Acoustic levitation of objects larger

than the wavelength used: A

Systematic Literature Review with
mathematical approach.

Keywords: acoustic levitation, systematic review, large objects,

ultrasonic suspension, near-field, standing wave levitator

Trabajo de Fin de Máster en Matemáticas

Autor: Diego A. Vásquez Peñafiel

Tutor: José M. Gallardo Molina

Área de conocimiento y/o departamento: Matemática Aplicada

Septiembre, 2020
 DECLARACIÓN DE ORIGINALIDAD DEL TFM

D. Diego Alberto Vásquez Peñafiel, con Pasaporte 1715857619, estudiante del Máster
en Matemáticas de la Facultad de Ciencias de la Universidad de Málaga,
DECLARO:

Que he realizado el Trabajo Fin de Máster titulado “ Acoustic levitation of objects

larger than the wavelength used: A Systematic Literature Review with mathematical ap-
proach.” y que lo presento para su evaluación. Dicho trabajo es original y todas las fuentes
bibliográficas utilizadas para su realización han sido debidamente citadas en el mismo.

Para que ası́ conste, firmo la presente en Málaga, el Fecha

Añadir fecha y firma.

Índice general

Agradecimientos I

Resumen II

Abstract III

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 3
2.1. Fundamental equations of fluid dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.1. Equation of continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.2. Equation of conservation of momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.3. Equation of state of the fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2. Linear wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3. Helmholtz equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4. Acoustic radiation pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 8
3.1. Research questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2. Document selection process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria (IC/EC criteria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3.1. Inclusion Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3.2. Exclusion criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.4. Data extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.5. Data analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4. RESULTS AND ANALYSES (EXECUTION OF SLR) 12

4.1. Near Field Acoustic Levitation (NFAL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2. Modeling methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3. Modeling / simulation software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.4. Electroacoustical system characteristics and optimization . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.5. Practical applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.5.1. Transportation (Non contact bearing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.5.2. Acoustic Levitation motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

5. DISCUSSION 15
5.1. [RQ] What methods / techniques / mathematical models are actually
known for the levitation of large objects (larger than half a wavelength) by
acoustic radiation pressure? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2
 5.2. [RQ1] How many formal academic studies regarding acoustic levitation of
large objects were published since 2010 in three of the major scientific
databases? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.3. [RQ2] What are the electroacoustical system’s main characteristics emplo-
yed to acoustically levitate large objects? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.4. [RQ3] What are the main applications for acoustic levitation of large objects? 17

6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 19

A. Apéndice primero 20

B. Apéndice segundo 21

Bibliografı́a 22
Agradecimientos

Agradezco a mis padres por ser la guı́a, a mi mujer por ser soporte, a mi hija por la
inspiración, a mi familia por la compañı́a y a mis profesores por los valores. This research
was developed with the support of Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE (Ecuador).

i
Resumen

Levitar objetos únicamente con la fuerza de presión acústica (Levitación Acústica) ha

sido una realidad en la comunidad cientı́fica desde hace un par de décadas. Sin embargo,
la mayorı́a de los métodos se limitaban a objetos pequeños (menores que media longitud
de onda). Esta revisión sistemática tiene como objetivo explorar los sistemas de levita-
ción acústica diseñados para suspender objetos en el aire que son más grandes que su
longitud de onda, asi como revisar los modelos matemáticos involucrados. La búsqueda
se limitó a aquellas publicaciones realizadas entre los años 2010 a 2018, de los cuales se
obtuvieron 144 estudios; posteriormente, se excluyeron 47 trabajos en base a los criterios
predefinidos de inclusión y exclusión. Finalmente, se seleccionaron 23 trabajos de 3 bases
de datos cientı́ficas de renombre para esta revisión. Se concluye que la levitación acústica
de campo cercano es la técnica más popular para levitar objetos relativamente grandes;
además en todos los casos se usa el Método de los Elementos Finitos para modelar ma-
temáticamente los sistemas. Los transductores de tipo Langevin son la mejor opción ya
que se utilizan en todas las publicaciones, y las principales aplicaciones de la levitación
acústica (AL) centrada en objetos de mayor tamaño que la longitud de onda, consisten
en la manipulación y el transporte sin contacto de cargas delicadas, sensibles y pesadas.

en todos los casos se usa el Método de los Elementos Finitos para resolver
numéricamente los modelos matemáticos que aparecen.

(Esta parte falta en el resumen en inglés.)

ii
Abstract

Levitating objects merely with acoustic pressure force has been a reality in the scien-
tific community for a couple decades now. However, most methods were limited to small
objects (smaller than half a wavelength). This systematic review aims to explore acous-
tical levitation systems designed for suspending objects larger that their wavelength in
midair. As well as reviewing the mathematical models involved. The search was limited to
2010 – 2018 from which 144 studies were obtained; afterwards, 47 papers were excluded
based on the predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Finally, 23 papers from 3 major
databases were selected for this review. We conclude that Near Field Acoustic Levitation
is the most popular technique for levitating large objects. Langevin type transducers are
the best choice as they are used in every single publication, and the main applications
for acoustic levitation (AL) focusing in larger than the wavelength objects, consist in
non-contact handling and transportation of delicate, sensitive and heavy loads.

