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• W re 41Id Profts$()T Louis B. Sa",u prtparcd this nou as II basis/or clJ:ssroom discuss'.on.

Harvard Business School

Managing Interpersonal Conflict

Hislor! is largely tlu reGord of conflict. -Kenneth Boulding

Few managers enjoy dealing with conflicts that involve themselves, their bosses, pe rs, or subordinates. Whether the conflict is openly hostile or subtly covert, strong personal feelings may be involved. Furthermore, there are of en valid viewpoints on both sides, making the process of finding an acceptable solution mentally exhausting and emotion a Iy draining. Yet the ability to productively manage such conflict is cntical to managerial success. Interpersonal differences often become sharpest when the organizational stakes seem to be high, but almost a.lI organizations include their share of small issues blown into major conflicts. The managerial problem isto build on human differences of opinion, wtuJe not letting them jeopardize overall performance, satisfac ion. and growth. nus note explores the nature and sources of interpersonal conflict, helps the reader understand its determinants and' dynamics, and discusses several specific approaches to managing conlllct-whether as n adversary or as a third- party mediator.

Some Assumptions and Definitions

Interpersonal conflict typically involves a relationship in which a sequence of conditions and events tend toward aggressive behavior \ and disorder. Conflict can also b viewed. however, in term of its background conditions. the perceptions of the parti s involved. thei7 feelings, their actu behavior, and the consequences 01' outcomes of their behavior.

Conflict is an organiutlionol mllity that is inherently neither good nor bad in and of itself, It can be destructive, but it can also play a productive role both within a p;!Tson and between persons. Problems usually arise when potential conflict is either artificially sup-

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~g, influence. and competitive probl m-solvmg. In addition. the participants often incr ase their own understanding of persona] values and positions on important issues. Conflict will oiten force a manager to clarify an idea more effectively by explaining it to someone who clearly disagrees with it.

Thus conflicts can be useful, or at least can lead to positive outcomes, for the organization and for one or more of the individuals involved. There are often negative consequences, however. and conflict can escalate to a level where negative outcomes outweigh the positive ones.

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Negatlv. O<Jlcomes. Interpersonal conflicts are often unpleasant emotional experiences (or the individuals involved. A subordinate who suppresses anger with a boss; il pair o( managers who exchange angry words with each other; two colleagues who avoid each other because of previous tensions-and jeopardize a department's productivity as a result; two other associates who "play games" by not sharmg relevmt and important information-all of these pathms penalize the organization and have an emOo)nal impact on the people involved. The org . 'ational landscape is littered with managers W'O could not get along WI.h their bosses, coli aguf:o -» or subordinates. In one sense, they were not !slod people managers. but we could also say tha ~ finn had failed to help them develop effec've Y"'lcedures for dealing with conClict.

Wh.en a person is involv.,~ in a conflict relationship. these regative outcoo:.~ spill out as emotions of anger, frustration, fe31 ... ( failure, and a sense of pe~onaJ inadequacy. ~'r ers can be sidetracked 01 ruined. The stress of L .... _ flict relationships can make life miserable fOI people. disrupt patlenu of work. and consume an inordinate amount of':iJne for those involved as well as for those affeeed or indirectly concerned. The direct loss 01 productivity is but one negative business outcome: the danger of continued poor decision ma1dng because of withheld information is yet another. The irony is that \he parties deter:nined to win their own limited bartles often C~Us(! majo: losses for themselves and the organization.

Short- term negative outcomes can also lead to patterns of worsening relationshipe unless some remedial action is taken. and ~ the involved and ird-party managers have the problem 01 deddmg ..... -hen the time Ior ac1ion

has come. Although managers will sometimes maintain tensions over time (or their posinve outcomes. most managers will se to change the situation before the schisms become too great. Before th y can take appropnate steps. however. managers need to understand the behavior king pi ceo

Behavior Patterns

Interpersonal conflicts tend to develop patterns. That is. the two parties first engage in open conflict over a particular issue. then separate or gather forces before coming eoge her and going at each other again. Often an organizational procedure like budgeting. scheduling, or ' ... ode. assignments will precipitate the conflict and serve as part of the background. Sometimes an apparently trivial issue will set off one party against the other. There may even be periods of time when two people seem to work relatively weU together or are effectively buffered from each other. Then. once again. some event or change In circumstances sets them off. Although these' triggering events are not always predictable, they often follow an identifiable p Item. Poor listening. one-up""'nship, power-plays for resources. perceived putdo"""'S. and overcontrolling comments can all serve as t:r!ggering d vices that kindle the fires of distorh," perceptions and feelings. The initial triggering "'"haviors can set in motion reactions and recipro..u behaviors that start a conflict cycle. Careful lY"ention to when and how a conflict heats up is aD important part o( d veJoping a ccnflrct man geThe.nt strategy.

