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2
MAURICK COLLEGE VUGHT
Profielwerkstuk
door
Mike Voets
geboren op 24 juli 1993
te ‘s-Hertogenbosch
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Begeleiders : ing. M. W. B. M. Leensen (M.Ed)
prof. dr. A. Brekke
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Contents
Abstract ...........................................................................................................................................................6
Foreword .........................................................................................................................................................6
1 Research ......................................................................................................................................................7
1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Questions and hypothesis .................................................................................................................................. 9
1.3 Implementation ................................................................................................................................................ 9
2 Theory ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Solar plasma ....................................................................................................................................................10
2.1.1 Introduction. .......................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1.2 Solar flares............................................................................................................................................................. 10
2.1.3 Coronal mass ejections. ......................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1.4 Solar Proton Events. .............................................................................................................................................. 11
2.1.5 Conclusion. ............................................................................................................................................................ 12
2.2 Atmosphere ....................................................................................................................................................12
2.2.1 The different layers and their distinct characteristics. .......................................................................................... 12
2.2.2 The densities of different altitudes........................................................................................................................ 13
2.2.3 Stratospheric effects by solar proton events......................................................................................................... 14
2.2.4 Production of nitric oxide by energetic electrons. ................................................................................................. 14
2.3 The geomagnetic field .....................................................................................................................................15
2.3.1 Introduction. .......................................................................................................................................................... 15
2.3.2 The influence on the directions of charged particles. ........................................................................................... 15
2.4 Stopping altitudes ...........................................................................................................................................15
2.4.1 Introduction. .......................................................................................................................................................... 15
2.4.2 Stopping power in relation to the troposphere. .................................................................................................... 15
3 Results ....................................................................................................................................................... 16
3.1 Conclusion........................................................................................................................................................16
Epilogue ........................................................................................................................................................ 16
References..................................................................................................................................................... 17
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important factor at the questions about the world
Abstract we are living in.
During the previous age, science has grown
bigger by mainly telecommunication. The statuses
It has already been investigated that protons in the
of holy books have now largely been taken over by
stratosphere collide with other molecules in the
science and it doesn’t look like the growth can be
atmosphere and push off electrons. These
stopped. If people look at streets and cities, almost
electrons ionize nitrogen in the stratosphere,
everything what can be seen is a product of
which results into a significant destruction of
science. The whistling birds; enormous buildings
ozone. In August of 1972, during a solar proton
wherein hundreds of people are working: science
event, a significant loss of ozone in the
is trendy on a large scale in the world and human
stratosphere was measured. The tales and reports
beings are part of it all the time. Nowadays, young
of northerners can be explained with the
children on school learn to answer the main
knowledge about the situation in the stratosphere
questions of science. That the earth is a globe, that
and measuring reports of amounts of energy of
it has an atmosphere and that the Sun is a star. The
solar particles. Due to uncommon events on the
knowledge of children expands and after learning
sun, like solar proton events or ground level
the basics, it is the children’s choice, whether they
events, which accelerate solar particles, highly
want to study on a more advanced level or not. My
energetic protons sometimes lose their last energy
choice was to take the opportunity to study on a
in the troposphere. Protons are also able to knock
more advanced level and to find more answers.
off electrons by colliding with molecules in the
Since a long time, I have a great passion for
troposphere. In November of 1997, a GLE was
processes which occur outside the Earth’s
classified due to amounts of energy that exceeded
atmosphere. Therefore, I bought a telescope on
10 GeV. Then, even the troposphere was reached
my fifteenth anniversary, which I used to watch
by high energetic protons at beginning velocities of
stars and planets on many cold winter nights of the
nearly the speed of light, as a result of the
years 2008 and 2009. The awareness of being very
enormous amount of energy.
tiny gave me much curiosity for the extraordinary.
Thus, it is not strange that I am going to study
Foreword astronomy at the University of Leiden, after a
break of a year. At the same time I have got an
At the beginning of the Middle Ages, philosophers enormous fascination for the Scandinavian
started to wonder about the marvels of our world countries. The languages; the way to the north; the
and our planet. How and when was our planet bitter cold at the dark winters; the summer nights
created and when will there be an end? At the where the Sun doesn’t set; the steep mountains;
time the philosophers began to wonder, the deep fjords; the clean water coming from glaciers
solutions of the mysteries of our planet and the and of course the impressive northern lights. After
universe were already written down in, for mentioning all these aspects it should not be
example, the holy book of Christianity. strange that I want to study a year in northern
Nevertheless, the wise men tried to give answers Norway.
to these fundamental questions without looking in In order to combine my two interests and
the Bible. Scientists joined the philosophers on the passions and because it is a great subject, I chose
research and the request at getting clearer for the northern lights. My teacher in physics
answers grew. Extraordinary inventions, like agreed with me to do this project, because I have
printing, made the distribution of science much always been interested in physics. My first
easier. Since then, it was just a matter of a small intention was to investigate the northern lights,
amount of time, before science was accepted as an
aurora and the direct influences on the weather.
