energies

Article
A New Method of Selecting the Airlift Pump
Optimum Efficiency at Low Submergence
Ratios with the Use of Image Analysis
Grzegorz Ligus 1 , Daniel Zajac
˛ 2 , Maciej Masiukiewicz 1 and Stanisław Anweiler 1, *
1 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Opole University of Technology, ul. Mikołajczyka 5, 45-271 Opole,
Poland; g.ligus@po.opole.pl (G.L.); m.masiukiewicz@po.opole.pl (M.M.)
2 Kelvion Sp. z o.o.., ul. Kobaltowa 2, 45-641 Opole, Poland; daniel.zajac@kelvion.com
* Correspondence: s.anweiler@po.opole.pl; Tel.: +48-888-272-878




Received: 2 January 2019; Accepted: 19 February 2019; Published: 22 February 2019


Abstract: This paper presents experimental studies on the optimization of two-phase fluid flow in
an airlift pump. Airlift pumps, also known as mammoth pumps, are devices applied for vertical
transport of liquids with the use of gas. Their operating principle involves the existence of a density
gradient. This paper reports the results of experimental studies into the hydrodynamic effects of
the airlift pump. The studies involved optical imaging of two-phase gas-liquid flow in a riser pipe.
The visualization was performed with high-speed visualization techniques. The studies used a
transparent model of airlift pump with a rectangular cross-section of the riser. The assessment of
the airlift pump operation is based on the image grey-level analysis to provide the identification of
two-phase flow regimes. The scope of the study also involved the determination of void fraction and
pressure drops. The tests were carried out in a channel with dimensions 35 × 20 × 2045 mm with the
gas flux range 0.2–15.0 m3 /h. For the assessment of the two-phase flow pattern Probability Density
Function (PDF) was applied. On the basis of the obtained results, a new method for selecting the
optimum operating regime of airlift pump was derived. This method provides the finding of stability
and efficiency of liquid transport. It can also be applied to determine the correlation between the
total lifting efficiency and the required gas flux for proper operation of the airlift pump.

Keywords: two-phase flow regime; airlift pump; void fraction; image analysis; efficiency optimization

1. Introduction
An airlift pump in comparison to other equipment used for liquid transportation doesn’t have
moving parts. This represents an advantage in applications where there is a need for reliability,
simplicity and compact design. The literature reports a variety of applications in which airlift pumps
find uses as an optimum solution. A very extensive and detailed review of the literature in the field of
airlift pumps is presented in [1], where the authors discuss the theory of operations, numerical and
experimental methods possible to apply in the airlift pumping research. They also indicate the most
common areas of application of airlift pumps. In many works, the authors indicate the possibility of
changing the geometry of airlift pumps. In the work [2] the authors suggested different crossectional
shapes of risers. Work [3] shows that the performance increment can be obtained by grouping airlift
pumps into batteries. Other studies found that the system of gas distribution and the liquid reception
is also affecting the operating characteristics of an airlift pump. In [4] a comparison of airstones and
open-ended tubes was investigated. In [5] steady and pulsating injection modes with the use of four air
distributor geometry namely radial, axial, dual and swirl were analysed. The authors in [6] propose the
application of four types of the nozzle (point, star, ring, double-ring) for artificial upwelling systems.
Different angles of the gas distributor installation were investigated in [7].

Energies 2019, 12, 735; doi:10.3390/en12040735 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 735 2 of 19

Any analysis concerned with the exploitation of an airlift pump requires knowledge regarding
the hydrodynamics of two-phase gas-liquid flow. One of the main problems with two-phase flows
is the identification of flow structures and flow parameters. Flow patterns are formed by the contact
between the gas and liquid or solid phases. Three-phase flow is discussed, among others in [8,9].
The classification of flow regimes of airlift pumps is similar to the classifications for gas-liquid flow in
vertical channels [10]. There are solutions for pumps with an inclined riser for which the classification
is the same as in work [11]. Sometimes in the airlift pump, the following regimes are distinguished:
bubble, slug, churn, wispy-annular, annular and transition patterns in the boundary region [12].
In paper [13] additional structure development in the riser pipe was presented. The flow patterns
determine the heat, mass and momentum transfer [14]. Specific patterns also affect the value of the
pressure drop [15]. The pressure drop is particularly important, especially when pumping liquids with
higher viscosities [16].
The transient structures are difficult to describe but are very interesting from the process
optimization point of view. These types of transient structures are unstable. This results in the
flow disturbance and the efficiency of the liquid transport decreases. It is best to examine them
using imaging and numerical modelling techniques because they are non-invasive methods. We can
find many papers that prove high efficiency of image analysis methods. In the work [17] two- and
three-phase flow identification in pipe bends were presented. In [18] two-phase flow pattern was
recognized in the minichannel. Computer image analysis has also been successfully used for the
investigation of gas-solid systems [19,20]. Another visual research method often used during the
hydrodynamic investigation is Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV). This method allows determination of
vector velocity fields and evaluation of flow vorticity [21] and also can be applied in the air-lift pump
research [22].
Two-phase gas-liquid flows are considerably affected by the device’s geometry and by the flow
parameters. Research in this area is presented in [23], where the authors analyse the effects of tube
diameter and submergence ratio on bubble flow patterns. The efficiency of the pump also changes
with the change of temperature as demonstrated in the work [24]. The pumping performance and the
effectiveness of an airlift pump have been investigated with the use of optical methods [25]. A slight
difference in the flow parameters of both phases can cause significant changes in the flow regime [26].
Therefore, flow maps are used to help identify the structure and improve the efficiency of the airlift
pump. Maps for two-phase flow in vertical channels are commonly known and used [27]. In contrast,
for aeration pumps, maps of this type were developed by [12], and the correlation of flow structures and
the efficiency of liquid transport was made [28,29]. Hydrodynamics of two-phase flows is concerned
with the identification of the flow patterns and parameters experimentally and numerically [30,31].
In addition, they determine the overall efficiency of an airlift pump for the two-phase system [32], and
three-phase systems [9].
The issues concerning the submergence ratio analysis in correlation to liquid phase velocity,
efficiency and void fraction in the airlift pump are widely discussed problems [33]. The studies in [34]
contain remarks indicating that airlift pumps operating at low submergence ratios are particularly
vulnerable to the existence of such phenomena. In order to minimize the unfavorable influence of low
submergence ratio, various design changes are applied. Figure 1 shows the schemes of submergence
ratio (ε = Hs /H) in the airlift pump, which is an essential feature in the analysis of the energy efficiency
and is commonly used as the ratio of the submergence depth of the pump (Hs ) to its total height (H).
It seems to be difficult to establish an economically optimum condition for operational
performance of the airlift pump since the theoretical model to predict the flow characteristics in
full detail is still not complete [12]. The established dependence between various design parameters
and two-phase flow regimes focuses on the optimization of the operating performance. The proposed
method guarantees the finding of the efficiency optimization and stability of liquid transport
throughout the operation of an airlift pump.
Energies 12, 735
2019, 2019,
Energies 12, x 3 of 20 3 of 19