It is equally important to note how the principals involved express their ~rences. When the conflict is open and active. th .. conflict behaviors are ~s .... ~llv obvious: shouMS: ':uJking, "oeated smplllg. h...., 'V{ debate, unwillin~ess to "'ten, Ii·arde:.itlg of y.."><t)n5. and so on. When .... e conflict is latent. hov ... ~ - or \l.o •• _, ground. th" signs are not SO evident. "-". ~ conflict beh • ..,ior is usually more subtle: wn~g memos to avoid n .. e, .. -to-fece contact; delaytng decisions to block the OU.~r parry: interacti1\g wou.gh subordinates or ~d ~rties; av~idiIlg direct exchanges: or changing times of daUy arrivals and departures to avoid meeting. Detecting such suppr S5 d conflict requires.great sensitivity. but it is important to do so since m ny conflicts are expressed indirectly.

Developing n understanding of b havior patterns 10 a partlC"..<Iar confl.ic siruarion is an

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need (or help. Scapegoaring is thus another personal charactensric that contributes to escalation in conilict situations.

Tne advantage or third parties. trusted by both adversaries, is that their outside perceptions and feelings can serve as a reality check for both adversaries. If the third party can help work oct a procedure for coping with the conflict. then that may be a major step toward further agreement or resolution. A boss acting as a third party has the added pow r of being able to arbitrate or np the power balance one way or the other, but ev n tlus apparent advantage can have negative effects in the long run if the boss is perceived as taking sides too often. One of the hardest yet most important cha enges for the third party is to stay in touch with the perceptions and feelings of the two adversaries. while simultaneously maintaining his or her own views. thus deaUng with the conflict rela-

, ticmship rather than getting pulled toward either adversarial viewpoint.

Underlying an4 Background Conditions

The underlying causes of interpersonal conflict are just as numerous and varied as the ways in wruch conflicts are expressed. The difficulty of assessing he (actors causing or reinforcing a particular conflict is that there are usually multil'l forces involved. Separating out the primary causes is often impossible, since most serious confli s become s lf-reinforcing: They have such a powerful history and have bccom so personalized that their original sources are irrelevant to the pr sent conflict. Ievenheless. attempts to understand a conflict must consider the forces behind the adversary's actions. Managing the conflict then means changing the situational factors surrounding it, Or altering the ways in which _the adversaries respond to the situation and to each other.

These causal factors are divided into two caregori s: (1) situational or external characteristics, and (2) personal or internal characteristics, These distinctions ar somewhat arbitrary, however, and will be treated more distinctively here ~an they usually are in practice.

Situ~tlonal-er.e1rul chant<:te,l$tic.s. This category includes all of the external conditions surrounding :.he two people-the pressures of time and deadlines; competition for budgetary funds,

sta I, organizational influence. and other scarce resources; performance pressures from bosses, peers. and 0 her departments; ?rOmObon 01'porrumnes, and the organizational rules and procedures that affect their interaction .

..... 'hen two peopl from different departments (such as the market analyst and inventory eontrol manager described abov ) must interact. the. often rep res nt and reflec their own reference group's differences in goals. values. and priorities. Thus i"lt':'d~rtmrnlal conflict frequendy becomes inlerperscmal conilic u less the two representatives can rise above the specal interests of the groups they represent.

But even yO p ople from the same department can become competitiv for scarce resources. whether it be budgetary funds, subordinates, control over key procedures and decisions, office space, or the boss's time or Job. The pressures to perform can make the personal sta es so high that individual managers become verv infl xible and defensive. These stakes are particular!), Important when middle managers are placed in competition for promotion opporturuties that stress individual responsibilities and rewards. Since most orgaruzarions reward managers whq succeed both for:nally (promotions and salary increases) and informally (influence, status, credibility). the social pressures to compere and win can be exrrem Iy intense.

