Client’s Surname 1

Effective Response: Why Is It Paramount For Both Public And Fire-Fighter Safety?

Which Areas Constantly Need Reviewing and Improving Upon Existing Practices?

Customer inserts His/her name

Customer inserts Grade/Course

Customer inserts Tutor’s name

(17, 01, 2010)

 Client’s Surname 2

Outline
Abstract ............................................................................................................... 3

Chapter One: Introduction.................................................................................. 4

1.0 Background......................................................................................................4
1.1Problem Statement...........................................................................................
6
1.2The Rationale...................................................................................................
6
1.3Purpose of Study..............................................................................................
7
1.4Research Questions.........................................................................................
8
1.5Hypotheses.......................................................................................................
9
1.6Objectives of Study...........................................................................................
9
1.7Significance of Study........................................................................................
10

Chapter Two: Literature Review......................................................................... 11

2.0 Introduction....................................................................................................
11
2.1 Categories of Fire-fighter Deaths................................................................. 12
2.2 Causes of Fire-fighter Fatalities..................................................................... 13
2.3 UK’s Fire fighting Approach........................................................................... 14
2.4 Safe Personnel.............................................................................................. 15
2.5 The Art of Extinguishment..............................................................................15
2.5.1 Strategic
ventilation........................................................................... 16
2.5.2 Tactical Ventilation: UK vs.
US ......................................................... 17

Chapter Three: Research Methodology.............................................................19

3.0 Introduction..................................................................................................... 19
3.1 Method and Design.......................................................................................... 19
3.2 Participants...................................................................................................... 20
3.3 Data Collection................................................................................................. 20
3.4 Limitation.......................................................................................................... 21
3.5 Ethical Issues................................................................................................... 22

Chapter Four: Results......................................................................................... 23

4.0 Introduction...................................................................................................... 23
4.1Main Causes of fire Brigade Deaths in UK.......................................................
23
4.2Activity that caused deaths and Injury..............................................................
24
4.3Nature of Fatal Injury........................................................................................
24
 Client’s Surname 3

4.4Factors contributing to Deaths..........................................................................

24
4.5Describing Causes of Deaths...........................................................................
25

Chapter Five: Recommendation and Conclusion.............................................27

5.0 Introduction...................................................................................................... 27
5.1Improving Emergency Medical Response........................................................
27
5.2Enhancing Regulation......................................................................................
28
5.3Government Guidance.....................................................................................
29
5.4 Competency and
Safety................................................................................... 29
5.3.1 The Safe Person
Concept........................................................................... 30
5.3.2 Effective
response....................................................................................... 31
5.3.3 Future Fire
fighting...................................................................................... 31
Reference List...................................................................................................... 32
Effective Response: Why Is It Paramount For Both Public And Fire-Fighter

Safety? Which Areas Constantly Need Reviewing and Improving Upon

Existing Practices?

Abstract

Fire fighting is a risky job yet even the developed nations do not have effective
programs that ensure safety of the fire-fighters and public volunteers who come to
assist in the event of an emergency. And as such there are many incidences of fire-
fighter deaths resulting from poor coordination during the process of fire suppression
and poor compliance to standards as well as defective equipment. Effective
response has been jeopardised and response to emergency fires is met with
ineffective incident command and poor coordination of ground activities. These
deficiencies have seen many deaths of victims as well as public responders and
professional fire-fighters. It’s in regard to these concerns that this research was set.
Its purpose was to establish the causes of injuries and deaths of the public and fire-
fighters in case of an incidence and make recommendations that would effectively
prevent some if not totally curb injuries and deaths of volunteers and fire-fighters.
The study used descriptive qualitative model to explore abilities, knowledge and
skills of the public and fire-fighters in concerning fire fighting, the job descriptions,
safety measures statute (requirements), and government involvement in ensuring
safety of all the people involved. The research approach used was quite unique as it
involved both qualitative and quantitative methods to amass data. There was
literature search of articles that covered related issues and administration of
questionnaires and group focused interviews. The results indicated that there was
some laxity in response because of poor equipment, lack of skills and inadequate
 Client’s Surname 4

knowledge of doing the job. Furthermore, the government does not have adequate
standards of qualification to be involved in fire fighting and anybody can get involved
even though there are colleges for training fire-fighters. Finally, in the conclusion, the
paper recommends that the fire department should acknowledge more the risk of
fire-fighters and also the volunteers who come to assist to set out fire in an effort to
prevent loss of life and property. The fire-fighters should be provided with more
effective incident training, integrated incident risk management, safety laws to
protect them and also alternative strategies of communication and command
training.

Chapter One: Introduction

1.0 Background

Fire fighting is the art of putting out destructive fires and its goal is to save

lives and protect destruction of property and the surrounding environment by the fire.

Fire fighting has over the years developed from simple extinguishing of fires to a

more complex process that involve emergency medication hence it requires proper

training and relevant education for one to become proficient. Fire-fighting is one of

the most dangerous ventures and it involves taking a lot of risks with looming

accidents waiting to happen (Peterson 3). Besides the risk of the flaring flames and

suffocating smoke, fire-fighters and volunteers risk being injured by the collapsing

walls or unknown flying objects. Even worse, due to the intensity of energy that the

job sometimes requires, the fire-fighters can suffer heart attacks because of

exhaustion from the work (Grimwood 35). Numerous measures have been put in

place to try alleviating the risks involved so that fire-fighters can be able to do their
 Client’s Surname 5

job without stress. Failing to adhere to the set standards puts the fire-fighters and the

public at more perilous risk (Peterson 3).