Figure 1. The scheme of submergence ratio (ε) in the airlift pumping systems. (a) high submergence
ratioFigure
ε > 0.5;1.(b)
Themedium submergence
scheme of submergenceratio = in
ratio ε(ε) 0.5; (c)airlift
the low pumping
submergence ratio
systems. < 0.5.
(a)εhigh submergence
ratio ε > 0.5; (b) medium submergence ratio ε = 0.5; (c) low submergence ratio ε < 0.5.
2. Measurement Setup
It 2019,
seems
The conducted
Energies 12, xtoexperiments
be difficult involved
to establish
the an economically
airlift pump withoptimum condition
rectangular forshown
channel operational
4inofFigure
20 2.
performance of the airlift pump since the theoretical model to predict the flow characteristics in full
detail is still not complete [12]. The established dependence between various design parameters and
two-phase flow regimes focuses on the optimization of the operating performance. The proposed
method guarantees the finding of the efficiency optimization and stability of liquid transport
throughout the operation of an airlift pump.

2. Measurement Setup
The conducted experiments involved the airlift pump with rectangular channel shown in Figure
2.

Figure 2. Measurement setup—airlift pumping system.

Figure 2. Measurement setup – airlift pumping system.

The measurement channel with the internal dimensions of 35 × 20 × 2045 mm was made of
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). The riser pipe was equipped with an inlet with a gas distributor
in form of the mixing chamber. The mixing chamber is equipped with the strainer. The gas
distribution system enabled three gas phase distribution modes:
Energies 2019, 12, 735 4 of 19

The measurement channel with the internal dimensions of 35 × 20 × 2045 mm was made of
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). The riser pipe was equipped with an inlet with a gas distributor in
form of the mixing chamber. The mixing chamber is equipped with the strainer. The gas distribution
system enabled three gas phase distribution modes:

(1) feeding the gas phase through the perforated nozzle (eight holes with the diameter of 2 mm with
a symmetrical distribution on two walls in the channel);
(2) feeding the gas phase through the slot nozzle (two slots with the dimensions of 2 × 20 mm);
(3) feeding the gas phase through the ceramic porous element (two porous bodies with the 45%
porosity, particle size 300–500 µm and dimensions of 30 × 20 mm).

The selection of the total length of segments forming the riser of the airlift pump meant that the
analyzed pump had a low submergence ratio (submergence ratio of ε = 0.5 see Figure 1b). The airlift
pump applied liquid feed through an inlet that was submerged 1 m below the surface. After a lifting
height of 1 m was achieved, the liquid was reversed in an overflow vessel to the liquid tank. In this
way, the system applied a closed liquid circulation. The gas phase circulated in the open loop and
was reversed into the atmosphere. The setup was also equipped with the metering of: gas phase flow
rate using a rotameter, liquid phase flow rate using the weight method, pressure drop in airlift pump
using a differential manometer, pressure of the gas phase at the inlet to the airlift pump using pressure
transducer, gas void fraction using the trap method.
The optical path of the setup was formed by a HCC1000 series CMOS fast imaging camera
(Vosskühler, Osnabrück, Germany) installed in the parallel plane of the measurement channel and a
bright field
Energies as xshown in Figure 3.
2019, 12, 5 of 20

Figure 3. Measurement setup—visualization technique. (a) the flow channel dimensions; (b) the
Figure 3. Measurement setup – visualization technique. (a) the flow channel dimensions; (b) the
optical path.
optical path.
The illumination of the measurement section was realized by using a light source of four 1000 W
Thereflectors.
halogen illuminationTheofhalogens
the measurement sectiontowas
were connected realized byLite-Puter
a four-channel using a light source
AX-415 of four 1000
controller (Lite
W halogen
Puter reflectors.
Enterprise TheTaipei,
Co., Ltd, halogens wereAs
Taiwan). connected to a four-channel
a result, smooth Lite-Puter
and independent AX-415
control of the controller
operating
(Lite Puter Enterprise
parameters was provided.Co., Ltd,
The Taipei, Taiwan).
registration As a result,
of images applied smooth
photo and independent
captures with thecontrol of the
resolution of
1024 × 256 pixels and two frequencies: 260 Hz for slow flow phenomena (i.e., for gas flow ratesthe
operating parameters was provided. The registration of images applied photo captures with up
resolution
to 4 m3 /h)ofand1024
465×Hz256for
pixels and two frequencies:
fast occurring phenomena260 (i.e.,Hzforfor
gasslow
flowflow
ratesphenomena
above 4 m3(i.e.,
/h). for
Tablegas1
flow rates up to 4 m 3/h) and 465 Hz for fast occurring phenomena (i.e., for gas flow rates above 4
provides details of the meters used in the research.
m3/h). Table 1 provides details of the meters used in the research.

Table 1. Details of the meters used in the research.