iii
Capı́tulo 1

INTRODUCTION

Acoustic levitation (AL) uses acoustic radiation pressure to counteract gravity and
suspend matter in air [2]. This concept is not new in science, in fact, its benefits are
currently applied in a large number of areas. Just to name a few examples, in pharma-
cology: to synthesize amorphous drugs using contactless manipulation [4, 45]; chemistry:
crystallization of high-purity materials [5, 34, 37]; and micro-assembly: where It presents
a special challenge due to fragile and surface-sensitive components [24, 44, 46]. One of the
major advantages of this type of levitation is the fact that it can be applied to any kind
of object, like nonmagnetic solids, liquids [2, 11, 26, 29], and even small living animals
[42, 47]. Although, current acoustic levitation techniques are mainly restricted to particles
that are much smaller than the acoustic wavelength [1, 11]. Since 1975 levitation of objects
larger than half a wavelength has been reported in academic literature when Whymark
successfully levitated a brass disk of 50 mm in diameter and 0.5 mm in thickness [2]. But
only recently, few academic studies which present methods of suspending objects larger
than half a wavelength have been published. For example, in 2011 Zhao and Wallaschek
[49] levitated successfully a common Compact Disc (CD) using Near Field Acoustic Levi-
tation (NFAL) technique. However, the small number of review articles in this subject has
made this body of knowledge an unorganized field needing a systematic categorization of
the related publications and its contents. Recently, Andrade et al. [2] published a review
focusing in the progress of acoustic levitation in general terms, being an important contri-
bution as they present a new categorization of the types of AL. However, this work does
not focus on the development of acoustic levitation techniques applied to large objects.
In this context, this paper contributes with a systematic literature review (SLR) seeking
to present the actual methods, models, and techniques used to levitate objects larger than
the acoustic wavelength as well as its potential applications, in order to provide a detailed
general panorama and aiming to be a reference guide in which the researcher can examine
the current state-of-the-art in the field of AL. Academic literature published since 2010
was considered for this effect. The physics behind the methods are not covered in detail in
this paper given that they are described largely by other authors in various publications
[9, 25, 49].
This article is structured as follows: We start (Chapter 2) with a brief summary of the
theory and mathematical models behind acoustic levitation. Chapter 3 describes the pro-
cess and methodology involving a SLR based on Kitchenham’s approach [19], in which
the researcher follows a pre-defined protocol during the whole process [35]. In Chapter 4
we present our results and specific interpretations of the data obtained. Chapter 5 covers
the discussion, where the Research Questions defined in Chapter 3 are answered. And

1
CAPÍTULO 1. INTRODUCTION 2

finally in Charter 6 we present our conclusions and future perspectives.

Capı́tulo 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

To understand the complications involved in suspending relatively large objetcs in

thin air, we will start this chapter by presenting the mathematical modeling of basic
acoustic levitation systems. It has been said that AL uses acoustic radiation pressure to
counteract gravity in the air (fluid), so it is convenient to get a mathematical expression
for the radiation force acting on a rigid object assuming the fluid as inviscid to simplify
the analysis. Also, nonlinear effects (i.e. acoustic streaming, harmonic generation) and
acoustic interaction forces (wave reflection caused by near objects) are not considered in
a first approach.

2.1. Fundamental equations of fluid dynamics

Considering the motion of a fluid element of infinitesimal volume (dV ), which consists
of enough particles so that it can be considered as a continuous medium, we can decribe
it in terms of its velocity vector v, density ρ and pressure p. Since these fields vary in
space and time, they can be considered functions of position r and time t.

2.1.1. Equation of continuity

We are going to start with an equation that expresses the conservation
R of matter. Let
us consider some volume V0 . The mass of fluid in this volume is ρ dv [21], ρ is the fluid
density and the integration is taken over the volume V0 . The mass of fluid flowing through
an element df of the bounding surface of the volume is ρv.df ; the magnitude of the vector
df equals the area of the surface element, and its direction is along the normal. ρv.df is
positive when the fluid is flowing out of the volume, and negative if the flow is into the
volume. This is due to convention. The total mass flowing out of the volume V0 in unit
time is I
ρv.df,

where the cyclic integral denotes that the integration encompasses the entire closed surface
surrounding the volume in question.
Then, the decrease per unit time of the fluid mass in the volume V0 can be represented as
Z
∂
− ρ dV
∂t

3
CAPÍTULO 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 4

. By matching both expressions we have

Z I
∂
ρ dV = − ρv.df
∂t
Now we use Green’s formula to transform the surface integral to a volume integral:
I Z
ρv.df = div(ρv) dV

. Therefore Z 
∂ρ 
+ div(ρv) dV = 0
∂t
We can remove the integrand considering that the equation must be satisfied for any
volume:
∂ρ
+ div(ρv) = 0 (2.1)
∂t
Thus obtaining the equation of continuity.

2.1.2. Equation of conservation of momentum

A second fundamental equation in the study of fluid dynamics is the equation of
conservation of momentum, also called Euler’s equation as it was first obtained in 1755
by L. Euler. Let us consider some volume in the fluid. The total force acting on this
volume is equal to: I
− p df

Where the cyclic integral denotes the totality of the pressure taken over the surface
delimiting the volume. In a similar fashion as above, we can transform it to a volume
integral: I Z
− p df = − grad p dV

Now, we can match the force −grad p with the product of mass per unit volume (ρ)
and acceleration (dv/dt), to express the motion of a volume element in the fluid:
dv
ρ = −grad p (2.2)
dt
It should be mentioned that the derivative that appears above expresses the rate of
change in the velocity of a given fluid particle as it moves through space. Also, notice that
the change dv of the velocity of the given fluid particle during the time dt has two parts:
the variation during dt in the velocity at a fixed point in space, and the difference between
the velocities (at the same instant) at two points dr apart. Where dr is the distance moved
by the mentioned particle during the time dt. The first part is ∂v ∂t
dt, where the derivative
∂v
∂t
acts as a constant at the given point in space. The second part is

∂v ∂v ∂v
dx + dy + dz = (dr grad)v
∂x ∂y ∂z
Therefore
∂v
dv = dt + (dr grad)v
∂t
CAPÍTULO 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 5

Now, dividing both sides by dt

dv ∂v
= + (v grad)v
dt ∂t
Finally, replacing this on 2.2 we get:
∂v grad p
+ (v grad)v = − (2.3)
∂t ρ
It is worth recalling that in this expression we have considered the fluid as inviscid
and the gravitational field was neglected.

