ADAMA SCINCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL CHEMICAL AND MATERIAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

COURSE: PLANT DESIGN AND ENGINEERING ECONOMICS (ChE5193)

YEAR - 5 SEMISTER – 1

ALUMINUM SULPHATE PLANT DESIGN AND ENGINEERING ECONOMICS

PREPARED BY:

S.№ NAME ID №

1. ADDISU DESSALEGN R/0089/08

2. MAHLET ABEBE R/
3. SOLOMON WORKU R/1083/08
5. WODNEH ABEJIE R/1215/08
6. ZENEBE R/

SUBMITTED TO: Mr. MUSTEFA KEMAL

DEC, 2019
 ADAMA, ETHIOPIA

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Chemical Engineering at Adama Science and Technology University Dec, 2019
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all we would like to thank the almighty God for helping me on my way. Next to this we
would like to thank our instructors Mr Mustefa K and Mr Etefa who advising us every things of
our plant design and engineering project.We would also like our heartfelt thanks to our
department teachers like Dr. Mulugeta, Mr Shewarega and other teachers who help us whatever
we ask them. Lastly we would also like to thank our friends who give information and idea
support.
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.........................................................................................................................i
Table of Contents.........................................................................................................................................ii
List of figure...............................................................................................................................................iv
LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................................................iv
ABBREVATION.......................................................................................................................................v
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................................vi
1.INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Background......................................................................................................................................1
1.2. Statement of the problem..................................................................................................................2
1.3 Objective...........................................................................................................................................3
1.3.1 General Objective.......................................................................................................................3
1.4. Significance of the project................................................................................................................4
2. LITERATURE REVIEW.....................................................................................................................5
2.1 Product description and its application..............................................................................................5
2.1.1. Definition of Soap......................................................................................................................5
2.1.2. Structure of soap........................................................................................................................6
2.1.3. Working principles of soap........................................................................................................6
2.1.4. Types of soap.............................................................................................................................7
2.1.5. Market study..............................................................................................................................9
2.2. Raw Materials Used in Soap-Making.............................................................................................10
2.2.1. Physical and chemical properties of raw materials..................................................................10
2.2.2. Physical and Chemical properties of the products....................................................................12
2.2.3 Types of soap making oils........................................................................................................14
3. PROCESS TECHNOLOGY SURVEY..............................................................................................16
3.1. Process flow diagram of selected technology and its description....................................................16
3.1.1. Cold Process Soap Making......................................................................................................16
3.1.2. Room Temperature Method.....................................................................................................16
3.1.3. Hot Process Soap Making........................................................................................................16
3.1.4. Whipped Soap Bar Method......................................................................................................17

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 3.1.5. Process selection......................................................................................................................17
3.1.7. Process variables control..........................................................................................................23
3.2. Material and energy balance about soap production plant..............................................................25
3.2.1. Material balance.......................................................................................................................25
3.2.2. Energy balance........................................................................................................................29
3.3. Equipment Design and Specification..............................................................................................33
3.3.1. Design of continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR)...................................................................33
3.4. Equipment Selection and Specification..........................................................................................51
3.4.1 Equipment Selection.................................................................................................................51
3.4.2. Equipment specification...........................................................................................................53
4. Engineering Economics.......................................................................................................................55
4.1. Market study and plant capacity.....................................................................................................55
4.1.1. Past supply and present demand..............................................................................................55
4.1.2. Demand projection...................................................................................................................56
4.2. Investment cost...............................................................................................................................57
4.2.1. Capital investment...................................................................................................................57
4.3. Financial analysis and investment appraisal...................................................................................60
4.3.1. Profitability..............................................................................................................................60
4.3.2. Break Even Point.....................................................................................................................61
4.3.3. Payback period........................................................................................................................61
4.3.4. Rate of return...........................................................................................................................62
5. Plant Location and Plant Layout........................................................................................................63
5.1. Economic and Social Benefits........................................................................................................65
5.3. Environmental Impact Assessment.................................................................................................65
6. Conclusion and Recommendation......................................................................................................66
6.1. Conclusion......................................................................................................................................66
6.2 RECOMMENDATION.....................................................................................................................67
References................................................................................................................................................68

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List of figures and tables

List of figures
Figure 2.1 cleaning action of soap………….…………………………………7
Figure 2.2 global soap sales …………………………….…………………….9
Figure 3.1 process flow sheet of soap……………………………………….24
Figure 3.2 CSTR…………………………………………………………..…39

LIST OF TABLES page

Table 3.1 comparing processes……………….…………………………….…18
Table 3.2 specific heat capacity data…………......……………………………31
Table 4.1 Nine years’ total consumption of bar soap……………....…………53
Table 4.2 Per capital consumption……………………….……...……….……53

Table4.3. Forecasted quantity for next ten years………………….….….……54

Table 4.4 Total production capacity of a plant…………………...….….……55

Table 4.5 Purchased equipment cost………………………………….……….56

Table 4.6 Total capital investment estimation………………………………..57

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iv
ABBREVATION
Cw cooling water
Dt tank diameter
Dm mean diameter of vessel
DC Direct Cost
E joint efficiency
ECSA Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency
FCI Fixed Capital Investment
G Gravitational acceleration
HL liquid depth, m
IDC Indirect Cost
L medium density
LMTD logarithmic mean temperature difference
NPV Net Present Value
P design pressure
Pa atmospheric pressure
Pt total pressure
TCI Total Capital Investment
TDC Total Direct Cost
TPDC Total Plant Direct Cost

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ABSTRACT
Early soap makers probably used ashes and animal fats. Simple wood or plant ashes containing
potassium carbonate were dispersed in water, and fat was added to the solution. This mixture
was then boiled; ashes were added again and again as the water evaporated. During this
process a slow chemical splitting of the neutral fat took place; the fatty acids could then react
with the alkali carbonates of the plant ash to form soap (this reaction is called saponification).
The method requires the use of a heating element to melt the oils and a thermometer to check
temperatures. It then must cure for 4 to 6 weeks before it can be used. This process requires a
scale, a large stainless steel pot, measuring cups, kitchen thermometers, rubber gloves, mold,
cardboard, plastic bags, olive oil, coconut oil, shortening, lye, distilled water, and fragrances.

The Total capital investment needed for the plant was 1,961,479.2 birr with fixed capital
investment of 1,634,566 birr and with Working capital investment of 326,913.2 birr. So from
calculation of payback period the project feasible, it is best for business if it will have applied.

Competition from other soap industries already in existence: However, the project shall handle
this situation by producing at the lowest possible price and constantly being abreast with
marketing information so as to respond to market fluctuations through appropriate adjustment
of prices. This problem of competition shall also be resolved by constantly rebranding the
product, constantly improving on the quality and through adequate advertisement.

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around
2800 BC in Ancient Babylon. Inscriptions have been discovered that indicate that the inhabitants
boiled fat with ashes. It has been suggested that the word soap was derived from Mount Sapo,
which was a location for animal sacrifice. Melted animal fats and wood ashes would be washed
down from the mountain and, in the clay along the banks of the River Tiber, a crude soap would
form.

Early soap makers probably used ashes and animal fats. Simple wood or plant ashes containing
potassium carbonate were dispersed in water, and fat was added to the solution. This mixture
was then boiled; ashes were added again and again as the water evaporated. During this process a
slow chemical splitting of the neutral fat took place; the fatty acids could then react with the
alkali carbonates of the plant ash to form soap (this reaction is called saponification). Animal fats
containing a percentage of free fatty acids were used by the Celts. The presence of free fatty
acids certainly helped to get the process started. This method probably prevailed until the end of
the middle Ages, when slaked lime came to be used to causticize the alkali carbonate. Through
this process, chemically neutral fats could be saponified easily with the caustic lye. Around
1790, French soap maker Nicolas Leblanc developed a method of extracting caustic soda
(NaOH) from common table salt (NaCl), replacing the wood ash element of soap.

The production of soap from a handicraft to an industry was helped by the introduction of the
Leblanc process for the production of soda ash from brine (about 1790) and by the work of a
French chemist, Michel EugèneChevreul, who in 1823 showed that the process of saponification
is the chemical process of splitting fat into the alkali salt of fatty acids (that is, soap) and
glycerin. The method of producing soap by boiling with open steam, introduced at the end of the
19th century, was another step toward industrialization, though people in rural areas, such as the
pioneers in the western United States, continued to make soap at home. In recent years Domieier
did a recovery of glycerine from saponification mixture.

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1.2. Statement of the problem
Many hotels and restaurants deposed large amount of waste cooking oil to the environment. This
always causes water, land and air pollution. Since the disposal harm the living things, we must
have managed and changed to useable things, in order to minimize the effects of waste on the
Environments as much as possible and maximize productivity. The recycled soap is more
effective in removing dirt and is also not hazardous to the environment. Therefore, our project is
conducted production of soap from waste cooking oil.

1.3 Objective
1.3.1 General Objective
The general objective of this project is to manufacture Soap from waste cooking oil and conduct
the feasibility study on the production of soap.

1.3.2 Specific Objective

 To serve as a plan document indicating the series of choices or strategies for realizing
the objectives of the project.
 The report serves as a control guide to the investor with regards to product specifications
and performance.
 To determine the material and energy balance of the process.
 To perform the plant design of the plant.
 To select a suitable site for the plant.
 To determine the economic analysis of the plant.

1.4. Significance of the project

The study is significant in that it will be used as an initial idea to do further detailed researches
regarding to decrease the environmental impacts of the waste and producing a quality Soap
Saving reign currency since the soap is high cost can be used as an alternative raw material for
production of soap in Ethiopian soap factor.The main scope of this project is to determine the
pretreatment, identification and characterization of waste cooking oil, lye preparation and
saponification reaction with addition of agents for solid soap manufacturing up to the production
of high quality solid soap together.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Product description and its application
Soap is any compound that results from the reaction of an insoluble fatty material with a metal
radical or even an organic base could be described as soap. If the metal radical is sodium,
potassium or even ammonium, soluble soaps are formed. Where the radical is a heavy metal,
insoluble 'metallic Soaps' result and this explains the formation of hard-water scum around the
bath or washbasin caused by calcium or magnesium soaps. Other 'metallic soaps', in which the
radical is zinc, lead, manganese, cobalt or tin, may require a reaction at elevated temperatures or
by double decomposition with sodium or potassium soaps and a salt of the relevant heavy metal.
These soaps have uses in other industries. In conclusion, the basic reaction in soap making
between a neutral fat and an alkali is to produce a soap and glycerol.