P r$onaf nte,naJ a~tor$. The personal goals, styles, and abilities of wo people in conflict can also have a powerful effect on their behavior and their relationship. Personal career goals and ambitions C3n develop in response to the organizational pressures just described. People of len experience feelings of rivalry and interpe onal compe 'tion, however, even when there is little external OOS s for such emotions. Sometim s there ls a poor fit b tween a person and he job requirements, and his or her poor performance may indeed create serious probI ms .or someone else. More frequently. however. conroc erupts and escalates because one manager S es another manager as actively blocking a personally important goal. Whether that p rcepeon is accurate or not is almost irrelevant. The resulting feelings of anger, frustration, and aruoely contribute to the emotional escalation of conflict. These kinds of feelings are of en strong among ambitious, compentive, achievement-oriented individuals.

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ing with the other party on th substantiv issues often appears to be the reasonable approach. The assumption here IS that the conflict involves a win-lose situation in which one party would gain or lose at the oth r's expense. If two pardes come to the bargaining table in union-management fashion, however, they would signal that they wished to consider nd seek new ways to resolve or compromis the coniliCt. The alternative pr sumably means win-lose warfare or withdraw into a stalemate condition.

The advantage of it bargaining approach is that the goal of compromise is a s ep beyond the go of confliCt. In approaching such negotiations the. two parties, with or without a third-parry mediator, usually prepare t~ lose as w U as to win some points. The goal l$ to get an acceptable solution in a way hat appears to be rational for outside consumption. At the .sam time, many bargaining situations involve games such as bluffing, cehind-the-~cenes negotiations, an atl mpt to marshal outside power sources, a tendency to overstate on 's initial demands, and the heavy use of I galisnc procedures which preserve the app arance of a rational process. Each of these bargaining tactics can involve risks as well s rew rds. Another problem WIth II bargaining approach is thai the parties often place a higher prerruum on ecceptable compromises than on sound solutions. A manager who engages in bargaining approach, either as an adversary or as a third party, can lose sight of the organization'S wellbeing and get consumed in the limited goals of Si!tnng an acceptable solution.

Controlling

There are four gene-ral ways to control interpersonal conflict. They usually appear when there is a power imbalance-when one party can exert ·pressures to m e something happ "Conflict co trol QT\ also be it temporary approach used until the crisis is over or conditions improve enough to permit bargaining or confrontlltion. Other times, two adversaries will get tired of the controls or a third party appears who gains the trust of both adversari s. The Iour controlling behaviors open to either adversaries or mediators are: (1) preventing interaction or reducing its frequencY; (2) structuring the forms and patterns of interaction; (3) reducing or changing the external

siruanonal pressures: and (4) p rsonal counseling to help the two parties accept and ~e 'vit.h the process and realities of the conllict.. This last approach, counseling, involves. a. kind of third-parry help diffe~ent from mediation, and it can also be used with bargaining and confrontation approaches.

Prevenllng interaCllon or leduclng its !requenq. This strategy IS often useful whe:' emotions a.r~ ~igh. It co troLs conlliet by reduong he possibiliry ~l triggering events. If the !'"NO people ar~ physl. cally separated and no longer need to 1lller~ct with each other, then there is litUe opporeuruty for them to express differences. Although he differences continue to e'<ist, the intense feelings are likely to dissipate without recurring run-ins, or at least to cool down enough to permit other approach s.

There are many ways to reduce or eliminate interaction. Sometimes operating procedures can b modified to eliminate the necessity of twO people ~orking together. If that option is impossible, then peers or subordinates can substirut for one or both parties. U the conilict sterns fro:n an underlying conflict of interest, however, it is just as likely to flare up in the new relationship. One or both of the people could be transferred to a new job or even to a nev physical loc tion.

-Several of these options are.relatively expensiv and time-consuming. They may be useful, however, if there is no other way to work out the diffezences, or if the hostility has reached a level where confrontation would be either impossible or inordinately drawn out, Separating the two parties may create more serious longterm problems or only delay an even~al necessary confrontation. When adversaries are separated, their hostilities sometimes merely go underground and may become more rather than less intense because oC the absence of any opportunity to e..'<press them. When that happens. the eventual confrontation may be even more serious, as the I' nt-up emo ions finally come tumbling ou . In these instances, t:rus~ed hire! parties can help judge whether reduong

interaction makes sense.

structuring the forms 01 rnterx-tlon. The separation options listed above are som~e$ not :eaSible.