Measurement Device Description

Measuring range: 0.11–1.1 m3/h
Standard accuracy class 2.5 according to PN-85/M-
Rotameter ROS-10
42371
Energies 2019, 12, 735 5 of 19

Table 1. Details of the meters used in the research.

Measurement Device Description

Measuring range: 0.11–1.1 m3 /h
Rotameter ROS-10 Standard accuracy class 2.5 according to PN-85/M-42371
Absolute error: 0.0275
Measurement range: 0.5–5.0 m3 /h
Rotameter ROS-16 Standard accuracy class 2.5 according to PN-85/M-42371
Absolute error: 0.125
Measurement range: 3.0–30.0 m3 /h
Rotameter RDN-25 Standard accuracy class 2.5 according to PN-85/M-42371
Absolute error: 0.75
Measuring range: 0.5–3000 g
Scale Radwag WPT5
Accuracy: 0.5 g
Measuring range: 0–20 kPa
PELTRON PXWD 0.2 Differential
Standard accuracy class 0.25 according to PN-85/M-42371
pressure transducer
Absolute error: 50 Pa
Timer Accuracy: 0.01 s

3. Methods
The proposed approach to the assessment of the influence of the two-phase flow regime on airlift
pumping system performance applies digital image analysis of the phenomena in the riser pipe of
the apparatus. The data derived from the imaging was used as the basic source of information for the
further dynamic image analysis. The experiments involved three pump configurations which differed
the type of gas distributor. The research data was a series of flow images recorded during variable
flow rates of gas in the range from 0.2 to 15.0 m3 /h. Figure 4 presents the organizational diagram of
the performed experiments.
Throughout the tests, characteristic fluctuations of the image’s grey level were recorded for each
registered image that is relative to the regime of the airlift pump. This occurred as a result of the spatial
distribution of the gas and liquid phases. The captured relations between the grey level recorded by
the imaging system and the registered flow regime led to the assessment of two-phase flow patterns.
The above was achieved by application of the probability density function (PDF).
Figure 5 contains the reference PDF spectra corresponding to the variations in grey level
depending on the flow regimes that were formed during the two-phase flow. Those are typical
spectra for the generally accepted flow regime nomenclature, described in the literature [35,36]. Bubble
and froth flows have a single maximum, with a note that the spectrum for froth flow is wider or its
image is fuzzy. For the case of slug flow, the recorded images contain noticeable separated peaks
corresponding to the liquid and gas phases. A similar spectrum is observed for the case of slug flow,
yet in this case, the peaks are less clearly separated.
Because the flow in the two-phase flow depends on the flow resistance, the analysis of the pressure
drop was connected with the two-phase regime on the stability and efficiency of the liquid transport.
The knowledge of the gas void fraction RG (also denoted in the literature as α) is necessary to calculate
the pressure drop during two-phase flow for the energy efficiency assessment. The most commonly
used method of determining the volume fraction α is the Zuber-Findlay method [37]. This is one of
the drift flux methods, which allows the determination of the volume fraction (α = WGO /WG ) as the
ratio of the apparent gas phase velocity to the actual gas phase velocity. A detailed discussion of this
method has been included in the paper [38]. In the reported study, a derivative of the Zuber-Findlay
method was applied for calculations of the gas void fraction, that is particularly recommended to use
for airlift pumps by Reinemann et al. [39]. The void fraction of the gas was determined on the basis of
the following equations:
Q0G
RG = (1)
C0 · Q0L + Q0G + WTs0

WLO
Q0L = (2)
( g· D )1/2
Energies 2019, 12, 735 6 of 19
Energies 2019, 12, x 6 of 20

W
Q0G = wasGO
the apparatus. The data derived from the imaging used as the basic source of information for the
1/2
(3)
further dynamic image analysis. The experiments ( g· D )involved three pump configurations which
differed the type of gas distributor. The research σdata was a series  of flow
σ images recorded during
2 !
0
W = 0.352 · 1 − 318 ·
variable flow rates of gasTsin the range from 0.2 − 14.77 · (4)
ρ L · gto· D15.0 m /h. Figure 4 2presents the organizational
3
2 ρ L · g· D
diagram of the performed experiments.

Figure 4. Methods used for selecting the airlift pump optimum efficiency at low submergence ratios.
Figure 4. Methods used for selecting the airlift pump optimum efficiency at low submergence ratios.
depending on the flow regimes that were formed during the two-phase flow. Those are typical
spectra for the generally accepted flow regime nomenclature, described in the literature [35,36].
Bubble and froth flows have a single maximum, with a note that the spectrum for froth flow is wider
or its image is fuzzy. For the case of slug flow, the recorded images contain noticeable separated
peaks corresponding to the liquid and gas phases. A similar spectrum is observed for the case of slug
Energies 2019, 12, 735 7 of 19
flow, yet in this case, the peaks are less clearly separated.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 5. Reference spectra of the probability density function for two-phase flows [35]: (a) bubble
Figure 5. Reference spectra of the probability density function for two-phase flows [35]: (a) bubble
flow, (b) churn flow, (c) slug flow, and (d) wispy-annular flow.
flow, (b) churn flow, (c) slug flow, and (d) wispy-annular flow.
The value of the pressure drop was derived using the Lockhart-Martinelli method, as it is
Because the
recommended forflow in gas-liquid
use in the two-phase
flowsflow
[40].depends on the pressure
In this method, flow resistance,
drop ∆Pthe analysis of the
2F resulting from a
pressure
flow of two-phase mixtures includes two components—hydrostatic pressure and frictionofpressure:
drop was connected with the two-phase regime on the stability and efficiency the liquid
transport. The knowledge of the gas void fraction RG (also denoted in the literature as α) is necessary
∆P2P = ∆Pflow
to calculate the pressure drop during two-phase for∆P
2P,H + the energy efficiency assessment. The most
2P,T (5)
commonly used method of determining the volume fraction α is the Zuber-Findlay method [37]. This
is oneInofEquation (5), the
the drift flux pressure
methods, drops
which resulting
allows from the hydrostatic
the determination pressure-induced
of the volume fraction (α =changes
WGO / WareG)