Research has shown that fire-fighting risks have increased because of the

increase in development of property and congestion of residential places and even

industrial areas. In the past 30 years, fire-fighter deaths in the UK are at the highest

point. Fire-fighters are now faced with the greatest risk ever because of the immense

exploitation of resources and development of properties. The situation could even

get worse if no decisive action is taken. Modernization is at its peak and accidental

fires that are being witnessed are very aggressive because of the more flammable

materials being used for construction (Peterson 4). According to Paul Grimwood, the

increased depletion of resources, less number of staff, more workload, and reduced

aerial ladder fleet call for measures to be taken for effective management of the

department (Grimwood 35). Nonetheless, this sad termination of quality safety

service is causing drastic blow on the efficiency all the activities dealing with fires.

According to statistics, before the year 2004, the United Kingdom fire service

suffered disturbing operational casualties at a moderately steady rate of one death of

a fire-fighter every year in a number of 100,000 cases of structural fires (LRD 21).

However, that rate drastically increased after 2004 to a death rate of about 2.7

deaths of fire-fighter per 100,000 cases of structural fires every year. This means

that at least one fire-fighter out of 37,000 cases of structural fires gets to die and this

rate is about triple what it used to be ten years ago (LRD 21). UK used to be very

proud of the safety record it was holding compared to other developed countries like

the United States, but today, it has almost the same number of deaths as the US.

The death rates in the US are 3.0 deaths from fighting structural fires per 100,000

fires per year (LRD 21).

 Client’s Surname 6

A number of strategic and command failures are intimately associated with a

triangle of complacency that is currently widespread among British Fire Service

departments; there is inadequate fire-fighting experience, lack of fire-fighting skills

and training and indiscipline (complacency) (Grimwood 38).

As part of the battle towards achieving effective fire-fighter safety, the Fire

Brigade Union is advocating to the labour department to investigate the cases of fire-

fighter deaths in modern world. This also paper assessed the lessons that were

learnt from the past accidents so that the institutions involved would take necessary

steps to prevent future tragedies (Grimwood 39). For many years, fire-fighters have

had an unwritten accord with the community, an unspoken covenant to demonstrate

courage all the time and hope that this would be appreciated and their safety

protected. Fire-fighters accept putting their lives and safety at risk and in return they

expect that the employers, the government and the general public would appreciate

and value their inimitable and courageous role to the community. This paper

addressed the fight for fairness and made change recommendations so that the

health and safety of fire-fighters is not compromised and that injuries and deaths are

significantly minimised or totally eliminated.

1.1 Problem Statement

There have been unwarranted deaths of fire-fighters in the UK and US from

structure fires. Many of the deaths have been found to have occurred while the

victims were inside the structures under fire. Basically, the UK fire-fighting strategy

has been aggressive and this has necessitated the fire-fighters to go into the burning

building to put out fire even when the structures are severely damaged. This

aggressive approach meant that fire-fighters could be trapped in buildings and

deaths were most likely to be a result of the smoke impairing vision then suffocating
 Client’s Surname 7

them or fire burning them while trapped (Ide 382). With this strategy still being used,

it’s proper that the breathing apparatus are maintained good condition with

communication code in place so that the fire fighter can communicate with others or

be located whenever trapped. Risk assessment should be done to determine the risk

and take preventative measures against. Whereas deaths still happen, they are

becoming prevalent and, and they may come from odd or unanticipated fire

development rather than inadequacies of the fire-fighter’s application of their

knowledge and skills (Ide 382). This means that initially, the UK’s approach was very

effective in reducing incidences of fire-fighter deaths, but some problem emerged.

This paper explored the possible improvements for safety of both the general public

and the expert fire-fighters.

1.2 The Rationale

The previous histories of fire-fighters deaths and injuries have necessitated

change in fire-fighting and emergency operations because more lives and property

could be lost by operations that are meant to protect these things. This paper was

hence set to investigate practises of emergency operations, investigate and develop

the best processes of work and operation commands, create safe and efficient

methods or doing the fire-fighting jobs. From these studies, it’s evident that fire-

fighter fatalities are consistently experienced as a result of organisational failure

especially irrational risk assessment method. However these issues of management

like correct policies processes and resources can be corrected easily both at national

and local levels. Sometimes fire-fighters have committed to circumstances based on

these inadequate risk evaluations thus causing these deaths and injuries. There are

also considerable concerns of the equipment especially the issue of communication

and adequate training (Fire Brigade Union 13). It’s on this premise that this study
 Client’s Surname 8

investigated effective response of fire-fighting as regarding health and safety of the

public and fire-fighters.

1.3 Purpose of Study

The purpose of carrying out this investigation was to evaluate the causes of

injuries or deaths to the volunteers and professional fire-fighters and develop

progressive safety processes that will prepare the public and fighter for these grave

emergency incidences. This assessment of the causes of injuries and deaths

presented useful information that could be used for designing new processes and

policies for safe operations. The sharp increase in deaths is an indication that there

has been a problem of implementation and perhaps that trend will continue to

increase in future. This paper gives insights on the trends of the rising death tolls,

causes of these death, the reasons for increasing death rates and the possible

remedy. Fire-fighting is a very dangerous job and there needs to be a solution to the

life threatening job, this paper helps to unveil why and how these deaths happen and

what could be done about this continuing disaster.

1.4 Research Questions

In order for the research to categorically meet the objectives on which it was

designed, the paper sought to investigate causes of injuries and deaths during fire-

fighting, causes of these structural fires, effective fire-fighting strategies, safety

measures currently in place for the public and for the fire-fighter and the potential

improvements that can improve safety and service delivery of the fire-fighter. The

researcher set out to answer the following broad questions;

1. What are the currently available skills, knowledge and abilities being used in

fire-fighting activities and how are their efficiencies and safety?

 Client’s Surname 9

2. How do the actual current knowledge, skills and abilities developed by the

national fire department fire-fighting correspond to the expected expertise of

fire profession in 21st century?