C3H5(O2CR)3 + 3MOH->3RC2OM H + C3H5(OH)3

(Oil)Alkali Soap Glycerol

2.1.1. Definition of Soap

Usually, a process by which triglycerides are reacted with sodium or potassium hydroxide to
produce glycerol and a fatty acid salt, called 'soap‟. Soap may also be defined as a chemical
compound or mixture of chemical compounds resulting from the interaction of fatty acids or
fatty glycerides with a metal radical (or organic base).Oil consists of a wide group of compound
that are generally soluble and in organic solvent and insoluble in water. Saturated and
unsaturated differ in their energy content and melting point. Since unsaturated fat contain fewer
carbon hydrogen bond than saturated fats with some number of carbon atom, unsaturated fat will
yield slightly less energy during metabolism than saturated fat. Saturated fat can stack them and
closely packed arrangement, so solid at room temperature. Flesh and animal fat have a melting
temperature of 184 °C, a boiling point of around 200 °C and an ignition point of 280 °C where it
will burst into flames without spark. Tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid. Fats are
triglyceril glycerol and any of several fatty acids. Fats may be either solid or liquid at room
temperature. Oil is usually used to refer fats that are liquid at normal room temperature and fat is
usually used to refer solids at normal temperature.

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2.1.2. Structure of soap
The basic structure of all soaps is essentially the same, consisting of a long hydrophobic (water
fearing) hydrocarbon "tail" and a hydrophilic (water loving) anionic "head":

The length of the hydrocarbon chain ("n") varies with the type of fat or oil but is usually quite
long. The anionic charge on the carboxylate head is usually balanced by either a positively
charged potassium (K+) or sodium (Na+) cation. In making soap, triglycerides in fat or oils are
heated in the presence of a strong alkali base such as sodium hydroxide, producing three
molecules of soap for every molecule of glycerol. This process is called saponification.The
cleaning action of soaps because of their ability to emulsify or disperse water-insoluble materials
and hold them in the suspension of water. This ability is seen from the molecular structure of
soaps. When soap is added to water that contains oil or other water-insoluble materials, the soap
or detergent molecules surround the oil droplets. The oil is, dissolved in the alkyl groups of the
soap molecules while the ionic end allows it to be dissolved in water. As a result, the oil droplets
are to be dispersed throughout the water and can be washed away.

2.1.3. Working principles of soap

How soap works: The hydrophobic tails of soap molecules embed in grease and oil, breaking it
up into particles called micelles that lift off the surface and disperse into water.

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Figure 2.1. Cleaning Action of Soap

2.1.4. Types of soap

There are many types of soaps, depending upon the usage. There are hard and soft, and
everything in-between soaps. Hardness of soap is often achieved through the addition of
hardening agents, so many natural soaps tend to be softer.

Laundry soaps:Laundry Soap is a cleansing agent or detergent, made from animal and
vegetable fats, oils and greases; chemically, the sodium salt of a fatty acid, formed by the
interaction of fats and oils with alkali. Laundry soaps are formulated to eliminate grease, solid
particles and organic compounds from clothes. They can be found in liquid, powder and gel
forms.

Cleaning Soaps:Cleaning soaps have different formulations to clean grease and soil. The
difference between cleansers and cleaning soaps is that cleaning soaps don't contain harsh
abrasives.

Personal soaps:This kind of soap is made in many forms and special formulations for specific
personal hygiene needs. One type of the personal soap is the antibacterial soap that is made to
prevent bacteria and viruses from spreading. There are also body and hair soaps that have a mix
of ingredients that cleans both the skin and hair.

Novelty soaps: Novelty soaps are especially manufactured for the kids and include the soaps in
the shapes of various items, such as a rubber ducky or the soap-on-the-rope. There are made not
only to clean dirt and grime, but for amusementand enjoyment as well.

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Perfumed soaps:Perfumed soaps are produced by adding a few additional ingredients and
perfume.

Guest soaps:Guest soaps are miniature soaps that are made and shaped into attractive shapes and
they are basically designed for the use by guests either in the main bathroom or separate guest
bathroom. Popular and commonly used shapes are flowers, sea shells and rounds.

Beauty soaps:Beauty soaps are produced to feature attractive fragrances, and ingredients for a
variety of skin types. They can feature glycerin, or special oil blends.

Medicated soaps:Medicated soaps and original soap are very similar. Unlike original soap,
medicated soap has the addition of antiseptics and disinfectants.

Glycerin soaps:Glycerin is a normally produced during the process of soap production. Soaps
which include glycerin in them tend to make your skin feel moister.

Transparent soap:Transparent soap uses slightly different ingredients and usually some form of
alcohol to alter the process which is also conducted at higher temperatures. Not all transparent
soaps are glycerin soaps.

Liquid soaps:Liquid soaps are actually very difficult to produce and many of the commercial
liquid soaps are just in fact detergents.

Castile soap: a mild soap originally made in Spain with pure olive oil. Today many “castile”
soaps are made with other vegetable oils. Castile is a good cleanser, producing a rich lather.

Cream soaps: soaps containing cold cream materials, and moisturizers. Cream soaps are good
for dry and delicate skin.

Deodorant soap:soaps to which antibacterial agents have been added to reduce odor-causing
bacteria.

Floating soaps: soaps which have air bubbles incorporated have low density. This causes the bar
to float.

Hypo-allergenic soaps: Mild formula soaps, low in potent irritants.

They generally produce a poor lather.

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Milled soaps:These are the most commonly used, mass produced soaps. Milling is referred to
the mixing of color and soap flakes.

Oatmeal soap: A rough textured soap to which oatmeal has been added as a mild abrasive and
lather. Good for and normal skin.

2.1.5. Market study

2.1.5.1. Past Supply and Present Demand
Laundry soap, which is used for cleaning clothes as well as household utensils, is a necessity in
urban households. The demand for the product is, therefore, mainly associated with urbanization.
The country’s requirement for laundry soap has been met through domestic production and
import.Currently, the retail price of domestically produced laundry soaps ranges from Birr 15.00
to Birr16.00 per 250 gm. Considering the minimum market price of Birr 15.00 per 250 gm. The
product can get its market outlet through the existing wholesale and retail network that includes
department stores, merchandise shops and supermarkets.

2.1.5.2. Soap factory in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia soap and detergents are produced in following factories:

Repi Soap and Detergent S. Co., East African Group Chemical Industry, Star Soap and Detergent
Factory and Geteshet Soap and Detergent Industry. Among these industries, Repi Soap and
Detergent S. Co. and Star Soap and Detergent Factory are located in Addis Ababa and the other
two are along the main road between

Dukem and Debrezeit.

Fig 2.2 Global soap sales source: Valsa John C. “Economics of soap production”

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2.2. Raw Materials Used in Soap-Making
 The raw materials for making Soap: cooking oil, sodium hydroxide, or lye crystals,
water, Fats of your choice (animal fats must be rendered, so lard or tallow from the
grocery store are fine), Sodium hydroxide, Essential oils of your choice for scent & Color
additives.
 Soap requires two major raw materials: fat or oil and alkali. The alkali most commonly
used to day is sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide can also be used. Potassium-based
soap creates a more water-soluble product than sodium-based soap, and so it is called
"soft soap."Soft soap, alone or in combination with sodium-based soap, is commonly
used in shaving products.
 Animal fat in the past was obtained directly from a slaughter house. Modern soap
makers use fat that has been processed into fatty acids. This eliminates many impurities,
and it produces as byproduct water instead of glycerin. Many vegetable fats, including
olive oil, palm kernel oil, and coconut oil, are also used in soap making.
 Additives are used to enhance the color, texture, and scent of soap. Fragrances and
perfumes are added to the soap mixture to cover the odor of dirt and to leave behind a
fresh-smelling scent. Abrasives to enhance the texture of soap include talc, silica, and
marble pumice (volcanic ash).
 Water:Water intended for use in soap-making should be as soft as possible. If the water
supply is hard, it should be treated chemically; the softening agents may be lime and soda
ash together, soda ash alone, or caustic soda.

2.2.1. Physical and chemical properties of raw materials

2.2.1.1 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH),also known as lye or caustic soda, is a caustic metallic
base. An alkali, caustic soda is widely used in many industries, mostly as a strong
chemical base in the manufacture of pulp and paper, textiles, drinking water, and
detergents. Worldwide production in 1998 was around 45 million tones. Sodium
hydroxide is also the most common base used in chemical laboratories, being able to test
for quite a number of cations (this is called Qualitative Inorganic Analysis), as well as to
provide alkaline mediums for some reactions that need it, such as the Biuret test.

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 Physical properties: Pure sodium hydroxide is a white solid, available in pellets, flakes,
granules, and also 50% saturated solution. It is deliquescent and also readily absorbs carbon
dioxide from the air, so it should be stored in an airtight container. It is very soluble in water
with liberation of heat. It also dissolves in ethanol and methanol, though it exhibits lower
solubility in these solvents than does potassium hydroxide. It is insoluble in ether and other non-
polar solvents. A sodium hydroxide Solution will leave a yellow stain on fabric and paper.

Chemical properties: Sodium hydroxide is completely ionic, containing sodium ions and
hydroxide ions. The hydroxide ion makes sodium hydroxide a strong base which reacts with
acids to form water and the corresponding salts, e.g., with hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride is
formed: NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

In general, such neutralization reactions are represented by one simple net ionic equation:
NaOH−(aq) + H+(aq)→ H2O. This type of reaction releases heat when a strong acid is used.
Such acid-base reactions can also be used for titrations, and indeed this is a common way for
measuring the concentration of acids. Related to this is the reaction of sodium hydroxide with
acidic oxides. The reaction of carbon dioxide has already been mentioned, but other acidic
oxides such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) also react completely. Such reactions are often used to
"scrub" harmful acidic gases (like SO2 and H2S) and prevent their release into the atmosphere.

2.2.1.2. Oils:

Oils may be divided into animal and vegetable oils according to source. Further, they may be
classified according to their degree of unsaturation as measured by their ability to absorb iodine
at the double bonds. This degree of unsaturation determines to a large extent the ultimate use of
the oil. Liquid oils (i.e., vegetable and marine oils) have the highest degree of unsaturation, while
solid oils (vegetable and animal oils) are highly saturated.

Solid vegetable oils melting between 20 and 35 °C (68 and 95 °F) are found mainly in the
kernels and seeds of tropical fruits. They have relatively low iodine values and consist of
glycerides containing high percentages of such saturated acids as lauric, myristic, and palmitic.
Oils from fruits of many members of the palm family, notably coconut and babassu oils, contain
large amounts of combined lauric acid. Most animal oils are solid at ordinary temperatures; milk
oils are usually characterized by the presence of short-chain carboxylic acids (butyric, caproic,

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and caprylic); and marine oils contain a large number of very long chain highly unsaturated acids
containing up to six double bonds and up to 24 or even 26 carbon atoms.