2.1.3. Equation of state of the fluid

The last equation regarding this section, relates the fluid density with its pressure. It
provides, in general terms, a description of the interaction between the molecules of a fluid.
One of the simplest case is a rarefied gas at high temperatures, where the interaction of the
molecules can be neglected and the gas follows the ideal gas law. Nevertheless when the
pressure increases the equation of state of the fluid becomes more complex as it expresses
the pressure in terms of the fluid’s density:

p = p(ρ) (2.4)

2.2. Linear wave equation

To describe the propagation of mechanical waves in fluids we can combine equations
(2.1),(2.3) and (2.4). However, as these equations are nonlinear, it is a complicated job to
find their analytical solutions. Nevertheless, there is a way to simplify these equations by
assuming that the mechanical waves in this case have small amplitudes. We can describe
the propagation of waves of small amplitudes by considering these assumptions: The fluid
is at rest (v = 0) when the wave is absent so it presents constant pressure (p0 ) and
constant density (ρ0 ). Also, when the wave propagates in the fluid, the fields v, p, and ρ
present small variations in relation to the unperturbed fluid. So the total fields (v, p, and ρ)
can be expressed as a sum of the unperturbed fields (v0 , p0 , and ρ0 ) and the first-order
perturbation fields (v1 , p1 , and ρ1 ):

p = p0 + p1 , (2.5a)
v = v0 + v1 = v1 , (2.5b)
ρ = ρ0 + ρ1. (2.5c)

As we are working with waves of small amplitudes, we can assume that |p1 | <<
p0 and |ρ1 | << ρ0 . We can obtain the linearized continuity equation by using these
approximations and substituting equations (2.5b) and (2.5c) in (2.1)
∂ρ1
+ grad(ρ0 v1 ) = 0 (2.6)
∂t
CAPÍTULO 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 6

In a similar fashion, we can obtain the linearized momentum equation for an ideal fluid
by assuming that |(v.grad)v| << | ∂v
∂t
|. Now replacing equations (2.5a)-(2.5c) in (2.3), and
neglecting the term (v.grad)v we get:
∂v1
ρ0 = −grad p1 (2.7)
∂t
Lastly, we can get the linearized state of the fluid equation by expanding equation (
2.4) in Taylor series and rearranging some terms:

p1 = c20 ρ1 (2.8)
Combining equations (2.6),(2.7) and (2.8) will result in the linear wave equation:

∂ 2 p1
grad2 p1 = c−2
0 (2.9)
∂t2

2.3. Helmholtz equation

The above equation (2.9) can be solved to obtain the acoustic pressure (p1 ) in space
as a function of time. Once we have the acoustic pressure we can find the density field ρ1
and velocity field (v1 ) using equations (2.8) and (2.7) respectively.
Taking into account that the particle velocity (v1 ) associated with an acoustic wave is
irrotacional in an inviscid fluid, it can be expressed as a gradient of a scalar function (φ1 ).

v1 = grad φ1 (2.10)
φ1 is known as the velocity potential and it can be proved [18] that it is also a solution
of the wave equation given by

∂ 2 φ1
grad2 φ1 = c−2
0 (2.11)
∂t2
We can solve equation (2.11) to find the velocity potential in order to calculate acoustic
pressure and velocity fields. If the potential φ1 is known, the velocity field (v1 ) is calculated
by usign equation (2.10). In a similar fashion, if equation (2.10) is replaced into equation
(2.7) we obtain the acoustic pressure (p1 ):
∂φ1
p1 = −ρ0
∂t
In order to provide a deeper understanding of acoustic problems, we have to bear in
mind that they often involve the propagation of time-harmonic fields. To simplify the
mathematical treatment of time-harmonic acoustic waves we adopt complex numbers.
Doing so, the velocity potential becomes

φ1 (r, t) = φ1 (r)e−iωt (2.12)

with ω = 2πf (angular frecuency), where (f ) denotes the frecuency and (i) is the
imaginary unit. Taking the moduli and arguments of the fields p1 , ρ1 and v1 we can get
their amplitudes and phases. On the other hand, the real physical solution is determined
by taking the real part of these complex fields.
CAPÍTULO 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 7

Lastly, to obtain the Helmholtz equation (a time-independent form of the wave equa-
tion), we replace equation (2.12) into equation (2.11):
grad2 φ1 + k 2 φ1 = 0 (2.13)
2π
where k = λ
is the wavenumber and λ is the wavelenght.