"hen the !'"NO parties must connnue to interact, the conflict can be controlled by adopting clear guidelines oi behavior. These procedures can

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begins with an attempt 10 understand. Constructive confrontation has the advantage. once a climate of exploration has been introduced. of conv ying t e possibllity of a win-win solution. It seeks an exchange of inforrnanon=-substantive as well as perceptions and feelings-that provides new definitions of the problem and new motives for a common solunon. These processes require not only skill and patience. but also persistence and an effort 0 help each part)' listen to the other while constantly looking for ways to move out of a de dlock. This is true for adversaries and mediators. Each operates under considerable stress at times. but a aucial expression is often the simple question of What if ... ? as a way of searching for new alternatives.

At the same time. a confrontation may initially have to move carefully while the two adversaries seek ways to release their emotions and feelings. Once again third party can help fegitim.iu these expressions while channeling or policing the ways in which negative or hostile feelings re expressed. For xample, the third party-<>r even one of the adversaries-may suggest thai th parties agree to express and explore feelings that result from the actual behavior of each adversary. rather than venting [ elings based upon inference and speculation of the other's motives and perceptions. With· out these ground rules (or the expression of f elings. confrontation ca easily become more destructive than constructive. With uch ground rules, it is usually easier to move 0 new stages of exchanging information and problem 501,,;ng.

Some Relevant Action Ouestlons

Acting to h lp m nage a confuct-as opposed to avoiding it, smoothing it over, or using power to suppress it-an involved or thirdpatty manager could pause and raise th following questions. These questions are more im· portant when considering a conhontation strategy. which is potentially both the most dlEficuJ and the most t warding, but they are also applicable to other approaches.

1. To uma! extent is thtrt productillt irJtI of tension and mot illation in I' < confl:d relationship' Or has the conflid bccom< highly destruclrve In nature?

U conflict resolution is 0 b successful. there typically must be enough stress in the situ-

lion for the participants to desire a resolution. but not so much that they are unable to deal with the issues or each other. Too litt! tension may require someone calling attention to the personal or organizational outcomes hat make the latent conJlict dangerous or dysfunctional. Too much tension may require cooling-ofi steps or temporary controlling measures.

By the same token, interpersonal confli<;t often persists because only one party is motivated to do anything abou it. When this happ ns, little can b done until the tension level is again high enough for both adversari s to at least say they want to work toward a resolution. Such stated motivation can serve 3S a S arting point.

1. Wh.2t are the balances of status and potctr posi· tior.s mong the two or thr<~ parties?

The balance of power configurations can play

big part in determining appropria e paths to conflict resolution or avoidance. For example, there may be less chance for successful resolution when one party in a two-party relationship is much more powerfuJ or influential than the other. It is often harder to get third-party involvement in such sieeaeions, particularly when the power lmbalance involves a superior and a. subordinate. At th same time, these are instances when thud-party medianon can be most helpful. for the third party can help rebalance the pow t equa on. Conflict resolution advantages are e1e rly on the side of the higher. status person, whether that person be en , adversary or a third party.

3. To wha txtcnl art time and flexlblt resource: aVtlilable?

Conflict resolution in almost any form can require considerable time. new procedures. off-site meetings. outside help, painful adjustments, restructuring of relationships. and tolerance (or uncertainties.' As conllie conditions develop and change. 50 might the p rticipants' need for tim and resources. It may be easier to change situational or external variables. such as new procedures, than it is to change the int mal perceptions of aU parties in the conflict arena, particularly those who are reference-group members or

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Harvard Business School

9 - 80-075

TIIF. ROAD TO I!EL L ..•.. (B)

Lat 1', ~hen Ma R nn~lls ent red John &ak r' of lC·. Baker

gr e t d him, "Do sit down. Have a cigare te." Flak,. pau!;<,.1 ... .h i J> he h Id out hIS ligh er and hen W Dl on.

"AS you knov , at t , I'll be 0 f to Canada jn a [\.' days' time, and be ore I go I though it would be us ful . f we could have a final chat

og l r. It is indeed ~i h som d er nce ha I ugge.L I an be of help.

