOLOGY ........................................................................................................................ 16
4.2 HYDROGEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER OCCURRENCE. ..................................... 18
5.0 EXISTING BOREHOLES AND RECHARGE ................................................................. 24
AQUIFER PROPERTIES .............................................................................................................. 24
5.1 Borehole specific capacities (S) Transmissivity (T) Coefficient ................................ 24
5.2 Hydraulic Conductivity (K) and Ground Water Flux ................................................. 25
6.4 Electrical Resistivity Method .................................................................................. 27
6.6 6.2 Results and Discussion ......................................................................................... 30
9.0 CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................................... 36
9.1 Conclusions. .................................................................................................................. 36
9.2 Recommendations: ...................................................................................................... 37
9.3 Further Recommendations:............................................................................................ 37
DRILLING METHODS/ TECHNIQUE ......................................................................................... 39
Borehole Design...................................................................................................................... 39
Casings and Screens .............................................................................................................. 39
Gravel Pack .............................................................................................................................. 39
Borehole Construction............................................................................................................ 39
Borehole Development........................................................................................................... 40
Borehole Testing..................................................................................................................... 40
TYPE OF WATER ..................................................................................................................... 41
PARAMETERS .......................................................................................................................... 41
Water Quality Protection ....................................................................................................... 41
Appendices
i. VES Data and Curves
ii. Map Extract from Chyullu-Mtito Map Sheet 193/3
iii. Drilling Procedures
Encls. (Provided by Client)

 Copy of the Certificate of Land Ownership
 Group’s Registration Certificate
 Allotment Letter
 Copy of group’s PIN and ID card.
 Copy of letter of No objection from Area Chief
PROJECT SUMMARY SHEET
7
Project Details
Client MANGELETE WATER PROJECT

P.O. BOX
NGWATA
Project Borehole at UTU area
L.R. No. (Documents encls)
Locality KAMBU
District KIBWEZI
Selected Borehole Map Sheet 183/3
Site Coordinates (GPS) 2°5'S and 3°5'S& 37°20'E and 38°35'E
Elevation (GPS) 2000 m asl
Projected Water Demand 20m3/day
Main Purpose of Water Use Domestic and Minor Irrigation
Investigating Geologists/Engineers Justus T. Ituli / Robert Musyimi /Charles

N. Kithome
8
ABBREVIATIONS AND GLOSSARY OF TERMS

ABBREVIATIONS
agl above ground level

amsl above mean sea level
bdl below datum level
bgl below ground level
E East
EC electrical conductivity (µS/cm)
h hydraulic head
hr hour
ID inner diameter
l litre
m metre
N North
PWL pumped water level
Q discharge (m3/hr)
Q/s specific capacity (yield-drawdown ratio; in m3/hr/m)
ROP rate of penetration (min/m)
s drawdown (m)
sec second
SWL static water level
T transmissivity (m2/day)
W West
AWB Athi Water Board
WRL water rest level (also: “static water level”)
WSL water struck level
µS/cm micro-Siemens per centimetre: Unit for electrical conductivity
°C degrees Celsius: Unit for temperature
" Inch
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Aquifer A geological formation or structure, which stores and transmits water and which
is able to supply water to wells, boreholes or springs.
Conductivity Transmissivity per unit length (m/day).
Confined aquifer Confined aquifers are those in which the piezometric level is higher than the
elevation at which the aquifer was encountered. Static water levels are at a
higher level than the top of the formation.
Development In borehole engineering, this is the general term for procedures applied to
repair the damage done to the formation during drilling. Often the borehole
walls are partially clogged by an impermeable “wall cake”, consisting of fine
debris crushed during drilling, and clays from the penetrated formations. Well
development removes these clayey cakes, and increases the porosity and
permeability of the materials around the intake portion of the well. As a result,
a higher sustainable yield can be achieved.
9
Drawdown The distance between the static water level and the pumped water level. The
term residual drawdown is used for the same distance during recovery of
the well.
Evaporation Loss of water from a land area through transpiration from vegetation and
evaporation from the surface.
Fault A larger fracture surface along which appreciable displacement has taken place.
Heterogeneous Not uniform in structure or composition.
Hydraulic Head Energy contained in a water mass, produced by elevation, pressure, or velocity.
Hydrogeological Those factors that deal with subsurface waters and related geological aspects
of surface waters.
Infiltration Process of water entering the soil through the ground surface.
Joint Fractures along which no significant displacement has taken place.
Lacustrine Referring to generally fine-grained, lake deposits.
Obsidian Compact, volcanic glass.
Percolation Process of water seeping through the unsaturated zone, generally from a
surface source to the saturated zone.
Perched aquifer Accumulation of groundwater on top of a layer of low conductivity, underlain by

unsaturated sediments or rocks.
Permeability The capacity of a porous medium for transmitting fluid.
Phenocrysts The larger, visible crystals in a porphyritic rock.
Phonolite Compact and fine textured volcanic rock, belonging to the trachyte-group
(together with trachytes and latite). Defined by a high portion of feldspar (40-
90%) and feldspatoidic minerals (10-60%: analcite, nepheline, leucite, etc.),
and very low to negligible quartz content (0-2%). Incorporated dark coloured
minerals (0-40%) most commonly include hornblende, olivine, melanite and
acmite. The structure is porphyritic with common phenocrysts of sanidine
(orthoclase, or Potassium-feldspar) and nepheline.
Piezometric level An imaginary water table, representing the total head in a confined aquifer, and
is defined by the level to which water would rise in a well.
Porphyritic Containing large, visible crystals or phenocrysts in a finer groundmass.
Porosity The portion of bulk volume in a rock or sediment that is occupied by openings,
whether isolated or connected.
10
Pumping test A test that is conducted to determine aquifer and/or well characteristics.
Pyroclastic rocks Group of rocks consisting of volcanic dust, ashes, lapilli, and coarse fragments
or boulders of lava (volcanic bombs), which have been thrown out of the
eruptive centre in molten condition, and deposited by gravity. Hardened masses
of dust, ashes and lapilli are known as tuff, while coarse, consolidated
pyroclastic debris is referred to as agglomerate.
Recharge General term applied to the passage of water from surface or subsurface
sources (e.g. rivers, rainfall, lateral groundwater flow) to the aquifer zones.
Recovery Return to static water level following abstraction of water.
Specific capacity Ratio of pumping rate and drawdown (m3/hr/m); a measure for the well
performance.
Static water level The level of water in a well that is not being affected by abstraction of
groundwater.
Trachyte Compact and fine textured volcanic rock, belonging to the trachyte-group
(together with phonolite and latite). Often marked by laminar flow structures.
Defined by a very high portion of feldspar (40-90%) and a relatively low portion
of feldspatoidic minerals (0-10%) and quartz (0-20%). Incorporated dark
coloured minerals (0-40%) most commonly include pyroxene, hornblende,
olivine, apatite and biotite. Porphyritic structure with common phenocrysts of
plagioclase (Sodium-Calcium-Aluminium feldspar), sanidine, pyroxene and
hornblende.
Transmissivity A measure for the capacity of an aquifer to conduct water through its
saturated thickness (m2/day).
Unconfined Referring to an aquifer situation whereby the water table is exposed to the
atmosphere through openings in the overlying materials (as opposed to
>confined conditions).
Yield Volume of water discharged from a well.
11
12
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION

The Chairman, Mang’elete Water Project assisted by World Vision Kenya requested the
consultants to undertake a detailed hydrogeological survey for a borehole site
investigations in Utu area, Kambu town of Kibwezi District. Subsequently,
hydrogeophysical surveys were undertaken within the community’s designated hotspots
within different farms to identify the most suitable site for sinking the proposed
borehole.
1.1 Location
The Project Area is located at the southern tip of Kibwezi District and is
bounded by latitudes 2°5'S and 3°5'S and longitudes 37°20'E and 38°35'E (Fig.
1).The physiography is characterised by flat lowland, with an altitude varying
from 300m to 900m above mean sea level (amsl). It has been described by
Pulfrey (1960) and Ojany (1966) as the low foreland plateau. It borders
Cenozoic lava highlands, represented by the Chyulu Range (2000m amsl),
to the west and an intermediate lava plateau, the Yatta Plateau (900m
amsl), to the east.
The drainage pattern is dominated by consequent seasonal streams that drain

the Chyulu Range and flow in an easterly direction to join the Athi River. Most
of the rivers are seasonal except the Kibwezi and Athi Rivers, which are
perennial (Fig. 2) .The rainfall pattern, is bimodal. The short rains occur in
November - December and the long rains in March - May. The mean annual
rainfall is 614mm and the potential evaporation is 2000mm. Thus, evaporation
reduces the effectiveness of the already little rainfall quite significantly. The
rainfall is characterized by poor reliability, which results in frequent crop failure.
The proposed borehole site is located in UTU village,hinterland of Kambu Divison

Kibwezi District some about 15km west of Kambu township town and 25km west Mtito-
Andei town. The map indicating the approximate location of the selected borehole
drilling site is attached here with.
13
2.0 WATER SUPPLY AND SITUATION
2.1 Sources of water

Existing water sources in the study area include several hand-dug wells,and piped
water infrastructure from existing Mang’elete water project borehole. However, all of
these sources are not adequate and the Mang’elete water committee assisted by World
Vision Kenya deemed it wise to explore and exploit supplementary groundwater source
to boost their existing supply. The objective of this investigation was therefore to
establish the optimum location of a borehole which will be near and more reliable to the
client’s envisaged needs.
2.2 Population and Water Demand

The current water demand for the investigated community areas is not known due to
lack of proper or scanty demographic data. It is however reported that the mass influx
of the Chyullu returnees is very high and this is evidenced by the heavy bush clearing in
the area which is being carried out by people who are returning to settle. The major
water supply sources in most places however are surface water ponds and ephemeral
rivers which run dry at the peak of the dry season. Once these sources are depleted,
people have to walk long distances to places where boreholes have been drilled.
According to Sphere Standards however, the longest distance to a water point should
be 500 meters while a single hand-pump should serve 500 people. This means that due
to the scattered patterns of settlement in the area, the coverage is far from complete
and more will have to be done in the way of safe water provision.
It has been estimated that a demand of about 8 cubic metres of water per hour
suffices the community needs. Water from the proposed borehole is to be used for
domestic and micro- irrigation purposes by the target community.
3.0 CLIMATE, PHYSIOGRAPHY AND LAND USE
3.1 Climate
The project site is located on a typical arid and semi – arid land (ASAL ZONE). It is
within ecological zones 4 & 5. It receives rains within two seasons of the year i.e.
between March & May and November & December rainfall seasons. Mean annual
temperatures range from 27-300C & 18-270C maxima and minima respectively.
There is high vapor-transpiration and percolation rates thus during rains water is quickly
lost to the atmosphere and to the ground respectively. The mean annual rainfall is 500
mm.
The groundwater recharge is through infiltration and subsequent percolation of part of

the mean annual rainfall as well as regional lateral replishments from areas of higher
elevation of the project area.
14
3.2 Physiography
The topography is undulating with basement and granite intrusive rock outcrops in
many places. The general physiography of the area is attributed to prolonged period of
weathering, deposition and volcanic intrusions. There area numerous dome-shaped hills
which expose the country rock. These outcropping features are dominantly basement in
nature and include gneiss, paragneisses as well as undifferentiated basement rocks.
3.3 Land Use Physical Development
The study area and its environs is characterized by open grasslands punctuated by
shrublands but some man-made forests do exist in places. These forests predominantly
comprise indigeneous species and are quite extensive in some places. In some places
where shallow groundwater is present, large Khat(Miraa) trees occur but further west
towards Chyullu hills, the vegetation is dominated by ‘thickets’. These consist of
heterogeneous dense trees and bushes, which form almost impenetrable thickets at their
peak development.
Apart from the thickets, other vegetation types predominant in the region are dependent
on the topography and soil types. In the ‘black cotton’ covered areas, tree-less grass cover
with occasional trees dominates the vegetation. The areas adjacent to the black cotton
grasslands are covered by different species of acacia while the hill-tops are covered by
bushes and woodlands. The seasonally wet areas have more typical woodland vegetation.
3.4 Soils
The soils of the Study area range widely in depth, colour, drainage, structure, chemical
and physical properties. However, most soils have a sandy texture in the subsoil. In
general, the parent material and physiography largely determine the pattern of the
soils. The variations in the present-day climate are in general too small to appear in the
morphology or chemistry of the soils in study area, particularly in the plains. The
Mtito-Andei and Chyulu hills form the exception. Here soils are found which differ
clearly from those dominating the lowlands. This can be attributed mainly to a much
higher rainfall on the hills. However, there are several major soil regions, which are
distinguishable from each other. These include (i) mountain, hill, low ridge and
scarps; (ii) foot slopes, piedmont plain and plateau; (iii) uplands; (iv) erosional plains;
(v) sedimentary plains; (vi) floodplains, (vii) alluvial valleys and bottom- lands; and
(viii) volcanic plains and lava flows.
15
4.0 GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY
4.1 GEOLOGICAL SETTING

The oldest rock outcrops in the Chyulu/Mtito-Andei Area consist of
Precambrian metamorphic rocks of the Mozambique Belt. The main
outcropping rock types are schists and gneisses; granitoid gneiss is associated
with the main hills in the area, such as Mbuinzau and Kikwao (Fig. 2). To the east,
the Precambrian rocks are overlain by Quaternary volcanic rocks, which were
derived from the eruptions of the Chyulu Range. The main rock types are
basalts (Saggerson 1963, Temperley 1955, Searle 1954).The strike of the
metamorphic rocks is mainly NNW-SSE. The foliation dips range from 35°
to 60° and varies considerably over short distances; their general pattern is
indicated in Figure 2. Although most of the faults in the volcanic and
metamorphic rocks tend to follow the strike of the metamorphic rocks, there
are some faults that do not follow that pattern. A good example is shown by
the faults east of Kiboko and south of Makindu.
(a) Regional Geology

The geological succession underlying the project area consists of a carpet of Chyullu
basalts and associated ash agglomerates and alluvial volcanic debris. These are in turn
underlain by weathered biotite gneisses of the basement system derived from the
Mozambique belt series
(b) Structural Geology