Oils are practically insoluble in water and, with the exception of castor oil, are insoluble in cold
alcohol and only sparingly soluble in hot alcohol. They are soluble in ether, carbon disulfide,
chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, petroleum benzoin, and benzene. Oils have no distinct melting
points or solidifying points because they are such complex mixtures of glycerides, each of which
has a different melting point. Glycerides, further, have several polymorphic forms with different
melting or transition points.

Oils can be heated to between 200 and 250 °C (392 and 482 °F) without undergoing significant
changes provided contact with air or oxygen is avoided. Above 300 °C (572 °F), oils may
decompose, with the formation of acrolein (the decomposition product of glycerol), which
imparts the characteristic pungent odour of burning fat. Hydrocarbons also may be formed at
high temperatures.

Oils are hydrolyzed readily. This property is used extensively in the manufacture of soaps and in
the preparation of fatty acids for industrial applications. Oils are hydrolyzed by treatment with
water alone under high pressure (corresponding to a temperature of about 220 °C [428 °F]) or
with water at lower pressures in the presence of caustic alkalies, alkaline-earth metal hydroxides,
or basic metallic oxides that act as catalysts. Free fatty acids and glycerol are formed. If
sufficient alkali is present to combine with the fatty acids, the corresponding salts (known
popularly as soaps) of these acids are formed, such as the sodium salts (hard soap) or the
potassium salts (soft soaps).

2.2.2. Physical and Chemical properties of the products

2.2.2.1. Soap:

Since soap is a base it possesses the following chemical properties;

1. It react with acid in neutralization reaction to produce salt and water only

2. It is very corrosive when concentrated.

3. It has a pH more than 7

4. It turns red litmus paper blue

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 It has the properties of a surfactant. The soap molecule, the sodium salt of a long chain
carboxylic acid, has two distinct ends. The end with the acid group is hydrophilic and is soluble
in water; the carbon chain at the other end is hydrophobic and is more soluble in fatty substances
such as grease and dirt. This allows the grease to form globules called micelles which are
surrounded by the hydrophilic acid groups and hence become soluble in water. All necessary
properties like Lathering power, Cleansing power, pH, Hardness, Total Fatty Matter, Moisture,
Yield of soap depends on type of oil.

Solubility:Soda soaps are insoluble in concentrated caustic lye’s, and, for the most part, in
strong solutions of sodium chloride, hence the addition of caustic soda or brine to a solution of
soda soap causes the soap to separate out and rise to the surface. Addition of brine to a solution
of potash soap, on the other hand, merely results in double decomposition, soda soap and
potassium chloride being formed.

Hydrolysis of Soap:The term "hydrolysis" is applied to any resolution of a body into its
constituents where the decomposition is brought about by the action of water, hence when soap
is treated with cold water, it is said to undergo hydrolysis.

A good soap is biodegradable when it does not contain chemicals that cannot be made to their
natural elements. Neither does it contain chemicals that can be harmful to the environment or
cause undue destruction to the environment.

 A good soap gets dissolved easily and removes stains from the clothes, human skin or
any material being cleaned.
 It gets dissolved in water and produces enough suds.
 It gives a clear and sparkling kind of cleanliness.
 It gives a pleasant smell.
 A good soap does not leave sticky traces on the clothes or on the skin.
 It has a good color that is even and does not streak.
 It disinfects and kills germs.

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2.2.2.2 Glycerin
It is a very useful byproduct of soap manufacture. It is used to make hand lotion, drugs, and
nitroglycerin, the main component of explosives such as dynamite.

2.2.3 Types of soap making oils

Fats and oils are esters of different fatty acids and glycerol. Fats and oils are divided into three
classes, fixed oils, mineral oils and essential oils. Fixed oils form the main raw materials for soap
making as they decompose into fatty acids and glycerol when strongly heated, and can be easily
saponified by alkali. Fixed oils, which include both animal and vegetable fats and oils, are
further classified according to its physical properties as follows: [6]

a) Nut oils: These oils are characterized to be having large proportion of fatty acids with low
molecular weight, especially lauric and stearic acid. Examples of these oils are coconut oil.
These oils, when used in toilet soaps are the chief foam-producing ingredients. They usually
saponified easily with strong alkali solution. Once these oils have begun to saponified, the
process proceeds rapidly with the evolution of heat. They require very large quantities of strong
brine (1648”Be) to grain their soaps, and the grained soaps tend to carry more salt than other
soaps. These oils are more suitable for the making of cold process soaps.

b) Hard fats: The hard fats contain appreciable quantities of palmatic and stearic acids.
Examples of these oils are palm oil, animal tallow and hydrogenated fats. These oils produce
slow-lathering soaps but the lather produced is more resistant over long periods of time than the
nut oils. In soap making, they are first saponified with weak alkali, and in the final stages with
stronger alkali solutions.

c) Soft Oils: These oils have substantial amounts of unsaturated acids, namely oleic, linoleic and
linoleneic acids. The soap making properties of these oils vary with their fatty acid composition,
and their physical and chemical properties of the acids. Examples of these kind oils are
groundnut, cotton seed, fish oil and olive oil. These oils cannot produce a very hard soap when
used alone for soap making. They are generally blended with nut oils. Their soaps lather freely
and have very good detergent properties.

Soap making involves a definite chemical decomposition of fats and oils into their constituent
parts, like fatty acids and glycerol. The fatty acids combine with little caustic soda, potash or

12
other base forming soap, and glycerol remains free. All fats and oils used in soap making consist
of a mixture of compounds of glycerol with fatty acid which occur in nature in the form of
triglycerides. The most important of these acids from the soap maker‟s point of view are stearin,
palmitin, olein and laurin.

The presence of stearin and palmitin, which are generally solids at room temperature, gives
firmness. The greater the percentage presents the harder the oil, and the higher its melting point.
Where olein is liquid at ordinary temperature, is the chief constituent, the oil is soft. The soap
making properties of fats and oils can be determined by the molecular weights of their fatty
acids. With increasing the molecular weight in the case of naturally occurring saturated fatty
acids in fat or oil, the following properties are found. The properties of their corresponding
sodium soaps vary as follows with increasing molecular weight:

 The solubility increases,

 The lathering properties improve up to lauric acid and deteriorate from lauric acid
upwards,
 The stability of the lather increases,
 The detergent action decreases,
 The soaps have milder skin action as the series progresses,
 The property of holding filling solutions such as sodium silicate decreases [6]

Fats and oils are obtained from both animal and plant sources, but the main soap making fats
now are from plant sources because of the lathering, astringent, and moisturizing qualities of the
fatty acids in various plant fats, and the costs to produce them are less than for animal fats. Fats
are solid at room temperature, while oils are liquid. That is the only difference between the two.
Both fats and oils are fatty acids, or tri-glycerides. [15]

13
3. PROCESS TECHNOLOGY SURVEY
3.1. Process flow diagram of selected technology and its description
3.1.1. Cold Process Soap Making
It begins with melting the hard and soft oils together and then blending in a lye solution. The oil
mixture and lye solution must first be brought to similar temperatures (usually around 90 degrees
Fahrenheit). Once the oil and lye have been combined, the mixture is blended with a whisk or
stick blender until it is thick (called trace) and then poured into a soap mold.

This method requires the use of a heating element to melt the oils and a thermometer to check
temperatures. It then must cure for 4 to 6 weeks before it can be used. This process requires a
scale, a large stainless steel pot, measuring cups, kitchen thermometers, rubber gloves, mold,
cardboard, plastic bags, olive oil, coconut oil, shortening, lye, distilled water, and fragrances.
The cold process gets its name from the general low temperatures that are used to mill this type
of soap.

3.1.2. Room Temperature Method

This type of soap making process does not require an external heat source or any thermometers.
It begins by pouring the hot lye solution onto the hard oils and gently stirring while the oils melt
from the heat. Once the hard oils have fully melted, the soft oils are then added to the mixture.
The mixture is then blended until it is thick and poured into a soap mold. It then must cure for 4
to 6 weeks before it can be used.

3.1.3. Hot Process Soap Making

Many soap makers like this method because it speeds up the time it takes for the final soaps to
become hard. Many soap makers will use hot process soap as soon as it can be cut though we
prefer to let it cure for a couple of weeks. With this method you melt the oils and and blend in
the lye solution (no need to check temperatures). You blend until the soap is thick and then you
cook the soap until it is very thick (resembling mashed potatoes) and somewhat translucent. It is
then scooped into a soap mold and allowed to cool.

This process is named for its boiling pot method of soap milling. For this type of homemade soap
making you will need palm oil, coconut oil, sesame oil, castor oil, sodium hydroxide, water,

14
borax, soap molds, stainless steel pot, stirring stick or spoon, plastic wrap. This method tends to
produce a soap that is a little more rustic in appearance than the previous two methods.

3.1.4. Whipped Soap Bar Method

This is a really cool soap method that does not use heat to melt your oils. In fact, you don't want
them to melt at all. With this method you will actually chill the lye so that there is no chance of
melting the oil. A whipped bar soap recipe is high in hard oils and has very little in the way of
liquid oils. The hard oils are whipped until fluffy and creamy and then the liquid oils are blended
in. Once the mix is again fluffy, the cold lye solution is very slowly blended in until it is quite
thick and creamy. [6]

3.1.5. Process selection

3.1.5.1 Selection of hot process over cold process
There are two types of soap: soft soap and hard soap. Soft soap can be made using either a cold
process or a hot process, but hard soap can only be made using a hot process.

 Soap is completely saponified quicker than in Cold Process soap.

 Essential and fragrance oils, super fatting oils, and other additives are added at the end of
the cook and are not affected by the saponification reaction.
 Hot Process soaps are easier to slice and do not crumble.