However, because of the regular aurora which
occurs on a height of eighty kilometers and higher,
it didn’t seem very realistic that there is a
significant direct influence of the aurora on the
weather. That is why I studied the causes of aurora
and whether it could have any influences on the
lower parts of our atmosphere when extreme solar
eruptions occur.
Watching the northern lights is a very
special privilege. During my stay in Tromsø, on an
early night, the northern lights were clearly visible.
Despite the fact that at the beginning of the night
clouds disabled the sight at the northern lights, a
couple of hours later, the clouds were Figure 1.1-1. In ancient cultures the northern lights are
disappearing. I decided to watch the aurora at a seen as the realms of dead ancestors and friends
great distance from the city, on a mountain far
away from traffic lights. There, the sky was clearly 1 Research
visible with all its stars and the flickering northern
lights. Seeing it was truly a sensation. The speed 1.1 Introduction
which the aurora seemed to move with, was
unexpectedly high. The colors varied and the At the northern parts of Earth, the northern lights,
brightness of the lights was unbelievably high as also known as aurora borealis, influenced ancient
well. It truly is the best thing I have ever seen and I cultures, their thoughts and minds. Without a
would like to see it more often. single warning a green strip of light can appear at
In this report, there could be some false the night sky, followed by others. Northerners are
references and assumptions, which have been inspired by these phenomena; magical lights
eliminated as good as possible. But unfortunately, moving near the Milky Way, accompanied by a
there might remain some mistakes unseen. Hereby crackling sound from dead spirits.
I apologize for the unseen mistakes in this report, In the Sami culture, situated in the
whatever the type of fault is. A small mistake has northern parts of Scandinavia and Russia, the
been made quickly, but can be adjusted very northern lights are called Guovsahas, the audible
quickly as well. Please don’t bother small mistakes light. Many people like the Sami culture are
and assumptions and report these as soon as convinced that there is a particular sound
possible. accompanied when aurora occurs. It may be a
I thank you for reading this report and misheard thing, because northern lights shine at an
therefore I hope that it will be comfortable to read altitude of 100 km. At the height of 100 km, the
and a good reference to other research projects. density is too thin to carry any sound. Sound
Thank you for putting time at reading and facing cannot travel 100 km through the atmosphere with
the results and the conclusion. I appreciate your a density that thin.
efforts highly and thus I hope to get a good There is a myth that tells that one should
response, with a great view on possible mistakes. wave to the northern lights to let them move.
However, others warned people against waving to
the northern lights, because it would kill people.
An old folklore tradition tells that the aurora was
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associated with the death and dead spirits. If
people would wave to the dead spirits, they would
get in contact with their dead friends and family,
who want the people to come along. The people
who waved would soon die and reunite themselves
with their family at the northern lights. Because of
this myth, some people are still scared of these
lights of the north.
Not only is the thought that the northern
lights are the realms of death a myth. There are
many folklore stories in the Norse mythology and
from former inhabitants of Greenland, which try to
explain the characteristics of the northern lights. In
the Scandinavian countries, even today people are
superstitious. Waving to it is still seen as Figure 1.1-2. Overview of solar particles being sent
dangerous and children are told that they from the solar atmosphere to the geomagnetic field
shouldn’t. At nights, when aurora is strongly active,
and can be seen everywhere on the celestial Notice the activity of aurora, when people
sphere, people reported feeling static air. Air reported strange phenomena like sounds and the
would smell like it contains ozone, and particular smell of ozone. Obviously, the charged particles
clothes would stick to people’s bodies. seem to appear in the lower atmosphere, when
The sounds of aurora, reminiscent of the auroral activity is very high.