3. On what basis, standards or regulations do fire-fighters develop their skills

and knowledge of fire-fighting?

4. What are the major causes of injuries and deaths of fire fighters? And what

measures are available to prevent these? Does the government have

standards and/or recommendation for safe fire-fighting practice and training?

5. What are the death trends of fire fighters and public volunteers over the past

three decades? What are the lessons learnt from these tragedies? And has

anybody, the government or regulating organisation reacted to these?

6. Is there a government policy addressing the health and safety of public and

fire-fighters? How is it implemented? What is the compliance rate? What are

consequences? What are its strengths, challenges, loopholes, failures and

other shortcomings?

1.5 Hypotheses

The previous research papers on similar topic reveal that most of the death

cases were associated with risks that were anticipated before the deaths. This

means that there is a problem of risk assessment and the consequent safety

measures. From this argument, the first hypothesis was developed.

H1. The deaths of public volunteers and fire-fighters in structural fires are consistent

with inadequate risk assessment procedures

The first responders are very crucial for any fire incidences and play a big role

in determining the safety of the whole fire fighting process. However, there are many

cases when first responders come to the scene and get stranded about their next
 Client’s Surname 10

cause of action or some get into aggressive and dangerous fire fighting that ends up

augmenting the fire and causing structures to collapse (Ide 383). It’s from such

‘aggravated’ fires that most deaths occur. This premise shaped the next hypothesis.

H2. Fire-fighters and the general public are not adequately prepared for emergencies

of structural fires because of lack of relevant knowledge and skills of fire-fighting

1.6 Objectives of Study

The study sought to answer questions regarding possible causes of deaths

and injuries as well as address the best intervention strategies to improve safety.

These objectives included

1. To assess the current risk analysis procedures in fire-fighting department

2. To investigate the preventative and protection measure targeting both the

public and fire-fighters and their efficiency

3. To assess the fire-fighter and public preparedness for incident fires

4. To assess the whole emergency response coordination process including

communication and incident support processes

1.7 Significance of Study

This research was founded on the fact that there needs to be a solution to the

increased cases of deaths connected to the process of putting out of structural fires.

Many fire brigades, as they are otherwise known and volunteering public get injured

and some even die while trying to save lives or property. The main problems as it

was noted have been that emergency incident practises, safety measures,

communication systems and effective methods of fire-fighting are often breached

(Ide 384). This study exposes the causes of injuries and deaths of the emergency

fire responders, describes the amount of risk involved, it also exposes accountability

breaches, poor operating procedures and lack of effective communication systems.

 Client’s Surname 11

From these, the research has made recommendations that will be used by the

government, public, private organisation and fire-fighters themselves to ensure

safety (Ide 384). The safety culture in fire-fighting must be built based on informed

reasons and it should be more than just involvement if the administrative processes

and the attitude of individuals towards safety. The whole community and government

should aspire to put in place and implement the correct lessons from unrestrained

occurrences and accidents.

Chapter Two: Literature Review

2.0 Introduction

Fire-fighting is a profession just like policing, teaching or practicing law and it

requires that the fire-fighters act professionally according to their training and that

they adequately and sufficiently apply their knowledge, skills and abilities and show

expertise is the use of their equipment (Fire Brigade Union 13). The expectations of

this profession are so bold because, as people flee from fire, a fire-fighter is

expected to rush towards it with a sole objective of saving, protecting and

coordinating activities during that incidence. Most fire-fighters do this job with all the

effort and courage that is needed to for that.

Fire fighting poses great risk to life more than many other daring professions

and as result, it’s associated with a number of deaths as the fire-fighters serve the

public. There are numerous examples that will be addressed in this study some of

which were practically inescapable but some were uncalled for (Ide 386). However,
 Client’s Surname 12

when a very big number of fire-fighters die every year in line of duty or because of

injuries and diseases they acquired while working, there is surely a big problem.

The main question is to ask whether the altruistic fire-fighting tactic has

stretched to the extreme. Are people’s lives being risked too much with less or no

gain at all? Basically it would be absurd to risk human life for the sake of being called

heroes when actually there was no gain but loss of life (Ide 386). In order to ensure

that the risk of human life will be profitable and that no deaths may occur, the United

Kingdom has a set profile for fire-fighters. Most of the fire-fighters are professional

employees who work fulltime and some few work part-time and can be retained

when they do a good job (Ide 387). There are also volunteers but they form a very

small percentage of the fire-fighter profile.

2.1 Categories Of Fire-fighter Deaths

In trying to understand the trends of fire-fighter deaths, it’s proper also to have

a clear definition of what entails a ‘fire-fighter death’ as it is accepted universally and

is used for studies (Labour Research Department 8).

In most cases, the widely recognized deaths are those that are referred to as

‘on-duty’ (or in-line-of-duty) death. This specifically means that the deaths occur

when the fire-brigades are actually putting out fire and or as they are rescuing people

and get trapped in burning structures. Still, this presents a problem because there is

an incidence where a fire-fighter died while trying to save his brother at their home in

East Sussex but he was off-duty on the fateful day though rightly killed by fire trying

to put it out and save a life (LRD 8). On duty deaths are now defined as the deaths of

a fire-fighter in uniform and doing his/her daily shift. Fire-fighters who die in accidents

in service vehicles are also included in this definition. The definition in fact entails

those responding to an emergency or even returning from service performance. If

 Client’s Surname 13

fire-fighters suffer hearts attacks or suffocate when fighting fire or during training

session, they are included in this definition (Fire Brigade Union 12).

There are other cases that are not recorded in the ‘on duty’ deaths but are

identified as fire fighter deaths from work related causes. There is a record of fire-

fighter committing suicide while on shift. The cases of Derbyshire and Hampshire

have been controversial in this regard (LRD 9). Numerous fire-fighters die from

illnesses acquired while on job like cancers and lung disease because of exposure to

carcinogens like asbestos and other radiations in the course of doing their job

(Hodous 222). These types of deaths are not counted as fire-fighter deaths in the

category of on duty fatalities.