2.4. Acoustic radiation pressure

One of the main the limitation of the linear wave equation presented in section 2.2
is that it is not capable of predicting the acoustic radiation pressure (one of the most
important nonlinear phenomenon in acoustics). To describe radiation pressure we need a
second-order approximation, where the fields p, v, and ρ are given by

p = p0 + p1 + p 2 , (2.14a)
v = v1 + v2 , (2.14b)
ρ = ρ0 + ρ1 + ρ2 . (2.14c)
Substituting equations (2.14a)-(2.14c) into equation (2.3) and by maintaining only
second-order terms, we get
∂v2 ∂v1
grad p2 = −ρ0 − ρ1 − ρ0 (v1 .grad)v1 (2.15)
∂t ∂t
The majority of situations which involve acoustic radiation pressure use high-frecuency
time-harmonic fields, whose noticeable effects appear in a much slower time scale. There-
fore we can simplify the analysis by calculating the time-averaged value of p2 over a large
number of cycles
   
∂v2 ∂v1
gradhp2 i = −ρ0 − ρ1 − ρ0 h(v1 .grad)v1 i (2.16)
∂t ∂t
the angle brackets represent the time average. The second order velocity (v2 ) is periodic
in this scenario and its decomposition in Fourier series yields a sum of sinusoidal waves
and a constant. The first term on the right-hand side of equation (2.16) cancels out as the
time average of these sinusoidal waves and the time derivative of the constant are zero:
 
∂v1
gradhp2 i = − ρ1 − ρ0 h(v1 .grad)v1 i . (2.17)
∂t
Ultimately, we combine equations (2.7),(2.8) and (2.17) using
grad(p21 ) = 2p1 grad p1
and
grad(v1 .v1 ) = 2(v1 .grad)v1
to obtain the time-averaged acoustic radiation pressure:
1
2  −ρ0
hp2 i = p hv1 .v1 i (2.18)
2ρ0 c20 1 2
From this equation, we can calculate the acoustic radiation force (Frad ) acting on a
rigid object of arbitrary size and shape:
Z
Frad = hp2 i n ds (2.19)
S0
Capı́tulo 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research methodology used in the present study is a Systematic Literature Review
(SLR) based on the guidelines presented by Kitchenham et al. [19] and adapted to fit
the Acoustic Engineering domain. It is a special type of evidence-based research and
practice in which a manual search is performed on different scientific databases, in order
to answer the previously formulated Research Questions. It is based on a predefined
selection criterion.

3.1. Research questions

The research questions addressed by this study are:

RQ What methods / techniques / mathematical models are actually known for the levita-
tion of large objects (larger than half a wavelength) by acoustic radiation pressure?

RQ1 How many formal academic studies regarding acoustic levitation of large objects
were published since 2010 in three of the major scientific databases?

RQ2 What are the electroacoustical system’s main characteristics employed to acousti-
cally levitate large objects?

RQ3 What are the main applications for acoustic levitation of large objects?

3.2. Document selection process

This review was limited to papers published from January 2010 to March 2018, con-
sidering three of the major academic databases.
In order to identify keywords and formulate accurate search strings, the PICO metho-
dology [36] was adopted, which stands for: Population, Intervention, Comparison and
Outcome.
Then the search string was formulated to be applied over each Database. It should
be noted that the importance that each keyword contributed to the search string, in
terms of number of results (publications), was tested so that irrelevant terms could be
excluded. The “snowball [35]” methodology, in which the number of related terms to
be proven increases as they show up in the search results of each database, was also
adopted.Mmeaning that during the search process, several iterations took place and the

8
CAPÍTULO 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 9

Cuadro 3.1: PICO methodology application

RESEARCH MAIN TERMS SYNONIMS AND RELATED
Population Large objects Big objects
Intervention Acoustic levitation Ultrasonic levitation
Comparison Techniques Methods, models, tools, systems,
Outcome Acoustic levitation techniques for large objects Ultrasonic levitation methods for bi

search string was refined in this manner. Table 3.1 presents this research’s main terms
and synonyms as a result of applying the mentioned strategy.

3.3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria (IC/EC criteria)

The data was out screened in accordance to specific policies, which are listed below.

3.3.1. Inclusion Criteria

IC1 Papers published between January 1st 2013 and March 31st 2018.

IC2 Only peer-reviewed papers written in English were considered and classified as “ar-
ticle”, “conference” or “review”

IC3 Papers presenting models, methods, applications, innovations, theories, experiments

and tools in the subject of acoustic levitation.

3.3.2. Exclusion criteria

EC1 Papers that do not relate to the object of study (acoustic levitation)

EC2 Duplicate papers, if the same paper was found in more than one database, only the
earliest version was considered. Papers by the same author in which the content is
repeated throughout, with the only difference of the title were also excluded under
this criteria.

EC3 Incomplete (abstract only) or not accessible papers were also excluded

3.4. Data extraction

Once the definitive search strings were defined, a total of 144 studies or publications
in the three databases was identified. With these results a first screening took place based
only on abstracts and titles, in which 97 papers were excluded, resulting in 47 preselected
papers. Then, a second filtering was conducted based on full-text analyses, reaching a
final number of 23 selected publications for this review. Each selected paper was studied
meticulously by at least two researchers and relevant data was extracted and classified.
Figure 3.1 shows in detail the document selection workflow.
CAPÍTULO 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 10

SEARCH

SCOPUS SCIENCEDIRECT IEEEXPLORE

[n=60] [n=81] [n=3]

Potentially relevant studies identified and screened for retrieval [n=144]

97 excluded papers based on

abstracts and titles:
* 83 not related (EC2)
* 3 duplicates (EC1)
* 11 inaccessible /
incomplete (EC3)

Preselected papers [n=47]

24 excluded publications based

on full text:
* 20 not related (EC1)
* 3 repeated content (EC2)
* 1 inaccessible /
incomplete (EC3)

Publications included in SLR

[n=23]

Figura 3.1: Document selection workflow

CAPÍTULO 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 11

3.5. Data analysis

In order to provide a detailed yet concise summary of the most relevant data collec-
ted from the selected papers, we have synthesized various tables classified by Research
Question (refer to Table 3.2 ) .