described
as the ratioby
of the
the following dependence:
apparent gas phase velocity to the actual gas phase velocity. A detailed discussion
of this method has been included in the paper [38]. In the reported study, a derivative of the Zuber-
Findlay method was applied for calculations ∆P2P,H =of · g· Hgas void fraction, that is particularly
ρ2Pthe (6)
recommended to use for airlift pumps by Reinemann et al. [39]. The void fraction of the gas was
where:
determined on the basis of the following equations:
ρ2P = RG ·ρG + (1 − RG )·ρ L (7)
𝑄
The friction pressure component was 𝑅 =derived under the assumption that each of the phases flows (1)
𝐶 ∙ 𝑄 +𝑄 +𝑊
separately through the entire cross-section of the channel riser:
𝑊
∂P 𝑄 = 𝑔 ∙ 𝐷∂P/ (2)
   
= ·Φ2L (8)
∂z 2P,T ∂z L
   
∂P ∂P 2
= ·ΦG (9)
∂z 2P,T ∂z G

where ΦG and ΦL are the equation multipliers, which were determined on the basis of the
Lockhart–Martinelli parameter defined from the Equation (10) [40]:
  0.5
∂P
∂z
X =  L  (10)
∂P
∂z G

In this manner, the calculation of the pressure drops involved the determination of the
Lockhart-Martinelli parameter (X) and registration of the value of the multiplier Φ dedicated to
Energies 2019, 12, 735 8 of 19

the particular type of flow (laminar or turbulent) according to the chart shown in Figure 6. To9carry
Energies 2019, 12, x of 20
out these calculations, it is necessary to know the additional Reynolds numbers for both phases.

Figure 6. Chart for Lockhart-Martinelli corrections [40].

Figure 6. Chart for Lockhart-Martinelli corrections [40].
As a result, the specific pressure gradient was derived and related to the length of the riser pipe
in theAs a result,
airlift pumptheHspecific pressure
(see Figure 2) ongradient
the basiswas derived
of the and relation:
following related to the length of the riser pipe
in the airlift pump H (see Figure 2) on the basis of the following relation:
∆P w2 · ρ
 
Δ𝑃 = λ ·w ,i,0∙ 𝜌i (11)
H = 𝜆 ∙i 2·d (11)
𝐻 i 2∙𝑑
𝑅𝑒i ≤
For Re ≤ 2100:
2100:
64
λi = 64 (12)
𝜆 = i
Re (12)
𝑅𝑒
For Rei > 2100:
For 𝑅𝑒 > 2100: 0.3164
λi = (13)
Rei0.25
0.3164
𝜆 = (13)
The model of assessing the operation of the airlift 𝑅𝑒 . pump involved an assumption regarding the
possibility of relating
The model pressurethe
of assessing drops, liquid of
operation transport efficiency
the airlift and the type
pump involved of two-phaseregarding
an assumption flow regime.
the
The optimization criterion that fulfills this assumption is based on the determination
possibility of relating pressure drops, liquid transport efficiency and the type of two-phase of the greatest
flow
difference
regime. The between the energy
optimization flux needed
criterion to overcome
that fulfills the pressure
this assumption dropon
is based and
thethe useful energy
determination offlux
the
of the liquid phase that is lifted to the lifting height H L (see Figure 1).
greatest difference between the energy flux needed to overcome the pressure drop and the useful
Theflux
energy energy flux
of the that phase
liquid resultsthat
the is
gas phase
lifted flowlifting
to the is expressed
height Hby the relation:
L (see Figure 1).

The energy flux that results the gas phase

. flow
Q is·∆P
expressed by the relation:
EG = G (14)
𝑄 η∙sΔ𝑃
𝐸 = (14)
𝜂
The energy flux resulting from the liquid phase flux is defined as follows:
The energy flux resulting from the liquid phase flux is defined as follows:
.
𝐸E L ==𝑄Q L∙ ·𝜌ρ L∙· g𝑔·h∙ ℎ
p (15)
(15)
To achieve
To achieve aa correlation
correlation between
between the
the energy
energy flux
flux at
at the
the input
input to
to the
the system
system (resulting
(resulting from gas
gas
phase flow) and the energy flux at the output of the system (resulting from liquid phase flow),
phase flow) and the energy flux at the output of the system (resulting from liquid phase flow), the the
standardization of these parameters was performed in relation to their maximum values. Finally, the
optimization criterion was defined as:
𝑀𝐴𝑋 𝐸 − 𝐸 (16)
Energies 2019, 12, 735 9 of 19

standardization of these parameters was performed in relation to their maximum values. Finally, the
optimization criterion was defined as:
Energies 2019, 12, x 10 of 20

MAX ÊL − ÊG (16)
The idea of the developed optimum regime selection for the studied airlift pump is illustrated
in Figure 7. The
The idea ideadeveloped
of the of selecting a gas flux
optimum thatselection
regime guarantees optimal
for the energy
studied airliftefficiency is not a new
pump is illustrated in
method
Figure 7.inThe
general,
idea ofwhereas
selectinginathe
gascase
flux of optimization
that of the airlift
guarantees optimal energypump has not
efficiency is been
not a described
new method so
far in the whereas
in general, literature.in Therefore, it is considered
the case of optimization a airlift
of the valuablepumpmethod
has notfor optimizing
been describedthis type
so far of
in the
equipment.
literature. Therefore, it is considered a valuable method for optimizing this type of equipment.

Figure 7. The idea of an optimization method for an airlift pump operation.