2.2 Causes of Fire-fighter Fatalities

The fundamental causes of deaths are in most cases organizational and they

include aspects that can be corrected by management especially change of policies

and use of right resources (Ide 387).

Investigation reports show that the deaths of fire-fighters are directly related to

the poor assessment of the underlying risk of the incidents (LRD 22). Fire-fighters

have been released to work in situations that were inadequately assessed and that

has greatly contributed to the injuries and fatalities (Hodous 222). There are also

some concerns with the type of equipment used for fire fighting. Some ladders,

vehicle and fire fighting tools have malfunctioned and resulted in accidents and

deaths (Hodous 222).

Problem with communication is so serious and poor execution of commands

or a hitch in communication could be fatal as it has been before (Hodous 222).

Previous reports have evidence that there are several cases of failure to execute
 Client’s Surname 14

work effectively especially integrated risk evaluation and management because of

poor skills (Ide 387). Such insufficiencies have woefully compromised the safety of

fire-fighters. Several fire and rescue service policies and processes are derisory as

compared to the standards that are set for protecting fire brigades (LRD 22).

The reports by OASD revealed that many fire-fighters are inadequately trained

for emergency response based on a wide continuum of services that are necessary

for the rescue mission (Fire Brigade Union 17) These aspects included incident

command skill, inadequate training and no enough specialization in safety of critical

elements like use of breathing equipment or experts in structure (as in building and

construction). Some crucial training programs have been eliminated from the fire and

rescue services (LRD 22).

The failures of leadership to offer proper direction despite modernization

greatly impacted on the safety of fire brigades. The management has been linked to

the increased risk and death of the fire-fighters (Ide 388). The aspects of risk

analysis, incident command, emergency training and use of the equipment are very

crucial for fire fighting and hence need thorough reassessment and training.

1. Deaths from operational activities are those deaths that occur when fire-

fighters are on their way to an incident responding to a call, or when returning

from a fire fighting job (LRD 22). Fire-fighter vehicles sometimes involve in grisly

accidents leading to deaths

2. Fire deaths are the deaths that are a direct consequence of burning from the

flares and asphyxiation. Some deaths under this category include those that

happen following collapse of walls (Ide 388).

 Client’s Surname 15

3. Natural cause category includes deaths that occur by natural process like a

heart attack during operational events or after the activities while still on duty (Ide

388).

2.3 UK’s Fire fighting Approach

United Kingdom utilizes ventilation and use of breathing equipment as the

main activities of in managing incidences and fighting fires. All fire fighters that were

breathing apparatus have tallies that contain certain information and it’s these tallies

that are the basis of the regulatory system that monitors the way fire-fighter move in

and out of the structures of fire (Young 47b). The external controllers are hence able

to watch the fire brigade safety and can quickly kick off a rescue operation to safe

fire-fighters at risk when needed.

Besides controlling the entry and exist activities, there are specific operating

systems that guide UK fire brigades in managing the way in which they would deal

with intricate smoke-filled structures (Young 47b). Certainly, no system is faultless

and while accidents are comparatively uncommon, they still happen occasionally.

The UK has adopted the “safe person” model and this is about development to good

attitude towards fire-fighter’s safety. The old fashioned type of fire fighting which was

aggressive, uninhibited and personal approach to fire-fighting is likely to cause more

accidents according to fire and rescue studies.

2.4 Safe Personnel

The United Kingdom applies different model to fire-fighting safety and health

from other countries and work departments. The normal approach in other places is

to identify the safety hazards and then eliminate these hazards so that they job can

be done safely (Young 43a). For instance, if fire-fighters are working in areas that
 Client’s Surname 16

are filled with fumes, the fire-fighters should ventilate the place so that they can

improve visibility and also let the fumes out as fresh air comes in (Thomson 123).

It’s been recognized that this type of approach is very hard to achieve

because the fire-fighter places of work are not usually the same each time. The

workplace for fire-fighters is hazardous in nature and it’s the role of the fire-fighters

themselves to make their workplace safe for working so that they can save lives and

salvage property without hurting themselves or succumbing to death in the process

(Young 48b). Basically, the smoking and the flaring fire cannot be removed easily

and therefore it’s appropriate that safety of the fire-fighter is achieved through some

special means (Thomson 126). The best approach hence includes selecting the

most qualified individuals or crew. The qualifications include proper training in skills,

use of equipment and clothing, good communication and incident control.

2.5 The Art of Extinguishment

The science of extinguishment is to ensure that fires are put out by removing

the four components making up the fire. Water is the basic putting out method used

for fires. The first is component is heat - the removal of heat from the fire is the

cooling process and universally, water is used as it has the ability to absorb a lot of

heat from the fire converting it to steam (Bernard 56). Without the heat, the fuel

cannot effectively combine with oxygen to keep on burning. The second process by

which fires are extinguished is by smothering where the water is heated to boiling

point by the heat in the fires and when this happens, water is converted to steam or

vapour (Thomson 123). Vapour dilutes oxygen in the air and the reduced oxygen

cannot support fires. Form can also achieve this effectively and it’s usually added to

water during fire extinguishing process.

 Client’s Surname 17

A third way to put out fires is the removal of fuel from the fires. This is

basically achieved by curbing the flow of the fuel responsible for fires like gases of

liquids. Otherwise the fire can be allowed to deplete the fuel by itself then it is put off

by itself (Bernard 56). The fourth way to achieve extinguishment is by inhibiting the

chemical changes that take place. This can be achieved by use of halogenated

chemicals and other dry chemicals which inhibit the process of combustion and stop

flaming.