The geology of the Kibwezi district and, especially, of the Chyullu-Mtito-Kambu area
is described as complex, ranging from the Precambrian (over 600 million years old)
basement system of crystalline rocks and metamorphose sediments, to the Duruma
sandstone series of Permian (225-270 million years), Triassic (180-225 million
years) and Carboniferous (270-350 million years) age. Geologically, the rocks of the
Tsavo area can be described in two large groups: (i) the
Archaean-Precambrian (oldest known Cambrian) rock; and (ii) the Pleistocene (2-3
million years) to recent basaltic lava flows.
The Archaean-Precambrian rock includes the basement system, which has been
affected by metamorphism, granitisation and deep shearing. The Chyulu volcanic hills
are of Pleistocene to recent age. About 600 volcanic cones have been counted from
aerial photographs of the Chyullu area (Saggerson 1962; Sanders 1963; Walsh 1963;
Parkinson 1974).
The geomorphology is dominated by the occurrence of an extensive plain of both
erosional and sedimentary origin. A number of erosional surfaces can be
distinguished, but only the latest, the Nyika level of the end of the Tertiary age, is
present over a large area and not much is dissected yet. Of the older surface, only
16
remnants can be found at the base of the Chyulu hill and Yatta plateau (Ojani
1976). The Yatta plateau consists of a protective cap of Miocene phonolite, only about
10 m thick, overlying gneiss of the basement system. The erosional plains are
developed on a variety of rock types, such as the basement system rock and the
Duruma sandstone. The sedimentary plains are developed on the Pleistocene ‘bay
deposit’ of an unconsolidated clayey and saline nature on the eastern side. The
gradual east-west gradient rises from the sea level in the east to over 1,000 m in the
west. The slope is gentle in the east, becoming steeper in the west. The generally flat
relief is interrupted by (i) a basement massif which constitutes the Taita Hills-Dabida,
which comprises about 48 hills, of which the highest are Vuria (2,228 m) and Sagalla
(1,450 m); (ii) the Machakos highlands in the west; and (iii) by ‘Inselbergs’17 such as
Endau, Ngulia, Kasigau and Kilibasi. They consist mostly of a quartzitic type of
basement system rock, which makes them resistant to weathering and erosion.
Where the basement system consists of crystalline limestone, low elongated ridges
are often formed.
(c.)Geology of the study Site
The local geology has been delineated based on the few visible outcrops and geological
log of boreholes that have been drilled in the area. As observed during the fieldwork,
the investigated area around the compound is entirely underlain by rocks of the Tertiary
Volcanics and Pleistocene Pyroclastics composed of basaltic cones, cinders and ash. The
volcanic material tectonically sits on the basement regolith at depth.
Figure 4Geology of the study area
17
4.2 HYDROGEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER OCCURRENCE.
(a) Hydrogeology
The hydrogeology of an area is determined by the nature of the parent rock, structural
features, weathering processes and precipitation patterns. Lava flows rarely possess
significant primary porespace; instead, groundwater occurs within secondary features,
such as fissure zones, fractures, sedimentary beds, lithological contacts and Old Land
Surfaces (OLS).
The weathered zones or “Old Land Surfaces” (OLS) characterize periods of erosion
between volcanic eruptions and subsequent lava flows. These potential aquifers
comprise soils, weathered rocks and water-lain material of volcanic origin. The
thickness of the OLS is variable, but the water-producing zones, which are usually
sandy or gravelly, rarely exceed a few meters.
Unlike lava flows, pyroclastic deposits and especially volcanic sediments (e.g. those
embedded in the Chyullu Basalts) are generally porous: the cavities between the
mineral grains are usually open and interconnected. Consequently, they can contain
and transmit water.
Below the volcanic carpet, the metamorphic Basements rocks are generally hard and
compact, and posses no primary porosity. Groundwater occurrence in the Basement rocks
is likely to be localized, and limited to relatively small and isolated pockets. However,
depending on the parent material, water may be struck in the weathered top layers
(regolith and saprock). The underlying fresh Basement is in most cases dry, and
significant amounts of groundwater can only be expected in fractures (cracks, joints,
fissures, and faults).
Water exists in the aquifers under two different physical conditions namely confined and
unconfined aquifers. Confined groundwater is isolated from the atmosphere at the point
of discharge by impermeable geological formations and is generally subject to pressures
higher than the atmospheric pressure.
(b) Groundwater Occurrence.

The hydrogeology of the Chyulu Area is characterized by two main
aquifers, namely Quaternary volcanic rocks and Precambrian metamorphic
rocks. The Tertiary volcanic rocks that form the Yatta Plateau are too thin and
narrow to form any significant aquifer.
18
(i) Groundwater in Volcanic Rock S
The Quaternary volcanic rocks are characterized by basalts with columnar

jointing. As a result, very little run-off occurs from the Chyulu Ranges; most
of the water infiltrates along the joints and reappears as springs where
the contact between the underlying metamorphic rocks and the overlying
volcanic rocks is exposed at the surface. Examples of these springs are Mzima,
Umani, Chae, Manone, Makindu and Kiboko. The discharges of some of the
springs, as estimated by Temperley (1955), are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Discharge of some of the springs in the Chyulu Area
Name Average Discharge(m3/s )

Kiboko 0.12
Makindu 0.01
Umani 1.05
Chae 2.10
Mzima 6.00
Attempts have been made to correlate the occurrence of springs with

geological factors, such as faults, strike direction, foliation dip, and
metamorphic/volcanic rock contacts. The only observed correlation is with the
contact between the metamorphic and the volcanic rocks along specific volcanic
tongues. At the tips of the tongues, rivers have developed, namely the
Tsavo, Kibwezi, Makindu and Kiboko rivers (Fig 2). Temperley (1955) and Mailu
(1983) have associated the occurrences of the springs along the tongues
with pre-volcanic river channels. The proposition is supported by the
fact that the springs do not occur everywhere at the metamorphic/volcanic rock
contact. Temperley (1955) has associated the magnitude of discharge with the size
of the pre-volcanic catchment. The chemical quality of the water has been
analyzed. Classification according to Gorrel (1958) has been referred to for the
analysis of total dissolved solids (TDS), as shown in Table 2 below.
Table 2 Classification of water according to Gorrel (1958)
Quality TDS (mg/1)

Fresh < 1000
Brackish 1000 - 10,000
Saline 10,000 - 100,000
Brine > 100,000
19
All the springs yield water that is classified as fresh; Umani has the lowest TDS
value of 315 mg/l. According to WHO (1984), fluoride levels above 1.5 mg/1
may cause fluorosis. According to chemical analysis by Mailu (1983) and
Temperley (1955), Umani and Mzima springs are safe for human consumption, but
Chae, Makindu and Kiboko springs are unsuitable. Makindu has the highest
value of 3.6 mg/1 fluoride. According to WHO (1984), sulphate concentrations
above 400 mg/l may cause laxative effects in human beings. Records available
for Kiboko, Mzima, Makindu and Umani springs show that only Kiboko springs
have sulphate levels above 400 mg/l (Mailu 1983 and Saggerson 1963).
(ii) Groundwater in Metamorphic Rocks

It has been observed that most of the boreholes drilled in the volcanic
fields have penetrated a thin veneer of basalts (maximum depth of 9 metres)
before entering underlying metamorphic rocks. Some examples of these
boreholes are located west of Mtito Andei, around Kibwezi and southwest of
Makindu. The depths of water-bearing horizons have tended to be
considerably below the base of the volcanic rocks; thus, the water-bearing
horizons are not associated with the latter. The only such boreholes with
chemical analyses are C 2779 and C 2944, west of Mtito Andei Town. Their
fluoride and sulphate levels are within acceptable limits but the water is brackish.
Aquifer depths for boreholes drilled in metamorphic rocks have been
analyzed, and the results are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Borehole depths
Depth (m) No. of boreholes
< 50 10
50 - 100 6
> 100 Nil
Table 4 Borehole yields in Chyulu Area
Yield (m3/hr) No. of boreholes

<5 6
5-10 4
10 -15 5
> 15 nil
Table 3 shows that none of the water-bearing zones exceeds 100 m depth and
that most are shallower than 50 m. The deeper aquifer horizons can occur near
to the shallow ones, without any particular pattern. No lithological or
structural correlation can be observed. Table 4 shows that no boreholes have
yields greater than 15m3/hr. Boreholes that yield 10-15m3/hr are mainly
20
associated with volcanic tongues, as evidenced by boreholes in Mtito Andei and

Makindu. Boreholes with yields less than 5 m3/hr are associated with
metamorphic rocks away from the volcanic tongues.
Table 5 TDS in water from boreholes
TDS (mg/1) No. of boreholes

< 1000 1
1000 -5000 6
> 5000 2
Table 5 indicates that most of the boreholes have brackish water (>1000
mg/1). No clear pattern of distribution can be identified in relation to
lithology or structure
Table 6 Fluoride levels in water from boreholes in Chyulu Area