RQ RQ1 RQ2
How many formal academic
What methods / techniques /
RESEARCH
QUESTION

studies regarding acoustic

tools are actually known for What are the electroacoustical system’s
levitation of large objects
the levitation of large objects main characteristics employed to
were published since 2010 in
by acoustic radiation acoustically levitate large objects?
three major scientific
pressure?
databases?
Levitation classification Publisher Frequency
EXTRACTED DATA

Levitated object weight Publication type Input power

Levitated object size Quartiles Transducer type
Experimental validation SJR (2016) Transducer array
Simulation model technique Paper Title Transducer vibrating suface
Simulation software Keywords Levitated object/shape
Research focus Levitation distance from transducer
Research type Axial type of levitation
Inclussion / exclussion
DOI

Figura 3.2: Relevant information collected from selected papers with regards to the Re-
search Questions

Note that RQ3 is not included in Table 3.2 because a classification of AL applications
data at a first instance was proven to be a difficult task.
Capı́tulo 4

RESULTS AND ANALYSES

(EXECUTION OF SLR)

Out of a total of 23 publications selected for this review, 13 belong to the ScienceDirect
database, 10 to Scopus; and it should be noted that although 3 publications were found
with the keywords and one was pre-selected, in the end no IEEXplore publications passed
through the screening process. Table A shows a detailed summary of the selected studies
focusing on the methods, techniques and tools covered in each paper for the Acoustic
Levitation of Large Objects.
Near Field Acoustic levitation is clearly predominant over other types of acoustic levi-
tation due to the fact that we have limited the scope of acoustic levitation by restricting
the minimum size of levitated object. And doing so, we are only considering systems capa-
ble of supporting relatively large loads. The theoretical background presented in sections
2.3 and 2.2 is the foundation of every mathemacical model treated in the selected publi-
cations. However, the Finite Element Method is used to model, design and predict every
system, and ANSYS is the most common platform to do so. In terms of applications, it
is important to note that transportation is the main area covered by mentioned studies.
With regards to the electroacoustical system, it should be noted that ultrasonic waves
produced by a Langevin transducer is the typical approach to levitate objects with ultra-
sonic waves.
As it can be seen in Table A, the following subjects were considered relevant, and will
therefore be addressed in more detail below

4.1. Near Field Acoustic Levitation (NFAL)

Also called squeeze film levitation [49], defined as a phenomenon in which a planar
object is levitated at a distance of tens of micrometers vertically upward above vibrating
surface [43]. The gas squeeze film created by the mentioned surface and the levitated
object generates two forces: levitation force in the vertical direction and driving force in
the horizontal direction [24]. The levitated object itself acts as an obstacle for the free
propagation of the ultrasonic wave-front. The gap between the radiation source and the
levitated object is much smaller than the wavelength of the applied sound. The major
advantage of NFAL lies in the fact that any material, insulator or conductor, magnetic or
non-magnetic, can be manipulated by acoustic levitation and transportation [26, 30]. In
this particular type of levitation a theoretical analysis considering viscosity had reported
that a force acting on a circular plate reverses from repulsive to attractive as you increase

12
CAPÍTULO 4. RESULTS AND ANALYSES (EXECUTION OF SLR) 13

the levitation gap [33].

4.2. Modeling methods

Back in 2014 the mathematical modeling of the NFAL system was still at an early
stage, Li et. al [25] wrote: “It may be clear that up to date, the problem of modeling the
behavior of the flexural traveling waves of the gas squeeze film concerning the gas inertia
has not been well solved”. Apparently, the acoustic model based on the piston mode was
not suitable for describing the pressure distribution under flexural boundaries. However in
2016, progress on this issue is evident when it was stated that here were three main models
for the NFAL system; infinite width model for simple estimations, axial Symmetry model
for a round exciting disc and 2-D model for common exciting plate [6]. Finite Element
Method (FEM) is the most prominent mathematical method used by computing software
to analyze, design and simulate physical systems or materials. The process of analyzing
through the mentioned software is known as Finite Element Analysis.

4.3. Modeling / simulation software

The following software was used to model, simulate or analyze the system in the
selected studies:
ANSYS
ABAQUS
COMSOL
MATLAB

4.4. Electroacoustical system characteristics and op-

timization
In order to provide a detailed yet concise overview of the electroacoustical system’s
main characteristics for each reasearch, we have elaborated the table located on Appendix
B.
In some levitation cases, transducers should be operated at a desired frequency ac-
cording to the dynamic requirements of the levitation. Moreover the excitation amplifiers
work in certain bandwidth. Therefore it is important to be able to change the resonant
frequency in design optimization. There are many factors affecting the resonant frequency.
The geometrical dimension of the vibrator plays the leading role among these factors. In
other words, desired resonant frequency can be obtained by changing the dimension of
sound radiator [26]. In all published works on conventional Langevin transducers, the wor-
king head has not been included in the dynamic modeling. However as used in NFAL, the
working surface of the transducer should be large enough to hold a planer object. It has
been observed that the radiation behavior is affected not only by physical and mechanical
characteristics of elements and axial dimensions, but also by the lateral dimensions and
cross section shape of the transducer. Only when the maximum diameter of the transducer
is less than a quarter of the sound wavelength, the lateral effect can be ignored.
CAPÍTULO 4. RESULTS AND ANALYSES (EXECUTION OF SLR) 14

4.5. Practical applications

Analysing in depth the application of acoustic levitation of relatively large objects two
practical applications, both in the field of transportation, stand out above all: bearings
and motors.
Bearing systems are used to form friction-free assembly lines that have the advantage,
over other types of levitation, that they can be applied to any type of material or object,
including living beings.