crackling silver paper, might be an illusion. Since There has been done research on ozone
where aurora occurs, the density of the affection in the stratosphere. The American
atmosphere is too thin to let sound travel that far Association for the Advancement of Science found
to the surface. Assuming that somehow there can in Solar Proton Events: Stratospheric Sources of
be a sound accompanied, there should be another Nitric Oxide, that the production of nitric oxide in
explanation. the stratosphere during major solar proton events
At nights, when aurora is very dynamically have been comparable or larger than the total
visible all over the celestial sphere, people average annual production of nitric oxide by the
reported to feel air that has an electric charge, and action of galactic cosmic rays. Besides the
it would smell like ozone. Air itself could not be production of ozone, the stopping altitude for
electrically charged. Air is a mixture of several electrons and protons in case of vertical incidence
individual materials, like nitrogen and oxygen. to the atmosphere has been investigated by
None of these materials are electrically charged. Luhmann in 1995. A formula from Wisselwerking
However, electrons or protons are electrically Ioniserende Straling met Materie from the
charged and could cause the static feeling. The University of Eindhoven, can be used to calculate
appearance of charged particles may also give a the required energy for an electron that travels
reason for the heard sound and the smelled ozone down to a certain depth in the atmosphere. With
during auroral events, since the charged particles this formula, the densities of different parts of the
can lead to electrical discharges on ground or snow atmosphere are needed. The MSIS-E-90
crystals. That discharge electrifies air and could Atmosphere model from Virtual Ionosphere,
increase the amount of loose electrons and ions. Thermosphere, Mesosphere Observatory (VITMO)
The available oxygen would perhaps split and offers a solution. The model calculates the
ozone would be created.
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1.3 Implementation
9
These long during events might be accompanied by
coronal mass ejections (see 1.3.3).
The solar flares are classified and thus
identified by their x-rays intensity. The scale of
intensities is divided in five letters (A, B, C, M and
X) where A is the weakest and X the strongest
intensity. To be more precise, the letter is always
accompanied by a particular number. B4.5 for
example, means that the X-ray intensity equals
4.5·10-7 W·m-2. Thus, the x-ray flare intensity is
measured in units power per square meters. The
list of the scale with the classes is shown in figure
2.1-2.
Figure 2.1-1. An enormous loop of solar plasma can be
created when there is an eruption on the sun A = 1.0·10-8 W·m-2
B = 1.0·10-7 W·m-2
2 Theory C = 1.0·10-6 W·m-2
M = 1.0·10-5 W·m-2
2.1 Solar plasma X = 1.0·10-4 W·m-2
2.1.1 Introduction. Solar plasma is an ionized Figure 2.1-2. An overview on scales of solar flares
gas, which contains both negatively and positively
charged particles. Plasma is generally produced by Large solar flares can have an intensity of ten
heating a gas or liquid to a several thousand million times greater than a volcanic eruption on
degrees Kelvin, forcing the molecules and atoms to Earth. Fortunately, the Earth’s atmosphere has the
split up into electrons and ions. Most matter in the power to defend life on Earth from these large
universe is in the form of plasma. For example, explosions in the Sun’s atmosphere.
stars have plasma in their atmosphere because of
the heat. 2.1.3 Coronal mass ejections. Coronal mass
ejections (CME’s) are large explosions in the solar
2.1.2 Solar flares. Solar flares are explosions corona. They expand while rising above the solar
in the Sun’s lower atmosphere, during when a corona. The heat that is associated with the
great amount of energy is discharged. The massive bursts are sometimes equal to millions of
produced energy of a solar flare can heat material degrees Celsius, which enables electrons, protons
to thousands and even millions degrees Celsius in a and other nuclei to get a velocity of near the speed
short amount of time. Solar flares emit radiation of of light. The electrons from these heavy bursts
the electromagnetic spectrum, from white light to have a velocity higher than solar winds ever could
x-rays and gamma rays. Next to the radiation, the have. The sun is able to supply many and fast
solar flares transfer lots of energy to nearby CME’s for hours, especially during the solar
matter, which is accelerated to high velocities. This maximum, which gets its maximum every eleven
matter, mostly plasma, is ejected by acceleration in years.
a particular direction. A solar flare could occur as
short, but strong explosions, but also as a long
lasting brightening, which takes hours to days.
10
Figure 2.1-3. An overview on the occurrence of intense solar events; note the intense solar proton event in the year
1972, which still is reminded as one of the most legendary solar proton events
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station energy. If SPE’s strike satellites like the ISS,
this could lead to a decrease of the supply of
energy from solar panels, which results into a
significant lack of energy to let important
instruments in the satellite work. According to
astronauts, who have claimed to have optically
seen these events, they can be seen as flashes and
strikes, which affect sensitive instruments in the
satellite.