2.5.1 Strategic ventilation

Strategic ventilation is very important in the process of fire fighting and this

may need to be carried out at any time in the strategic fire-fighting. In many

occasions, fire fighters have overlooked the significance of ventilation. Generally this

disregard is common among the fire fighting companies that do not have ladders.

Smoke is a major hazard in the event of a fire (Bernard 59). It contains poisonous

gases that cause suffocation and obstructs vision as well. Ventilation is a strategy

used to put out the fires and reduce smoke. Paul Grimwood was the man behind the

introduction of tactical ventilation in management of fires to put a well organized and

smart way to fight fires. Strategic ventilation has since then been adopted by the

United Kingdom fire fighters (Bernard 66). Strategic ventilation is actually the

process of venting or containing fires in one place so that the fire fighters have

control over it and interior fire fighting operations can be done (Grimwood 35).

Ventilation helps to create a safe working environment for fighting fire and

greatly assists in fire extinguishment (Grimwood 39). The first thing that ventilation

does is to pull the fire away from areas that cannot be accessed or where people

could be trapped. It can also reduce the spread of fire by directing it to open areas
 Client’s Surname 18

where fire fighters can effectively attack it and reduce smoke and other hazards like

chocking, heat and wasting water (Thomson 129).

2.5.2 Tactical Ventilation: UK vs. US

The fire fighters in the UK have always carried out the Positive pressure

ventilation techniques when faced with fires (Grimwood 39). PPV is a ventilating

strategy where a fan is used to divert fires to certain parts of the structure under fire

so that the areas of increased pressure can pull smoke away and creating safe zone

where fire fighters can then secure and rescue people (Bernard 69). The exit

direction for the smoke is very essential in this process. The disadvantage of this is

that in some cases, fire may be initiated.

Hydraulic ventilation is done by deviating fire and smoke towards openings

like the doors or windows. By this means, smoke is effectively pulled out of the

structure (Grimwood 39). It helps to confine the fires, save lives, extinguish flames

and also reduce the exposure rates.

Rescue ventilation involves directing fire away from potential victims and

helping to clear ways like the staircases, corridors and verandas so that fire fighting

rescue operations are safely conducted. Confinement ventilation helps to stop the

heat from flashing over (Grimwood 45). Ventilation helps to make fires visible to the

fire fighters so that the inside of the buildings can be more accessible and safer. The

key point is to know when, where and how to apply it. In full flamed structure with

poisonous gases, ventilation can be a very important tool.

The fire and rescue missions in United Kingdom are managed based on the

county or the metropolitan area where the fire occurs and they often use fire brigade

to refer to the fire-fighters. The term brigade was largely used in early 19th century

before it was replaced by use of fire and rescue team following changes in the
 Client’s Surname 19

legislation. In the rural areas of the UK, fire fighter stations are operated by retained

fire fighters who man the station on part time basis. The stations not only respond to

incidences of fires but also to other emergencies that threaten people lives, property

and the environment as well.

Chapter Three: Research Methodology

3.0 Introduction

This was a descriptive study that sought to provide information of the disaster

that is killing the most courageous people in the society who risk their health and

lives to save lives and property in the event of fires (Malterud 487). The research

was designed to assess the trends of fire-fighter deaths, the causes and safety

measures. This research methodology was designed in a manner that it was able to

answer the research questions and accomplish the proposed objectives of the study.
 Client’s Surname 20

3.1 Method and Design

The study was a descriptive utilizing both qualitative and quantitative research

methods of research. A number of articles were selected, which covered the fire-

fighter deaths incidences in the UK (Hodous 224). The research included a literature

search, targeted interviews and semi-structured questionnaires (Malterud 487). The

Literature review started from the Learning Resource Centre of the University.

Internet articles were searched by use of key words punched in the search

engines to find sources that talked about incidences of fire-fighter injuries, deaths or

deaths of volunteering public (Malterud 487). The literature search was also carried

for the articles that had information on the following; knowledge and skills that are

required for fire-fighting; the standard process of fire fighting that are set for the fire

brigade profession to achieve; the way the industry has used the available

knowledge and technology for their job (Malterud 487); the safety of fire fighting job,

recommended qualifications and process for the job and government involvement in

regulation of fire fighter safety.

There were five visits to places that previously suffered fire incidences and

deaths occurred. Interviews were also conducted in these areas; South Yorkshire,

West Midlands, Warwickshire, South Wales and Cornwall fire department. These are

just some of the areas that were selected for this study but literature search provided

more details because most of it covered the entire country. These fire department

provided information that was crucial for describing and understanding the conditions

of the fire department on the ground hence assisted in the research attempt to

answer the research questions.

The researcher also developed two questionnaires that assisted in answering

the five major research questions. The objective and depth of the information to be
 Client’s Surname 21

collected determined the structure of the questions, however, the general questions

were written first and followed by deep questions that narrowed down to specific

aspects that were being investigated (Patton 134). The reason for the two

questionnaires was because one targeted the administrators and the other was for

the workers who go to the incidences of fire and do the actual fire fighting.

3.2 Participants

The sample consisted of 500 fire-fighters, but only 401 responded to the

interview and questionnaires. Out of these individuals 136 were working in the

administrative positions while the rest (265) were actual fire-fighters who have

experience in fire-fighting and some had witnessed the actual deaths of their

colleagues. The researcher also ensured gender balance where the sample was

doctored to have almost same number of men and women. There were 195 female

participants and 206 were men.

3.3 Data Collection

The participants were interviewed and recorded for later analysis of their

responses. They were also asked to complete the semi-structured questionnaires

the needed time to recollect some incidences hence make comprehensive accounts.

The questionnaires were sent through email to the participants and they were

requested to fill and send them back (Patton 138). They were assured that their

information would be treated as confidential since confidentiality was an essential

factor of consent (Malterud 487).