F- (mg/1) No. of boreholes
< 1.5 3
> 1.5 2
It will be observed from Table 6 that most of the water samples have fluoride
levels less than 1.5 mg/l. spatial distribution analysis has indicated that low
lfuoride levels are common in the Mtito Andei area and high levels are common in
the Kibwezi area.
Table7 Sulphate levels from borehole samples in Chyulu Area
SO4 (mg/1) No. of boreholes
< 400 2
>400 4
Table 7 shows that most of the borehole samples have sulphate levels
above 400 mg/l. The spatial distribution analysis shows that boreholes
around Mtito-Andei have sulphate contents of less than 400 mg/l, while
those around Kibwezi and Kiboko have concentrations greater than 400 mg/l.
21
4.3 RECHARGE
There are two possible ways through which aquifers in this area may be recharged.
1. Direct replenishment at the surface: this may be by way of percolation of
rainwater through the overlying sandy soils and fracture/faults
2. Indirect recharge: there is a obvious indirect recharge from the Chyullu hills
through faults and fractures that connect to the aquifers in the study area.
▲The study area and

the proposed borehole site
Fig.5 Hydrogeology of the study area and proposed borehole site

22
4.4 DISCHARGE
There are two ways through which groundwater is discharged in the area. The first one
is through abstraction from the numerous boreholes. Groundwater in the area may also
flow through fractures and faults to the areas of lower elevation. For this to happen
however, the fractures and faults have to be extensively interconnected to allow for
movement of water.
4.4.1 Potential Evapotraspiration

Potential evapotranspiration is defined as the evapotranspiration that would occur if soil
moisture were not limited. The free water evaporation usually gives an indication of the
potential evaporation from a vegetated soil surface. The potential evapotranspiartion is
between 75% of the free water evaporation in vegetated highlands and 80% or more in
hot and dry lowland areas according to TAMS(ref 9). The rate of evaporation is related
to elevation in Meters and is given by the following formula:-
E = 2775-0.4838*EL ….
Where Eo is evaporation in meters
However, what is very important is the combination of evaporation, which is here
referred to as evapotranspiration and is given by the following relationship:-
ETo = 2329.9 – 0.0323*EL
Where ETo is Evapotranspiarion is 2329-0.03235*60 = 2327mm
The actual value as indicated in the water master plan is around 600mm.
4.4.2 SOIL MOISTURE STORAGE
When rainfall, runoff and evapotranspiration data are known for particular catchment
area, the amount of infiltrated water can be calculated as follows:-
INF = P – Q – Eta
INF = Amount of infiltrated water (mm/year)
P = Mean Annual rainfall (mm/year)
Q = Mean annual runoff (mm/year)
Eta = Mean annual evapotranspiration(mm/year)
However, not all the infiltrated water will percolate to the permanent groundwater.
Part of the infiltrated water will remain in the subsurface as the moisture that may later
be evaporated. The water percolates to the deeper groundwater when the soil
moisture has reached a saturation level.
In the literature, several valves are used for maximum soil storage. Woodhead and
Ker, Priestman and Ass use amounts from 100mm – 200mm depending on the grade
and depth of weathering and climatologically conditions of the area.
23
5.0 EXISTING BOREHOLES AND RECHARGE
Borehole data within a locality is useful in estimating the depth of a new borehole,
expected water quality and yield. The following boreholes are found within the vicinity
of the project area. The data is given in Table 2.1.
Table 8: Borehole Data from Boreholes within Close Vicinity
B/H Borehole owner Distance/ Total Water Water tested Pumping

No Bearing Depth Struck Rest Yield water
C- level level M3/h level
C-2779 Ivingoni 2Km SW 120 60 30 8 110

C-2944 Mang’elete 2.5km SE 110 63 42 15 85
Iiani 1.5km NW 120 80 36 10 100
Komboyoo 7.5km NW 130 80 15 6 120
Utithi 7km NW 140 60 10 5 125
AQUIFER PROPERTIES
5.1 Borehole specific capacities (S) Transmissivity (T) Coefficient

The borehole specific capacities have been calculated based on the formula;
S=Q/s (Driscoll, 9860);
Where Q is the yield during the pump test and s is the draw down i.e. PWL-WRL
Transitivity on the other hand is calculated using the formula T= 0.183 Q/s. however
this formula is applicable where well test data is available in long scale.
Logan’s formula T=1.22Q/s is the best for estimating Transmissivity. The area does not
have aquifer test and it is difficult to ascertain specific yields, storage coefficients of
existing boreholes in the project area.
From Driscoll 1986 the following summary of specific yield ranges for earth materials:
Specific capacity = tested yield / (pumping level – water rest level)
Transmissivity = 1.22 x specific capacity x 24hrs
24
Table: 9 Specific capacities and Transmissivity of existing boreholes
Borehole no. Specific Transmissivity(m²/day)

capacity(m2/hr)
Ivingoni 0.114286 3.34630
Mang’elete 0.25862 7.57339
Iiani 0.15625 4.575
Komboyoo 0.05714 1.6731
Utithi 0.04348 1.2731
The Specific capacity ranges from 0.04348 to 0.25862m²/hr while the transmissivity
range from 1.2731 to 7.57339 m²/day.
5.2 Hydraulic Conductivity (K) and Ground Water Flux

Locations laboratory investigations and isotope methods are very expensive methods
and are the best for determining hydraulic conductivity and ground water flux correctly.
The results are confined to few location and they depend on the scale of the
investigation method. Rock sample measurements in the laboratory vary from well test
results. Ministry of water and irrigation data is also not very reliable.
Hydraulic conductivity is calculated using the formula K=T/D where K is the hydraulic
conductivity, T is the transmissivity and D is aquifer thickness. D is assumed to be 30m.
In the ministry of water and irrigation data the start of the aquifer is the one recorded
and most of the time, the thickness is not given. Due to this a lot of assumptions will be
made in order to calculate the Hydraulic conductivity.
Darcy formula is used to calculate ground water flux. It is given as Q=T .I.W, where T
is the transmissivity of the borehole, I is the gradient and W is the width.
From the above formula I is the hydrostatic head. Where I=0.0375 and the width (W) is
considered as 1000 meters.
Hydraulic conductivity is calculated using the formula K=T/D
Thus Ground water flux = Transmissivity x 37.5
The calculated hydraulic conductivities and ground water fluxes of the existing
boreholes are presented in the table below.
25
Table:10 Hydraulic conductivity and ground water flux

Boreholes number Hydraulic conductivity Ground water flux
m3/day
Ivingoni 4.2 126
Mang’elete 9.5 284
Iiani 5.7 172
Komboyoo 2.1 63
Utithi 1.6 48
The hydraulic conductivity ranges from 1.6 to 284 m/day and ground water flux ranges
from 48 to 284 m3/day.
5.4 Assessment of Availability of Ground Water

Regarding assessment of available ground water, the following conclusions can be
made:
• Assuming an abstraction of about 20m3/ day for all the boreholes in the area,
then the abstraction per day can be estimated to be about 100m 3 / day
• The available ground water can be calculated as the available through-flow
(ground water flux) less the amount of water abstracted per day.
5.5 Analysis of Reserve and Ground Water Level Evolution

An adequate estimate of the availability of ground water in storage beneath an area
requires determination of the ground water basin boundaries, both vertical and
horizontal, and of aquifer dimensions and characteristics. Such an analysis requires
careful and accurate determination of the aquifer characteristics, GIS techniques to
indicate the extent of the aquifer in question and accurate pump test to determine the
capacity of the aquifer(s) In addition, recharge and discharge must be fairly quantified.
6.0 GEOPHYSICS
Several geophysical methods are available to assist in the assessment of geological sub
surface conditions. In the present survey the resistivity method also known as the (geo
electrical method) has been used. Vertical electrical soundings (VES) are carried out to
probe the cautions at such anomalous zones within the sub-surface and to confirm the
existence of deep ground water. The techniques are described below.
6.1 Basic principles of the resistivity methods