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troposphere, the density varies from 1.3 kg·m-3
(273 K, 1 bar, lower troposphere) to roughly 0.2
kg·m-3 (upper stratosphere).
The troposphere mainly consists of air,
which people on Earth need to be able to live. A lot
of meteorological processes take place in the
troposphere. The density of the troposphere is the
highest of all densities in the atmosphere, and the
mass is 75 percent of the whole atmosphere. The
temperature in the troposphere decreases, when
the height increases.
The tropopause is the boundary between
the troposphere and the stratosphere. The altitude
of this boundary is lower at the poles compared to
the equator. The average altitude of the
tropopause in a region, depends on the average
Figure 2.2-2. Depicting the relation between the temperature of the region. For example, at winter,
altitude and density of the atmosphere the height of the tropopause is lower than at
summer, due to the lower temperatures. The
which is located from 700 to around 10,000 average altitude of the tropopause is
kilometers. The density of this layer is low. The approximately 17 km at the equator; at the
particles, which mainly are helium and hydrogen, (Ant)arctic circle, the altitude is about 9 km. In the
are able to travel one thousand kilometer without stratosphere the temperature increases, when the
colliding in another particle. The layer is a height also increases. Thus, the tropopause marks
transition to outer space. The next layer is called an inversion of the temperature gradient.
the thermosphere. It is located from approximately Apart from the troposphere, the
90 to 690 kilometers high. As the name itself might stratosphere is also used to fly through. Aircrafts
already reveal, the temperatures are extraordinary that fly on an altitude of about 10 km, will enter
high. The temperature of this layer can get up to the lower stratosphere. Just as aircrafts or gliders,
1750 K (Kelvin; approximately 1500 °C). Due to the hot air balloons are also able to cross the
high temperatures that are caused by solar tropopause and get in the stratosphere. Next to
activity, the gas molecules move freely and with a flying or floating, the stratosphere is of other use.
great velocity in this layer. Most of the time aurora The ozone layer, which defends people and
events will take place in the thermosphere and the animals on Earth against high-energetic ultraviolet
mesosphere. Meteors also burn up in the lights, is located in the stratosphere. The ozone
mesosphere. The mesosphere is the third layer (O3) absorbs the radiation and protects the
seen from outer space, which is located from 50 to inhabitants of Earth (see 2.2.3).
80 kilometers above the Earth’s surface. The
highest level of the mesosphere is the coldest 2.2.2 The densities of different altitudes. The
place on Earth; temperatures fall below 173 K density of the atmosphere is dependent on the
(approximately -100 °C), due to cooling by CO2 altitude. The density increases logarithmically. The
emission and the decrease of solar heating. graphic drawing (figure 2.2-2) depicts the relation
The lower atmosphere, which can be divided into between the altitude and density of the
the stratosphere and the troposphere, is the most atmosphere. As it can be seen, the density ρ is
massive part of the atmosphere. Just like the mass, defined in grams per cubic centimeter. The
the density is also relatively high. In the
13
altitude, or height h is defined in kilometers. In the
graphic drawing, the line is almost linear on a
logarithmic scale. Therefore, each altitude has its
distinct value of density and vice versa. It can be
read off the graphic drawing, that the density
varies from approximately 2.1·10-12 g·cm-3 on an
altitude of 150 km to 3.9·10-4 g·cm-3 at the
beginning of the stratosphere.
O(1D) is an excited oxygen atom. A photon, the With these produced atomic oxygen, ozone can be
ultraviolet radiation hv has been absorbed by the destroyed (2.4). This significant loss of ozone in the
oxygen atom. Due to this absorption, the energy of polar regions can have results on the amount of
the oxygen atom is higher than normal. Ozone can absorbance of ultraviolet radiation.