The questionnaire will be classified into different sections to help integrate the

responses given and allow easy analyses. The first section is to assess the ability of

participants to use apply their skills, knowledge in the event of incident.

 Client’s Surname 22

Questions that addressed the knowledge, skills and abilities were rated on a

3-point scale (1 – don’t know, 2 – Need some help, 3 – can do it independently)

Concerning experience with fire fighting events and the safety guidelines or

requirements, and application of technology, the question were rated on a 4-point

scale (1- never heard nor used it, 2 – heard of it but never used it, 3 – used it once, 4

– often use it).

Concerning the perception of the participants regarding safety of the workers

and the public standards set by the fire department, adherence by fire fighters,

knowledge of these standards and general feelings of the effort to provide safety

were on a 5-point scale (1- totally agree, 2 – agree, 3 – not sure, 4 – disagree, 5 –

strongly disagree).

3.4 Limitation

There are possibly several limitations that can affect research is the choice of

type and study period (time) in which to conduct the research. There is likely to be a

problem with generalization of the study outcomes considering that the research

covered a very large area of the country but took few people from these departments

(Malterud 488). There was risk of technical limitations and biasness because the

respondents could have wanted to portray themselves as being more knowledgeable

with their job they really are. They may also want to portray their programs as being

very efficient hence may give false impression of the real situation on the ground.

3.5 Ethical Issues

The study adhered to the voluntary participation principle where participants

were required to accept to take part willing and that they could withdraw at any

moment (Malterud 488). The research also upheld the doctrine of informed consent

where participants were fully informed about the research with mention of possible
 Client’s Surname 23

benefits and disadvantages of the research process and risks that they could face if

they accepted to take part (Patton 134). They were only allowed to take part after

their accent to informed consent form agreeing to the process guidelines.

Confidentiality principle was also assured, in that only the researcher would

access participant’s information. Anonymity was also ensured by not allowing names

on the research questionnaires and this was the minimal guarantee privacy (Patton

134).

Chapter Four: Results

4.0Introduction

It is not an easy job to categorise the deaths of fire-fighters based on the

causes of the deaths over the past three decades because sometimes the death is

as a result of a combination of causes. However, from the literature search of

information on deaths in the UK, the research found that the information of deaths

since 1978 had been recorded properly and hence enabling the easy study of the
 Client’s Surname 24

deaths over the past 30 years (LRD 21). The numbers of deaths show a consistent

trend with minimal differences but the deaths seem to have been generally

increasing with time. Deaths reduced towards 1990s but then started increased

again into 2000’s (LRD 21). There were at least 34 deaths of fire-fighters in the

1990s classified under on duty deaths and this was considerably less than the figure

in the 1980s where at least 47 deaths were recorded. In the 2000’s the number of

deaths is was over 33 deaths but no article gave the complete or conclusive data.

4.1Main Causes of fire Brigade Deaths in UK

Fire deaths: a considerable number of deaths were caused by fire-fighters

sustaining of burns or suffering asphyxiation from smoke. Some deaths were as a

result of collapsing structures and a case of acetylene accident was also recorded.

These deaths accounted for 36% of all the deaths recorded in the study areas (LRD

21). However, the numbers are said to be underestimated because some fire-fighter

sustain heart attack that lead to death like a case of Warwickshire in 1999 was not

considered death by fire (LRD 21). The number of fire-fighter deaths was highest in

the 2000s in a period of three decades.

Natural Causes: about 30% of fire-fighter deaths are as a result of natural

causes of death that are related to fire fighting. Heart attacks are common and they

take place during the process of fire fighting or shortly after the task. The cases

studied did not include deaths of workers when off duty (LRD 22).

Accidents: many fire-fighters die in line of duty in accidents which commonly

happen when the fire-fighters are responding to a call or when they are coming from

the incident of fire or at the incident. Sometimes accidents happen when ladders or

other fire fighting equipment malfunctions and cause death. Most accidents also

resulted from lack of awareness, fitness and fire-fighter mistakes.

 Client’s Surname 25

4.2 Activity that Caused Deaths And Injury

Seventy percent of the deaths occurred when the fire-fighters were carrying

out emergency operations like responding to fire incidents, working at the scene and

when returning to station from an incidence. Twenty nine percent however took place

during the non-emergency operations including the training operations, management

activities among other fire fighting related activities.

The statistics are as follows 1. Incident operations 39%; Responding or

reacting to an incident – 19%; training – 13%; Non-fire emergencies - 11% after a

task – 2% and other duties are 16%.

4.3Nature of Fatal Injury

The deaths were classified four categories as follows; heart attacks – 40%

internal trauma 35% asphyxiation – 13% and burns – 6%. Age was also a factor in

this study. According to the research, it was more likely that younger fire-fighters

would die after suffering traumatic injuries and the deaths of older fire-fighters was

due to heart attack.

4.4Factors contributing to Deaths

The study identified four categories under this section. The first category was

the factors that involved equipment malfunction, poor training, workman errors,

structural malfunction and poor coordination and teamwork. The second category

included lack of fire-fighter fitness, size of the team, weather or nature of

environment at the moment and fatigue of the fire-brigade.

Third category included factors regarding protective equipment and

dangerous substances that could be found close to the cases of fire. Category four

included issues of decision making, poor communication, indecisiveness, breech of

 Client’s Surname 26

command/protocol and lack of situational understanding. Group four of the factors

alone was indicated to contribute about 30% of the fire-fighter injuries and deaths.

4.5Describing Causes of Deaths

This study identified the factors the made up a profile that lead to death as the

peers responded. The research identified factors that contributed to death and

defined them as listed below.