4.5.1. Transportation (Non contact bearing)

Traditional non-contact bearings, such as electromagnetic, hydrodynamic and aerody-
namic bearings, have been widely investigated. However, all these classical contactless
bearings have their own defects and limitation of applications [10]. Ultrasonic journal
bearings can induce a prominent weight reduction with lower maintenance requirements
[22] Compared with electromagnetic bearings, the control system of the ultrasonic journal
bearing is simpler, and does not cause electromagnetic interference to sensitive electronic
components. According to Feng et al., some of the major advantages of NFAL applied to
non contact bearing systems are:

No dry friction and wear at low rotational speeds.

Large load capacity at high rotational speeds.

Good stability with the help of the squeeze effect.

Active bearings and ability to control shaft position.

In 2017 Feng et al. presented a hybrid model of a gas-lubricated bearing utilizing NFAL
where the squeeze film effect does not only contribute to the load capacity but also
promotes the stability.The same author presented that same year a bearing that employs
three flexure pivot-tilting pads as vibration surfaces for high-speed and high-precision
rotating machineries. Liu et al. presented a thrust bearing whose thrust force derives
from NFAL effect and gas static pressure. This hybrid suspension prototype enables to
levitate an object of 3 kg, and the levitation weight per unit area reaches to 59.7 g/cm2
[22, 28]. iN 2018 Li et al. developed a novel ultrasonic bearing with the load-carrying
capability in two directions (the radial direction and the axial direction).

4.5.2. Acoustic Levitation motor

Is a device that uses NFAL and structural traveling waves to simultaneously levitate
an object and apply a torque on the object to rotate it [8]. Like conventional motors it
consists of two main parts: the rotor and the stator. However the difference between the
conventional motor and the acoustic one is that the rotor spins freely (no friction) because
it is the levitated object. Recently, Davis et al. proposed a model able to achieve a steady
levitation and torque of the rotor by tracking the natural frequency of the stator. This is
the result of adding an Autoresonance feedback loop (resonance tracking feedback loop),
which is needed to detect the frequency drift and maintain levitation.
Capı́tulo 5

DISCUSSION

In this section, we discuss the answers to our research questions.

5.1. [RQ] What methods / techniques / mathemati-

cal models are actually known for the levitation
of large objects (larger than half a wavelength)
by acoustic radiation pressure?
From Chapter 4 it is clear that actually the prevalent technique for the acoustic levita-
tion of large objects is the Near Field Acoustic Levitation with 21 out of 23 publications
regarding this topic. Besides what it is mentioned before, one paper deals with Far Field
Acoustic Levitation and the last one covers the optimization of the levitator, so it was
included after passing through the Exclusion Criteria. In NFAL, the levitation capacity
is much higher compared to standing wave acoustic levitation. Large and heavy objects
can be levitated using squeeze film levitation [33].
Based on a recent review [2] the authors created Table 5.1 which summarizes the classi-
fication of Acoustic Levitation techniques.

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is popular in modeling the AL electroacoustical system

as well in the design of piezoelectric transducers [26]. It has been successfully applied to
study and optimize transducer designs [3, 17].
From the reviewed studies the authors have elaborated Table 5.2 to concretize the classi-
fication of AL methods by levitated object size.

15
CAPÍTULO 5. DISCUSSION 16

ACOUSTIC LEVITATION METHODS

Standing waves Near Field Inverted near field Far field Single beam

Nonresonant No reflector
Closed resonant chamber Single axis re
Source(s) and
Resonant reflector(s)

Figura 5.1: Classification of Acoustic Levitation methods

ACOUSTIC LEVITATION

Smaller than λ/2 Larger than λ/2

Standing wave Single Beam Near-field Inverted Near-field Far field

Figura 5.2: Classification of Acoustic Levitation methods according to size

 CAPÍTULO 5. DISCUSSION 17

5.2. [RQ1] How many formal academic studies regar-

ding acoustic levitation of large objects were pu-
blished since 2010 in three of the major scientific
databases?
We have identified 23 papers that relate or contribute to the acoustic levitation of
large objects considering the three previously mentioned databases. Table 5.3 provides a
detailed breakdown of publications by year.

Publication year
Database 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Total
Scopus 0 2 0 0 3 0 2 2 1 10
ScienceDirect 1 0 0 2 1 2 1 3 3 13

Total 1 2 0 2 4 2 3 5 4 23

Figura 5.3: AL related publications by year. Addressing RQ1

5.3. [RQ2] What are the electroacoustical system’s

Quitar main characteristics employed to acoustically le-
vitate large objects?
en la introducción The most common levitation frequency is 28kHz which is repeated
throughout four papers. In terms of the transducer, a Piezoelectric bolt-clamped Langevin
Transducer seems to be the best choice. The system resonance frequency and impedance
are more important to the levitation capacity than the properties of the piezoelectric discs
[6] . There are virtually no substantial differences between load capacity obtained when
the bearing runs at 8400 Hz and 34300 Hz, apart from the fact that the low frequency is
in an audible range [41]. In the reviewed studies we found that the biggest object had a
maximum length diameter of 170mm, and the weight varies from 2 to 500 grams.