The cold process may require several days or even months, depending upon the strength and
purity of the ingredients, whereas the hot process takes place within a few minutes to a few
hours. The hot process, more suitable for laboratory or industrial preparation, yields a more
chemically pure powder; by-products and excess starting materials are separated. [5]

3.1.5.2 Selection of continuous process over batch process

Much quicker, taking up less space
Uses less energy.
Close control of the soap concentration
The preparation of soaps of certain chain lengths for specific purposes
Easy recovery of glycerin, a byproduct. [16]

15
Table 3.1 Comparing processes

Factor Continuous Batch

Shut-down times Rare Often
Workforce Few people needed Many people needed
Ease of automation Relatively easy Relatively difficult

3.1.5.3 Selection of raw material soda over potash

Soda is of much more importance to the manufacturer of soap than potash, because we could not
make the hard soap without it. It is found in a natural state in Venezuela, and in Mexico, and
when thus found it is called native soda. [13]

3.1.6. Process Description of Soap Manufacture

Soaps are the product of the reaction between oil and sodium hydroxide:

Oil+ 3NaOH →glycerine + 3 soap

Step 1 – Saponification: The raw materials (oil, NaOH solution and Lye) are continually fed
into a reactor in fixed proportions. These ingredients alone would give a low water, high
glycerine soap. Soap needs to be about 30% water to be easily pumpable, and even then needs to
be held at around 70oC, so excess lye is added to hydrate the soap and dissolve out some of the
glycerine. The lye added is known as "half spent lye" and is the lye discharged from the washing
column. This lye already contains some glycerine, but it is further enriched by that formed in the
saponification reaction. A mixture of oil and Lye is mixed with sodium hydroxide and heated.
The soap produced is the salt of a long chain carboxylic acid. [11]

In the first stage oil is heated up to 60 C in a vessel and then transported to a reactor. Here the
oil is mixed with a caustic soda solution and the mixture is heated by open steam up to 90 C.
During the boiling process the temperature will further rise to 100 due to reaction energy and
heating by steam. After a few hours boiling the saponification is completed and a sample is taken
to check the Free Caustic Alkali and the moisture-content. [1]

16
Saponification vessel (CSTR)

Soap saponification process is done in a cylindrical and conical end type jacketed heavy duty
vessel. This vessel is specially designed to keep all the points in mind for better convenience in
operation and process. Steam is circulated in to the jacket and on the top there is a motorized
heavy duty reduction gear box system is fitted for the necessary rotational speed of stirrer. The
specially designed stirrer is fitted in the vessel for proper stirring. So first process of soap making
is starting from here and where raw soap is produced. At the end a special type of gate valve is
provided to take out the soap in to the cooling molds easily. The vessel is stand on legs. [1]

Saponification reaction [7]

Steam boiler: It is used to produce steam from normal water .the generated steam is circulated
in to the jacket of soap saponification vessel. This is a heavy duty vertical cross tube type steam
boiler and very is easy to operate.The steam of steam boiler is used for heating of oils in
saponification vessel for soap making process. The motorized water pressure feed pump is
provided with the boiler for feeding of water from water tank.

Step 2 - spent Lye Separation The wet soap is pumped to a "static separator" - a settling vessel
which does not use any mechanical action. The soap / lye mix is pumped into the tank where it
separates out on the basis of weight. The spent lye settles to the bottom from where it is piped off
to the glycerine recovery unit, while the soap rises to the top and is piped away for further
processing.

17
Step 3 - Soap washingThe soap still contains most of its glycerine at this stage, and this is
removed with fresh lye in a washing column. The column has rings fixed on its inside surface.
The soap solution is added near the bottom of the column and the lye near the top.

As the lye flows down the column through the centre, a series of rotating disks keeps the soap /
lye mixture agitated between the rings. This creates enough turbulence to ensure good mixing
between the two solutions. Glycerine is almost infinitely soluble in brine, but at greater than 35%
glycerine the lye no longer efficiently removes glycerine from the soap.

Glcerine removal Glycerin is more soluable than soap, so most of it is removed. Some is left in
the soap to help make it soft and smooth. Soap is not very soluble in salt water, whereas
glycerine is, so salt is added to the wet soap causing it to separate out into soap and glycerin in
salt water. The soap is allowed to overflow from the top of the column and the lye ("half spent
lye") is pumped away from the bottom at a controlled rate and added to the reactor.

Step 4 – fresh Lye Separation The lye is added at the top of the washing column, and the soap
removed from the column as overflow. As the lye is added near the overflow pipe the washed
soap is about 20% fresh lye, giving the soap unacceptably high water and caustic levels.
Separating off the lye lowers the electrolyte levels to acceptable limits. The soap and lye are
separated in a centrifuge, leaving a soap which is 0.5% NaCl and0.3% NaOH, and about 31%
water. The lye removed is used as fresh lye.

Step 5 - NeutralizationAlthough the caustic levels are quite low, they are still unacceptably high
for toilet and laundry soap. The NaOH is removed by reaction with a weak acid such as coconut
oil (which contains significant levels of free fatty acids), coconut oil fatty acids, citric acid
(lemon) or phosphoric acid, with the choice of acid being made largely on economic grounds.
Some preservative is also added at this stage.

Soap sigma mixer (neutralizer) This is the latest and specially designed soap mixer to mix soap
noodle or soap chips with other ingredients like color, perfume, preservatives, additives etc.
mixing is done by the specialized shaped „‟Z‟‟ blades set on parallel shafts mounted with close
clearance in a double „‟U‟‟ shaped through. With the help of blades, the mass is rolled and
folded back and pushed down to join the separate layers. This action is repeated until desired

18
uniformity is obtained. The rotational speeds of each blade are different and adjusted according
to requirement for better result. Through heavy duty reduction gear box system and electric
motor. the electric motor can be switched on-off by automatic heavy –duty electric panel board
when required.

Soap purification:Any remaining sodium hydroxide is neutralized with a weak acid such as
citric acid and two thirds of the remaining water removed.

Finishing:Additives such as preservatives, color and perfume are added and mixed in with the
soap and it is shaped into bars for sale.

Step 6 - Drying Finally, the water levels must be reduced down to about 20%. This is done by
heating the soap to about 125oC under pressure (to prevent the water from boiling off while the
soap is still in the pipes).The latent heat of evaporation lost as the water boils off reduces the
soap temperature down to 45oC, at which temperature it solidifies onto the chamber walls. The
soap chips are scraped off the walls and "plodded" (i.e. squeezed together) by screws known as
"plodder worms" to form soap noodles. The soap is now known as base ornate soap chip, and
can be converted into a variety of different soaps in the finishing stages. The moisture evaporated
off the wet soap is transported to a barometric condenser, which re condenses the vapor without
the system losing vacuum.

Soap chips making machine

Soap chips making machine is used to make chips of soap bars. It’s necessary to convert soap
bars in to chips form for proper and fast drying. The soap bar is fed through hopper and there is a
specially designed drum with special type of slots. In the same slots sharpen age blades are fitted
and which cut the soap and make machine.

Soap roller machine

For the manufacture of high-quality soap, a homogenous soap structure is needed. For the
homogenization of the soap mixture, roller mills are especially well suited. This is a heavy-duty
machine is mainly used for mixing and grinding soap granute with normal temperature and
moisture by running special very harden material of three rollers on horizontal to squeeze and
grind soap particles. Each soap paste duly with color and perfume requires a dozen grinding of

19
mixed mass to bring fineness and homogeneity. The action of grinding or calendaring of the
mass is done by means of passing through the dose gap of rolls to form ribbon (thin layer
thickness) like shape. It is done for good texture and odor of soaps.

Rolls are kept cool during operation as per cooling arrangement already provided in the machine
and water circulates in the rolls according to avoid sickness of mass with the rolls and to bring a
uniformity with a sophisticated fineness in the mass. The rotational speed of each rolls are
different and adjusted according to requirement for better result through a heavy-duty reduction
gear box and electric motor. The electric motor can be switched on-off by automatic heavy duty
electric panel board when required.

Soap duplex vacuum plodder The plodder (extrusion) machine is a crucial piece of equipment
in the entire soap plant. It plays a major role and gives a final shape in bar form to soap mass. In
the first stage soap is compressed, refined and supplied to the vacuum chamber in shape of
noodles. The soap is refined by means of refiner worm press. In order to reach the refining effect,
a refining sieve (screen) is fitted at the out let of machine. A noodle cutter is fitted very near to
same disc which is used for cutting of soap noodles. When the soap mass passed through the
same perforated disc it is transferred in to noodles form. The noodles fall in to the vacuum
chamber, where they are taken up by the main extrusion worm press, again compressed
continuously and then extruded in the form of bar. The plodder machine is equipped with
suitable jackets system. End of the conical compression head is heated by electrically heated oil
batch chamber under the control of the temperature controller to get glossy surface on the soap
bar.

Automatic soap bar cutting machine This machine is kept immediately after plodder machine
and which is used to cut soap in to bar form. The bar coming continuously from the end mouth
(mouth die), enter in to this machine and which cut the same bar in to fixed length.

Soap stamping machine This is an ideal foot operated soap stamping machine where soap cakes
are stamped. Soap stamping die (mold) is fitted in the soap-stamping machine and both part
(dies) movement up and down by rams. The cake comes from soap cutting machine is put
between two dies and press a stroke of peddle and finely cake will be stamped and make your
branded final soap which is ready for packing.

20
Generally, all types of soap shapes are possible to stamp molds with this machine and that mold
will be prepared according to your logo, brand name etc. Generally, this machine is used for
smaller capacity of soap plant.

3.1.7. Process variables control

3.1.7.1. PH control: In the first stage of the saponification reaction the oil is turned into a
fatty acid. Because of the Presence of water this results in a lower pH value of the mixture. When
the alkali dissolves in water, This results in a higher pH value. At pH=7 there's neither free alkali
nor oil in the kettle, which is the desired level. In industry automatic pH control systems are
widely used, also in soap making. In the current system the pH is measured and controlled
manually. This is possible because of the Slow reaction. There's enough time to measure and
adjust the pH value. Although it is possible to Implement an automatic pH control system, it is
economically more interesting to measure and control the pH manually. For continuous soap
making it is advisable to use automatic pH control systems to maintain better quality soap. [1]

3.1.7.2. Moisture control

Instruments for moisture measurement may be considered periodic or continuous. Periodic

systems are usually automated versions of conventional laboratory moisture analysis procedures
with measurement time varying from 2 to 20 minutes. Because the moisture content in soap
boiling varies very slowly, it is possible to use a periodic instrument for measurement and
control. Moisture control is economically interesting. [1]

3.1.7.3. Temperature control

In all goals the temperature control is of great importance. The temperature can be controlled
either manually or automatically. Because several system parameters have influence on the
temperature in the kettle, it is very hard to control this temperature manually. It demands a lot of
knowledge and experience from the controller to optimize the process. To achieve the best
results an automatic controller should be used. The temperature needs a relative small investment
and can reach great results. controller is further developed for the system with open steam coils
and mechanical stirring device.[1]

21
Figure 3.1 Process flow sheet of soap manufacture from used cooking oil

22
3.2. Material and energy balance about soap production plant
3.2.1. Material balance
Material balances are the basis of process design. A material balance taken over complete
process will determine the quantities of raw materials required and products produced. Balances
over Individual process until set the process stream flows and compositions. [2]

Assumption: -from practical laboratory for quality of soap production the ratio of oil to sodium
hydroxide to be 3553.6kg/day & 2592 kg/day.