1. Incident commander: this is the person responsible for coordinating

facilities, working equipment, the personnel, handling communication and

overseeing the process in the organization and managing the assigned

resources so that they can effectively accomplish their work objective

concerning an incident or during training (Angle 167). Any hitch or blunder in

doing this job could be fatal

2. The Crew Size: this includes the people in the company particularly the

fire crew. They include the trained personnel working with fire equipment like

ladders, tankers, rescue operations and other assigned activities (Young 43a).

3. Inadequate Training: This describes deficient instruction and hands on

experience in the fire-fighting activities including use of equipment and

adherence to protocol that are expected to be used to perform the duties

assigned (Young 43a).

4. Poor communication: this describes deficient radio, phone and

messenger services during emergency response as this is necessary for the

incident commander to communicate with other fire-fighting officers and other

emergency health responders (Angle 167).

5. Breech of Standard Operating System: this are written organizational

processes that express or lay down specified operational or administrative

 Client’s Surname 27

process to be followed stepwise in the routine performance of assigned duties

(Angle 167)..

6. Breech of protocol: this is a command that described the common

professional practice or process of action when carrying out tactical operations.

The aim of having a protocol is to streamline certain processes according to the

set routine. Protocol by definition is a mandatory process that has to be

adhered to by the people involved in that profession and guides assessment

and management decisions.

7. Structural failure is when building collapse because of the impact of fire

or fire fighting activities

8. Dangerous substance: this included flammable and potentially

explosive materials like petroleum, aerosols or gas. This also included some

hazardous substances including wastes or raw materials used in industries and

has the potential of causing a disaster. Examples included pesticide, chlorine,

other industrial wastes, chlorobenzene etc.

Other factors include wellness and fitness problems, violence, weather, and

blunders by the officers, public error, indecisiveness, equipment failure, situational

awareness problem and poor teamwork corporation.

Chapter Five: Recommendation and Conclusion

5.0 Introduction

Stopping or alleviating the number of injuries and deaths recorded during fire-

fighter on-duty activities requires a holistic approach that will change the fire fighting

concept, the policies that regulated the job and the entire knowledge and skills
 Client’s Surname 28

needed for the practice (Angle 167). As such, this paper recommends that the UK

fire fighting departments should seek to instigated institutional and managerial

changes in the fire fighting industry. In order to understand the changes that have

to be made, the UK context of fire fighting was assessed. Basically, it was found that

the fire brigade industry in the UK mainly have professionals as the main workers

and very few member of the public who volunteer part-time. To ensure better service

delivery, these volunteers are usually trained. All fire-fighters enjoy the same

privileges as career fire-fighters.

5.1Improving Emergency Medical Response

The risk involved in the rescue of victims in a fire disaster is the first problem

that hinders effective performance of the emergency medical service. The sites of

the disaster are always risky with flying objects, collapsing structure, human

movement, noise and confusion (Angle 168). At times this may lead to loss of lives of

the paramedics and the fire fighters. There needs to be some major improvements in

the medical response unit to improve provision of emergency health care to the

injured people at an incident (Angle 168).

The health hazards have to be reduced by provision of safer garments and

equipment especially modified breathing equipment the fire-fighters can use without

endangering their lives. The safer equipment are systematized in to engine, ladder

and dangerous material units, all these enable assignment specific work that allows

effective utilization of manpower and the apparatus (Angle 169).

The on-scene operation has been a serious problem with some individuals

working independently and bringing out confusion which is risky to the victims who

are in need of medical service. The fire department has to restructure the on-scene

command system managing all the aspects of the operations taking place at the
 Client’s Surname 29

scene of the disaster for better coordination (Angle 171). Working together with other

departments of fire brigade is necessary as the disaster management requires

mutual collaboration by medical services, transport and fire-fighting.

Major improvements made include the use of standing orders or protocols as

compared to the radio calls that unreliable, sponsoring specialized teams that

include rescue operations, vehicle search and hazardous material units (Angle 171).

In order to increase chances of survival of victims of a fire disaster either fire fighter

or individuals from the public, the emergency health care providers have to be

included in the whole operation.

5.2Enhancing Regulation

The UK should strengthen its legislative framework to ensure that the industry

attains a very strong degree of standardized legal requirements. Currently, the local

government does not have any regulation role. Concerning enforcement of the laws,

the UK fire and Rescue services are not given any special treatment in judicial and

prosecutor matters whether it’s a case concerning civil or legal law (Jones 2). The

employers (if the injured people) are punished thoroughly in case of deaths and

injuries and the normal prosecution process is applied justly.

Even though issue of empathy comes to play when fire-fighters risk their lives

to save people and property, when life is lost or permanent injuries are sustained,

then the employer should face the law accordingly (Jones 2). Such regulation with

have profound impact on the management in that they will be increased awareness

and accountability for the health and safety of the fire-fighters.

5.3Government Guidance

The government should increase its proactive role by offering direction to the

employers on matters of safety of the fire brigade (Jones 3). The government should
 Client’s Surname 30

encourage fire department to adopt the best good safety and health practice so that

the workers are exposed to working situations that are safer to do their job in.

There is a clause that targets on the reduction of error and influencing

behaviour of the workers. The message in this is very clear that consideration of the

human safety was a key factor in efficient health and safety implementation (Jones

3). The government should through this, advice fire department to start behaviour

change programs that would reduce chances of human error since that can have a

grave impact on their safety and health. Human behaviour at workplaces influences

working style and this should be directed and creating safety culture.

The government should revitalize the health and safety services which

encouraged partnership of the government, employers and workers in creating a self

regulating industry (Jones 4). The regulation program would be founded on goal

setting, adherence to legal regulation and also seek new knowledge and skill that

enhance safety.