Figure 7. The idea of an optimization method for an airlift pump operation.
With the purpose of verifying the proposed method of optimizing the airlift pump, the analysis of
With the of
the efficiency purpose of verifying
the apparatus was the proposed
conducted method
with regardoftooptimizing the airlift
the flow rates of thepump,
phasesthe analysis
at the inlet.
of the efficiency of the apparatus was conducted with regard to the flow rates of the phases
The calculations used the dependence derived by Reinemann et al. [39] (Equation (17)) which depends at the
inlet. The calculations used the dependence
on the basis of dimensionless volumetric gas flow:derived by Reinemann et al. [39] (Equation (17)) which
depends on the basis of dimensionless volumetric gas flow:
Q0L
η= 𝑄
(17)
𝜂 =C0 · Q0 + Q0 + W 0 − Q0 (17)
𝐶 ∙ 𝑄 + 𝑄 + 𝑊Ts − 𝑄 G
L G

where the value of C00 coefficient depends

depends onon the type of the flow (laminar or turbulent) and has a
value of 1.2 and 2.0, respectively.
respectively.
From the point of view of optimizing the energy consumption, the most important need is to get
as much water
water as
aspossible
possiblewith
withthe
thesmallest
smallestpossible gas
possible flux.
gas ForFor
flux. thethe
performance analysis,
performance duedue
analysis, to the
to
factfact
the thatthat
thethe
liquid flux
liquid was
flux measured
was measuredbyby
the weight
the weightmethod,
method,an anuncertainty
uncertaintycalculation
calculation was
was made
for it as for functional dependencies. As
As it turns out that the biggest uncertainty obtained does not
exceed 1%.

4. Results and Discussion

The initial point in the present study involved the identification of two-phase gas-liquid flow
patterns. The use of an optical method provided the visualization of phase concentrations. Table 2
contains examples of visualizations with the fluctuations of the image’s grey level.
Energies 2019, 12, 735 10 of 19

4. Results and Discussion

The initial point in the present study involved the identification of two-phase gas-liquid flow
patterns. The use of an optical method provided the visualization of phase concentrations. Table 2
contains examples of visualizations with the fluctuations of the image’s grey level.
Energies
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12, pattern and grey level fluctuation in an airlift pump. 1111ofof202011 of 20
Porous
PorousGas
GasDistributor
Porous Perforated
Gas Distributor
Distributor Gas
GasDistributor
Perforated
Perforated Slot
SlotGas
Gas Distributor
Distributor GasDistributor
Slot Gas Distributor
Distributor
Porous Porous
PorousGas Gas Distributor
GasDistributor
Distributor Perforated
Perforated
Perforated
Gas Gas Distributor
GasDistributor
Distributor Slot
SlotGas Slot Gas Distributor
GasDistributor
Distributor
Porous
Porous
Porous Gas
Porous Gas
Gas Distributor
Porous
Distributor
Distributor
Gas Distributor Perforated
Gas Distributor
Perforated
Perforated
Perforated Gas
Gas
Gas Distributor
Perforated
Gas Distributor
Distributor
Distributor Slot
Gas Distributor
Slot
Slot Gas
Gas
Gas Distributor
Distributor
Slot
Slot Gas Distributor
Gas Distributor
Distributor
Porous Gas
Porous
Distributor
Gas Distributor
Perforated
Perforated
Gas Distributor
Gas Distributor
Slot Gas Distributor
Slot Gas Distributor

Bubble
Bubble Bubble
Bubble Bubble
Bubble
Bubble
Bubble
flow Bubble
flow
Bubble flow
Bubble
flow Bubble
flow flow
Bubble flowflow
flow
flow flow
flow flow

Slug
Slug Slug
Slug
Slug Slug
Slug
Slug
flow
flow
Slug Slug
flow
Slug
Slug flow
flow
flow Slug
flow
flow
flow
flow flow
flow flow

Churn
Churn Churn
Churn
Churn Churn
Churn
Churn
Churn flow
flow
flow
Churn Churn
flow
Churn
flow
flow Churn
flow
flow
flow
flow flow
flow flow

Wispy-annular
Wispy-annular
Wispy-annular
Wispy-annular
Wispy-annular
Wispy-annular
Wispy-annular flow
Wispy-annular
Wispy-annular
flow Wispy-annular
flow flow
Wispy-annular
Wispy-annular
flow Wispy-annular
flow flow
flow
flow
flow flow
flow flow

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8. were calculated for the image’s grey levels of each of the
flow regimes with the purpose of identifying the flow patterns according to [35,36] and resulted in the
courses shown in Figure 8.
Energies 2019, 12, 735 11 of 19
Energies 2019, 12, x 12 of 20

Figure 8. Probability density function spectrum for different flow regimes through an airlift pump: (a)
Figure flow;
bubbly 8. Probability density
(b) slug flow; (c) function spectrum
churn flow; for differentflow.
(d) wispy-annular flow regimes through an airlift pump:
(a) bubbly flow; (b) slug flow; (c) churn flow; (d) wispy-annular flow.
The subsequent step involved a comparison between the resulting function spectra shown in
FigureThe subsequent
5 with step involved
the reference a comparison
(see Figure between the
3). The comparative resulting
analysis function
offers spectraregarding
a conclusion shown in
Figure 5 with the reference (see Figure 3). The comparative analysis offers a conclusion
considerable discrepancies resulting from the singularities of two-phase flow through an airlift pump. regarding
considerable discrepancies
The occurrence of largeresulting
volumes from thebubbles,
of small singularities
whose of presence
two-phase flow through
is specific both toanthe
airlift
frothpump.
flow
and toThe
theoccurrence
plug and slugof large
regimesvolumes of small
contributes bubbles,
to the whose presence
deformations of the PDF is specific
spectrum. bothThe toapproach
the froth
flowoffered
that and to the
the possibility
plug and slug regimesheterogeneous
to identify contributes totwo-phase
the deformations of the applied
flow regimes PDF spectrum. The
an analysis
approach the
involving thatvisual
offered the possibility
verification of thetoregistered
identify heterogeneous
grey. The resultstwo-phase
are shown flow regimes9.applied
in Figure The blackan
analysis
line involving
represents the visual
the course of theverification
fluctuationsofofthe
theregistered
grey level grey.
in the The
model results
plug are shown
flow. in Figure 9.
Such fluctuations
The black
could line high
provide represents the course
reliability of the fluctuations
of the application of the grey
of the method usinglevel in the modelofplug
the assessment flow. Such
the probability
fluctuations
function could provide high reliability of the application of the method using the assessment of
spectrum.
the probability function spectrum.
 Energies 2019, 12, 735 12 of 19
Energies 2019, 12, x 13 of 20

Figure 9. Influence of heterogeneous flow pattern on grey level fluctuations.