5.4. [RQ3] What are the main applications for acous-

tic levitation of large objects?
Logistics industry and transport systems in factories: to reduce costs, friction and
structure complexity from conventional heavy load-carrying systems; by using an ultraso-
nic levitation pallet table [15] . Continuous supply of a large volume of clean air required
for aerostatic bearings significantly increases the cost of their use. Additionally, external
CAPÍTULO 5. DISCUSSION 18

auxiliary devices (pumps, filters, piping) exclude this type of bearing from certain applica-
tions (clean room environment). Magnetic bearings can not be used for magnetic sensitive
configurations due to the strong magnetic flux. It is undoubtedly of great interest now a
days to find other concepts for realizing contactless suspensions [39]. Several linear and
rotational non-contact bearing systems have been developed using squeeze film levitation
technique [49]. Squeeze film levitation has also been applied for non-contact transporta-
tion of electronic parts (e.g. wafer handling) using traveling bending waves [38]. Other
potential applications are in acoustic levitation of dense spheroids in air, particle dyna-
mics, and other related investigations [32]; levitating and transporting planar objects,
such as MEMS devices, glass substrates, and IC chips [25];.high density material such as
glass or metal.
Capı́tulo 6

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE

PERSPECTIVES

It is noticeable that the applications of acoustic levitation are far away from becoming
”mainstream”. Nevertheless the author considers in the future it can be used to change
the way we mobilize. Considering the advantages of acoustic levitation bearing systems,
an Acoustic Levitation Skateboard is proposed. Which has the property of maximizing the
efficiency between the force employeed by the skater and his speed. Such a device would
consist of a couple Langevin transducers being the trucks 1 of the AL skateboard, which
would enable de non-contact bearing system.
It is shown experimentally that the acoustic radiation force produced by a 13.8 kHz 128
dB sound-level standing wave between a 3 cm-aperture tweeter and a reflector separated
by 9 cm is strong enough to overcome the van der Waals adhesive force between the dust-
particles and the reflector-surface [7].
With this premise and all the advances in acoustic levitation of large objects, it is likely
that in the short term we will enjoy the benefits of acoustic cleaning and filtering, meaning
the capacity of manipulating dust and other unwanted particles to keep them out of the
breathing environment. The possibility of a bearing system to manage and support heavy
loads with no friction could easily transform conventional systems. Logistics, Mechanics
and Electro mechanics are all subjects in where the Acoustic Levitation has the potential
to revolutionize the field.
It is worth mentioning that early in 2018 the first sonic tractor beam capable of trap-
ping objects larger than half their wavelength was reported [31]. The arrange comprises
192 individual transdurcers, which generates an acoustic “virtual vortex” by generating
sequences of short-pulsed vortices of equivalent helicity but opposite chirality. Acoustic
levitation of large objects is a relatively new subject, with the potential to revolutionize
transportation and bearing systems because of the non frictional nature of them. Near
Field Acoustic Levitation is wide spread and known, but Far Field Acoustic Levitation
leaves the field for innovation and evolution.

1
The metal structure which supports the wheels

19
Apéndice A

Apéndice primero

The following table presents important general information about the selected publi-
cations for this review.
SID Year Paper Title Class. Object Model
weight technique /
Software
[23] 2018 Design and experimental study on an ultrasonic bearing with bidi- Near field
rectional carrying capacity
[8] 2018 Realization of an Automatic, Contactless, Acoustic Levitation Mo- Near field 200[g] FEM
tor via Degenerate Mode Excitation and Autoresonance
[10] 2017 A novel squeeze-film air bearing with flexure pivot-tilting pads: Nu- Near field FEM / ABA-
merical analysis and measurement QUS
[48] 2013 An ultrasonic levitation journal bearing able to control spindle cen- Near field FEM /
ter position ANSYS
[12] 2017 A rotational traveling wave based levitation device – Modelling, Near field
design, and control
[14] 2017 Modeling and closed loop control of near-field acoustically levitated Near field 134.7g
objects
[13] 2015 On the slow dynamics of near-field acoustically levitated objects Near field 2,7 g 7.91 g
under High excitation frequencies
[41] 2015 Acoustic journal bearing—A search for adequate configuration Near field FEM
[15] 2014 Plate-shaped non-contact ultrasonic transporter using flexural vi- Near field 4 kgf per FEA /
bration unit ANSYS
[20] 2010 A self-running ultrasonically levitated 2D stage using flexural vi- Near field maximum FEA
brating plates thrust of 5.3
mN
[46] 2018 Theoretical investigation and prototype design for non-parallel Near field CFX si-
squeeze film movement platform driven by standing waves mulation /
Reynolds
equation
[40] 2016 Acoustic journal bearing – Performance under various load and Near field 0,62 N
speed conditions
[39] 2013 Running performance of an aerodynamic journal bearing with Near field 5,5 N / shaft FEA /
squeeze film effect mass: 0,565 ANSYS
kg
[2] 2018 Review of Progress in Acoustic Levitation various various various
[1] 2017 Acoustic levitation of an object larger than the acoustic wavelength Near field 2.3 [g] Finite
Element
Method /
COMSOL
[16] 2016 Analysis and experimental study on the effect of a resonant tube on Standing MATLAB,
the performance of acoustic levitation devices wave. Single ANSYS
axis
[49] 2011 A standing wave acoustic levitation system for large planar objects Far field 16[g] Finite Ele-
ment Met-
hod / Matlab
[25] 2014 Dynamic coupling and experimental study on flexural transducer Near field 3d finite ele-
used in near field acoustic levitation ment analy-
sis / ANSYS
[27] 2011 Modeling characterization and optimization design for PZT trans- Near field coupled-
ducer used in Near Field Acoustic Levitation field finite
element
analysis /
ANSYS
[43] 2014 Enlargement of floator size in ultrasonic suspension by arranging Near field 653 [mg]
the shape of vibrating surface
[24] 2014 A nonlinear model for the layer between plates in acoustic noncon- Near field several coupled field
tact transportation weights / ANSYS
[6] 2016 NFAL Prototype Design and Feasibility Analysis for Self-Levitated Near field 6 [g] coupled field
Conveying / ANSYS
[9] 2017 Integrated Numerical Analysis on the Performance of a Hybrid Gas- Near field standard fi-
Lubricated Bearing Utilizing Near-Field Acoustic Levitation nite element
technique /
ANSYS