 The process is a continuous

Our production capacity is 1000 cartons per day i.e.100,000*48= 4800000gm/day

=1440000kg/yr.

N.B 1 carton=100 soap & 1soap=48 gm. The total working days per year=300days/yr. Density
of oil = 914kg/m3 Density of NaOH =2130Kg/m3

Mass flow rate= volumetric flow rate* density of oil=3.888 m3/day *914Kg/m3 =3553.6kg/day

1. Mass balance on mixer

M In =M out M NaOH solution= M distilled water + M NaOH=2592+17280=19872

kg/da

23
2. Mass balance on saponification vessel
From general material balance
Accumulation = in - out + generation - consumption
The process is steady state, no consumption and generation Therefore,
Material in = Material out

Mass of oil +mass of sodium hydroxide+ M spent lye=mass of Mixture of soap and
glycerol +5%of the total feedstock,
Accumulation = in - out + generation - consumption, the process is steady
state=accumulation is zero, there is a consumption and generation.[8]
0=∑ M in-∑ Mout-rav, -ra=Kca , K=k0 exp (-E/RT) =2667exp (5349/8314*343)
=2.67/day
CA0=molar flow rate input/volumetric flow rate=0.75/1.48*10^-5 = 53.25 mol/m3
Assuming constant volume system, CA=CA0 (1-XA) =1.065 mol/m 3 , XA=98%
U0=∑Volumetric flow rate input=23.98 m3/day
V=U0CA0-UCA/-ra =53.25*23.98-23.98*1.065/2.67*1.065=440 m3
0=∑ M in-∑ Mout-rav ,-ra=Kca
0= (Mspent lye + M NaOH solution+ M pretreatment oil)-(mass of Mixture of soap and
glycerol +5%of the total feedstock)-(KCAV) 0= (3408 +19872+3553.6)-(mass of
Mixture of soap and glycerol +1171) -50
Mass of Mixture of soap and glycerol=25612.5 kg/day

24
 3. Mass balance on Static Separator

Mass In = Mass out

Mass of soap & glycerol =mass of the spent lye +mass of crude soap

Mass of crude soap=25612.5-6.912=25605.6 kg/day

4. Mass balance on washing column

Mass In = Mass out

Crude soap=M spent+M washed soap, M washed soap =25605.6-6816=18789.6 kg/day

25
 5. Mass balance on centrifuge

Mass In = Mass out

Mwashed soap=M fresh lye+M wet soap, M wet soap=18789.6-345.6=18444 kg/day

6. MATERIAL BALANCE ON NEUTRALIZER

Input = Output
M additives + Mwet SOAP= M Salt+ MSOAP+H2O
MSOAP+H2O = (M additives + Mwet SOAP)-M Salt= (1874.8+18444)-
3741=16577.88kg/day

26
 7. MATERIAL BALANCE ON DRYER

N.B M water in=0.3*16577.88kg/day=4973.36kg/day, Mwater out=10% of H2O in is

evaporated = 0.1*4973.36kg=497.3kg/day
Min = Mout
M soap &water= Mwater out+ M dry soap
M dry soap= M soap &water- Mwater out=16577.88- 497.3=16080.5kg/day

3.2.2. Energy balance

1. Energy balance on reactor

The first law of thermodynamics demands that energy be neither created nor destroyed. [2] In the
production of soap the equipment which much amount of energy involved and removed takes
place on the reactor. Then it better to determine the amount of energy on it. Soap is produced
from saponification reactions of triglycerides of a fat molecule and caustic soda. So the amount
of heat evolved during reaction and the heat removed by the jacket can be calculated as follows:

Heat transfer calculation

Heat transfer coefficient in the order of 170 W/ m2. 0 K to jackets is typically obtained.

Space b/n jacket and the reactor will depend on the size of the vessel, but will typically range
from 50mm for small vessel to 300mm for large vessel.

So we have to select 50mm space b/n the two.

Diameter of jacket = Do + (2 *0.050) = 2.79 +0.1 =2.9m; r = 1.45m

27
Cooling fluid used is Cooling Water.

Cooling Jacket area available (A) = Πr2= 2*Π*(1.45)2 =A = 6.5m2

CW (cooling water) inlet temp = 25 oC

CW outlet temp = 70 oC

Approaches minimum temperature differences of the cooling jacket and the reactor:

ΔT1=90 – 70= 20 oC

ΔT2= 90 – 25= 65 oC

LMTD = (ΔT1 - ΔT 2)/ln [ΔT 1 /ΔT 2]

LMTD =38.29 oC = 311.29oK

Heat of Reaction; [2]

Q = ∆Hr

= 1.1 x 106 kJ/hr., this is the maximum amount of heat load removed from the reactor. For
Most CSTR Overall Coefficient = UD = 170 W/ m2. 0K

Now; Heat Removable by Jacket

Qj= UD *A*LMTD = 170 W/ m2. 0

K *6.5 m2 *311.29 0
K=343975.5w
=343975.5J/hr*3600 =1238312KJ/hr=1.23*106KJ/h

Since the heat of reaction (1.1 x106 kJ/hr) < heat removable by jacket (1.23*106kJ/hr)

Our design for a cooling jacket is justified in comparison with a cooling coil.

Now Cooling Water Flow rate can be calculated as:

Heat to be removed from reactor = 1.1 x 106kJ/hr

Mass flow rate of steam water = Q/ (CpΔTM) = 1.1 x 10 6 kJ/hr/[4.2kJ/kg0K *311.290 K] =

841.35kg/hr

28
Amount of heat evolved in the reactor can be calculated as follows

Heat of reaction:

ΔHrxn=∑nHp- ∑nHr

Where n is the stoichiometric coefficient of the chemical reaction, Hp and Hr enthalpy of product
and the reactant respectively

Table 3.2: Specific heat capacity data from thermodynamic

The oil which is initially used for saponification reaction is 25 oC and for complete conversion of
the oil triglycerides in to fat the reactor temperature must set at 90 oC=363 oK within a short
period of time.

The relation between specific heat capacity and temperature is

Cp=A+BT+CT2 +DT3, but for calculation purpose the value of C and D are

negligible CP=A+BT [2]

CP (oil) = 13.5+ 47.8*10-2 (363) = 187.014j/kg

CP (NaOH) =20.43+56.502*10-2 (*363) = 225.53226j/kg

CP(glycerol) =-8.42+0.44422*(363) =152.83186j/kg

CP (soap)=-6.45+0.8723*363=310.1949j/kg

29
Therefore, the total amount of sensible heat emitted to the environment is
∑i=187.014*44+225.53226*3+152.83186*3+310.1949*3
=8228.616+676.59678+458.49558+930.5847

=10294.29306j/hr =10.294293KJ/hr Q =m∑ i =10.294*841.35kg/hr =8.66MJ/hr

=10294.29306j/hr =10.294293KJ/hr

Q =m∑ i =10.294*841.35kg/hr =8.66MJ/hr

2. Energy balance on dryer

The energy required is Q = m Cp ΔT, Where m =mass of soap & water Cp = specific heat ofsoap
&water
ΔT=Tf-To

Mass of soap & water from material balance =16577.88kg/dayN.B Molecular mass
NaOH=40g/mol, Glycerin (C3H8O3) = 92g/mol Soap (C18H36O2COOHNa) = 352g/mol * 1
cal=4.1868J CP Soap=0.489cal/gk= 2.047 kj/kgk cp water=4.18kj/kgk
CP=cps*xs+cpw*xw=2.047 kj/kgk *0.106+4.18kj/kgk*0.893= 3.95 kj/kgk

Q = m Cp ΔT=16577.88kg/day*3.95kj/kgk *105k=6875.67kj/day

30
3.3. Equipment Design and Specification
3.3.1. Design of continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR)
Stirred tank agitated reactors consist of a tank fitted with a mechanical agitator and a cooling
jacket or coils. They are operated as batch reactors or continuous reactors. Continuous stirred-
tank reactor (CSTR) - A type of idealized chemical reactor vessel used to contain a chemical
reaction in which liquid reactants continuously flow into the reactor and products continuously
flow out such that there is no accumulation within the reactor.

By assuming perfect mixing of the reactants within the reactor by using stirring, the composition
of the reaction does not vary with either position or time, and the output composition of the
material is therefore assumed to be the same at the composition at all points within the reactor. It
is also known as a back-mix reactor. [3]

3.3.1.1. Sizing of continuous stirred tank reactor

Basic data needed to reactor design:

 Vessel function and selection

 Process material and service
 Operating and design temperature and pressure
 Material of construction
 Vessel dimension and orientation
 Type of vessel head to be used
 Opening and connection required
 Specification of heating and cooling jacket
 Type of agitator
1. Saponification Vessel

Capacity = (including 10% safety factor) Accumulation = in - out + generation -

consumption, the process is steady state=accumulation is zero; there is a consumption and
generation. [8]

0=∑ M in-∑ Mout-rav, -ra=KCA

K=k0 exp (-E/RT) =2667exp (5349/8314*343)=2.67/day

31
CA0=molar flow rate input/volumetric flow rate=0.75/1.48*10^-5 = 53.25 mol/m3

Assuming constant volume system, CA=CA0 (1-XA) =1.065 mol/m3

XA=98% U0=∑Volumetric flow rate input=23.98 m3/day

V=U0CA0-UCA/-ra =53.25*23.98-23.98*1.065/2.67*1.065 =440 m3

Material of construction = stainless steel Height and diameter of the Saponification vessel,

Let us assume the height to diameter ratio be 1:1.

That is =

For vertical cylindrical tank the volume becomes

= for H=D

440 m3 = D = 4.122 m, Then H = 4.122m

Area of the Saponification vessel

A = 3.14*(4.122.22)/4 = 21.18m2

Surface area of the Saponification vessel

SA= = (3.14 * 4.122*5.2) m2 = 84.4m2

Thickness of the Saponification vessel

Tt = LdHlgDt/2StE*103

Where:- Ld-----liquid density, Kg/m3 HL------liquid depth, m, g----- Gravitational acceleration,

9.81m/s2 , Dt ------tank diameter, St-------maximum allowable stress for the material,N/mm2 ,
E-------joint efficiency, Tt------tank thickness required at depth HL,m

32
Dt=4.122m, HL = 4.122m, g= 9.8m/s2, St (at 66 oc) =160,000,000N/m2 (Coulson and
Richardson‟s volume-6, 3rd edition, 809), E=1.0(Double welded butt or equivalent 100% degree
of radiography) (Coulson and Richardson‟s volume-6,3rd edition, 810), Ld=1000Kg/m3 (density
of water at 25oC)

Tt =1000kg/m3*2.4m*9.8m/s2*2.4m/2*135*1*1000 = 0.21mm

Total thickness = allowance + Tt , Allowance =4mm

Total thickness = 4mm + 0.21mm = 4.21mm

2. Spent lye storage tank

0.04 kg/sec spent lye from the tank Density of spent lye = 2130kg/m3

Volume of spent lye storage tank = mass of spent lye/density

Volume =0.04 /2130=1.9*10-5 m3/sec, Assume spent lye is stored for one hour.