Figure 9. Influence of heterogeneous flow pattern on grey level fluctuations.
In accordance with the methods applied in this study, the void fraction was derived on the basis of
Equation (1). The
In accordance results
with theofmethods
the calculations
appliedofingas phase
this voidthe
study, fraction were compared
void fraction with theon
was derived values
the basis
measured by the trapping method and the results can be found in Figure
of Equation (1). The results of the calculations of gas phase void fraction were compared with the10. For all measurement
series,
values 67% of the
measured bymeasurement
the trapping points are found
method andwithin
the the rangecan
results of theberelative
founderrorin of 25%, which
Figure 10. Foris all
an admissible result. This is a common error for 2P flows. The greatest level of the conformity between
measurement series, 67% of the measurement points are found within the range of the relative error
the results, i.e., 80% was established for the case of the porous distributor. In comparison, the values
of 25%, which is an admissible result. This is a common error for 2P flows. The greatest level of the
of 58% and 55% were established for the perforated and slotted distributors, respectively. Due to the
conformity
dependencebetween
of thethe
voidresults,
fractioni.e.,
and 80% was established
two-phase mixture density, for athe caselevel
similar of the porous distributor.
of conformity between In
comparison, the values of 58% and 55% were established for the perforated and
the calculations and measurements was obtained for pressure drops as well (see Figure 10). The results slotted distributors,
respectively.
of the voidDue to theoffer
fractions dependence
a conclusion ofregarding
the voidthe fraction and of
application two-phase
the adequatemixture density,model
computational a similar
levelfor
of the
conformity
conditionsbetween theincalculations
of the flow the analyzedand measurements
airlift pump (see Table was
3). obtained for pressure drops as
well (see Figure 10). The results of the void fractions offer a conclusion
In the present study, the pressure drop was one of the elements applied regarding the application
in the assessment of the of
energy flux
the adequate delivered to themodel
computational examinedfor airlift pump. Theof
the conditions determination
the flow in of thepressure
analyzed drops applied
airlift pump the (see
Lockhart–Martinelli
Table 3). method [40]. Such an approach offers satisfactory results with regard to two-phase
gas-liquid mixture flow. An additional advantage of the applied method is a wide range of flow
patterns. This plays a fundamental role in airlift pumps, where flow turbulence and disturbances
appear. Figure 10 contains also the results of measured and calculated values of the pressure drops.
The greatest discrepancies between the calculations and measurements are found within the initial
operating of the airlift pump. This is caused by the low liquid flow rate at the outlet of the riser
Energies 2019, 12, 735 13 of 19

pipe. The characteristics of the liquid transport in an airlift pump involves liquid circulation in
the riser pump until the designed transport velocity of the liquid is obtained. Within this initial
measurement range, the smallest error was recorded for the slotted distributor, whereas the greatest
for the porous one. As we mentioned, this correlates well with the results of measurement regarding
the void fraction. We can also remark here that the slotted distributor generates the smallest local
pressure drop and creates the conditions of the liquid transport development very late in the process.
In contrast, the porous distributor operating for low parameters of the liquid phase provides the
greatest transport
Energies 2019, 12, x efficiency. 14 of 20

(a) (b)

Figure 10. Comparison between the (a) measured with the calculated void fraction in accordance with
Figure
Reinemann drift-flux
the Reinemann drift-flux model
model and
and (b)
(b) comparison
comparison of
of measured
measuredand
andcalculated
calculatedpressure
pressuredrop.
drop.
Table 3. Impact of gas distributor for an airlift pump operating.
Table 3. Impact of gas distributor for an airlift pump operating.
Type of Gas Distributor Impact on Two-Phase Flow Mixture Impact on Pressure Drop Impact on Void Friction
Type of Gas Impact on Two-Phase Flow High values of pressure drops
Impact on Void
Greatest validity of a
The high intensity of the heterogeneous flowImpact on Pressure Drop
Distributor Mixture
High stability of liquid transport
Greatest validity of a Friction
Reinemann model
Porous Lockhart-Martinelli model Exceeding the error limit
A small number of local circulations and vorticesHigh
in values of pressure
The high intensity Exceeding the error limit in the in the small and medium
the liquid of the
phase
drops
small and medium gas flux range gas flux range
heterogeneous flow Greatest validity of a
Medium intensity of the heterogeneous flow Medium values of pressure drops Medium validity of a
Medium stability of liquid transport Medium validity of a Reinemann
Reinemannmodel
model
Perforated A small numberof of local circulations and vortices in
Greatest validity of a
Lockhart-Martinelli model Exceeding the error limit
High stability liquid transport
Porous Lockhart-Martinelli
the liquid phase for bubble structures, significant model
Exceeding the error limit in the in the small and medium
for other structures small and medium gas flux range Exceeding the
gas flux error
range
A small number of local Low values of pressure drops limit in the small and
Low intensity of the heterogeneous flow Exceeding the error limit Medium validity of a
circulations and vortices in the Medium validity of a medium gas flux range
Low stability of liquid transport Reinemann model
Slot
A significant number of local circulations and
in the small and medium
Lockhart-Martinelli model
Exceeding the error limit
liquid phase Exceeding the error limit in the
vortices in the liquid phase gas flux range
small and medium gas flux range
in the high gas flux range
Medium intensity of the
Medium values of
heterogeneous flow
The internal circulation of the liquid phase in the riser pressure drops
was minimized as a consequence of using
Medium validity of a
a porous distributor. Medium
The perforated distributor
stability of liquid was characterized by intermediate characteristics
Reinemann model
in comparison to the two other designs discussed above. Medium validity of adiscrepancies cease to exist
The presented
transport
Perforated Lockhart-Martinelli model
when the effective liquid lifting starts. Except for the initial operating range of theExceeding airlift pump, where
the error
A small number of local
hydrodynamic singularities are observed associated with the special characteristics of two-phaseand limit in the small flow,
Exceeding the error limit
the conformity of thecirculations
measured andand vortices in the values of the pressure drop ismedium
calculated fully gas flux range
acceptable (See
in the small and medium
liquid is
Figure 10). This remark phase for bubble
relevant in thestructures,
context of the simplicity and the general characteristics of the
gas flux range
significant for other structures
Lockhart–Martinelli calculation method. The presented method fulfills the condition that makes it
Low values of pressure
applicable to the calculations
Low intensityaimed at optimization of the airlift pumps.
of the heterogeneous
drops
The identification of an adequate flow operating regime of an airlift pump represents Medium
the key validity of a
parameter
which determines the exploitation cost of the apparatus. In the conducted Reinemann model
Medium validity of a study, the operating cost
Low stability of liquid transport
Slot Lockhart-Martinelli model
Exceeding the error
A significant number of local limit in the high gas
Exceeding the error limit
circulations and vortices in the flux range
in the small and medium
liquid phase
gas flux range
Energies 2019, 12, 735 14 of 19