20
Apéndice B

Apéndice segundo

The following table summarises the technical specifications of the electroacoustical

systems used in the studies selected for this review. It addresses Research Question 2:
Cuadro B.1: Electroacoustical specifications. Addressing RQ2

ID Frecuency Transducer ty- Transducer array Transducer vi- Object sha- Distance from Axial type
pe brating surface pe transducer of levita-
tion
[2] 1.2 Nonreso- 3. Bolt-clamped 4.2 single-sided arrays of 4.2 10mm diame- 2. Planar, Tens to hundreds
nant 23,7kHz langevin 4.1 transducers (8 x 8 array) ter nonplanar of micrometers
3. 21kHz 4.1 Focused 4.3 metamaterial bricks in (spheres,
30Mhz 4.2 front of an 8 x 8 array of cylindri-
40kHz 4.3 40 transducers 5. three, tri- cal shaped
kHz 5. 25kHz pod array objects,
L-shaped
beams) 3.
Disk 4.1
Droplet
[1] 25kHz Langevin - flexu- 2 langevin transducers at- Plannar with Single-axis
ral transducer tached to a horn and a vi- curvature
brating plate radius of
300mm
[9] resonance Piezoelectric three piezoelectric actua- less than half a non contact
frequencies (PZT) tors mounted in the bea- wavelenght bearings
(3,2kHz ring shell at 120degree in-
4.3kHz) terval and a purposeful
excitacion arrangement of elastic hin-
freq. 9.3kHz ges,
[16] 20kHz Piezoelectric concave transducer, conca- sphere, dro- Single-axis
ve reflector, resonant tube plet
[6] Various Piezoelectric four piezo-electric discs at- rectangular alu- circular less than half a NFAL Trans-
tached to a rectangular minium plate nylon plate wavelenght portation
plate (160mm length x
100mm width x
2mm height)
[25] Langevin - flexu- 1 langevin transducer atta- Plannar less than half a Single-axis
ral transducer ched to a aluminum horn wavelenght
and a working head
[43] 28kHz Bolt-clamped 1 langevin transducer atta- With grooves Plannar glass less than half a
langevin ched to a aluminum horn (width 1mm, wavelenght
and a working head with depth 0.5mm),
grooves horn (30mm
diameter)
[24] Traveling Piezoelectric 2 PZT transducers atta- 40 mm wide, 300 Rectangular less than half a NFAL Trans-
wave ched to an aluminium rail mm long, and 3 plates wavelenght portation
(25kHz) mm thick,
[49] 19kHz Piezoelectric lan- 1 langevin transducer atta- circular plate Plannar slightly above
gevin ched to a stepped horn and (8.55mm thick, half a wavelength
a aluminum plate 120mm diameter)
[27] Resonant fre- langevin 1 langevin transducer atta- 14mm thickness Plannar cir- less than half a Single-axis
quency 1st. ched to a aluminum horn 150mm diameter cular wavelenght
11.52kHz and a working head
2nd.
19.58kHz
[23] working freq Piezoelectric 3 pzt transducers set cir- maximum outer less than half a Bidirectional
(16kHz) PZT-8 cumferencially equispaced diameter 45mm wavelenght
in a housing
[8] 28kHz Three piezoelectric actua- aluminum tape- thin plastic less than half a rotational
tors, spaced 120 degrees red ring with an disk wavelenght
apart connected to the inner diameter
bottom of the annulus of 100 mm, ou-
ter diameter of
150 mm, inner
thickness of 2.5
mm and outer
thickness of 5
mm.
Continued on next page

21
APÉNDICE B. APÉNDICE SEGUNDO 22

Cuadro B.1 – Continued from previous page

ID Frecuency Transducer ty- Transducer array Transducer vi- Object sha- Distance from Axial type
pe brating surface pe transducer of levita-
tion
[10] resonant PZT (C-213 fuji a shaft, a pad with flexural Shaft less than half a rotational
freq: (3rd ceramics) web and a PZT wavelenght
mode)49.1
kHz
[48] 20 kHz at piezoelectric 3 pzt transducers set cir- Shaft expected unloa- rotational
the first ceramic rings cumferencially equispaced ded vibration
longitudinal PIC-181 amplitude is to
vibration be 15 mm at
mode the center of the
radiation surface
[12] 28kHz Langevin type stator: composed of an rotational
transducer model array of three vibrating ac-
FBL28452HS tuators, connected along
the circumference of an
aluminum annulus
[14] 28,5 kHz Langevin trans- Transducer attached to Circular plate circular
ducer a mechanical amplifier
(with a megnetic centering
array))
[13] 28,5 kHz Langevin trans- Transducer attached to a excitacion surface round ob-
ducer aluminium stepped horn 10mm jects
[41] 1. 21700 Hz PZT Shaft rotational
2. 48300 Hz
3. 27200
[15] 22,3 kHz PZT C-203, Fuji four piezoelectric zirconate transducer surfa- 256 micro meters
Ceramics titanate elements were at- ce: 18 mm / wor-
tached to alu- minum pla- king head: squa-
tes re aluminum pla-
te (2 x 78 x 78
mm3)
[20] 68, 69 kHz PZT base plate and the four vi- transducer surfa- ( 2-4 micro me-
71kHz (maxi- brating plates ce: (10x10x1 mm) ters)
mum thrust) / rectangular
aluminum plate
(30x10x1 mm)
[46] VARIOUS VARIOUS VARIOUS VARIOUS VARIOUS VARIOUS VARIOUS
[40] G1: 78,8 kHz PZT shaft rotational
G2: 36,7 kHz
G3: 8,8kHz
[39] 58,3 kHz PZT 3 pzt equispaced around Shaft rotational
journal bearing with elas-
tic hinges
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