5.4Competency and Safety

Competence is a very important factor in fire-fighter safety and the UK has for

several years accepted that individual competency was a crucial component of

safety. In many incidences, fire-fighter injuries and deaths have been indicated from

assessment that there was no objective way of demonstrating that the fire-fighter

were competent for the task they were doing when the fate came (Jones 5). Being

trained and having been employed alone was not enough to show that the workers

were competent at workplace in a way that could be authenticated.

This is the reason why the government should revitalize the integrated

personal development strategy where a competent individual had to demonstrate

that, he/she was confident enough to carry out the tasks (Young 43a). The reason
 Client’s Surname 31

behind this a strategy was that one could only be safe when she/he was competent.

It’s very similar to the integrated risk management approach – the IRMP. Redefining

this strategy would be very crucial in improving safety. The approach should first

describe the nature of the risk that the fire-brigades face in their workplace. Risks

vary from very tall buildings, chemical industries, electricity fires and residential

houses among others (Young 45a; Jones 2). The IRMP then plans how the risks will

be minimized. The process guides the rescue work from organization of

transportation, crew organization, training, communication and other factors that

affect the health and safety of a fire-fighter.

5.3.1 The Safe Person Concept

By providing safety to the fire-fighters, everyone else is safeguarded because,

during and incident, fire-fighters take charge and everything that happens at that

place is then upon their call (Young 45a). However the main challenge is to

determine when, how or where their next working place will be and therefore very

hard to make that place safe (Young 45a). As a consequence, the UK devised a

strategy that was targets to make the fire-fighter to carry their safety to the incident, a

model that is identified as Safe Person Concept. There are two elements of this

approach. The first is the organizational responsibility which includes duties like

training and instruction of the fire-fighters, recruitment and selection, provision of

safety equipments and oversight (Jones 2). The second factor is personal

responsibility which includes competency in skills, team player, discipline, awareness

of strengths and personal weakness, adaptability and vigilant.

5.3.2 Effective response

Before responding to an incident, the fire-fighter crew should ensure that they

have all the main elements that are required for effective fire suppression. There
 Client’s Surname 32

should always be sufficient number of the fire-fighter crew who are trained, skilled,

experienced and accredited for fire fighting with help from other departments like

helicopters rappel squad etc (Young 45a); the crew should use the equipment

specifically designed for that type of incidence for instance equipments for structural

fires are different from those of bush fires; people should be on the ground to ensure

effective communication like signals and so on during an incident.; new technologies

should be applied to interpret the fire situation as fire fighting progresses and modern

logistics should be deployed to assist in ground orations including emergency health

services to the rescued victims and fatigue issues (Jones 4).

5.3.3 Future Fire fighting

Besides integrated training and recruitment of more qualified fire-fighters,

there needs to be good working equipment and coordination. The fire and rescue

department of UK should invest in more effective radio and communication gadgets

because effective communications consistent with safety of the fire fighters (Jones

5). This means commands, signal and the whole operation will be conducted

effectively and therefore without much risk hence it would be very safe. The industry

should always obtain the new technologies and modernized equipment for fire

fighting to enhance safety. When equipment is safe to use and protect workers from

harm then the risk of injury and death is minimized.

Works Cited

Angle, James. “Occupational Safety and Health in the Emergency Services,” New

York, Delmar Cengage Learning Publishers, 2004. Print.

Bernard, Klaene. “Structural Fire fighting Strategies and Tactics,” Sudbury; Jones

and Bartlett Publishers, 2007. Print.

 Client’s Surname 33

Fire Brigade Union. “Sharp Rise in Fire-fighter Deaths Linked to Training and

Absence of Safety Critical Operational Guidance from Central Government,”

2005, retrieved on 14 January 2011 from http//www.sharp-rise-firefighter-

deaths-linked-training-absence-safety-critical-operational-guidance-

918309.htm

Grimwood, Paul. “Euro Fire-fighter: Global Fire fighting Strategy and Tactics,

Command and Control and Fire-fighter Safety,” West Yorkshire, Jeremy Mills

Publishing, 2008, Print.

Hodous, Thomas., Pizatella, Timothy., Braddee, Richard & Castillo, Dawn. “Fire-

fighter Fatalities 1998-2001: Overview with an Emphasis on Structure Related

Traumatic Fatalities,” Injuries Prevention, 2004; 10, p. 222-226. Print.

Ide, Christopher. “Failing Fire-fighters: A Survey of Causes of Deaths and Ill-health

Retirement in Services Fire-fighters In Strathclyde, Scotland From 1985-

1994,” Occupational Medicine, 1998, 48, p. 382-388. Print.

Jones, Mark. “Reducing Fire-fighter Deaths and Injuries: Changes in Concept, Policy

and Practice,” A PERI Symposium, Fire and Rescue Service, 2005. Print.

Labour Research Department (LRD). In The Line of Duty: Fire-fighter Deaths Since

1978. Kingston upon Thames, UK: Fire Brigades Union, 2008. Print.

Malterud, Kirsti. “Qualitative Research- Standards, Challenges, and Guidelines,”

the Lancet, 2004, Vol. 358; Issue 9280 pp 487 – 498. Print.

Patton, Michael. “Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods,” London, sage

publisher, 2002. Print.

Peterson, David. “Fire fighting: Risky Business Dealing with the Risk of Emergency

Response,” Firehouse.com, 2002

 Client’s Surname 34

Thomson, Delmar. “The Fire-fighter’s Handbook. Essentials of Fire Fighting and

Emergency Response (2nd Ed),” New York, Delmar Cengage Learning

Publishers, 2004. Print.

Young, Paul. “The UK Approach to Fire-fighter Safety in Structure Fires,” Fire

Engineers Journal, 2001, 47-48. Print.

Young, Paul. “Integrated Risk Management and Fire Fighter Safety in the United

Kingdom,” Fire Department Integrated Risk Analysis and Management – A

PERI Symposium, Fire and Rescue Service, United Kingdom, 2002. Print.