goal was achieved by the using energy fluxes of the phase mixture to determine the energy efficiency
of the vertical liquid transport. It was observed that as a result of applying a common coordinate
system to visualize the coefficients of the energy parameter, it is possible to determine a region in
which the goal of liquid transport maximization can be accompanied by energy minimization.
The objective of the presented method was to identify the point that offers a compromise between
the maximization of liquid lifting and minimization of energy input. This objective was realized as
a result of testing the variability of the function representing the difference between the normalized
energy fluxes of the two phases. The point in which a maximum difference occurred was assigned
with the energy flux of the gas phase corresponding to it so as to guarantee the optimum operating
regime of the airlift pump.
The selection of optimum gas phase flow rates is presented in Figure 8. The optimum operating
range of the perforated and slotted distributors is found in the range of the plug flow regime. For the
porous distributor, this range shifts in the direction of the greater flow rates and are located in the slug
flow regime. However, the slug regime is optimum due to the greater normalized flow rate of the
transported liquid phase (∆E = 0.1) despite the greater amount of energy needed to pump the liquid.
The effect was reflected in the increased stability of the liquid transport over time. For the perforated
and slotted distributors, plug flow was characterized by intensive pulsations and existence of plugs
in the flow accompanied by considerable cyclic changes in the efficiency of the liquid transport. The
fluctuations in the charts representing liquid flow rates were smoother. This fact is also reflected in the
analysis of the fluctuations of the grey level of the two slug and churn patterns described in Table 2.
The results of the finding of an optimum operating regime selection of the airlift pump are
presented in Figure 11. This graph shows flow characteristics with the optimum energy points’
localization. The overall performance of the airlift pump was determined on the basis of Equation (17)
and the optimum efficiency from Equation (16). In Figure 12, the optimum efficiency (marked with •)
is located between the points representing maximum efficiency (marked with n) and maximum pump
capacity (marked with s).
The efficiency analysis depends on the gas flow rate and the distributor type. The maximum
efficiency of the aeration pump is not identical to the evenness of liquid transport. Most often, at
the highest efficiency, the liquid flow is pulsating. And that is why we propose using the optimum
efficiency, which in this case is better than the maximum performance.
The construction of a gas distributor should ensure the maximum amount of bubbles in the
widest range of the gas stream, resulting in the largest liquid transport. Despite the fact that in our
case the porous distributor was characterized by the highest pressure drop, it generated the largest
liquid transport for the largest range of gas flux. In addition, the point corresponding to the best
performance of the apparatus does not correspond to the highest efficiency of liquid transport. For gas
distributors characterized by an increased pressure drop (such as porous distributors), the optimum
operating regime shifts towards the maximum efficiency. For this reason, this type of distributor can
be considered as optimum for airlift pumps operating at low submergence ratios.
 Energies 2019, 12, 735 15 of 19
Energies 2019, 12, x 16 of 20

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure
Figure 11. Optimum
11. Optimum flow
flow parametersfor
parameters foran
an airlift
airlift pump forHH
pumpfor l=l =1.0
1.0mmand different
and gasgas
different distributors:
distributors:
(a) perforated
(a) perforated distributor;
distributor; (b)(b)slotted
slotteddistributor;
distributor; (c)
(c)porous
porousdistributor.
distributor.

The results of the finding of an optimum operating regime selection of the airlift pump are
presented in Figure 11. This graph shows flow characteristics with the optimum energy points’
localization. The overall performance of the airlift pump was determined on the basis of Equation
(17) and the optimum efficiency from Equation (16). In Figure 12, the optimum efficiency (marked
with ●) is located between the points representing maximum efficiency (marked with ■) and
Energies 2019, 12, 735 16 of 19
Energies 2019, 12, x 17 of 20