26
The electrical properties of the upper parts of the earths crust are dependant upon the
lithology. Porosity and the degree of pore space saturation and the salinity of the pore
water.
Saturated rocks have lower resistivities than unsaturated and dry rocks. The higher the
porosity of the saturated rocks the lower its Resistivity. The higher the salinity of the
saturating fluids, the lower the resistivity. The presence of clays and conductive
minerals also reduce the resistivity of the rock.
6.2 Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES)

Vertical Electrical Soundings were carried out to probe the electrical properties and
depth to sub surface layered formations below the site of measurement at the most
anomalous zones.
When carrying out a resistivity sounding electric currents is led to the ground by means
of two electrodes and the potential field generated by the current measured. The
separation between the electrodes is step – wise increased (in what is known as
schlumberger array) observed resistivity values are plotted in log-log paper and the
graph obtained depicts resistivity variation against depth.
This graph can be interpreted with aid of a computer and the actual resistivity lying of
the sub soil is obtained. The depths and resistivity values provide the hydro geologist
with information on the geological layering and thus the occurrence of ground water.
6.4 Electrical Resistivity Method

This is a major geophysical tool used in groundwater exploration efforts. Resistivity,
the inverse of electrical conductivity is the resistance of the geologic medium to current
flow when a potential [voltage] difference is applied for a given material with a
characteristic Resistivity ‘ƒ’ the resistance ‘R’ is proportional to the length ‘L’ of the
material being measured and inversely proportional to its cross-section area ‘A’
i.e. R= ƒL or ƒ= RA
A L
In this procedure, a series of stations is established and careful depth soundings are
taken by evaluating the Resistivity values at different electrode spacing, an
understanding of the sub-surface materials can be developed.
This method is useful for estimating the depth to water bearing strata or estimating the
thickness of selected formations. In order to help probe the subsurface rock conditions
capable of groundwater storage, the schlumberger configuration method was used.
One Horizontal profiling and Six (6) vertical electrical Resistivity soundings designated
as VES I(KWA MIW’A),VES II(KWA NDIKI),VES III(KWA PAUL),VES IV(KWA
MIWA 2),VES V(KWA MICHAEL),VES VI(KWA KAKULI),VES VII(CONTROL
VES),were carried as shown below:-
27
SITE Name VES Coordinates (UTM) WSL Max. Prospective RANKING

No. (m) Depth Yield(m3/hr)
(m)
1 KWA MIW’A I 37M 385938 9692967 40,80 150 8-12 1
2 KWA NDIKI II 37M 390438 9691183 40,80 130 6-10 3
3 KWA PAUL III 37M 391035 9694759 55,100 120 >8 2
4 KWA MIWA 2 IV 37M 394333 9695953 50,80 150 6-8 4
5 KWA MICHAEL V 37M 390282 9699376 63,120 120 >6 5
6 KWA KAKULI VI 37M 388710 9696023 50,90 130 ≥6 6
7 CONTROL VES VII 37M 387871 9694264 40,60 130 6
Table 11
6.5 Geophysical Field Data
Table 12.Tabulated below is the analysis of the field geophysical data;

STATIO R-064/10:VES R-065/10:VES R-066/10:VES R-
N I(KWA MIW’A) II(KWA NDIKI) III(KWA PAUL) 067/10:VESIV(K
No. WA MIW’A 2)
AB/2(m ∂V/I Rho(Ohm ∂V/I(Ωm Rho ∂V/I(Ωm Rho(Oh ∂V/I(Ωm Rho(Ohm

) (Ωm) -m) ) (Ohm- ) m-m) ) -m)
m)
1.6 7.27 53 6.79 49 33.3 242 3.70 27
2.0 5.71 67 5.19 61 23.8 281 2.63 31
2.5 4.06 73 4.29 81 18.79 353 1.989 37
3.2 4.45 100 3.36 106 13.72 431 1.518 48
4.0 2.31 136 2.73 135 10.61 525 1.136 56
5.0 2.19 170 2.24 174 7.63 594 0.911 71
6.3 1.1693 210 1.804 226 5.50 682 0.703 87
8.0 1.228 246 1.320 264 7.63 756 0.506 101
10 0.897 281 0.926 290 5.50 867 0.381 119
13 0.624 331 0.558 296 3.78 908 0.291 154
16 0.264 374 0.362 291 2.77 803 0.230 185
20 0.466 420 0.219 276 1.713 804 0.1783 225
25 0.333 433 0.1387 272 1.000 729 0.1187 233
32 3.35 372 1.914 278 0.638 670 1.978 287
40 1.066 252 0.903 213 0.372 401 1.143 270
50 0.536 202 0.522 197 0.729 275 0.683 258
63 0.265 161 0.227 138 0.334 203 0.326 198
80 0.166 155 0.124 123 0.1637 162 0.1727 171
100 0.1291 201 0.0912 142 0.0671 105 0.1193 186
130 0.0924 244 0.0738 195 0.0452 119 0.0769 203
160 0.075 301 0.0513 206 0.0333 134 0.0592 237
200 0.0603 378 0.038 238 0.0329 206 0.0448 281
250 0.0480 470 0.032 314 0.0254 249 0.0998 365
28
Table 13 VES DATA
STATI R-068/10:VES R-069/10:VES R-070/10:VES

ON V(KWA VI(KWA (CONTROL-
No. MICHAEL) KAKULI) WELL)
AB/2( ∂V/I Rho(Oh ∂V/I(Ωm Rho ∂V/I(Ωm Rho(O

m) (Ωm) m-m) ) (Ohm- ) hm-m)
m)
1.6 6.78 49 19.92 145 6.79 49
2.0 4.92 58 12.69 150 5.19 61
2.5 3.83 72 9.03 170 4.29 81
3.2 2.95 92 5.78 182 3.36 106
4.0 2.24 111 4.01 199 2.73 135
5.0 1.722 134 2.94 229 2.24 174
6.3 1.281 159 2.08 258 1.804 226
8.0 0.879 176 1.449 290 1.320 264
10 0.619 194 0.991 310 0.926 290
13 0.402 213 0.624 331 0.558 296
16 0.278 223 0.421 338 0.362 291
20 0.1718 217 0.279 352 0.219 276
25 0.1185 232 0.1762 345 0.1387 272
32 0.0733 236 1.876 272 1.914 278
40 0.974 230 0.921 217 0.903 213
50 0.551 208 0.460 173 0.522 197
63 0.304 185 0.300 182 0.227 138
80 0.224 222 0.211 209 0.124 123
100 0.1767 275 0.1611 251 0.0912 142
130 0.1349 356 0.1129 298 0.0738 195
160 0.0513 206
200 0.038 238
250 0.032 314
29
6.6 6.2 Results , Interpretations and Discussion
Vertical electrical soundings (VES) provide quantitative depth-resistivity information for

a particular site. VES sites were selected at representative points, and at locations of
particular interest for groundwater resources development. The measurements were
executed in an expanding Schlumberger array, with electrode spread of AB/2=160 to
250 m. This separation gives fairly reliable interpretations down to a depth of 80 to 120
m, but only approximate solutions for resistivity layering at deeper levels. Depth
indications beyond this level are only indicative, and do not give the precise position of
the measured contact zone. The locations of the geophysical soundings (those carried
out within the plot) are shown in figure 2 Apparent resistivity curves were interpreted
using the "Schlumberger" program (Hemker, 1989).
VES 5/6
VES 3 VES 4
Figure 4 shows Horizontalprofile conducted within the designated points to reveal the respective anomalies
30
The main aim of the measurements was to determine the depth to the fresh basement
formation rocks, the degree of fracturing at depth, which should be directly related to
the Transmissivity layer and thus the potential yield. As a general rule, it can be
assumed that in this case the sounding with the lowest basal resistivities in the
expected water bearing range represent the most favourable drilling site.
Table : Table 14:Hydrogeological Interpretation of VES I MIWA-1.
Depth Resistivity Interpretation Aquiferous?