Volume =1.9*10-5 m3/sec* 3600 sec = 0.68m3=68 lit

Assuming the tank is 90% full, Volume = 0.68m 3/0.9 = 76 m3 Material of construction carbon
steel

3. Oil storage tank

0.41 kg/sec oil from the tank

Density of Oil = 914 kg/m3

Volume of Oil storage tank = mass of Oil /density

Volume = 0.41/914= 4.5*10-5m3/sec

Assume Oil is stored for 1 hr

Volume =4.5*10-5*3600 sec = 1.092m3

Assuming the tank is 90% full, Volume = 1.092m3/0.9 = 0.162m3=162 lit

Material of construction carbon steel

33
4. NaOH solution storage tank

M NaOH solution=0.23 kg/sec

Density of NaOH = 2130kg/m3&

Density of distilled water=1000kg/m3

Volume of NaOH storage tank = mass of NaOH /mean density

Volume = 0.23/1565=1.46*10-4 m3/sec

Assume NaOH solution is stored for one hour.

Volume =1.46*10-4 *3600 = 0.529m3

Assuming the tank is 90% full, Volume = 0.529m3/0.9 = 0.587m3=587 lit

Material of construction carbon steel

5. Sizing of static separator

Density of glycerol=1.261 g/cm3=1261kg/m3

Density of soap=895 kg/m3

Mass of Mixture of soap and glycerol=25612.5 kg/day

Q=Volumetric flow rate=mass of soap and glycerol/mean

density=25612.5/1078=23.75m3/day=0.0165m3/min=0.099m3/hr

Assume static separator is operated for 1 min.

Volume =0.0165*1min = 0.0165m3

Assuming the tank is 90% full, Volume = 0.0165m3/0.9 =0.018 m3=18 lit

Diameter =0.127√Q=0.127√23.75=0.61m=61.89 cm, r=0.305

Vcone =1/3πr2h=1/3*π*0.3052*1m

Vcone = 0.0974m3=97 lit

Material of construction carbon steel

34
6. Sizing of washing column

Mcrude soap=25605.6kg/d

density soap=895kg/m3

Volume = mass/density , Q=volume= (25605.6/895) = 28.6 m3/day=0.09 m3/min

Then ω=2ΠN/60=209 rad/s , N=2000rpm and vlin=ω*r=ω/2*D=104.7D From

D=√4Q/Vlin*π substitute Vlin in this equation

D=3√ (4Q)/ ω/2 = 0.36m=36cm

Vcylinder=1/3πr2h = 1/3π*(0.36/2)2*1.5=0.282 m3=282 lit

Material of construction carbon steel

7. Sizing of centrifuge

M washed soap=18789.6kg/day

Volume=D2 (P-L)* g/18 n ………………………..[2]

P=lye density=1261kg/m3 L=medium density= density of soap &lye=1078 kg/m3,

n=viscosity of lye=1.412 Pa·s V=m/density=18789.6/1078=17.43 m3/d=12 lit/min*1min=12
lit

N.B the centrifuge separates lye per minute.

0.012m3=D2(1261-1078)9.81/18*1.412, D tube=0.13m

Material of construction carbon steel

8. Sizing of neutralizer

Mwet SOAP=18444kg/day in neutralizer,M of additives (acetic acid, H2O2) =1874.8kg/d

Mwet SOAP+M of additives (acetic acid, H2O2) =20318.8kg/d

Density of saop = 895 kg/m3,

Mean Density of additives (acetic acid=1049kg/m3,H2O2=1130kg/m3)=1024.6kg/m3

35
Volume of neutralizer = M /mean density =20318.8/1024.6=0.01377m3/min

Assume mixture is mixed for 1 min Volume =0.01377m3/min*60 sec =0.014m3= 14 lit

Assuming the neutralizer is 90% full, Volume = 0.014m3/0.9 = 0.015m3=15 lit

Material of construction carbon steel

9. Sizing of dryer

From Handbook of Industrial Drying, Third Edition by Arun S. Mujumda

D=1.13/√1-β *√vg/u

Where, β=assumed frictional hold up=0.05-0.3, vg=volu flow rate, u=velocity of drying
medium MSOAP &WATER (30% is water content from lab) =16577.88kg/day

Density of soap = 895kg/m3 Density of water =1000 kg/m3

Mean density=947.5kg/m3

Vg = M /mean density=16577.88/947.5=17.5 m3/d=

D=1.13 *√17.5/1, β=0.3 & u=1m/s √1-0.3 D= 0.67m &

Material of construction carbon steel

36
3.3.1.2. Mechanical design of continuous stirred tank reactor

Fig 3.2 CSTR

MECHANICAL DESIGN

Objectives

 To design pressure
 To design temperature
 To design thickness
 To design volume
 To analysis the stress
 To design the load of the bed
 To select the suitable type of bed support
 Jacketed vessel
 To select the flanges

37
Design pressure

Pt = pa + LdgHL Where P= design pressure

Pa= atmospheric pressure

Pt= total pressure

The Saponification vessel is closed at the top.Therefore pa = 0, then

Pt= 1000Kg/m3*9.82m/s2*4.122m

Pt = 40,395.6 pa =40.395Kpa P = Pt + 10%Pt

P = 40.395Kpa + 4.0395Kpa =44.43Kp

Specification

 Working pressure 8 - 10 barDesign pressure 5-10 % of working pressure

 The experience of the operating temperature is 60oC
 Design temperature =10% of 600+60 0c=66oC
 Material of construction stainless steel
 Internal diameter 4.122 m
 Minimum allowance of 2.5 mm
 Height of vessel = Hv = 4.122m
 At the minimum fluidization velocity the bulk density of the catalyst bed is pb= 800
kg/m3
 Dynamic wind pressure=1280N/m2
 Linear velocity of the rotating fluid=0.64m/s

38
3.3.1.3. SHELL
Design pressure

P design =Pgage (5−10) % + Pgage =44.43kpa=44430 pa

From the specification of the above:

Ts = PDi/ (2fJ –P) J = Joint efficiency factor = 1

Ts=44430*4.122/ (2*1*160,000,000 - 44430) = 5.7*10-4 =0.57 mm

To calculate wall minimum thickness:For stainless steels, where severe corrosion is not
expected, and allowance of 3 mm

t = e + corrosion allowance = 0.57mm + 3mm ≈4 mm

3.3.1.4 HEAD
Design of domed ends

Tori spherical

 Ellipsoidal head is used for pressure greater than 150psi and for less than that pressure we
use Tori spherical head. That is why we have selected a Tori spherical head.
 A Tori spherical shape which is often used as the end closure of cylindrical vessel is
formed from part of a torus and part of a sphere.
 Tori spherical ends are easier and cheaper to fabricate at low pressure (~15bar)
 Standard tori spherical heads (dished ends) are the most commonly used end closure for
vessels up to operating pressures of 15 bars. They can be used for higher pressures, but
above 10 bar their cost should be compared with that of an equivalent ellipsoidal head.
 Calculation for the thickness of tori spherical heads end covers From specification, we
have ID = 4.122m Φ = 1

39
Corrosion allowance C2 = 3mm

Negative devotion C1 = 0.7mm

Design pressure = PD = 44430 N/m2

Design temperature = 66oc

Allowable stress = using material of construction vs. design temperature = 160*106 pa

Where M = Shape factor of dished head

For standard dished head when RI = 0.9 Di =0.9*4.122=3.7m& r = 0.17 Di=0.17*4.122=0.7

m the value of M = 1.324

The general equation becomes:

S=6.86*10-4 m = 0.68 mm

The design thickness (Sd ) become

Sd= = 0.68mm + 3mm =3.68mm

40
 The nominal thickness become

3.3.1.5 Agitator:

Agitator Dimensions from [10]

 Impeller Height above Vessel floor E = Da = 1.374m

 Impeller Diameter Da = Dt/3 = 4.122m/3 = 1.374m
 Width of the blade – 75 mm (w)
 Thickness of blade – 8 mm (t)
 Speed (maximum) – 200 rpm
 Overhang of agitator shaft between bearing and agitator – 1300 mm (l)
 Length of Impeller Blade L = Da /4 = 1.374/4 = 0.3435m
 Width of Baffle J = Dt/10 = 4.122/10=0.4122 m
 Width of Impeller Blade W = Da /5 = 1.3474/5=0.2748m
 Number of Impellers = 3
 Number of Impeller blades = 6
 Distance between two consecutive impellers = 1.374 m
 Tip Velocity = 3 – 6 m/sec from [10] select average value = 5 m/sec
 Tip Velocity = π x Da x N
 Speed of Impeller = N = [5/( π x 1.374)] x 60 = 1.157 rpm

Shaft material – commercial cold rolled steel

Permissible shear stress in shaft – 550 Kg/cm2

Elastic limit in tension – 2460 Kg/cm2

Modulus of elasticity – 19.5 x 105 Kg/cm2 (E)

Permissible stress for key (carbon steel)

41
Shear – 630 Kg/cm2

Crushing – 1300 Kg/cm2

Stuffing box ( carbon steel) - 950 Kg/cm2

Studs and bolts (hot rolled carbon steel l)

Permissible stress – 587 Kg/cm2

It is assumed that vessel geometry conforms to the standard tank configuration

ρNda2 /μ = 1.4 x 103 x 1.157/60 x (1.374)2/1.7 x 10-2 =29998

From power curve, Np = 6 Power,

P = NPρ N3 Da5/ (gc x 75) = (6 x 1.4 x 103 x (1.157/60)3) x (1.374)5) / (9.81 x 75) = 4*10-4 hp