Figure 12. Findings of the proposed method for selecting an optimum operating regime of the
Figure 12. Findings of the proposed method for selecting an optimum operating regime of the airlift
airlift pump.
pump.
5. Conclusions
The efficiency analysis depends on the gas flow rate and the distributor type. The maximum
The study was concerned with the description of hydrodynamics and energy efficiency of airlift
efficiency of the aeration pump is not identical to the evenness of liquid transport. Most often, at the
pumps. The analysis of the operation of the existing apparatus the assessment of the operating
highest efficiency, the liquid flow is pulsating. And that is why we propose using the optimum
parameters of the pump with the use of an optimization algorithm was applied.
efficiency, which in this case is better than the maximum performance.
The following methods were used to develop the method of analysis: analysis of the grey level
The construction of a gas distributor should ensure the maximum amount of bubbles in the
of the image, trap method for measuring gas volume, measurement of pressure drop by means of
widest range of the gas stream, resulting in the largest liquid transport. Despite the fact that in our
a differential manometer, measurement of liquid phase strips by gravimetric method. In addition,
case the porous distributor was characterized by the highest pressure drop, it generated the largest
calculation methods such as the Lockhart-Martinelli method and the drift-flux method were used. The
liquid transport for the largest range of gas flux. In addition, the point corresponding to the best
energy flow fed into the system with the potential energy stream at the given height was correlated.
performance of the apparatus does not correspond to the highest efficiency of liquid transport. For
The experiments led to the following conclusions:
gas distributors characterized by an increased pressure drop (such as porous distributors), the
Fluctuations of the grey level of the registered images corresponding to the two-phase mixture
optimum operating regime shifts towards the maximum efficiency. For this reason, this type of
flow in the riser of an airlift pump are reflected in the variable pump performance and continuity of
distributor can be considered as optimum for airlift pumps operating at low submergence ratios.
the liquid transport. The determination of the normalized fluxes of the liquid flow demonstrates the
important role of the system of the gas phase distribution. The type of gas distributor needs to be
5. Conclusions
accounted at the design stage, in particular in the apparatus operating under low submergence ratios.
The study
The was concerned
proposed method forwith thethe description
selection of airlift
of the hydrodynamics and energy
pump operating efficiency
parameters of airlift
offers the
pumps. The analysis of the operation of the existing apparatus the assessment
determination of optimum energy efficiency (see • in Figure 12) at low submergence ratios. of the operating
parameters of the pump
The operating regimewithofthe
theuse of an optimization
apparatus within the algorithm
discussedwas flowapplied.
parameters offers the best
The following methods were used to develop the method of analysis:
compromise between the liquid lifting efficiency and exploitation cost of the analysis
systemof(i.e.,
the the
grey level
cost of
of the image, trap method for measuring
generating the air feeding the system). gas volume, measurement of pressure drop by means of a
differential manometer, measurement of liquid phase strips by gravimetric method. In addition,
Author Contributions:
calculation Data curation,
methods such M.M.; Investigation, G.L.;
as the Lockhart-Martinelli methodMethodology, G.L.; Resources,
and the drift-flux method D.Z.; Software,
were used.
D.Z.; Supervision,
The energy flowS.A.;
fedVisualization, M.M.; with
into the system Writing—Original
the potentialDraft, G.L. and
energy D.Z.; at
stream Writing—Review
the given height& Editing,
was
M.M. and S.A.
correlated. The experiments led to the following conclusions:
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Fluctuations of the grey level of the registered images corresponding to the two-phase mixture
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
flow in the riser of an airlift pump are reflected in the variable pump performance and continuity of
the liquid transport. The determination of the normalized fluxes of the liquid flow demonstrates the
important role of the system of the gas phase distribution. The type of gas distributor needs to be
accounted at the design stage, in particular in the apparatus operating under low submergence ratios.
Energies 2019, 12, 735 17 of 19

Nomenclature
coefficient of resistance dependent on the Reynolds number (Re) and the relative
λ
roughness of the pipe, -
ε submergence ratio, -
η airlift pump overall efficiency, -
ηs compressor efficiency, -
ρL liquid density, kg/m3
ρ2P two phase mixture density, kg/m3
ρG gas density, kg/m3
σ liquid phase surface tension, N/m
C0 liquid slug velocity profile coefficient (C0 = 1.2 for high Re, C0 = 2.0 for low Re)
D riser pipe diameter, m
.
EL energy flux resulting from the liquid phase, W
.
EG energy flux resulting from the gas phase, W
ÊL normalized energy flux (liquid phase), -
ÊG normalized energy flux (gas phase), -
g gravitational acceleration, m/s
ΦG Lockhart-Martinelli equation multiplier for gas phase, -
L-M multiplier for the gas phase, where the liquid phase is turbulent and the gas phase is
ΦGtt
also turbulent, -
L-M multiplier for the gas phase where the liquid phase is turbulent but the gas phase is
ΦGtv
laminar (viscous), -
L-M multiplier for the gas phase where the liquid phase is laminar (viscous) but the gas
ΦGvt
phase is turbulent, -
L-M multiplier for the gas phase where the liquid phase is laminar (viscous) and the gas
ΦGvv
phase also laminar (viscous), -
ΦL L-M multiplier for liquid phase, -
L-M multiplier for the liquid phase where the liquid phase is turbulent and the gas phase
ΦLtt
is also turbulent, -
L-M multiplier for the liquid phase where the liquid phase is turbulent but the gas phase is
ΦLtv
laminar (viscous), -
L-M multiplier for the liquid phase where the liquid phase is laminar (viscous) but the gas
ΦLvt
phase flowing alone in the channel is turbulent, -
L-M multiplier for the liquid phase where the liquid phase is laminar (viscous) and the gas
ΦLvv
phase is also laminar (viscous), -
H total lift, m
Hl pump lift height, m
Ho overall height of the pump, m
Hs immersion depth, m
i respective phase (i.e., gas or liquid) as subscript
RG Void friction, -
∆P total pressure drop related to gas flux considering two-phase flow,
∆P2F,H pressure drop caused by a change in hydrostatic energy,
∆P2F,T pressure drop caused by friction,
QG volume of gas, m3 /h
Q’L dimensionless liquid flow coefficient, -
QL volume of liquid, m3 /h
Q’L dimensionless gas flow coefficient, -
W’Ts dimensionless coefficient of plug movement in stationary liquid, -
WG gas velocity, m/s
WGO superficial velocity of gas phase, m/s
WLO superficial velocity of liquid phase, m/s
Energies 2019, 12, 735 18 of 19

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