(m) (Ohm)
0.0 – 1.8 10 Dry phanasols No
1.8 – 8.0 50 Very loose Pyroclastic tuffs(Dry) No
8.0 – 11 300 Slightly weathered pyroclastic material No
11 - 25 3000 Compact (undifferentiated) basalts No
25-160 20 Fractured volcanic material basalts(wet)/basement Yes
>100 7000 Fresh Basement (Dry) No, impervious
Table 14: VES I (MIWA). AB=250m; sounding data: consistent. Physiographic zone: Relatively
low ground, with Phanasols.
The geo-electric model consists of a thin sheet of dry Phanasols as the top mantle. This
is underlain by pyroclastic layer (50 Ωm) grades into weathered basaltic pyroclastic
material (300Ωm). Below this material lies an highly undifferentiated basaltic formation
of (3000Ωm) and further highly fractures to (25 Ωm) which happen to be the Main
aquifer targeted in this study is believed to be the contact zone between the fractured
basalts/basement. The underlying layer with resistivity of (7000Ωm) is composed of
fresh basement at depth
Table 15: Table 2:Hydrogeological Interpretation of VES II (KWA NDIKI-1.
(m) (Ohm)
1.8 – 4.0 2500 Fresh Pyroclastic tuffs(Dry) No
4.0 – 11 600 slightly weathered pyroclastic material No
24-150 35 Fractured volcanic material basalts/basement(wet) Yes
>150 2000 Fresh Basement (Dry) No, Impervious
Table 15: VES II (KWA NDIKI). AB=250m; sounding data: consistent. Physiographic zone:
Relatively low ground, with Phanasols.
is underlain by fresh pyroclastic layer (2500 Ωm) grading into slightly weathered
basaltic pyroclastic material (600Ωm). Below this material lies a differentiated basaltic
31
formation of (100Ωm) and further fractures to (30 Ωm) which happen to be the Main
aquifer targeted in this study. The underlying layer with resistivity of (2000Ωm) is
composed of fresh basement.
Table 16:Hydrogeological Interpretation of VES III(KWA PAUL).
(m) (Ohm)
40 – 11 500 slightly weathered pyroclastic material No
11 - 34 300 undifferentiated basalts No
23-100 40 Fractured volcanic material basalts(wet) Yes
Table 16: VES III (KWA PAUL). AB=250m; sounding data: consistent. Physiographic zone: Relatively
is underlain by fresh pyroclastic layer (2000Ωm) gradeing into slightly weathered
basaltic pyroclastic material (500Ωm). Below this material lies a further differentiated
basaltic formation of (300Ωm) and further fractures to (4o Ωm) which happen to be the
Main aquifer targeted in this study. The underlying layer with resistivity of (7000Ωm) is
composed of fresh basalts.
Table 17:Hydrogeological Interpretation of VES IV( KWA MIWA-II).

(m) (Ohm)
0.5– 6.0 130 Loose Pyroclastic material (Dry) No
6.0 – 9.0 650 slightly weathered pyroclastic material No
9.0 - 27 1300 Compact (undifferentiated) basalts No
Table 17: VES IV(KWA MIW’A II). AB=250m; sounding data: consistent. Physiographic zone:
Relatively low ground, with Phanasols.
is underlain by fresh pyroclastic layer (135 Ωm) grades into highly weathered basaltic
pyroclastic material (3Ωm). Below this material lies an undifferentiated basaltic
composed of fresh basalts.
32
Table 18:Hydrogeological Interpretation of VES V( KWA MICHAEL).

(m) (Ohm)
0.9 – 1.0 200 Loose Pyroclastic tuffs(Dry) No
1.0 – 5.0 600 weathered pyroclastic material No
5.0 - 24 350 Differentiated basalts No
24-100 100 Fractured volcanic material basalts(wet) Poor
Table 2: VES V (KWA MICHAEL). AB=250m; sounding data: consistent. Physiographic zone: Relatively
is underlain by loose pyroclastic layer (200-Ωm) transforming into sloose weathered
basaltic pyroclastic material (200Ωm). Below this material lies an slightly
undifferentiated basaltic formation of (600Ωm) and fslightly fractures to (100 Ωm)
which happen to be a probable aquifer which is not reliable.. The underlying layer with
resistivity of (5000Ωm) is composed of fresh basement.
Table 19:Hydrogeological Interpretation of VES VI(KWA KAKULI).

(m) (Ohm)
2.0 – 8.0 170 Loose Pyroclastic tuffs(Dry) No
9.0 – 11 180 Highly weathered pyroclastic material No
Table 2: VES VI (KWA KAKULI). AB=250m; sounding data: consistent. Physiographic zone: Relatively
is underlain by loose pyroclastic layer (170 Ωm) grades into weathered basaltic
pyroclastic material (180Ωm). Below this material lies an undifferentiated basaltic
aquifer targeted in this study and is believed to be the contact zone between the
fractured basalts/basement. The underlying layer with resistivity of (5000Ωm) is
composed of fresh basement.
33
Table 20: Hydrogeological Interpretation of VES #( CONTROL VES-EXISTING WELL).

(m) (Ohm)
8.0 – 11 300 Highly weathered pyroclastic material(wet) Probably
Table 20: VES (CONTROL DATA-EXISTING WELL). AB=250m; sounding data: consistent.
Physiographic zone: Relatively low ground, with Phanasols.
is underlain by very loose pyroclastic layer (50 Ωm) grading into weathered basaltic
pyroclastic material (300Ωm). Below this material lies highly undifferentiated basaltic
composed of fresh regolith.
7.0 GROUND WATER QUALITY
Generally ground water chemistry from volcanic rocks varies from place to place due to
the chemical constituents of various lavas. Water quality from the proposed borehole is
expected to be good though the fluoride level will be higher than the recommended
level by WHO. Some of the factors which determine the degree of mineralization of
ground water are as follow:-
7.1 Evaporation and Transpiration

Direct evaporation by the heat of the sun and preferential up take of certain minerals
ions by plants can in certain environments, lead to hardness of water and salinity.
7.2 Dissolution of evaporates

The process of evapotranspiration may in arid conditions lead to the precipitation of
salts in the unsaturated zone. These salts may then be carried down to the ground
water stone during periods of rain; thus leading to high ion concentrations in space and
time.
7.3 Dissolution Host rock
Given relatively long residence times and fairly ambient temperatures in ground water
systems, progressive salinity or mineralization of ground water can be expected via the
solution of various constituents of the host rock. This will vary according to local
structures (which may speed the passage of water through an aquifer by means of
faults etc & so limit retention time) local climate and so on.
34
Considering the above factors the quality of water in our project area is expected to
vary from one bore hole to the other but generally the water has a high fluoride
exceeding the WHO limit.
8.0 Impacts of Proposed Drilling Activity.
In client’s study area, the rock formations are volcanic with basement at depth in
nature. Basement aquifers are localized, therefore drilling activity within the study area
shall have no impact on the aquifers, water quality, and the abstractors and neither
shall there be a likelihood of coalescing cones of depression. It shall have no negative
implications for other ground water users.
8.1 Impacts On Local Aquifer’s Quantity And Quality:

The sustainability of water quality depends on the level of abstraction and recharge
rate. If ground water is abstracted at a rate greater than its natural replenishment rate,
then the water table lowers and the project will not be sustainable. Based on the yields
of the boreholes in the area, the proposed abstraction of 20m 3/day based on a 10 hour
pumping regime is not expected to have any major impact on the aquifers, as the
aquifer is expected to be quit productive.
The water quality will mainly depend on the host rock and construction design. Overall,
the expected impacts resulting from the borehole to the environment and their
mitigation measures will be adequately addressed by the Environmental Impact
Assessment Study to be conducted
8.2 Impacts On Existing Boreholes In The Area:
It is noteworthy that all the boreholes examined in this study area are more than 2km
away from the proposed drill site. Therefore we do not expect any negative impacts on
any other existing borehole within the vicinity.
35
9.0 CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS
9.1 General
Studies and analyses have shown that all boreholes drilled within
the volcanic fields abstract their water from metamorphic rock rather
than volcanic rock aquifers. It is concluded, therefore, that all boreholes
considered in this study have derived their water from water-bearing
horizons within metamorphic rocks. Lithology and structural characteristics
of the rocks do not appear to have a significant influence on the
depths of water-bearing zones, borehole yields or water quality. However,
the contact between the metamorphic rocks and the overlying volcanic
rocks(Old surface Lands) along the tongues of volcanic flows has
proved promising for high yields for some boreholes.
Insufficient water-quality data have hampered conclusive analysis of

the geological influence on groundwater in some parts of the area.
High fluoride contents and total dissolved solids around the Kibwezi area,
as compared to other areas, indicate an anomaly that has not yet been
explained. While the metamorphic rocks are relatively poor in terms of
groundwater quantity and quality, they have a useful function as
barriers to water that percolates through the relatively permeable
overlying volcanic rocks. Where the contact is exposed along the
tongues of the volcanic flows, springs have developed. These springs
have been the main sources of water supply in the Chyulu Area, hence
the significant positive influence of the metamorphic rocks on
groundwater storage.
9.2 Conclusion.
Based on the collected and analyzed data, the hydro geological prevailing
conditions it can be concluded as follows:-
 There are good prospects of striking Groundwater within the investigated
site.
 Water from this borehole is expected to be of good quality;
 Information from the existing boreholes suggests that the locality has high
ground water potential.
 The yield of a borehole drilled in the general area is expected to vary
between 8 and 12 cubic metres of water per hour.
 Water occurrence is within the basaltic-basement contact zone
36
9.2 Recommendations:
Based on the above, it is recommended that:-
 The study recommends that a borehole be drilled at the site designated as VES I
MIWA I, to an approximate depth of 160metres below ground level: this will be
sufficient for a sustainable yield of approximately 12m3/hr. It is however
expected that if drilling proceeds to bottom with good construction and borehole
design, more than 15 m3/hr can reasonably be attained.
 It should be lined with appropriate casings and screens.
 It should be protected from possible sources of contamination by grouting a
certain length of the borehole from the ground surface.
 The borehole should be properly gravel packed to enhance yield.
• The drilling and test pumping should be supervised by water office.
• Upon completion, the borehole should be fitted with an airline/ piezometre and a
master meter to facilitate monitoring of static water level and groundwater
abstractions respectively.
• A two (2) litres water sample of this water is to be collected in a clean
container and be taken to any competent water testing authority for a full
chemical, physical and bacteriological analysis.
• It is a legal requirement, stipulated in the water act 2002,that the client applies
for a ground water permit from the Water Resources Management Authority
(WRMA) to sink a borehole. For this purpose, three signed copies of the present
report must be submitted to the authority for examination.
9.3 Further Recommendations:
 The site is known to the the chairman, committee of Mang’elete water Project
and the World Vision, Mtito Andei IPA MWA Engineer
 The site is accessible by a drilling rig as it is plain and road infrastructure leading
to the site is motorable.
 To achieve and maintain a high yield, and maximize the efficiency of the
borehole, the importance of proper design and construction methods cannot be
overemphasized.
 The water quality of the proposed borehole is expected to be palatable.
37
References
Baker, B. H. (1954). Geology of the Southern Machakos District. Report No. 27. Nairobi,
Geological Survey of Kenya.
Braunn, H. M. H. (1978). "Climate." In D. O. Michieka, J. J. Vlee Shouwer and B. J. A. Van Der

Pouw (Eds.), Soils of the Kwale - Mombasa - Lunga Lunga Area. Report No. R3 Kenya Soil Survey,
Nairobi. pp.11-22.
Braunn, H. M. H. (1977). Average monthly rainfall as a percentage of the annual rainfall in Kenya and
Tanzania, with particular reference to the Kenya coast, Misc. paper No. M14, Kenya Soil Survey,
Nairobi. pp. 1-5.
Central Bureau of Statistics. (1981 & 1986). Republic of Kenya. Ministry of Economic Planning
and Development.
Ferguson, A., E. Absalom, W. Kogi, and D. Omambia. (1985). Kibwezi Integrated Survey, AMREF.
April 1985. pp. 46-67.
Gachimbi, L. N. (1990). Land degradation and its control in the Kibwezi area, Kenya (Thesis).
University of Nairobi, 1990. 180p.
GoK. (1993). Makueni District Development Plan for the period 1994-1996. Govt. printer NRB.
Mbinda, B. M. (1992). Agronomic and Socio-Economic factors affecting Cotton Production in Makueni
Location, Machakos District. A Dessertation submitted as part of requirements for Bsc. in
Geography. University of Nairobi.
Mbithi, P. M. and C. Barnes. (1975). The spontaneous settlement in Kenya. East Africa Literature
Bureau. pp. 128-167.
Michieka, D. O. and B. J. A. Van Der Pouw. (1977). Soils and vegetation of the Kiboko range
research station. A semi detailed report No. 53.
Saggerson, E. P. (1963). Geology of Simba Kibwezi report No. 58 Geology Survey of Kenya,
Nairobi.
Tiffen, M. (1991). Environmental change and dryland management in Machakos District, Kenya 1930
- 1990. Population Profile: Working paper number 54. (ODI)
Touber, L. (1983). Soils and vegetation of Amboseli- Kibwezi area. Kenya soil survey report No. R
6 Nairobi In Pouw et al. ed. 1983. pp. 29-138.
38
APPENDIX
DRILLING METHODS/ TECHNIQUE
Drilling should be carried out with an appropriate tool-either percussion or rotary

machine. The latter are considerably faster. Geological rock samples should be collected
at 2- metres intervals. Struck and Rest water levels and if possible, estimate of the
yield of individual aquifer encountered should also be noted.
Borehole Design
The design of the well should ensure that screens are placed against the optimum
aquifer zones. An experienced works drilling consultant/hydro geologist should make
the final design, and should make the main decision on the screen setting.
Casings and Screens

The well should be cased and screened with good quality screens, considering the
depth of the borehole, it is recommended to use steel casing and screens of 153/6”
diameter. Slots should be maximum 1mm in size.
We do not encourage the use of torch-cut steel well casing as screens. In general, its
use will;
• Reduce well efficiency (which leads to lower yield).
• Increase pumping costs through greater draw down;
• Increase maintenance costs and eventually
• Reduction of the potential effective life of the well.
Gravel Pack
The use of gravel pack is recommended within the aquifer zones, because the aquifer
could contain sands or silts which are finer than the screen slots size. An 8” (203mm)
diameter borehole screened at 6” (153mm) will leave an annular space of
approximately 1”, which should be sufficient. Should the slot size chosen to be too
large, the well will pump sand thus damaging the pumping plant and leading to gradual
siltation of the well. The grain size of the gravel pack should be having an average of
2-4mm.
Borehole Construction
Once the design has been agreed, constructions can proceed. In installing screens and
casing, centralizers at 6 metres interval should be used to ensure centrality within the
borehole. This is particularly important to insert the artificial gravel pack all around the
39
screen. If installed, gravel packed sections should be sealed off top and bottom with
clay (2m). The remaining annular space should be backfilled with an insert material
and the top five meters grouted with cement to ensure that no surface water at the
well head can enter the well and thus prevent contamination.
Borehole Development
Development aims at;
• Repairing the damage done to the aquifer during the course of drilling by
removing clays and other additives from the borehole walls.
• Secondly, it alters the physical characteristics of the aquifer around the screen
and removes fine particles.
We do not advocate the use of over pumping as means of development since it only
increases permeability in zones, which are already permeable. Instead, we would
recommend the use of air or water jetting, or the use of the mechanical plunger, which
physically agitates the gravel pack and adjacent aquifer material. This is an extremely
efficient method of developing and cleaning wells.
Well development is an expensive element in the completion of a well, but is usually