Gland losses (10%) =4*10-5 hp

Power input = 4*10-4 +4*10-5 = 4.4*10-4 hp

Transmission system losses (20%) = 4.4*10-5 x 0.2 = 8.8*10-5 hp

Total hp = 4.4*10-5 + 8.8*10-5 = 1.32*10-4

This will be taken as 1.5 hp to allow for fitting losses

42
3.3.1.6 Shaft design
Continuous average rated torque on the agitator shaft,

Tc= (hp x 75 x 60)/ (2 π N) = (1.5 x 75 x 60)/ (2 π x 1.157) = 928.9 Kg m

Polar modulus of the shaft,Zp = Tm/fs

Tm = 1.5 Tc=1.5*928.9=1393.3

fs – shear stress = 550 kg/cm2

Zp = (1.5 x 928.9 x 100) /550 = 253 cm3

Πd3/16 = 253

d = 10.8 cm

Diameter of shaft = 11 cm

Force, Fm = Tm/0.75Rb

Rb – Radius of blade

Fm = (1.5 x 928.9 x 100) / (0.75 x 25) = 7431 Kg

Maximum bending momentum M = Fm x L = 7431 x 1.3 = 9660 Kg-m

Equivalent bending moment

Me=1/2[M+√ (M2+Tm2)] =½[9660+√ (96602+1393.32)] =9709 Kg .m

The stress due to equivalent bending

F = Mc/Z

Z = π (5)3/32 (Modulus of reaction of the shaft cross section) =12.27

f = (9709x 100)/12.27 = 79127kg/cm2

Stress f is higher than the permissible elastic limit (2460 Kg/Cm2). Therefore use a 7 cm

Diameter shaft for which the stress will be f = 2056 Kg/cm2

Deflection of shaft, δ = (Wl3) / (3 EI) [W = Fm=7431kg]

43
(1300)3 x 7431/3 x 19.5 x 105 x π x 74/64 = 7896cm

Critical speed, NC = (4.987 x 60) /√δ

= 3.36rpm

Since actual shaft speed is 200 rpm which is 87% of the critical speed it is necessary to increase
the

value of critical speed by decreasing the deflection.

Choose therefore a 8cm dia shaft.

Then, δ = 1.00 cm Nc = 60 x 4.987/ 1.00 = 300 rpm

Actual speed is 66.6 % of the critical speed =198 rpm

3.3.1.7. Blade design:

F = (maximum torque) /(tw2/n)

=1393.3 / (0.8 x 7.52/6)

= 185.77 Kg/cm2 Stress is well within the limit

Hub and key design:

Hub diameter of agitator = 2 x shaft diameter = 16 cm

Length of the hub = 2.5 x 8 = 20 cm

Length of key = 1.5 x shaft dia = 12 cm

Tmax/ (d/2) = lbfs = (lt/2) fc = 1393.3 x 100/ (8/2) =34832

fs- Shear stress in key

Fc – stress in crushing of key

12 x b x 650 = 12 x t/2 x 1300 = 34832

b = 4.46 mm

t = 4.46 mm

44
Use 5mm x 5mm x 12 cm key

3.3.1.8 Stuffing box and gland:

b = d +√ d = 8 + √8 = 10.28 cm=0.1028m

Permissible stress in the material of stuffing box,

t = Pb /2f + C

t = (44430 x 0.1028) /2 x 160,000,000 + 3 = 1.42*10-5m=0.142 mm

a = b + 2t = 0.1028 + 2 x 0.142 = 0.3868 m=0.0003868mm

Load on gland,

F = (π/4) p (b2 – d2) = (π/4) (0.10282 – 0.082) 44430= 145.3 Kg

Size of the stud:

F = (πd02/4) nf

n – No of stud = 4

f – Permissible stress for stud =587 Kg/cm2, d02 = 0.043 cm

d0 = 0.658mm

Minimum stud diameter – 15 mm

Flange thickness = 1.75 x 15 = 27.25

27.25+2=29.25=30mm

3.3.1.8 Coupling:

A clamp coupling of cast iron is used

Force per bolt = 2 Tmax/ (πμ x n/2)

No of bolts, n= 8

μ - coefficient of friction = 0.25

Force = (2 x1393.3 x 100) / (π x 0.25 x 0.08 x (8/2)) = 887 N

45
Area of bolt = 887/587 = 1.51cm2

Diameter of bolt = (1.51 x 4)/Π =1.924mm

Overall diameter of coupling=2x shaft dia =16cm

3.3.1.9.Support
Design of bed skirt supporting

Skirt-thickness-calculation-and-verification
Specifications

 Construction material is carbon steel silica killed

 Skirt thickness = bottom thickness of vessel = 13mm
 Height of skirt is 2.5m
 Straight cylindrical support ( skirt) means at 90oc)
 Maximum dead weight occurred when the vessel if full of water
 Young modules = 200,000N/mm2
 The filtrate obtained in solution is negligible and consider the vessel is full of water.

The maximum dead weight load on the skirt is occur when the vessel is full of water or during

hydraulic test and the approximate weight at this time is expressed as follows:-

Weight of water = volume of water occupied *density of water *gravitational acceleration

= Vw * ρ*g = (Π*D2)/4*HV * ρ*g = (3.14*4.122*4.122)/4m2*4.122m*1000Kg/m3 * 9.8m/s2

= 3.3*10-4KN

 Total weight (Wz) = weight of vessel + weight of plate + weight of insulation t = shell
thickness
weight of vessel(Wv): Wv = 240*cw*Dm(Hv + 0.8Dm)t

Where Cw = factor to account the weight of nozzle, man ways, internal support e.t.c =1.15
for the bed

Dm =mean diameter of vessel

Dm = (Di + t*10-3) = (4.122 +0.004) = 4.126 m

46
Hv = height of the cylindrical section = 4.122

t = wall thickness = 0.004m

Therefore Wv=240*cw*Dm(Hv+0.8Dm) t =240*1.15*4.126m*(4.122m+0.8*4.126m)*0.004

=33.8N=0.0338KN

47
48
49
3.4. Equipment Selection and Specification
3.4.1 Equipment Selection
The reasons why we choose static separator:

 Low capital cost

 Ability to operate at high temperatures and pressures
 Low maintenance requirements because no moving parts

The reasons why we choose vacuum dryer

 Because drying materials in this way is a less damaging drying process. Some materials
can experience problems at high temperatures, such as developing hard, leathery crusts
from heat exposure during the drying process.
 It's also possible to achieve a very high level of dryness in a way that the temperature
does not need to be as high
 Because Materials are dried in a reduced pressure environment, which lowers the heat
needed for rapid drying.
 Vacuum drying tends to retain the integrity of the original item without damaging it with
heat

50
  Using vacuum drying equipment also reduces risks to workers. With other types of
drying equipment, there are vented fumes and particles which can make people sick or
which force people to wear protective garments.

 With a vacuum dryer, ventilation does not occur, and workers around the drier are safer.

 It's also possible to recover the precipitated moisture collected during the drying for
further use or study

Dryer selection criteria

 Dryer throughput; mode of feedstock production (batch/continuous)

 Physical, chemical and biochemical properties of the wet feed as well as desired product
specifications; expected variability in feed characteristics
 Upstream and downstream processing operations
 Moisture content of the feed and product
 Drying kinetics; moist solid sorption isotherms
 Quality parameters (physical, chemical, biochemical)
 Safety aspects, e.g., fire hazard and explosion hazards, toxicity
 Value of the product
 Need for automatic control
 Toxicological properties of the product
 Turndown ratio, flexibility in capacity requirements
 Type and cost of fuel, cost of electricity
 Environmental regulations

Drying is carried out for one or more of the following reasons:

 To reduce the cost of transport.

 To make a material more suitable for handling
 To remove moisture this may otherwise lead to corrosion.

51
3.4.2. Equipment specification
Equipment specification typically includes the determination of vessel dimensions and
description of
other internal parts of the equipment. It also involves the determination of parameters like speed,
power and any other operating parameters pertaining to the particular equipment.

 The major considerations under equipment specification are:

 Identification of the equipment
 Function of the equipment
 Material handled
 Basic design data
 Material of construction
To summarize:

Saponification vessel

Duty:-To-react-sodium-hydroxide,-pretreated-oil-and-lye.
Type:-Non-reversible

StorageTank1
Duty: To serve as a stock pile for the pretreated oil.

Description:-Vertical-cylindrical-tank-with -flat ends

StorageTank2
Duty: To temporarily store sodium hydroxide.

Description:-Vertical-cylindrical-tank-with-flat-ends.

StorageTank3
Duty: To temporarily store lye solution before entering saponifier.

Description:-Vertical-Cylindrical-tank-with-flat-ends
Static-separator
Duty: separates the soap from the lye. Type: a settling vessel which does not use any
mechanical-action. Material-of-Construction:-carbon-steel

52
Centrifuge
Duty: To separate soap and lye

Type:-Tubular-centrifuge
Neutralizer
Duty: to react weak acid with sodium hydroxide.

Type:-Continuous-Stirred-Tank-Reactor
Material-of-Construction:-Carbon-Steel

Dryer
Duty: to reduce water levels to about 20% in the soap

Type: vacuum shelf dryer Number: 1

53
4. Engineering Economics
4.1. Market study and plant capacity
4.1.1. Past supply and present demand
The data below in the table is obtained from ECSA(Ethiopian central statistics
agency) that shows the past 9 years of quantity produced and quantity imported
Table 4.1. Nine years’ total consumption of bar soap
Year(Eth.Cal) Import quantity(ton) Production Total quantity(ton)
quantity(ton)
2002 29,770.5 29,770.5
2003 30,291.7 30,291.7
2004 35,635.0 11,632 47,267.0
2005 34,060.6 14,975 49,035.6
2006 51,420.8 16,825 68,245.8
2007 51,293.3 23,567 74,860.3
2008 45,105 35,795 80,900
2009 51,110.3 52,458 103,568.3
2010 49,336.2 58,250 107,586.2
Source; (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency.)

Year Total quantity (tons) Number of population Per capital consumption

2002 29,770.5 84,758,965 0.00035
2003 30,291.7 86,539,978 0.00035
2004 47,267.0 88,758,965 0.00053
2005 49,035.6 93,196,943 0.000526
2006 68,245.8 97,634,921 0.00069
2007 74,860.3 102,072,899 0.00074
2008 80,900 106,510,877 0.00076
2009 103,568.3 110,948,855 0.00094
2010 107,586.2 115,386,833 0.00093
Table 4.2. Per capital consumption

4.1.2. Demand projection

 Using linear regression method forecasting the soap consumption for the next ten years.
4.3. Forecasted quantity for next ten years

54
 Year (ET) Quantity (ton)
2011 119,420.6
2012 132,556.9
2013 147,138
2014 163,323
2015 181,288.5
2016 201,230
2017 223,365
2018 247,935
2019 275,208
2020 305,481

After10 years the demand will become 305,481 tones, Therefore, it is feasible thinking to
process soap in industry level.As we can see from the per capita consumption is so small, still
the demand is not being satisfied.
Taking 50% of the market demand for the next ten years, the production capacity of the plant
can be given bellow.