You will shortly b sitting in this chair dO'ng the job am now doing, but I on the other hand, am ten years old r, so perhaps you can accept th

idea that I may be abl to give you the beneflt of my longer experience."

Bak r saw Renna! s sliff n slightly in his chair as he made his poinL so added in explanation, "You and J have attended enough company cours s to remember those repeated requ sts by the personnel m Dager to ell people how th yare getting on as of n as the convenient momen arises and not just the aUloma ic 'once a year' when, by regula lon, sLaff reports have to be discussed."

Renna I l s nodded his agreement so Baker went on "I shall always r m mb r the last job performance discussion J had with my pc vious boss back in Germany. lie used ",'hat. be called eh 'plu and minus' t.e chm que . His firm belief was that when a senior, by discussion, seeks to improv the work performanc of his staff, his prime 0 j ctive should ue 0 make sure hat he latter leaves th int.ervie ncouraged and inspir d LO improv~. Any citicisrn musl, th cefore be constructiv and help ul.

He said t.hat one cry good way to encourage a man - and I fully agre

wilh him - is to ell him about his good points - tn plu factors - as well as his weak ones - the minus actors - so 1 thoughl, la t, it

would be a good idea to run our discussion along hese lines."

Rennalls offered no ccnment , so Bak r cout i nued : "Let me say, therefor, righ away, tha , as far as your o~n work p rCormance is concerned, th plus far outw ighs the minus. I have, or lnstance, be n most impressed with the way you hay adapted your consid rabl theoretical knowledge to mast I' the practical techniques oC your joh - that ingeniaus m thod you us d t o get air down to he fif h+s ha f t, level IS a sufficient rase in point - and at d partm ntal m ctings I hav invariably found your comments ve l l aken and helpful. In faCt, you v i l I be in crested to kno ... · that only last w ek I report d to lr. Hutchins thal, from the techlilcal point of view, he could not wish for a more able man to SIlCC d lO Lh~ position of chief engineer."

This case was prepared by ~Ir. Garet.h Ev ns for Shell-BP Petroleum Developm nt, Company of N'g ria, Limit. d, as th basis Cor class discussion in an execuLive training program. It has been divided into thte p8~tS: (A) 9-480-074; (B) 9-480-075; (C) 9-480-076.

Distributed b\' HBS Ca e St!~;CCs, Harvard Business School, Bostun, Mass. 02163. _-\il right r ',('I'\,~'c1 to the contributors. Printed ir' the USA.

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"To return for a moment to the 'plus and minus' technique I was telling you abou just now tbere is another plus factor I forgo to m ntion. I would like to congratulate you not only on tb calibre of your work but also on tbe ability you have shown ·n overcoming a challeng which I, as European, have nev r had to meet.

"Continental Ore is as you know, a typical comm rcial ent rprise - admitt dly a big one - which is a product of the economic and social environment of the United States and Western Europe. Hy ancestors have all b en brought up in this environment for the past two or three hundred years and

1 have therefor, been able to liv in a world in which commerce (as w

know it today) has been part and parcel of my being. I has not been something revolutionary and new wbich has suddenly entered my life. In your case," went on Baker, "the situa ion is different because you and your

foreb ars have only had some f·fty or sixty y ars' exp rieece of this

comm rcial environment. You bave had to face the challenge of bridging

the gap betwe n fifty and two or three hundred years. Again, Hatt, let

me congratulate you - and p ople lik you - one again on having so successfully ov rcome tbis particular hurdl. It is for this very reason

that I think he outlook for Barracania - and particularly Caribbean Bauxite - is so bright."

Rennalls had listened intently and when Baker finished, replied, "Well, once again, John, r have to thank you for wha you have said and, for my part, I can only say that it is gratifying to know Lhat my own personal effort ha been so much appreciated. I hope that more people "'ill soon com to think as you do."

There wa a pause and, for a moment, Bak r thought hop fully

that he was about to achieve his long-await d "breakthrough," but Rennalls mer ly smiled back. Th barrier remained unbreached. There remained some five minutes' cheerful conversation about the contras between the Caribbean and Canadian climate and ~hether the West lndi s had any hope of beat·ng England in tbe Fifth Test b fore Baker drew the interview to a close. Although he was as far as ever from knowing tbe real Renoalls he was nevertheless glad tbat tb intervi w had run along in this friendly

mann r and particularly, that it had nded on sucb a cheerful note.