justified in longer well life, greater efficiencies, lower operational and maintenance costs
and a more constant yield. Within this frame the pump should be installed at least 2m
above the screen.
Borehole Testing
After development and preliminary tests, a long duration well test should be carried out
on all newly completed wells. This gives an indication of the quality of drilling, design
and development. It also yields information on aquifer parameters which are vital to
the hydro geologist. A well test consists of pumping a well from measured start level
(water rest level (WRL) at a known or measured yield, and simultaneously recording the
discharge rate and the resulting draw downs as a function of time. Once a dynamic
water level (D.W.L) is reached, the rate of flow to the well is equal to the rate of
pumping. Towards the end of the test a water sample of 2 litres should be collected for
chemical analysis.
The duration of the test should be 24 hours; followed by recovery test until the initial
W.R.L has been reached (during which the rate of recovery to WRL is recorded.
The results of the test will enable the hydro geologist to calculate the following;
• Optimum pumping rate,
• Installation depth,
• Draw down for a given discharge rate.
• Pump size
40
WATER QUALITY
Classifications of Ground Water Quality
According to WHO (1984) water for human consumption should have a maximum TDS
of 1000mg/1itre, see Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: WHO Water Quality Classification

TDS (MG)
TYPE OF WATER
Fresh < 100
Brackish 1,000 – 10,000
Saline 10,000 – 100,000
Brine >100,000
A Guideline for Evaluating Water Quality
The guidelines given in Table 5.2 are used in evaluating the quality of groundwater.
Table 5.2: Water Quality Guidelines
THRESH HOLD (Mg/1) LIMIT (Mg/1)

PARAMETERS
TDA 2500 5000
CALCIUM 500 1000
MAGNESIUM 250 500
SODIUM 1000 2000
BICARBONATE 500 1500
CHLORIDE 1500 3000
FLUORIDE 1 6
NITRATE 200 400
SULPHATE 500 1000
PH 6.0 – 8.5 5.6 – 9.0
Water from the proposed boreholes should be analyzed to ascertain its chemical,
bacteriological suitability before it is made available for domestic use.
Water Quality Protection

In order to protect the quality of the water, the borehole should be located as far as
possible from all sources of danger e.g. septic tanks, pit latrines, polluted water bodies
e.t.c.
41
Well cover
Concrete slab
Sanitary casing
Groundlevel G roundlevel
Schematic Design for
Cement grout
Borehole Completion
Inert backfill
Plain casing
Bentonite seal
Screens
2-4 mm Gra vel pack
Bottom cap
NB: Not to scale
Schematic Design for Borehole completion
42
V E S I( K W A M IW 'A I)
U n r e g i st e r e d V e r si o n
4
10
1000
A pp aren t R esistiv ity ( oh m - m )
100
10
0 .1 1 10 100 1000
S p acin g (m )
43
V E S-II (K W A N D IK I)
U n reg istered V ersio n
4
10
1000
A pparent R esistiv ity (ohm -m )
100
10
0 .1 1 10 100 1000
S p aci n g ( m )
V E S-III(K W A PA U L )
U n re g i ste re d V e r si o n
4
10
1000
100
10
0 .1 1 10 100 1000
S p acing (m )
44
VES IV9 K W A M IW 'A II)

U nregistered V ersion
4
10
1000
A pparent R esistivity (ohm -m )
100
10
0 .1 1 10 100 1000
Spacing (m )
V E S V (K W A M IC H A E L )
U n re g i ste re d V e r si o n
4
10
1000
100
10
0 .1 1 10 100 1000
S p acing (m )
45
V E S V I (K W A K A K U L I )
U nregistered V ersion
4
10
1000
A pparent R esistivity (ohm -m )
100
10
0.1 1 10 100 1000

Spacing (m )
46
VES #( CONTROL VES-WELL)

Unregistered Version
4
10
1000
Apparent Resistivity (ohm-m)
100
10
0.1 1 10 100 1000

Spacing (m)
47
▲Proposed Utu
Community BH site
Figure 5 SELECTED PROPOSED BOREHOLE SITE
48
49

FINAL MANGELETE WATER PROJECT - Repaired

Încărcat de

Informații document

Descriere originală:

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

FINAL MANGELETE WATER PROJECT - Repaired

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA

HYDROGEOLOGICAL SURVEY REPORT

BOREHOLE SITE SURVEY

UTU AREA, KAMBU DIVISION

NGWATA P.O. Box 51259 – 00200

Project objectives and scope

The specific objectives of this Study were to:-

Vertical electrical soundings (VES) provide quantitative depth-resistivity information for a

Conclusion and Recommendations

PROJECT SUMMARY SHEET ........................................................................................................ 7

Encls. (Provided by Client)

Client MANGELETE WATER PROJECT

Investigating Geologists/Engineers Justus T. Ituli / Robert Musyimi /Charles

ABBREVIATIONS AND GLOSSARY OF TERMS

agl above ground level

Conductivity Transmissivity per unit length (m/day).

Heterogeneous Not uniform in structure or composition.

Joint Fractures along which no significant displacement has taken place.

Lacustrine Referring to generally fine-grained, lake deposits.

Obsidian Compact, volcanic glass.

Perched aquifer Accumulation of groundwater on top of a layer of low conductivity, underlain by

Permeability The capacity of a porous medium for transmitting fluid.

Phenocrysts The larger, visible crystals in a porphyritic rock.

Porphyritic Containing large, visible crystals or phenocrysts in a finer groundmass.

Recovery Return to static water level following abstraction of water.

Yield Volume of water discharged from a well.

1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION

The drainage pattern is dominated by consequent seasonal streams that drain

The proposed borehole site is located in UTU village,hinterland of Kambu Divison

2.0 WATER SUPPLY AND SITUATION

2.1 Sources of water

2.2 Population and Water Demand

3.0 CLIMATE, PHYSIOGRAPHY AND LAND USE

The groundwater recharge is through infiltration and subsequent percolation of part of

4.0 GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY

4.1 GEOLOGICAL SETTING

(a) Regional Geology

(b) Structural Geology

(c.)Geology of the study Site

Figure 4Geology of the study area

4.2 HYDROGEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER OCCURRENCE.

(b) Groundwater Occurrence.

(i) Groundwater in Volcanic Rock S

The Quaternary volcanic rocks are characterized by basalts with columnar

Table 1 Discharge of some of the springs in the Chyulu Area

Name Average Discharge(m3/s )

Attempts have been made to correlate the occurrence of springs with

Table 2 Classification of water according to Gorrel (1958)

Quality TDS (mg/1)

(ii) Groundwater in Metamorphic Rocks

Yield (m3/hr) No. of boreholes

associated with volcanic tongues, as evidenced by boreholes in Mtito Andei and

TDS (mg/1) No. of boreholes

Table 6 Fluoride levels in water from boreholes in Chyulu Area

Table7 Sulphate levels from borehole samples in Chyulu Area

SO4 (mg/1) No. of boreholes

▲The study area and

Fig.5 Hydrogeology of the study area and proposed borehole site

4.4.1 Potential Evapotraspiration

ETo = 2329.9 – 0.0323*EL

Where ETo is Evapotranspiarion is 2329-0.03235*60 = 2327mm

4.4.2 SOIL MOISTURE STORAGE