be destructed by atomic oxygen:
14
2.3 The geomagnetic field particles, they are able to get through the
magnetic field, and can collide with the
2.3.1 Introduction. The geomagnetic field, is atmosphere to create auroral events. The Lorentz
together with the atmosphere, one of the two force FL on a charged particle is classically given by:
protectors against the effects of solar plasma. The
magnetic field is a large magnetic dipole, which F L q( v B sin( ))
changes the direction of charged particles from the (2.5)
solar plasma (also called solar wind). The area of
the geomagnetic field is called the magnetosphere. In (2.5), q is the charge of a particle in coulombs, v
The boundary of the magnetosphere is called the is the velocity in meters per second, B is the
magnetopause. magnetic inductance in Tesla. The angle between
the velocity of a particle to the magnetic field lines
2.3.2 The influence on the directions of charged is also important, because the Lorentz force is a
particles. Near the latitude of approximately vector. The velocity has also a direction, just as the
66.3° north and south, one can draw circles with a magnetic field lines. The direction of a particle at
radius of the distance to the north or south pole. the magnetic field lines in the region of the polar
On the southern hemisphere, the circle is called cusp, is almost the same as the direction of the
the Antarctic circle. In the north, it is called the field lines. This means, that the sinus of the angle is
Arctic circle. If one would look at the situation of almost zero. Thus, the Lorentz force will hardly be
the geomagnetic field vertically above the lines of able to decelerate a charged particle.
these circles, there is a rough representation of the
weak point of the geomagnetic field. This is a 2.4 Stopping altitudes
rough representation, because the magnetic north
(or south-) pole is not at the same location as the
2.4.1 Introduction. Stopping altitudes are the
Earth’s north pole. The magnetic north pole has a
altitudes, where particles stop colliding with other
variable location. Nowadays, it is in the backyard of
particles in the atmosphere. At a stopping altitude
Canada. One should draw an ellipse with the
of a particular particle, the particle has lost all its
magnetic north pole, as a focus of the ellipse. At
energy.
this ellipse in the Earth’s magnetic field, the
Protons are accelerated to high velocities
geomagnetic field has an intersection. This
due to intense events, and are able to get very
intersection is called the polar cusp (2.3-1). When
deep down to the lower parts of the atmosphere.
solar particles move through the magnetic field,
Therefore, the investigations of Luhmann (1995)
they mostly got deflected by the Lorentz force.
are used. Luhmann calculated the stopping powers
This Lorentz force will change the direction of
of protons in relation with the stopping altitudes,
electrically charged particles, because of their
which is depicted in figure 2.4-1.
presence near a magnetic field. The charged
particles will float round the geomagnetic field
2.4.2 Stopping power in relation to the
lines.
troposphere. According to the figure 2.4-
Some of these particles will get stuck in the
1, a proton must have an energy of approximately
Van Allen radiation belt. This belt is a huge ring
1 to 10 GeV, in order to travel down to the
around the Earth containing charged particles from
troposphere. According to 2.1.4, these amounts of
solar plasma. This radiation belt is held by the
energies were reached in 1997.
geomagnetic field. The points of the belt that are
nearest to Earth, are near the polar cusps. At the
polar cusps, if solar particles are pushed by other
15
occurred, associated with protons that have
extraordinary amounts of speeds.
3 Results
3.1 Conclusion
16
After possibly colliding with ozone, the protons Byrne, J. P., S. A. Maloney, R. T. J. McAteer, J. M.
continue their travel and collide with other Refojo, and P. T. Gallagher, Propagation of
molecules in the troposphere, and electrons are an Earth-directed coronal mass
knocked off. The electrons that are knocked off, ejection in three dimensions, 2010
cause the feeling of statically charged air, due to Crutzen, P. J., I. S. A. Isaksen, and G. C. Reid, Solar
the fact that there are loose electrons in the air. proton events. Stratospheric Sources of
The electrons are also able to cause an electrical Nitric Oxide, Science, 1975
discharge on the ground or snowflakes. This Jackman, C. H., E. L. Fleming, and F. M. Vitt,
electrical discharge is the reason of a sound Influence of extremely large solar
accompanied with the northern lights. proton events in a changing
In this investigation report, the occurrence stratosphere, Journal of
of solar particles in the lower parts of the Geophysical Research, vol. 105, no. D9,
atmosphere has been researched. A sequel on this 11,659-11,670,2000
report is a research project on the behavior of Lario, D., and G. M. Simnett, Solar Energetic
electrons that collide with snow particles. If Particle Variations, Geophysical
electrical discharges are caused by electrons that Monograph no. 141, 2004
collide with snow, the partial theoretical result of O’Sullivan, D., Galactic cosmic radiation and solar
this research project, which is mentioned before, energetic particles, 2007
can be confirmed. Siscoe, G. L., A historical footnote on the origin of
Visiting the UiT was essential for this aurora borealis, EOS Trans. AGU, 59, 994,
research project. There, great help and assistance 1978
had been granted. Obtaining different and multiple
research projects from investigators helped to
finish and execute this research.
References
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