Year (ET) Quantity (ton)

2011 59,710.3
Table 4.4. Total production
2012 66,278.45
capacity of a plant
2013 73569
2014 81661.5
2015 90644.25
2016 100,615
2017 111,682.5
55
2018 123,967.5
2019 137604
2020 152,740.5
 = (152740.5-59710.3) 100%/(59710.3*10) = 15.6%

 From the above data the maximum production capacity is 152,740.5 ton/yr and at the
beginning the production capacity will be 59,710.3 ton/yr with yearly increment rate of
15.6%.

4.2. Investment cost

4.2.1. Capital investment
Based on the size of equipments described in design section their costs are calculated using cost
Index formula. Their present cost of the equipment is described as follows:

Table 4.5 Purchased equipment cost

56
Source: http://www.alibaba.com and www.matche.com

Table 4.6 Total capital investment estimation

57
 ITEMS Estimation Factor (%) COST (birr)
Purchased equipment cost 100 1137391
delivered
Purchased equipment 39 61,948
installation
Instrumentation and 13 20,649
controls (installed)
Piping (installed) 31 49,241
Electrical (installed) 10 15,884
Building (including 29 46,064
service)
Yard improvements 10 15,884
Service facilities 55 87,363
(installed)
Land (if purchase is 6 9,530
required)
Total direct cost 1,443,956

Engineering and super 32 50,829

vision
Construction expense 34 54,006.3
Contractor‟s fee 18 28,591.6
Contingency 36 57,183

Total indirect cost 190,610

Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) = Total Direct Cost + Total Indirect Cost

= 1,443,956 + 190,610 = 1,634,566 birr

58
Working Capital Investment (WCI) = 20% of Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)

=0.2x1,634566

=326,913.2birr

Total capital investment (TCI) = Fixed Capital Investment +Working Capital Investment

= 1,634,566 + 326,913.2 = 1,961,479.2 birr

Total production cost estimation

1. Manufacturing Cost
 Direct Production Cost

(1). Raw Material Cost

Working Days = 300

Total cost of raw material= 8798.4*30=175,968 birr

(2) Utilities Cost = 20% of Raw Material Cost = 0.2 x 175,968 = 35,193.6 birr

(3) Maintenance and Repair Cost = 10 % of Fixed Capital Investment = 0.1 x 1,634,566 =
163,456.6 birr

(4) Operating Labour & Supervision Cost = 5% of Raw Material Cost = 0.05 x 175,968 =
8,798.4 birr

(5) Lab & Other Service Cost = 1% of Raw Material Cost = 0.01 x 175,968 = 1759.68 birr

Direct production costs = Raw Material Cost + Utilities Cost + Maintenance and Repair Cost +
Operating Labour & Supervision Cost + Lab & Other Service Cost = 175,968 + 35,193.6
+163,456.6 + 8,798.4 + 1759.68 =202,169.56 birr

59
  Fixed Cost:

(1) Depreciation = 10 % of Fixed Capital Investment = 0.1 x1,634566 = 163,456.6 birr

(2) Local Taxes = 2 % of Fixed Capital Investment = 0.02 x x1,634566 = 32,691.32 birr

(3) Insurance Cost = 3 % of Fixed Capital Investment = 0.03 x x1,634566 = 49,036.98 birr

Totalfixed cost = Depreciation + Local Taxes + Insurance Cost =

163,456.6+32,691.32+49,036.98 = 245,184.88 birr

Plant overhead Cost: These costs are 100% of Labour cost, So, plant overhead cost is
8,798.4 birr
Total Manufacturing Cost = Direct Production Costs + Total Fixed Cost + Plant overhead
cost =202,169.56 +245,184.88 + 8,798.4 = 456,152.84 birr

2. General Expenses:

(1). Administrative Cost = 1% Of Manufacturing cost = 0.01 x 456,152.84 = 4561.5 birr

(2). Distribution & Marketing cost = 2% Of Manufacturing cost = 0.02 x 456,152.84 = 9123
birr
Total General Expenses = 4561.5 Birr+9123 Birr=13,684.5 Birr

Total Production Cost = Total Manufacturing Cost +Total General Expenses = 456,152.84
+ 13,684.5 = 469,837.3 birr

4.3. Financial analysis and investment appraisal

4.3.1. Profitability
Production capacity is 1000 cartons per day i.e.100,000*48= 4,800,000gm/day
=1,440,000kg/yr
Working days = 300

Unit selling price of SOAP=$1 per kg(30 birr per kg)

Wholesale Selling Price of soap= 1,440,000kg/yr * 30birr per kg= 43,200,000 birr/yr

Gross Profit = Total Selling Cost – Total Production Cost =43,200,000 – 469,837.3 =
42,730,162.7 birr

60
Tax Paid = 0.4 x Gross Profit = 0.4 x 42,730,162.7 = 17,092,056 birr

Net Profit = Gross Profit – Tax Paid = 42,730,162.7 – 17,092,056 = 25,638,097.6 birr

4.3.2. Break Even Point

Let N TPA be the break even production rate.

Raw material Cost/(ton product) =175,968 /(1000X365)

Fixed Cost = 245,184.88 birr

At break-even production,

Fixed charges + Direct Production Cost = Selling Cost (245,184.88 +469,837.3 ) birr = 30 X
100,000 X N

N = 2383 TPA = 65.29 TPD Hence, the breakeven production rate is 65.29 TPD of the
considered plant capacity.

4.3.3. Payback period

61
The project’s initial investment will be fully recovered within 0.63 year.

4.3.4. Rate of return

Return before tax

 Rate of return =21.7%

Return after tax

 Rate of Return =13%

62
5. Plant Location and Plant Layout

a) Plant location
Plant location means to discover an exact place where an industrial experience can be
startedmore profitable & a plant is a place where man, material, money, equipment, machinery
etc. are brought together for manufacturing products. Plant location plays a major role in the
design or production as it determines the cost of :

 Getting suitable raw material.

 Processing raw material to finished products.
 Finished products distribution to customers.

The final selection of the plant location has a strong influence on the success of any industrial
venture. Finally, we select Addis Ababa city by considering the following reason:

 Availability of raw materials (mainly waste cooking oil)

 Large market
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  Nice attitude of the local people

Good transportation facility like ,road

 Availabilityof adequate supply of labor force

 High proportion of skilled employees
 Good communication facilities
 Good banking and health care delivery system
 political & strategic consideration
 Advanced library & training center
 rapid contact with customers and suppliers
 Availability of utilities

b) Plant layout
After the process flow diagrams are completed & before detailed piping, structural & electrical
design can begin, the layout of process units in the plant must be planned. Plant layout means the
allocation of space, arrangement of equipment & machinery in such a manner so that maximum
utilization of manpower, machines & material is done & minimum material handling is required.
The following factors should be considered in selecting the plant layout.

 New site development or additions to previously developed site.

 Type & quantity of product to be produced.
 Possible future expansion.
 Economic distribution of utilities & services.
 Type of building & building code requirements.
 Health & safety considerations.
 Waste disposal problems.
 Sensible use of floor & elevation space.
 Operational convenience &accessibility.
 Type of process & product control.
 Space available & space required.
 Maximum advantages of gravity flow are taken to reduce the operational cost in the
piping & flow design
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The process unit and ancillary buildings should be laid out to give the most economical flow
of material and personnel around the site. Hazardous processes must be located at a safe
distance from other building. The consideration must also be also being given to the future
expansion of site.

The main axillary building includes:

 storage raw materials and products

 Maintenance work shops.
 Stores for maintenance and operating supplies.
 Laboratory for process control.
 Fire station and other emergency service.
 Utilities.

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5.1. Economic and Social Benefits
The Laundry soap plant that has a capacity of 152,740.5 ton per year is used to satisfy demands
and to reduce the foreign currency of the country. The plants will employee large number of
skilled and unskilled man-power, this creates good work opportunity to the society and to
entrepreneurs too.

5.3. Environmental Impact Assessment

Soap is designed as a product to be used once then flushed down the drain, so as expected the
environmental implications of its manufacture are not nearly so great as many other chemical
processes. Every organization (company or industry) has the moral and legal obligation to protect
the health and welfare of its employees as well as that of the general public. Therefore, good
safety measures have to be put in place to ensure the safety of lives and prevent damage to
equipment. The primary aim of these safety measures therefore is to prevent or minimize
workers exposure to the potential hazard, injury to workers, loss of lives, and destruction of
properties. They are also needed to ensure safe as well as efficient operation. These safety
measures are employed in industry mainly to prevent or control hazards .A hazard is a property
which in particular circumstances could lead to harm. Common safety hazards in the
manufacturing industry include; dangerous machinery, explosion to fires, faulty electrical
connections and falling materials due to poor housekeeping among others. The potential hazards
that could be present in the toilet soap plant include hazards due to materials handling and
hazards due to the various processes.

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6. Conclusion and Recommendation
6.1. Conclusion
Generally, Production of soap is one of the products that every person daily used in his life.
Production of soap from waste cooking oil in the industry level creates new business and job
opportunities, allow allows local people get improved income. The plant that has a capacity
152,740.5 ton per year is high due to taking of 50% market share so that, the design
consideration of the purchased equipment and cost was high. The Total capital investment
needed for the plant was 1,961,479.2 birr with fixed capital investment of 1,634,566 birr and
with Working capital investment of 326,913.2 birr. So from calculation of payback period the
project feasible, it is best for business if it will applied.

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6.2 RECOMMENDATION
 Competition from other soap industries already in existence: However, the project shall
handle this situation by producing at the lowest possible price and constantly being
abreast with marketing information so as to respond to market fluctuations through
appropriate adjustment of prices. This problem of competition shall also be resolved by
constantly rebranding the product, constantly improving on the quality and through
adequate advertisement.
 Price variation of the finished product: There is always price variation for finished goods
which may be as a result of government policies or a new company entering into
production. One cannot sell a product below its production cost. Therefore, this project
shall anticipate and forecast any price variation and then make adjustments before the
forecast materialize.
 Power problem: Because of the large output, machines are required for production and
these machines are electrically operated. Sometimes electricity supply in that area (in our
country) is poor so this project shall acquire generator in case of power failure.

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[3] Dictionary of Chemical Engineering;CARL SCHASCHKE. [4] Glycerol -
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Make Soap.html
[7] Module 4: Soap and Detergents: Lecture 1, Prof. Indri D. Mall, Department of
Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee.
[8] Octave levnspiel; Chemical reaction engineering, third edition, department of
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[18] Walter Scharf and Charles Malerich: Preparation of Soap
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[21] www.Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency.org

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